[ QUANTUM COMPUTING]

Program: BSc.in Information Technology

Seminar Report
By
Jemmal Arega BDU1010697
Dereje Semahegn BDU0906809UR
Getale Alamir BDU1010626

Submitted to: Mr Muluken B.

March 9, 2021
BAHIR DAR, ETHIOPIA
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................. II
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... III
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
History about Quantum computing .................................................................................................... 1
What is Quantum Computing?........................................................................................................ 2
What is qubits?.................................................................................................................................. 2
Use of Quantum Computing? .......................................................................................................... 3
How Quantum Computer Works? ...................................................................................................... 4
Representation of data in Quantum ................................................................................................ 4
Representation of Data - Qubits ...................................................................................................... 5
Data Retrieval ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Applications of quantum computing ................................................................................................... 6
Cryptography ................................................................................................................................ 6
Optimization Problems ................................................................................................................. 7
Artificial Intelligence .................................................................................................................... 7
Quantum Simulation .................................................................................................................... 8
The architecture of quantum computer .............................................................................................. 8
Advantage of Quantum Computing .................................................................................................... 9
Disadvantages of quantum computers .............................................................................................. 10
Obstacles and Research ...................................................................................................................... 10
Differences Between Quantum and Traditional Computing .......................................................... 12
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 12
References ............................................................................................................................................ 13

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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank respected Mr Muluken for giving me such a wonderful
opportunity to expand my knowledge for my own branch and giving me guidelines to present
a seminar report. It helped me a lot to realize of what we study for.
Secondly, I would like to thank my friends who helped me to make my work more organized
and well-stacked till the end.

Next, I would thank Microsoft for developing such a wonderful tool like MS Word. It helped
my work a lot to remain error-free. Last but clearly not the least, I would thank The Almighty
for giving me strength to complete my report on time.

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 ABSTRACT
Quantum computing is a modern way of computing that is based on the science of quantum
mechanics and its unbelievable phenomena. It is a beautiful combination of physics,
mathematics, computer science and information theory. It provides high computational
power, less energy consumption and exponential speed over classical computers by
controlling the behavior of small physical objects i.e., microscopic particles like atoms,
electrons, photons, etc. Here, we present an introduction to the fundamental concepts and
some ideas of quantum computing. This paper starts with the origin of traditional computing
and discusses all the improvements and transformations that have been done due to their
limitations until now. Then it moves on to the basic working of quantum computing and the
quantum properties it follows like superposition, entanglement and interference. To
understand the full potentials and challenges of a practical quantum computer that can be
launched commercially, the paper covers the architecture, hardware, software, design, types
and algorithms that are specifically required by the quantum computers. It uncovers the
capability of quantum computers that can impact our lives in various viewpoints like cyber
security, traffic optimization, medicines, artificial intelligence and many more. At last, we
concluded all the importance, advantages and disadvantages of quantum computers. Small-
scale quantum computers are being developed recently. This development is heading towards
a great future due to their high potential capabilities and advancements in ongoing research.
Before focusing on the significances of a general- purpose quantum computer and exploring
the power of the new arising technology, it is better to review the origin, potentials, and
limitations of the existing traditional computing. This information helps us in understanding
the possible challenges in developing exotic and competitive technology. It will also give us
an insight into the ongoing progress in this field.

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Introduction

Quantum computing is the use of quantum phenomena such as superposition and

entanglement to perform computation. Computers that perform quantum computations are
known as quantum computers.

Quantum computers are believed to be able to solve certain computational problems, such as
integer factorization (which underlies RSA encryption), substantially faster than classical
computers. The study of quantum computing is a subfield of quantum information science.

Quantum circuits are based on the quantum bit, or " qubit", which is somewhat analogous to
the bit in classical computation. Qubits can be in a 1 or 0 quantum state, or they can be in a
superposition of the 1 and 0 states. However, when qubits are measured the result of the
measurement is always either a 0 or a 1; the probabilities of these two outcomes depend on
the quantum state that the qubits were in immediately prior to the measurement. Progress
towards building a physical quantum computer focuses on technologies such as transmons,
ion traps and topological quantum computers, which aim to create high- quality qubits. These
qubits may be designed differently, depending on the full quantum computer's computing
model, whether quantum logic gates, quantum annealing, or adiabatic quantum computation.
There are currently a number of significant obstacles in the way of constructing useful
quantum computers. In particular, it is difficult to maintain the quantum states of qubits as
they suffer from quantum decoherence and state fidelity. Quantum computers therefore
require error correction.

History about Quantum computing

Quantum computing began in the early 1980s, when physicist Paul Benioff proposed a
quantum mechanical model of the Turing machine. Richard Feynman and Yuri Manin later
suggested that a quantum computer had the potential to simulate things that a classical
computer could not.

In 1994, Peter Shor developed a quantum algorithm for factoring integers that had the
potential to decrypt RSA -encrypted communications. Despite ongoing experimental progress
since the late 1990s, most researchers believe that "fault-tolerant quantum computing is still
a rather distant dream." In recent years, investment into quantum computing research has
increased in both the public and private sector. On 23 October 2019, Google AI, in

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 partnership with the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), claimed
to have performed a quantum computation that is infeasible on any classical computer. There
are several models of quantum computers (or rather, quantum computing systems), including
the quantum circuit model, quantum Turing machine, adiabatic quantum computer, one-way
quantum computer, and various quantum cellular automata. The most widely used model is
the quantum circuit.

What is Quantum Computing?

This branch of computer science is based on the principles of the superposition of matter and
quantum entanglement and uses a different computation method from the traditional one. In
theory, it would be able to store many more states per unit of information and operate with
much more efficient algorithms at the numerical level, such as Shor's or quantum annealing.

This new generation of supercomputers uses knowledge of quantum mechanics the area of
physics that studies atomic and subatomic particles to overcome the limitations of classic
computing. Although in practice, quantum computing faces evident problems regarding
scalability and incoherence, it makes it possible to perform multiple simultaneous operations
and eliminates the tunnel effect that limits current nanometric scale programming.

Quantum computer is a type of computer which uses quantum mechanics to perform

computations. Classical computers process data in the form of 0 and 1. But in the case of
quantum computers, the 0 and 1 form are extended. It can store and process data in qubits.
Qubits can process data in 01 or 10 form i.e., it stores information in both true and false at the
same time. One qubit is equal to two bits.

What is qubits?

Qubit is the smallest storage unit like in classical computers the smallest storage unit is bits.
Qubits values are calculated by using OR, AND and NOT gates. Some works that are done in
quantum computing are by the following people: -

Paul Benioff in 1980

Richard Feynman in the 1980s
Yuri Manin in the 1980s
Perter Shor in 1994

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Quantum computing uses the qubit as the basic unit of information rather than the conventional
bit. The main characteristic of this alternative system is that it permits the coherent
superposition of ones and zeros, the digits of the binary system around which all computing
revolves. Bits, on the other hand, can only have one value at a time either one or zero.

This aspect of quantum technology means that a qubit can be both zero and one at the same
time, and in different proportions. This multiplicity of states makes it possible for a quantum
computer with just 30 qubits, for example, to perform 10 billion floating-point operations per
second, which is about 5.8 billion more than the most powerful PlayStation video game console
on the market.

Use of Quantum Computing?

Computer security, biomedicine, the development of new materials and the economy, are
among the fields that may be revolutionized by advances in quantum computing. These are
some of the most substantial benefits:

Finance

Companies would further optimize their investment portfolios and improve fraud detection and
simulation systems.

Healthcare

This sector would benefit from the development of new drugs and genetically customized
treatments, as well as DNA research.

Cybersecurity

Quantum programming involves risks, but also advances in data encryption, such as the new
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system. This is a new technique for sending sensitive
information that uses light signals to detect intruders in the system.

Mobility and transport

Companies like Airbus use quantum computing to design more efficient aircraft. Qubits will
also enable significant progress in traffic planning systems and route optimization.

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How Quantum Computer Works?

Quantum computers perform calculations based on the probability of an object's state before it
is measured - instead of just 1s or 0s - which means they have the potential to process
exponentially more data compared to classical computers.

Classical computers carry out logical operations using the definite position of a physical state.
These are usually binary, meaning its operations are based on one of two positions. A single
state such as on or off, up or down, 1 or 0 - is called a bit.

In quantum computing, operations instead use the quantum state of an object to produce what's
known as a qubit. These states are the undefined properties of an object before they've been
detected, such as the spin of an electron or the polarization of a photon. Rather than having a
clear position, unmeasured quantum states occur in a mixed 'superposition', not unlike a coin
spinning through the air before it lands in your hand.

These superpositions can be entangled with those of other objects, meaning their final
outcomes will be mathematically related even if we don't know yet what they are.

The complex mathematics behind these unsettled states of entangled 'spinning coins' can be
plugged into special algorithms to make short work of problems that would take a classical
computer a long time to work out... if they could ever calculate them at all. Such algorithms
would be useful in solving complex mathematical problems, producing hard-to-break security
codes, or predicting multiple particle interactions in chemical reactions.

Representation of data in Quantum

✓ Quantum computers, which have not been built yet, would be based on the
strange principles of quantum mechanics, in which the smallest particles of light
and matter can be in different places at the same time.
✓ In a quantum computer, one "qubit" - quantum bit - could be both 0 and 1 at the
same time. So, with three qubits of data, a quantum computer could store all
eight combinations of 0 and 1 simultaneously. That means a three-qubit
quantum computer could calculate eight times faster than a three-bit digital
computer.

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 ✓ Typical personal computers today calculate 64 bits of data at a time. A quantum
computer with 64 qubits would be 2 to the 64th power faster, or about 18 billion
billion times faster. (Note: billion billion is correct.)

✓ A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted
by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit

Representation of Data - Qubits

✓ A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An
excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

✓ A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states denoted by the
addition of the state vectors:

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 |> = 2 |0> +  2 |1>

✓ Where  and  are complex numbers and | | 2 + |  |2 = 1

✓ A qubit in superposition is in both of the states |1> and |0 at the same time

Data Retrieval

In general, an n qubit register can represent the numbers 0 through 2^n-1 simultaneously.

Sound too good to be true?…It is!

If we attempt to retrieve the values represented within a superposition, the superposition

randomly collapses to represent just one of the original values.

In our equation: |> = 1 |0> + 2 |1>  represents the probability of the superposition
collapsing to |0>. The ’s are called probability amplitudes. In a balanced superposition,  =
1/√2n where n is the number of qubits.

Applications of quantum computing

Many quantum algorithms have been evolved for quantum computers that deliver speedup
which is a result of some fundamental mathematical methods like Fourier transform,
Hamiltonian simulation, etc. Most algorithms require a large number of qubits of the best
quality and some error correction to provide useful functionalities. These algorithms are formed
in blocks rather than as a whole combined application since it is not practical. Therefore, it is
a great challenge to create quantum applications that are really practically useful along with
providing speedup with no error. The potential utility or say useful application of a quantum
computer is an area of ongoing research. It is predicted that those applications require fewer
qubits and can be carried out with a lesser number of codes. It is possible to build algorithms
that can run faster on quantum computers because of the distinct features of the qubit. Below
are some of the primary applications that we will see soon in the upcoming era:

Cryptography

Many important elements of IT security and online security such as e-commerce and electronic
secrecy depend on encryption and mathematical algorithms which are difficult to break such
as factoring very huge numbers into primes (RSA technique). It is done by traversing through
every possible factor using conventional computers which takes a significant amount of time.
Also, some modern algorithms other than RSA like AES, ECDSA, etc. cannot be cracked using

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even high computing power. It makes it costly and cracking them even less practical. Quantum
computers can do all these kinds of stuff in exponentially less amount of time. New quantum
algorithms (e.g., Shor’s algorithm) are able to do it and more unique algorithms will develop.
But before that, new encryption techniques are being made to resist the quantum ones. Since
the already running techniques and digital applications security are at greater risks.

Optimization Problems

Optimizing a problem implies finding the best solution to that problem out of all the possible
solutions. It can be done by minimizing the error and even minimizing the steps available.
Quantum computers are best in solving optimization problems. There are a lot of quantum
algorithms out of which quantum optimization algorithms might improve the already existing
optimization problems which are solved using conventional computers currently. Some of them
are quantum semi- definite programming, quantum data fitting, and quantum combinatorial
optimization. Some of the examples include simulating the molecular model like protein
behavior for medical research which can lead to the new discovery of drugs for serious diseases
like cancer, lung disease, etc. Another example is the Simulation of the cellular structure of
batteries for improving battery power and life in electric vehicles. It could also solve travel-
related problems in real traffic just like traveling salesman problems to find the shortest path
between many cities, going to each city once and returning back, modeling the entire finance
market, and many more. Traveling optimization is the major work under Volkswagen recently.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence counts on processing large and complex datasets. It is responsible for
learning, inferring, and understanding. It learns until it stops mistaking and making errors in its
task. It takes a significant amount of time in learning too. But quantum computing can make it
easy and more accurate. Since conventional computers are only training the learning model
from a specific size of the dataset to restrict the computation time. Quantum computers can
train these models over a huge dataset without sticking into the exponential time. The more
data it uses to train, the more accurate it will be. Generative models generate output such as
image, audio, etc. that can be fed to quantum computers to improve its quality and accuracy.
Natural Language processing is another example that can understand complete sentences.
Quantum computers can make it understand all the phrases and speech in real- time with
improved quality, which is computationally costly with today’s computer.

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Quantum Simulation

It is an important utility in the field of quantum chemistry and material science. This problem
needs solving ground state energies of electrons and their wave functions, with or without the
presence of some external electric or magnetic field. From the structure of atoms and electrons
in chemistry to the rate at which chemical reactions are taking place, everything can be
simulated very well. The classical computer when applied to this problem often fails to reach
the level of precision needed to predict the rate of the chemical reaction. It could also have
commercial applications in areas such as medical and healthcare fields, chemical catalysts,
storage of energy, pharmaceutical advancement and device displays.

The architecture of quantum computer

Architecture can be seen as a blueprint. The architecture of the quantum computer is a
combination of classical and quantum parts and can be divided into 5 layers where each layer
is represented as the functional part of the computer.

❖ Application Layer- It is not a part of a quantum computer. It is used for representing

a user interface, the operating system for a quantum computer, coding environment,
etc. that are needed for formulating suitable quantum algorithms. It is hardware-
independent.
❖ Classical Layer- It optimizes and compiles the quantum algorithm into
microinstructions. It also processes quantum-state measurement returned back from
hardware in the below layers and gives it to a classical algorithm to produce results.
❖ Digital Layer- It interprets microinstructions into signals (pulses) needed by qubit
which act as quantum logic gates. It is the digital description of the required analog
pulses in the below layers. It also gives quantum measurement as feedback to the above
classical layer for merging the quantum outcomes to the final result.
❖ Analog Layer- It creates voltage signals which are having a phase and amplitude
modulations like in wave, for sending it to the below layer so that qubit operations can
be executed.
❖ Quantum Layer- It is integrated with the digital and the analog processing layer onto
the same chip. It is used for holding qubits and is kept at room temperature (absolute).
Error correction is handled here. This layer determines how well the computer
performs.

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Advantage of Quantum Computing

Faster computations: -

These types of computers can perform computation at a much faster rate than normal
computers. Quantum computers have computation power higher than supercomputers also.
They can process data at 1000 times faster than normal computers and supercomputers. Some
calculations if performed by a normal computer can take 1000 years is done by quantum
computers in a few seconds.

Best for simulation: -

Quantum computers are best for doing data simulation computing. There are many algorithms
created that can simulate various things like weather forecasting, chemical simulation etc.

Medicine creation: -

These types of computers can work better in the medical field. They can detect diseases and
can create a formula for medicines. Different type of diseases can be diagnosed and tested in
scientific laboratories using these computers.

Google search: -

Quantum computers are used by Google to refine searches. Now every search on Google can
speed up by using these computers. Most relevant results can be populated using quantum
computing.

High privacy: -

These computers can make high encryption and is good at cryptography. It is impossible to
break the security of quantum computers. Recently China has launched a satellite that uses
quantum computing and china claimed that this satellite cannot be hacked.

Used in radar making: -

Quantum computing is also used in making radar missiles. The accuracy of radar weapons can
be improved by using this technology.

Used in artificial intelligence: -

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These types of computers perform well in artificial intelligence. They can make decisions more
precisely than normal computers. Scientists can do better research using these computers.

Machine learning: -

Quantum computing is applied nicely by using machine learning techniques. Users can use less
code and uses machine learning process for improving outcome.

Disadvantages of quantum computers

Algorithm creation: -

For every type of computation, it needs to write a new algorithm. Quantum computers cannot
work as classical computers, they need special algorithms to perform tasks in their
environment.

The low temperature needed: -

As the processing in these computers is done very deeply so it needs a temperature of negative
460 degrees F. This is the lowest temperature of the universe and it is very difficult to maintain
that temperature.

Not open for public: -

Due to the high range price, they are not available for public use. Also, the errors in these types
of computers are high because they are still in the development phase. Quantum computers
work fine in 10 qubits but after increasing qubits like 70 qubits, the accuracy is not right. There
are experiments already going on to make the results of these computers precise.

Internet Security: -

It is assumed by the scientists that if a quantum computer is implemented in the best way then
whole internet security breaks. This is due to the facts that these computers can decrypt all the
codes on the internet.

Obstacles and Research

➢ Decoherence

We have seen that if a superposition of any two states of a quantum –mechanical

system is to be stable over a period of time, there should be some sort of coherence

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 between the states that are being super positioned. But still, no superposition of any
pair of given states are perfectly stable to any extent. This is because of the existence
of a property by name decoherence which forces a quantum mechanically super
positioned system to decay from a given quantum coherent – super positioned state
into an incoherent state as it entangles or interacts with the surroundings. The final
effect is that the coherence between the two states that are super positioned would be
gradually “lost”. For the same reason, no quantum memory can, at present, be used
to hold data that is to be used for Quantum Computing operations that take a long
time. The time taken by the system to lose the coherence between the two states is
known as decoherence time.

➢ Error Correction

Error correction is rather self-explanatory, but what errors need correction? The answer
is primarily those errors that arise as a direct result of decoherence, or the tendency of
a quantum computer to decay from a given quantum state into an incoherent state as it
interacts, or entangles, with the state of the environment. These interactions between
the environment and qubits are unavoidable, and induce the breakdown of information
stored in the quantum computer, and thus errors in computation. Before any quantum
computer will be capable of solving hard problems, research must devise a way to
maintain decoherence and other potential sources of error at an acceptable level.

➢ Lack of Reliable Reading Mechanism

The techniques that exist till date have a big problem that trying to read from a super
positioned qubit would invariably make it to lose its super positioned state and make it
to behave just as a classical bit – i.e. it would store only one among the values of 0 and
1.Quantum Computing Also, if we are given a quantum register comprising of n bits of
which m bits are super positioned ones, none among the reading mechanisms available
today is able to determine which value from the superposition is to be read out. i.e. if we
are given a 3 – bit register that contains, say, 4 values in a particular superposition (let
them be 4,5,6,7), the reading mechanisms available today are unable to determine which
how to access a specific value from the superposition.

➢ Output observance
➢ Cost

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Differences Between Quantum and Traditional Computing

Quantum and traditional computing are two parallel worlds with some similarities and many
differences, such as the use of qubits rather than bits. Let's take a look at three of the most
significant:

Programming language

Quantum computing does not have its own programming code and requires the development
and implementation of very specific algorithms. However, traditional computing has
standardized languages like Java, SQL and Python, to name but a few.

Functionality

Quantum computers are not intended for widespread, everyday use, unlike personal computers
(PC). These supercomputers are so complex that they can only be used in the corporate,
scientific and technological fields.

Architecture

Quantum computers have a simpler architecture than conventional computers and they have no
memory or processor. The equipment consists solely of a set of qubits that makes it run.

Conclusion

It is important that making a practical quantum computing is still far in the future.
Programming style for a quantum computer will also be quite different. Development of
quantum computer needs a lot of money. Even the best scientists can’t answer a lot of
questions about quantum physics. Quantum computer is based on theoretical physics and
some experiments are already made. Building a practical quantum computer is just a matter
of time.

Quantum computers easily solve applications that can’t be done with help of today’s
computers. This will be one of the biggest steps in science and will undoubtedly revolutionize
the practical computing world.

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References
◼ “A survey of quantum computing and automata”. E. de Doncker and L. Cucos, In Fourth
World Multiconference on Systemics, Cybernetics, and Informatics (SCI'00), (2000).

◼ “The Temple of Quantum Computing”, Riley T. Perry.2004

◼ “Quantum Computation: A Computer Science Perspective”, Anders K.H. Bengtsson. 2005

◼ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing

◼ http://www.nec.co.jp/rd/Eng/innovative/E3/top.html

◼ http://www.sciencedaily.com/

◼ https://www.sciencealert.com/quantum-computers.

◼ https://www.iberdrola.com/innovation/what-is-quantum-computing

◼ https://www.itrelease./com/2020/10/

◼ https://www.studymafia.org /

◼ https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/introduction-to-quantum-computing

◼ https://www.ibm.com./quantum-computing/learn/

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