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Lesson 2: Finite Geometry

Finite geometry from the name implies, the number of points in a line is defined and
not only regarded as a straight line. Curve lines may be considered to form a line. Unlike in
Euclidean geometry that lines can be extended infinitely since it composed of infinitely many
points, the finite geometry did not consist of parallel lines. Also, intersecting lines may not be
claimed based on the illustration itself unless stated that there exists a common point
between them.

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Identify the axioms of each finite geometry through illustrations.
2. Prove/deduce the consistency of some theorems in each Finite geometries
3. Create illustrations whether abstract or concrete of both the independence (if exists)
of the axiom set and some finite geometry.

Getting Started:

In a paragraph no more than 50 words, give some ideas from the past that reflect
what Euclidean geometry is all about then compare its difference to your first notions when
you heard the word finite geometry.

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Discussion:
Finite geometry is a geometry with a finite number of points. When confined to a plane,
all finite geometries are either projective plane geometries (with no parallel lines) or affine
plane geometries (with parallel lines).
Gino Fano (1871–1952) is credited with being the first person to explore finite geometries
beginning in 1892. He worked primarily in projective and algebraic geometry. He was born in
1871 in Mantua, Italy. He initially studied in Turin. Later, he moved to Göttingen and worked
with Felix Klein. Fano served as a professor of mathematics in Turin until he was forced to leave
during World War II. He also taught in Switzerland and the United States. He died in Verona,
Italy in 1952.
Fanos’s ideas can be traced back going back to von Staudt (1852) where there are two
undefined terms: points, lines. There is also a relation between them called on. This relationship
is symmetric so we speak of points being on lines and lines being on points. (Hilbert, 2000)
The following are some of the known finite geometries with its corresponding axiom set,
theorems, and components: (Klein, 1952)

2.1. Three-Point Geometry

Axioms for the Three-Point Geometry:

Axiom 3P-1: There exist exactly 3 points in this geometry.
Axiom 3P-2: Two distinct points are on exactly one line.
Axiom 3P-3: Not all the points of the geometry are on the same line.
Axiom 3P-4: Two distinct lines are on at least one point.
Theorems for Three-Point Geometry
Theorem 3P-1: Two distinct lines are on exactly one point.
Theorem 3P-2: The three-point geometry has exactly three lines.

a. Find a model:

Model 1: Concrete Model for Three-Point Geometry

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Model 2: Abstract Model for Three-Point Geometry

b. Deduce the following Theorems:

Proof of Theorem 3P-1:

Assume, to the contrary, that distinct lines l and m, meet at points P and Q. This
contradicts axiom 3P-2, which says that the points P and Q lie on exactly one line.
Thus, our assumption is false, and two distinct lines are on at most one point. ∎

Proof of Theorem 3P-2:

Let the line determined by two of the points, say A and B, be denoted by m
(Axiom 3P-2). We know that the third point, C, is not on m by Axiom 3P-3. AC is thus a
line different from m, and BC is also a line different from m. These two lines cannot be
equal to each other since that would imply that the three points are on the same line.
So there are at least 3 lines.
If there was a fourth line, it would have to meet each of the other lines at a point by
Theorem 3P-1. As those three lines do not pass through a common point, the fourth line
must have at least two points on it contradicting Axiom 3P-2. ∎

c. Show the independence of each axiom:

i. Show the independence of Axiom 3P-1 (if exists)

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It is where Axiom 3P-1 is false since there are four points in the model well in fact it should
only be exactly three.

ii. Show the independence of Axiom 3P-2 (if exists)

Axiom 2 is false since, points A and B are on two distinct lines l and m.

iii. Show the independence of Axiom 3P-3 (if exists)

Axiom 3P-3 fails to hold since all points are on the same line while Axiom 3P-4 still
holds since it is vacuously true.

iv. Independence of Axiom 3P-4 is left as a practice. (Application No.1)

d. Write the dual of each axiom set.

Dual of Axiom 3P-1: There exist exactly 3 lines in this geometry.
Dual of Axiom 3P-2: Two distinct lines are on exactly one point.
Dual of Axiom 3P-3: Not all the lines of the geometry are on the same point.
Dual of Axiom 3P-4: Two distinct points are on at least one line.

Since not all duals can be found in the axiom set, hence the three-point geometry
does not follow the principle of duality, since the Dual of Axiom 3 is not existing explicitly in
the Axiom set.

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2.2. The Four Line Geometry

The Axioms for the Four Line Geometry:

Axiom 4L-1: There exist exactly 4 lines.
Axiom4L-2: Any two distinct lines have exactly one point on both of them.
Axiom 4L-3: Each point is on exactly two lines.
Theorems for Four Line Geometry
Theorem 4L-1: The four-line geometry has exactly six points.
Theorem 4L-2: Each line of the four-line geometry has exactly 3 points on it.

a. Find a model:

Mode 3: Two Isomorphic Models for Four-Line Geometry

b. Deduce the following Theorems:

Proof of Theorem 4L-1:

There are exactly 6 pairs of lines (4 choose 2), and every pair meets at a point.
Since each point lies on only two lines, these six pairs of lines give 6 distinct points.
To prove the statement, we need to show that there are no more points than
these 6. However, by axiom 3, each point is on two lines of the geometry and every
such point has been accounted for-there are no other points.∎

Proof of Theorem 4L-2:

The proof is left as an exercise. (Assessment No.1) ∎

c. Show the independence of each axiom (if exists):

i. Independence of Axiom 4L-1:

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Axiom 4L-1 is false since there are only three lines in the geometry, while
the rest of the two axioms hold.

ii. Independence of Axiom 4L-2 is left as a practice. (Application No.2)

iii. Independence of Axiom 4L-3:

Axiom 4L-3 fails to hold since the point lies in the four lines but not exactly
on 2 lines, while axiom 4L-2 holds for every 2 lines, there is exactly one point in
both of them.

d. Write the dual of each axiom set.

Dual of Axiom 4L-1: There exist exactly 4 points.
Dual of Axiom 4L-2: Any two distinct points have exactly one line on both of them.
Dual of Axiom 4L-3: Each line has exactly two points.

Since the duals of each axiom cannot be found in the axiom set, the Four-Line
Geometry does not follow the principle of duality.

2.3. The Four-Point Geometry

The Axioms for the Four-Point Geometry:

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Axiom 4P-1: There exist exactly 4 points.

Axiom 4P-2: Any two distinct points have exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom 4P-3: Each line is on exactly two points.

Theorems for Four Line Geometry

Theorem 4P-1: The four-point geometry has exactly six lines.
Theorem 4P-2: Each point of the four-point geometry has exactly 3 lines on it.

Although the four-line geometry does not follow the principle of duality, the four-point
geometry is the plane duals of the axioms for the four-line geometry which will give the axioms
for the four-point geometry. And the plane duals of Theorems 2.3 and 2.4 will give valid
theorems in the four-point geometry.

a. Device 2 isomorphic models for the system: (Application No.3)

b. Deduce the following Theorems:

Proof of Theorem 4P-1:

The proof is left as an exercise (Assessment No.2) ∎

Proof of Theorem 4P-2:

By 4P-1, there are exactly four points in the geometry, say points A, B, C, and D.
But by 4P-2, points A and B need to have exactly one-line common to both of them say
line AB. Similarly, points A and C have common line AC, points A and D have line AD,
points B and C have line BC, points B and D have line BD, points C and D have line CD.
Hence point A is on the lines AB, AC, and AD. Point A cannot be on another line BC
since, by Axiom 4P-3, each line should lie exactly on two points. By doing the same
manner to other points, it can be concluded that each point of the geometry, exactly
lies on three lines only. ∎

c. Show the independence of each axiom (if exists):

i. Show the independence of Axiom 4P-1 (if exists)

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Axiom 4P-1 fails to hold since there are only three points in the model, where
axioms 4P-2 and 4P-3 both hold.

ii. Show the independence of Axiom 4P-2 (if exists) (Application No. 4)

iii. Show the independence of Axiom 4P-2 (if exists)

Axiom 4P-3 fails to hold since the line l3 has three points on it.

d. Write the dual of each axiom set.

Dual of Axiom 4P-1: There exist exactly 4 lines.
Dual of Axiom 4P-2: Any two distinct lines have exactly one point on both of them.
Dual of Axiom 4P-3: Each point is on exactly two lines.

2.4. The Fano’s Geometry

Axioms on Fano’s Geometry

Axiom F-1: There exists at least one line.
Axiom F-2: Every line of the geometry has exactly 3 points on it.
Axiom F-3: Not all points of the geometry are on the same line.
Axiom F-4: For two distinct points, there exists exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom F-5: Each two lines have at least one point on both of them.
Theorems on Fano’s Geometry

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Theorem F-1: Each two lines have exactly one point in common.
Theorem F-2: Fano's geometry consists of exactly seven points.
Theorem F-3: Each point on Fano’s geometry is incident with exactly three lines.
Theorem F-4: Fano’s geometry consists of exactly seven lines.

a. The Model for the system

Model 4: A Model for Fano’s geometry

In diagram model 4, points are defined by the seven dots and lines by the six straight
segments and one curved segment. Note each line contains exactly three points.
Now, create another (a Model illustrated through a table) that is isomorphic to Fano’s
Model. (Application No.5)

b. Deduce the following Theorems:

Proof of Theorem F-1:

Let p and q be any two distinct lines. By Axiom F-5, there is a point A incident to
both p and q. Suppose there is a second point B, distinct from A, incident to both p
and q. Then by Axiom F-4, p and q are the same lines, but this contradicts that p and q
are distinct lines. Thus p and q intersect in exactly one-point A. Therefore, two distinct
lines intersect in exactly one point. ∎

Proof of Theorem F-2:

By Axiom F-1, there exists a line l. Then by Axiom F-2, there exist exactly three points
A, B, C on line l. Now by Axiom F-3, there exists a point P, not on line l. Hence we have
at least four distinct points A, B, C, and P. By Axiom F-4 and since P is not on line l, there
are three distinct lines AP, BP, and CP. And by Axiom F-2, each of these lines contains a

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third point D, E, and F on AP, BP, and CP, respectively. None of D, E, or F can be any of
the points A, B, C, or P; for if this was not true, Axiom F-4 would be contradicted. (Write
the details for this argument in Assessment No.3.) Hence there are at least seven distinct
points A, B, C, D, E, F, and P.
We assert that there are exactly seven distinct points. Suppose there exists a distinct
eighth point Q. Note Q is not on l, since A, B, and C are the only points on l. By Axioms F-
4 and F-5, lines PQ and l must intersect at a point R. Since A, B, and C are the only points
on l, R must be one of A, B, or C. Suppose R = A. Since D is on line AP and A = R is on line
PQ, we would have R = A, D, P, and Q collinear which contradicts Axiom F-2. The other
cases for B or C are similar. Hence there are exactly seven distinct points. ∎

Proof of Theorem F-3:

The proof is left as an exercise (Assessment No. 4) ∎

Proof of Theorem F-5:

The proof is left as an exercise (Assessment No. 5) ∎

c. Show the independence of each axiom (if exists):

i. Show the independence of Axiom F-1 (if exists)

A model where Axioms F-2 through and Axiom F-5 are true, but Axiom F-1 is not true.
Consider a model with no points and no lines. The model satisfies all the remaining four axioms
vacuously. But, since there are no lines, Axiom F-1 is not true.
ii. Show the independence of Axiom F-2 (if exists)

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It is a model where Axiom F-2 fails to hold while the other four axioms are
true. Since every line consists of only 2 points, Axiom F-2 is false.

iii. Show the independence of Axiom F-3 (if exists)

A model where Axiom F-3 is false since all points are the only incident to
one line, while the other three remaining axioms are true. Axiom F-5 is vacuously
true, it does not require a common point intersecting two lines since there is only
one distinct line in the model.

iv. Show the independence of Axiom F-4 (if exists)

Axiom F-4 fails to hold since the two distinct points lie became incident to
two lines. While the remaining four axioms are consistently satisfied by the model.
v. Show the independence of Axiom F-5 (if exists)

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Axiom F-5 is not independent since, in Axiom F-4, every two points should have a
one-line incident to it in each parallel line that will not exist.
d. Write the dual of each axiom set.

Dual of Axiom F-1: There exists at least one point.

Dual Axiom F-2: Every point of the geometry has exactly 3 lines on it.
Dual of Axiom F-3: Not all lines of the geometry are on the same point.
Dual of Axiom F-4: For two distinct lines, there exists exactly one point on both of
them.
Dual of Axiom F-5: Each two points have at least one line on both of them.

Since not all duals are explicitly defined in Fano’s axiom set, hence Fano’s
geometry does not follow the principle of duality.

2.5. Young’s Geometry (Smiley, 2001)

Axioms of the Young’s Finite Geometry

Axiom Y-1: There exists at least one line.
Axiom Y-2: Every line of the geometry has exactly 3 points on it.
Axiom Y-3: Not all points of the geometry are on the same line.
Axiom Y-4: For two distinct points, there exists exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom Y-5: If a point does not lie on a given line, then there exists exactly one
line on that point that does not intersect the given line.
Theorems of the Young’s Finite Geometry
Theorem Y-1: For every point, there is a line not on that point.
Theorem Y-2: For every point, there are at least four lines on that point.
Theorem Y-3: For every point, there are exactly four lines on that point.
Theorem Y-4: In Young's geometry, each line is parallel to exactly two lines.
Theorem Y-5: In Young's geometry, there are exactly 12 lines.
Theorem Y-6: In Young's geometry, there are three lines, no two of which
intersect.
Theorem Y-7: In Young's geometry, there are exactly 9 points.
Theorem Y-8: Given any three mutually parallel lines in Young's geometry, every
other line intersects all three.

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a. Device 2 isomorphic models for the system:

b. Deduce all eight Theorems:
c. Show the independence of each axiom (if exists):
d. Write the dual of each axiom set.

The discussion and complete components are left as an exercise (A Research

work in the Enrichment Activity)4

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Summary of the Lesson:

Finite geometry is a geometry with a finite number of points. When confined to a
plane, all finite geometries are either projective plane geometries (with no parallel lines) or
affine plane geometries (with parallel lines).
There five known Finite geometries are the following:

Three-Point geometry

Axioms for the Three-Point Geometry:

Axiom 3P-1: There exist exactly 3 points in this geometry.
Axiom 3P-2: Two distinct points are on exactly one line.
Axiom 3P-3: Not all the points of the geometry are on the same line.
Axiom 3P-4: Two distinct lines are on at least one point.
Theorems for Three-Point Geometry
Theorem 3P-1: Two distinct lines are on exactly one point.
Theorem 3P-2: The three-point geometry has exactly three lines.

The Four Line geometry

The Axioms for the Four Line Geometry:

Axiom 4L-1: There exist exactly 4 lines.
Axiom4L-2: Any two distinct lines have exactly one point on both of them.
Axiom 4L-3: Each point is on exactly two lines.
Theorems for Four Line Geometry
Theorem 4L-1: The four-line geometry has exactly six points.
Theorem 4L-2: Each line of the four-line geometry has exactly 3 points on it.

The Four-Point geometry

The Axioms for the Four-Point Geometry:

Axiom 4P-1: There exist exactly 4 points.
Axiom 4P-2: Any two distinct points have exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom 4P-3: Each line is on exactly two points.

Theorems for Four Line geometry

Theorem 4P-1: The four-point geometry has exactly six lines.
Theorem 4P-2: Each point of the four-point geometry has exactly 3 lines on it.

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The Fano’s geometry

Axioms on Fano’s Geometry

Axiom F-1: There exists at least one line.
Axiom F-2: Every line of the geometry has exactly 3 points on it.
Axiom F-3: Not all points of the geometry are on the same line.
Axiom F-4: For two distinct points, there exists exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom F-5: Each two lines have at least one point on both of them.
Theorems on Fano’s Geometry
Theorem F-1: Each two lines have exactly one point in common.
Theorem F-2: Fano's geometry consists of exactly seven points.
Theorem F-3: Each point on Fano’s geometry is incident with exactly three lines.
Theorem F-4: Fano’s geometry consists of exactly seven lines.

The Young’s geometry

Axioms of the Young’s Finite Geometry

Axiom Y-1: There exists at least one line.
Axiom Y-2: Every line of the geometry has exactly 3 points on it.
Axiom Y-3: Not all points of the geometry are on the same line.
Axiom Y-4: For two distinct points, there exists exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom Y-5: If a point does not lie on a given line, then there exists exactly one
line on that point that does not intersect the given line.
Theorems of the Young’s Finite Geometry
Theorem Y-1: For every point, there is a line not on that point.
Theorem Y-2: For every point, there are at least four lines on that point.
Theorem Y-3: For every point, there are exactly four lines on that point.
Theorem Y-4: In Young's geometry, each line is parallel to exactly two lines.
Theorem Y-5: In Young's geometry, there are exactly 12 lines.
Theorem Y-6: In Young's geometry, there are three lines, no two of which
intersect.
Theorem Y-7: In Young's geometry, there are exactly 9 points.
Theorem Y-8: Given any three mutually parallel lines in Young's geometry, every
other line intersects all three.

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