Soil Science 22

Principles of Soil Science

Laboratory Exercise No. 9

Soil Erosion and Conservation

INTRODUCTION

Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and subsequent transport or entrainment of soil
materials by an agent (water, wind and gravity) to an area of deposition. It is an undesirable process in
agriculture and forestry since tremendous amount of surface soils rich in plant nutrients are being lost.
Several types of soil erosion occur such as the sheet wash, rill, gully and stream bank.

Soil erosion is contributed by several factors: the amount of rainfall, topography, soil properties
(e.g. soil texture and structure), vegetation/plant cover, and human activities (e.g. tillage overgrazing,
road construction, mining, etc.). Among the several agents of erosion, water is the most important in
humid tropical areas.

Monitoring soil erosion is a vital process in any sustainable land management activity especially
in upland or sloping ecosystem. It is useful in identifying areas and land uses/ practices which are
potential sources of land degradation problems. It provides information on where and what measures
are needed to mitigate and ameliorate probable adverse environmental impacts and condition.

Estimates of soil loss in tons/ha/year under various conditions and types of management can be
done by field method and by modelling using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Considering the
biophysical characteristics of an area and from the estimates of the amount of soil loss, appropriate soil
erosion control measures can be adopted to address this serious environmental concern. The two
general methods of soil erosion control measures are structural or mechanical and biological or
vegetative.

OBJECTIVES

1. To learn how to identify erosion indicators for monitoring and evaluation.

2. To know the principles and different methods of erosion control.

MATERIALS

Video presentation

PROCEDURE

1. Video presentation of the different erosion indicators and soil conservation measures will be
provided.
2. Visit the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHyK2M8yiQE
3. Record the different soil conservation measures that can be applied in your area and its

1
advantages and disadvantages.

2
 Soil Science 22
Laboratory Exercise No. 9
Soil Erosion and Conservation

Name: Date Conducted:

Lab. Section: _ Date Submitted:_
Lab. Instructor: _ Rating: _ _

GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. What are the soil erosion indicators that you can identify from the video presented?

_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _

2. What soil monitoring method(s) do you think is applicable in Pangasugan watershed (or in any
part of Leyte or Southern Leyte provinces) where soil erosion is taking place?

_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _

3. Have you observed any soil conservation measures in our locality or in your hometown? If there
are, do you think these are appropriate? Explain.

_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ __ _ _
 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Soil erosion monitoring

 Process of measuring or estimating the actual rate of soil erosion from an area.
 Evaluate the susceptibility of an area to soil erosion (soil erodibility) based on the biophysical
characteristics of the area.
Biophysical factors influencing erosion:
1. Rainfall
2. Topography
3. Soil properties
4. Vegetation
5. Management activities

Visual Soil Erosion Indices

1. Rills – more or less well-drained channel on the ground small enough to be easily obliterated by
normal tillage operation.
2. Guities – Advanced stage of gits which have developed into larger channel and cannot be
corrected by normal tillage operation (usually at least 1m depth and 2 has in drainage area).
Indicates greater degree of soil erosion problem resulting from erosive surface runoff.
3. Turbid surface runoff
4. Erosion pedestals, soil columns left beneath rocks or stones.
5. Erosion pavements. Coarse materials left on the surface after the finer materials have been
washed away.
6. Mounds of residual soils Grasses or smaller plants perched on the mounds of soils could indicate
erosion at surrounding surface soil.
7. Soil accumulation on the bases of the trees and other surfaces
8. Exposed roots indicate continuing soil erosion.
9. Exposed parent material. Sign of severe soil erosion
10. Slides of rock and sand indicate erosion taking place along the slope.
11. Bare areas. Potential site of existing and future soil erosion problem
12. Surface litter, indicates an erosive surface flow.
13. Soil movement. Indicate wind as well as water induced erosion.

Soil erosion evaluation

 Based on observed or measured soil erosion and soil loss tolerance limit (T)
 Important in the development of appropriate soil conservation practices
 Reveal areas needing immediately and specific soil erosion control/conservation measures.
 Soil loss tolerance is the maximum rate of soil erosion that can be allowed without adversely
affecting the sustained productivity of the land. The basis is the rate of soil formation (top soil depth)
and important socio-economic factors. The value of T in the US ranges from 4.5 Mg/ha to 11 Mg/ha.

To evaluate soil erosion index estimate/measure first soil erosion using any of the methods
previously described. Compare the estimated amount of soil erosion with the tolerance limit (T). If
estimated soil erosion is less than 1, no conservation measure is necessarily, if otherwise some
conservation measures will have to be employed.

Soil Erosion Control Measures:

Erosion occurs when conditions are favorable for the detachment and transportation of soil
material. Many different practices have been developed to reduce erosion. However, not all practices
are applicable in all regions. Principles in reducing the susceptibility of the soil to erosion needs to be
considered which are:

1) Limit detachment
a) Provision of dense vegetative cover
b) Improve soil organic matter
c) Reduce or eliminate tillage
2) Limit transport
a) Reduce runoff
b) Increase infiltration
c) Rough surface
d) Reduce slope

I. Biological/Agronomic Approach

A. Cover cropping – involves the growing of cover crops such as grasses and/or legumes to protect
the soil/ground surface from the impact of raindrops which causes detachment and dispersion
to increase permeability and water infiltration rate through biological loosening effect of root
system. A desirable cover crop should be fast growing hardy and drought – resistant and can be
used as feed for farm animals. This is similar to seeding in planting of pasture grasses and
legumes to serve as cover crops.

Examples: ipil-ipil (Leaucaena leucepnaia), Bermuda

Kakawate ( Glindicidia sapium), desmodium

B. Multiple cropping – this technique involves eith sequential cropping, the growing of 2 or more
crops a year in a sequence, intercropping the growing of 2 or more crops in the same piece of
land at the same time.

Examples: Peanut, soybean or other legumes grown in association with cereals (rice, corn, etc.)
C. Strip cropping – refers to the growing of row crops (erosion permitting) and soil-conserving
crops in alternative strips aligned on the contour. This is desirable in rolling areas (with slope up
to 25%) where construction of terraces is not practical because of the possibility of exposing the
subsoil or even the bedrock.

Examples: Cereals and legumes

D. Crop rotation – refers to the systematic planting of different crops in successions on the same
piece of land. This practice promotes the build-up of organic of organic matter, improves soil
structure and promotes rapid infiltration of water in the long run.

Examples: Sweet potato rotated with peanut

Peanut rotated with mungbean

E. Relay cropping - refers to the practice of planting annual crops with the second crop planted
after the first crop has flowered or nearing harvest. Objective is to allow the second crop to
make use of the residual moisture and to continuously protect the soil from erosive rains and all
through the years.

Examples: Corn with mungbean

F. Mulching – is the practice which involves covering of the soil with crop residues such as straw,
corn stalks, palm fronds or standing stubbles. This prevents surface sealing by preventing direct
raindrop impact enhanced biological activity (e.g. decomposition of organic materials) which
leads to the development of good soil structure. To be effective, a mulching should cover 70-
75% of soil surface.

G. Contour Hedgerows – this refers to the planting of perennials along the contour of the land to
form a living wall, this wall blocks the rainwater pathway while soil is caught behind the plants.
This is used to slow down runoff and deposit suspended soil particles.

Examples: Fruit trees

Leguminous trees

H. Alley cropping – involves the establishment of woody hedgerows, usually leguminous trees at
regular intervals along the contours and the planting of agricultural crops in “alleys”
formed between hedgerows. Soil erosion is minimized by trapping the sediments at the base of
the hedgerows.

Examples: Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium) Ipil-

ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)

I. Fascines – bundles of long and dense brushwood of varying length.

- For slope stabilization the length of the fascines should not exceed 3 m.
- The bundles should form a straight cylinder, in bunding a guide frame is prepared by two
parallel rows of pegs 35 cm apart. Pieces of wire are place across the ground before
brushwood is bundled. Trim both ends of the fascine.
 - After preparing a fascine trenches with a depth of about ½ diameter of the fascine are dug
up to prevent underscoring by surface runoff and drying out the brushwood. The fascines
are placed in the trenches and anchored firmly in the ground with pegs. After establishment
of the fascines the trenches are lifted with soil and the fascines buried to about ½ or 2/3 of
their diameter.
- The interval of the fascines depends mainly on the slope.

J. Saturation planting – involves planting of all types of vegetative to form multi-layered canopy in
a given area using closer spacing

K. Brush cover – brush woods are laid covering the whole soil surface in the form of mat.

II. Some Structural or Mechanical Methods:

A. Terracing
 Construction of earthen embankment adjusted to soil and slope to control run off.
 Primarily designed to control runoff in areas of high rainfall and for conservation of
water in low rainfall areas.
 Traps sediments in the drainage ditches built along the terrace
 Generally needed on crop lands with slope > 18% and the slope length is longer than
122 meters.
 Traditional practice in the Cordillera areas.

B. Contour Rock Walls

 They are more permanent structures which are built in areas with abundant rocks.
 Large rock are used for the base and outside the wall, while smaller rocks are filled in
the middle.
 A-frame is made to use contour lines
 A one-meter wide area is levelled to provide a good base for the wall.
 Usually 1 meter high, tapering slightly towards top.
 Requires great amount of labor.

C. Gabions
Use of large rectangular wire crates filled with stones acting as retaining wall. These are
flexible, permeable and economical in places where stones are abundant.

D. Riprap
 Rocks fitted/piled on the top of each other to form a retaining wall.
 Protects soil from impact of raindrops
 Done by covering the whole area with a protective layer of concrete or rocks.
 Used to stabilize, hillsides, road banks and stream banks.
 The thickness of wall may vary from ¼ to 1 meter.

E. Stone Wall
 Involves the use of stones as walling material.
 Stones are collected and piled along the contour to form high walls.
 F. Farm Ponds/Water Impounding Dams
 Uses depression on the farm, especially in heavily gullied areas to impound water and to
minimize potential runoff

G. Check Dams/Drop Weirs

 Simple structure that can stop gully erosion by slowing downward water flow in the
drainage system
 Promote the deposition of nutrient-rich, high fertile sediments.
 Also serve as barrier that stops the flow of water.
 Constructed when grassed waterway is too long.

H. Drainage Canals
 Canals designed to divert run-off from upper areas so that they will not cause further
damage to lower lying areas.
 Use to divert run-off from gully head to prevent further enlargement and facilitate gully
control works.
 Dug at varying intervals, depending on the steepness of slope, the steeper the slope, the
closer the interval.

REFERENCES

David, W.P 1987. Erosion and sediment transport. Upland Resources Policy Program. Technical Report
Series No. 87-01. Philippines Institute for Development Studies.

David, W.P. 1987 and C.U. Collado. Upland Resources Policy Program. Technical Report Series No. 87-01.
Philippines Institute for Development Studies

Schwab, G.O., R.K. Frevert, T.W. Edminster and K.K. Barnes 1981. Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering (3rd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, New York.

UPLB Agroforestry Program. 1994. Soil and Water Conservation and Management - A Training Manual.
UPLB-CF Admin. Bldg. College Laguna.

Wischmeier, W.H. 1976. Use and misuse of the universal soil loss equation. J. of Soil and Water
Conservation 31:5-9.