Soil Science 22

PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

Laboratory Exercise No. 1

Soil Profile Examination

INTRODUCTION

Soils are dynamic natural bodies that occur at the surface of the lithosphere, the rock layer of the earth.
Their properties are determined by five major factors; parent material, climate, organism, relief or
topography and time.

The role of the five factors in the formation of soils was first recognized by V.V. Dokuchaev in the 1880's
in Russia and was elaborated in 1941 by Hans Jenny, a Swiss pedologist who later taught in California,
USA. The now accepted Dokuchaev-Jenny equation explicitly expresses the dependence of the soil or its
properties on these factors as follows:

S = f ( p, cl, o, r, t, … ) where : S = soil or any soil property

p = parent material
cl = climate
o = organism ( e.g. vegetation )
r = relief or topography
t = time

One classical concept states that soils have three dimensions, length, width and thickness. The three
represent the horizontal and the vertical dimensions. The modern version of this concept, however,
recognizes soils as four dimensional bodies, the fourth dimension being time. One important implication
of this modern concept is that, soils or their properties change in space and time.

Since soils are natural bodies, any scientific attempt to understand their nature and properties requires
that soils should be examined in their original site of formation. This is necessary in order to know the
five factors which have produced the soil. Moreover, many soil properties and processes can be studied
only when the soil is in its natural state.

A soil profile (more appropriate, the pedon) is commonly used as the standard unit of soil examination. It
is a vertical section of soil from the surface down to the bedrock or water table below. It generally shows
layers (termed soil horizons) which may differ from one another in terms of morphological, physical,
chemical, mineralogical and biological properties. In general, more soil horizons are exhibited by a mature
soil than by a young soil.

OBJECTIVE

At the end of this exercise, the students will be able to:

1. Learn the procedures in doing soil profile examination, and

2. Recognize characteristics which differentiate soils from one another.
MATERIALS

Video and images

PROCEDURE

1. A short video on how to examine and identify horizons in a soil profile will be provided.
2. Visit the attached link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYHydsVi-Dw

3. Identify the different horizons and horizon characteristics examined in the video.
4. Record and input the results in the data sheet provided.
 Laboratory Exercise No. 1
Soil Profile Examination

Name:____________________________________ Date Conducted:______________

Lab. Section:_______________________________ Date Submitted:______________
Lab. Instructor:_____________________________ Rating:______________________

DATA SHEET

I. Complete the table below.

A. Location of the soil profile:_________________________________

B. Topographic position:_________________________________
C. Parent material:_________________________________
D. Vegetation:_________________________________

Horizon Characteristics
Horizon Depth Color Structure

II. Using the soil profiles provided, answer the following questions below.

A B
 1. Which is soil profile is more developed? Why?
2. Identify which soil profile is more ideal for crop production. Explain.
3. What are the possible processes involved in the formation of soil profile A?

QUESTIONS

1. How does geology affect soil characteristics in a profile?

2. How can you say that a soil is young or old? Give some indications.

3. Why are some soils colored red while others are black? Can soil color indicate fertility status of
the soil?
 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Soil profile is the vertical section from the surface down to the bedrock below the soil surface. It is
composed of horizons (layers) which are identified by their morphological, physical, chemical, and
biological properties. Morphological and physical properties include depth and type of layers, texture,
structure, pores, color, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, consistency, etc. Chemical properties include
organic matter, pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), % base saturation and electrical conductivity.
Biological characteristics include the kind of plant material and the proportions of living and dead organic
matter.

Horizons may be classified as "surface soils" (A and E horizons), "subsurface horizons or subsoils" (B and
C horizons). The processes mainly responsible for differentiation among A, E, B and C horizons are
addition, losses, translocation and transformations. In general, A horizons are zones of removal
(eluviation) while B horizons are zones of accumulation (illuviation). The C horizon is usually the parent
material, but the term must be used with caution. Parent material is usually the rock material from which
the solum (A, E, and B horizons) developed.

General Characteristics of the Master Horizons

O horizon – horizon composed of partly or undecomposed organic materials can be further classified into
Oi (slightly decomposed Oe (moderately decomposed and Oa (well-decomposed). This
horizon is absent in cultivated soils since it is destroyed by plowing and burning.

A horizon – horizons composed of mineral soil particles but strongly darkened by humus or organic matter
intimately mixed with the mineral fraction. Common A horizons are Ap (plowed) and Ah
(humus A for natural soils)

E horizon – horizon that occurs between the A and the B horizons from which clay, iron, aluminum or
some combination of these have been eluviated (leached) leaving a light-colored horizon
(bleached horizon). It is not common in the Philippines, but is usually found under pine forest
in temperate regions

B horizon – horizon that is formed below an A, E or O horizon and is characterized by high concentration
of clay, iron, aluminum and silica. Evidence of removal of carbonates and coatings of
sesquioxides can be observed in this horizon that makes it lower in value, higher in chroma,
or redder in hue than overlying and underlying horizons. It is commonly blocky in structure.
The most common B horizons in the country are Bt (argillic horizon) and Bw (cambic horizon)

C horizon – horizon relatively unaffected by soil-forming processes & lacks the properties of O, A, E or B
horizons. It is composed of weathered rock beneath the solum (A or AB)

R horizon – solid bedrock, not practically diggable by spade.

Site Characteristics

Location – place where the soil is located. If possible, include an easily observable but permanent
reference point (e.g. river, highway, etc.)
Landform – whether the area is an alluvial plain, coastal plain, flood plain, terrace, hill and mountain as
shown by the figure below:

Moorman & van Bremen, 1978

Topographic position – whether the soil profile is in the summit, shoulder, back slope, toe slope or foot
slope of the area

Vegetation – this refers to the dominant vegetation types (e.g. cogon, coconut trees, etc)

Land use – refers to the dominant land use such as agriculture (wetland rice, corn, cassava, coconut,
pasture, etc), forest, grassland, urban or wetland.

Parent material – this refers to the parent rock of the soil. If possible, indicate the type of rock present.
Drainage – whether the drainage condition is well-drained (soil chroma two or less is not observed within
the top 120 cm) or poorly drained (soil has chroma of two or less within the top 120 cm or
water table is observed within the top 120 cm)

Climate – this is the climatic type prevalent in the area. It is usually sufficient to indicate the average
annual rainfall and temperature. For VSU, the average annual rainfall is 2,600 mm and the
temperature is 28oC.

Steps in Soil Profile Description

In describing soil profile:

1. Differentiate the layers of soil horizons by carefully observing variations in color, texture, friability,
degree of compaction, presence of stones, etc.
2. Mark the boundaries between horizons using sticks and measure their depths by starting from
the surface (measurement starts with zero, e.g. 0-10 cm).
3. Determine their morphological characteristics with the aid of the supplementary notes.
4. Identify the different horizons.

Guide to Characterization of Soil Horizons

a. Color

Soil color is determined using a Munsell Color Chart. In the Munsell system, color is classified under a
combination of three elements: hue, value, and chroma. Hue refers to the dominant wavelength or color
of light. Value, sometimes called brilliance, refers to the relative lightness and darkness of color which is
a measure of the total quantity of light. Chroma is the relative purity of the dominant color.

Steps in using the Munsell Color Chart:

1. Find the page of the chart that most closely corresponds to the color of the soil. This will give you
the hue. Many soils have a hue of 10 YR.
2. Look through the color chips on that page and find the color which matches the soil most closely.
On the left side of the table will be given the value (2/, 3/, etc.) and on the bottom will be given
the chroma (/2, /3, etc.)
3. You now have the color description (example 10YR 3/1). Then look for the corresponding color
description on the opposite page.

b. Texture

Soil texture is the fineness or coarseness of the soil. In this exercise you will determine this property by
using the Field Method. In judging the texture, consider that a soil high in clay will be somewhat sticky,
and the sample can be molded into different shapes like a modeling clay. A sandy soil will be gritty when
rubbed between fingers. A soil high in silt will be smooth like baking flour. A soil with equal amounts of
sand, silt and clay is said to be a "loam" soil. No soil is all clay, sand and silt. Therefore, most soils are
mixtures of all three: sand, silt and clay (plus some amount of organic matter). By determining the amount
of sand, silt, and clay, you are determining the textural class of the soil.
Field Key to Soil Textural Classes (Feel Method of Soil Texture Determination)

1. Soil does not remain in a ball when squeezed ……………………………………….... sand

a) Soil remains in a ball when squeezed ………………………………………………….. 2

2. Squeeze the ball between your thumb and forefinger attempting to make a ribbon
that you can push up over your finger.
a) soil makes no ribbon ……………………………………………………….loamy sand
b) soil makes a ribbon but very short …………………………………………………... 3

3. a) Ribbon extends less than a thumb's length before breaking ……………………… 4

b) Ribbon extends more than a thumb's length without breaking ………………….. 5

4. Add excess water to a small amount of the soil

a) Soil feels at least slightly gritty ……………………………… Loam or sandy loam
b) Soil feels smooth (silky) ……………………………………………………. silt loam

5. Soil makes a ribbon that breaks when 1 to 2 thumb length long:

a) cracks if bent into a ring ……………………………………………. 6
b) Soil makes a ribbon longer than two thumb lengths: can be bent into a ring
without cracking .……………………………………………… ………………. 7

6. Add excess water to a small amount of soil: soil feels at least slightly gritty
a) ……………………………………………………….. Clay loam or sandy clay loam
b) Soil feels smooth ……………………………………………... silty clay loam or silt

7. Add excess water to a small amount of soil: soil feels at least slightly gritty
a) ……………………………….. ……………………………………….. clay or sandy clay
b) Soil feels smooth ………………………. …………………………………… Silty clay

c. Structure

Soil structure is formed by the aggregation of primary soil particles into larger units called peds. Peds can
be described by their size (class), distinctness (grade) and their shape (type). The distinctness is a measure
of how well the aggregate is cemented together or, conversely, how easily it is broken down. When we
say a soil has a good structure, we usually mean that there are many aggregates present which are
"stable", that is, well cemented together. For this exercise, only type or dominant shape of peds will be
determined. Soil structural type describes the shape of individual aggregates in the soil. The shape of the
aggregates depends on the soil texture, soil composition and the extent of weathering of the soil. Each
soil horizon normally has its own characteristic types of structure.

Common structural types are granular, blocky and subangular blocky. Granular is a relatively small and
spherical peds that are not fitted to adjoining aggregates. Blocky is a block-like peds bounded to other
aggregates whose sharp angular faces have angles near 90o. Subangular blocky is also block like peds
bounded by other aggregates whose rounded subangular face form cast for the ped. Most ped faces have
angles greater than 90o. Some soils can also be structureless (i.e. massive and single grain) showing no
observable aggregation or no definite arrangement of natural lines of weakness.
 d. Soil pH

Determine the pH of soil samples from each horizon by using pH indicator papers. Your instructor will
provide you with a) a set of pH indicator papers b) plastic cup as container, c) a scoop, d) a stirring rod and
e) distilled water. The procedure is as follows:

1. Place a sample of the soil inside the plastic cup.

2. Add distilled water, enough to facilitate stirring. With materials (weighing scale and graduated
cylinder), the ratio between soil and water should be 1:2.5, respectively.
3. Stir the sample for about 1-2 minutes using a stirring rod.
4. Let it stand for another 1-2 minutes and dip the pH indicator paper for a minute.
5. Get the pH of the soil by comparing the color of the paper to the ones indicated in the pH indicator
chart.

e. Size and Abundance of Roots

The distribution of roots in the horizons of a soil profile is indicative of the prevailing characteristics of soil
layers and is relevant to soil-plant interrelationships. Root characteristics can be described in terms of size
and abundance based on the following qualitative descriptions:

Size (Root diameter)

Very fine - less than 1mm

Fine - 1 - 2 mm
Medium - 2 - 5 mm
Coarse - more than 5 mm
Abundance (in terms of volume %)

Very few - less than 5%

Few - 5 - 15 %
Common - 15 - 40%
Coarse - more than 40%

Changes in size and abundance of roots are usually related to changes in soil properties.

REFERENCES

1. Fanning, D.S. and M.C.B. Fanning. 1989. Soil Morphology, Genesis, and Classification. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
2. FAO. 1990. Guidelines for Soil Description. Rome. Soil Survey Staff. 1951. Soil Survey Manual.
USDA, Washington, DC.
3. Elenbass, P.F. M. 1994. Field and Lab Work in Ecology in Zimbabwe. CDCS, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam.