Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Antenna & Wave Propagation
Subject Code: EC-602
Semester: 6th
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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Sub. Code: EC 602 Sub. Name: Antennas & Wave Propagation

Unit 5
Syllabus: Propagation of radio waves
Fundamentals of electromagnetic waves, effects of the environment, modes of propagation, Ground wave
propagation- Introduction, plane earth reflection, space wave and surface wave, transition between
surface and space wave, tilt of wave front due to ground losses. Space wave propagation- Introduction,
field strength relation, effects of imperfect earth, curvature of earth and interference zone, shadowing
effect of hills and buildings, absorption by atmospheric phenomena, variation of field strength with height,
super refraction, scattering, tropospheric propagation, fading, path loss calculations.
Sky wave propagation- Introduction, structural details of the ionosphere, wave propagation mechanism,
refraction and reflection of sky waves by ionosphere, ray path, critical frequency, MUF, LUF, OF, virtual
height, skip distance, relation between MUF and skip distance.

Fundamentals of electromagnetic waves:

Whenever a high frequency current flows through a conductor, the power is generated. A part of the
power supplied is dissipated in the resistance of conductor and the part of the power escapes into the free
space. The power escaped in the free space is nothing but radiation. .
The power radiated by the current carrying conductor then propagates in the free space in form of the EM
waves. These electromagnetic waves are oscillating in nature. In the free space, EM waves travel at the
speed of light. To establish a wireless communication between two points at a distance, a transmitting
antenna with transmitting equipment at one point and receiving antenna with receiving equipment at
other point are necessary. The transmitting antenna radiates a radio signal in the form of an
electromagnetic wave. The wave consists two types of fields namely electric field 𝐸̅ and the magnetic
̅ . These two fields are mutually perpendicular to each other. Both these fields are time varying fields
field 𝐻
and the lines of force of these fields are perpendicular to each other. The direction in which the
electromagnetic wave travels is perpendicular to both the fields simultaneously as shown in the Fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Formation of an Electromagnetic Wave and its direction of travel

The electromagnetic travels in the free space with the velocity of light i.e. c = 3x10-8 m/s. As the wave
travels through the free space, the strength of the signal reduces. Such signal gets intercepted by an
antenna at the receiving end. In such antenna, being a conductor basically, a voltage is induced which is
applied to the receiver for processing. The signal received at the receiving end is very weak. If antenna is
considered as a point source, then the point source radiates an electromagnetic waves in all directions
uniformly, thus giving a spherical wavefront. But even though the wavefront from the point source is
spherical, the small area of it for a point located at a large distance from the source, the wavefront can be
thought as a plane wavefront.

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Mode of Propagation:
There are different paths of propagation by which the transmitted signal can reach the receiving antenna.
The most important propagation paths can be described as follows:
(i) The waves which are propagated near the earth’s surface are called ground waves. The ground wave
propagation is possible when the transmitting and receiving antenna, both are closed to the earth’s
surface. The ground waves can be further classified as space waves and surface waves. The waves
which travel from the transmitter to the receiver directly without any reflection are called direct waves
or space waves. The waves which propagate to the receiving antenna through the reflections from the
earth’s surface are called ground reflected waves or surface waves.
(ii) The waves reaching the receiving antenna as a result of scattering and reflection by the ionization in
the upper atmosphere are called sky waves. The region of ionization in the atmosphere about 80 km
above the surface of the earth is called ionosphere. Hence the sky waves resulting due to the scattering
in the ionosphere are also known as ionospherically scattered or ionospherically reflected waves.
(iii) The region in the atmosphere around 15 km above the surface of the earth is called troposphere. The
waves which are reflected or scattered in the troposphere before reaching to the receiving antenna are
called tropospheric waves.

Ground Wave or Surface Wave Propagation:

• The ground wave is a vertically polarized wave that travels along the surface of the earth. For the
ground wave propagation, vertical antennas are useful. If a horizontally polarized wave is propagated
as a ground wave, then the electric field of a wave gets short circuited due to the conductivity of the
earth. Hence the ground wave is always a vertically polarized wave.
• The ground wave or surface wave is practically important at broadcast and lower frequencies. That
means the ground wave is important for medium or long waves. The ground wave is guided along the
surface of the earth which is very much similar to the electromagnetic waves guided through
waveguide or transmission line. This mode of propagation is observed when the transmitting and
receiving antennas are placed close to the surface of the earth and are supported at their lower edges
by the earth or ground.
• When the vertical antennas are used, the ground waves are produced. The vertical antennas are the
antennas in which the EM waves are vertically polarized means electric field vectors of EM waves are
vertical with respect to ground. While any horizontal component of the electric field in contact with the
ground gets short circuited.
• When the ground waves propagate along the surface of the earth, the charges are induced on the
earth’s surface which travel along the wave and thus the current induces. While carrying this induced
current, the earth acts as a leaky capacitor, thus the earth can be treated as resistor in parallel with a
capacitor. The behavior of the earth as a conductor can be realized in terms of conductivity and the
dielectric constant.
In general, surface of the earth is considered to be a plane if the distance between the transmitters and the
receiver is less than the minimum barrier distance d given by expression.
50
𝑑= 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
(𝑓𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐻𝑧)3

Plane Earth Reflections:

If earth is considered as a perfect conductor with infinite conductivity, then the transmitted and reflected
waves have the same amplitudes. If the surface of the earth is considered as the smooth plane with finite
conductivity, then the amplitude and the phase of the reflected wave can be obtained by using the concept
of the reflection at the perfect dielectric. But if the surface of the earth is rough, then the scattering of the
reflected wave takes place. With the scattering of the wave, the amplitude of the reflected wave reduces
considerably as compared to that reflected from the smooth surface. This “roughness” of the surface
responsible for the scattering of the reflected wave ‘can be obtained by using Rayleigh criterion. According

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to the Rayleigh criterion, if the reflecting surface is rough, the reflection is similar to that due to the
smooth surface provided that the angle of incidence is very large. The Rayleigh criterion is given by,
4𝜋𝜎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑅=
𝜆
Where R = Measure of roughness,
σ = Standard deviation of surface irregularities from the mean surface height
ϕ = Angle of incidence
Depending upon the surface of earth, the surface can be considered as either smooth or rough.

Sky Wave or Ionospheric Wave or Short Wave Propagation(Between 2 to 30 MHz):

• In this mode the EM waves transmitted by the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna at
very long distance away from transmitting antenna, after the reflection from the ionized region in the
upper part of the atmosphere of the earth. This part is called ionosphere and it is located above earth’s
surface at about 70 km to 400 km height.
• The ionosphere acts as the reflecting surface and reflects the EM wave back to the earth if the
frequency is between 2 to 30 MHz. As the sky wave propagation is useful for the frequencies between
2 MHz to 30 MHz only, this mode of propagation is also called short wave propagation.
• As the waves propagate due to the reflection by the ionosphere, the mode of propagation is also called
ionospheric propagation. Using the sky wave propagation, a long distance point to point
communication is possible and hence it is also called point to point propagation or point to point
communication.
• The global communication over an extremely long distance is possible but with multiple reflections of
the sky waves because a single reflection from the ionosphere, the radio waves cannot cover distance
more than 4000 km.
• The signal received at the receiving antenna is subjected to the fading where the strength of the signal
varies with time. This is due to the large number of waves following a large number of different path to
reach to the receiving point.

Space Wave and Surface Wave(above 30MHz):

• When the frequency of the EM wave is between 30 MHz to 300 MHz, the space wave propagation
mode is of importance.
• The EM waves in the space wave propagation mode reach the receiving antenna either directly from
the transmitting antenna or after reflection from the region of the atmosphere above the earth’s
surface around 16 km of height called troposphere. Thus the space wave consists of two components
i.e. direct wave and indirect wave. Even though, both the wave namely direct wave and indirect wave
are transmitted at the same time, with same phase, at the receiving end they may reach in phase or
out of phase depending on the different path lengths. Thus at the receiving end, the signal strength is
the vector addition of the strengths of the direct and indirect waves. When the two waves are in phase,
the strength of the signal at the receiver will be stronger. Similarly if the two waves are out of phase,
the strength of the signal at the receiver will be weaker.
• The space wave propagation is mainly used in VHF (Very High Frequency) band as both previous modes
namely ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation both fail at very high frequencies.

Tilt Of Wave Front Due To Ground Losses:

For a vertically polarized wave, a forward tilt is observed at surface of the earth. By how much amount the
wave tilts depends on conductivity and permittivity of the earth. Whenever there is even slight forward tilt
in the electric field, the respective Poynting vector drops vertically downwards. This supplies sufficient
power to the earth over which the wave can be easily passed. Basically the electric field vector has two
components; one parallel to surface of the earth, while other perpendicular to surface of the earth. But
due to even a slight forward tilt, these two components are not in phase and thus just above the surface of
the earth, the electric field is found to be elliptically polarized. Thus wave tilt of ground wave is defined as

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the change in orientation of the vertically polarized wave at the earth’s surface. For a good conductor, over
most of the frequency ranges and conductivity values which is important from the point of view of the
surface wave propagation, the surface impedance of the earth is given by,
𝜔𝜇 1 −1
𝑟
𝑍𝑠 = √ 1 ∠ {𝑡𝑎𝑛 }
(𝜎 + 𝜔 𝜀 )
2 2 2 2
2 𝜔𝑐
Where μ = Permeability of the earth
σ = Conductivity of the earth
ε = Permittivity of the earth

The horizontal component of the electric field strength along the surface of the earth is given by
𝐸̅𝐻 = 𝐽𝑠̅ 𝑍𝑠
Similarly the vertical component is given by.
𝐸̅𝑉 = 𝐻̅ . 𝜂0
Then the ratio of horizontal component to the vertical component is given by
𝐸̅𝐻 𝐽𝑠̅ 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑠 1 𝜔𝜇 1 −1
𝑟
= = = ∠ {𝑡𝑎𝑛 }
𝐸̅𝑉 𝐻 ̅ . 𝜂0 𝜂0 377 √(𝜎 2 1
2 𝜔𝑐
+ 𝜔 2 𝜀 2 )2
If we plot the electric field E at various
instants, then the locus of the end point
of 𝐸̅ gives rise to elliptical shape. The
elliptical polarization of the field is as
shown in the Fig. 5.2.
𝛼
Note that the angle 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 gives the
𝜔𝜀
tilt angle as it indicates by how much
amount wave is tilted. Figure 5.2 Elliptical polarization at the surface of the earth

Features of Wave Tilt:

1. Wave tilt generally occurs for a vertically polarized wave at the earth’s surface.
2. The conductivity and permittivity of the earth decides the amount by which wave gets tilted.
3. Because of wave tilt, horizontal as well as vertical component of the electric field exist. But both these
components are not in phase.
4. Due to wave tilt, vertically polarized wave changes to elliptically polarized wave.

Space wave propagation- Introduction:

The space wave propagation is effectively used for frequencies above 30 MHz i.e. for VHF and higher
frequencies. Because the ground waves above 30 MHz undergo high attenuation with considerable
reduction in the amplitude within very short distances of the order of few 100 meters. Moreover at these
frequencies the sky wave propagation fails because the ionosphere cannot refract these frequencies back
to the earth. Under such conditions, the space wave propagation is the best option above 30 MHz. The
space wave propagation is through troposphere hence such propagation is limited to few hundreds of
kilometer.

Field Strength Relation:

Consider that two antennas i.e. transmitting antenna and receiving antenna are placed above the ground
anywhere in the troposphere but not more than 15 km above from the surface of the earth as shown in
the Fig. 5.3.
The power radiated in the form of radio waves by the transmitter (located at point 1) may be received by
the receiver (located at point R) by two ways;
1. By means of a direct wave traveling from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna directly along path
TR as shown in the Fig. 5.9.1. Such a direct wave is also called free space wave. Or

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2. By means of ground reflected wave (or indirect wave) along path TGR as shown in the Fig.5.3
Thus at receiver antenna, the total field
strength is equal to the vector addition of
the fields of these two waves i.e. one that
reaches receiver directly from transmitter
while other which reaches receiver after
reflected from ground. Under normal
circumstances, the space waves are not
suffered by attenuation heavily. During
analysis of the space wave propagation, we
must consider the coefficient of reflection of
the ground as the propagation deals with a Figure 5.3 Space wave propagation illustrating direct and
wave reflected from ground. indirect waves
And the coefficient of reflection further depends on factors such as conductivity of the earth, dielectric
constant of the earth, frequency of the wave and polarization of the wave. Not only this but the angle
made by the incident ray measured with respect to horizontal axis is also important. All these factors lead
to very complex relationships among themselves.
Let us assume that the distance d between two antennas along the earth’s surface is very large as
compared with heights ht and hr of the transmitting and receiving antenna respectively. From the concepts
of optical science, a point G at which the incident wave strikes ground is located by obtaining image point
R’ at distance hr, below the ground level and then joining points T and R’ with a ray passing through G.
Let r1 be the direct distance between points T and R while r2 be the distance between points T and R
through G for the ground reflected wave (TR = TG + GR). As r1 is approximately same as r2, the two waves
received by the receiver at point R have equal amplitudes but with phase differences due to differences in
path lengths. Along with this, the phase reversal occurs at point G. Thus the coefficient of reflection is
considered as 𝜌 = 1∠1800 .
From the geometry,
ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 2 1 ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 2
𝑟1 = √𝑑2 + (ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 )2 = 𝑑√1 + ( ) = 𝑑 [1 + ( ) +⋯]
𝑑 2 𝑑
Neglecting the higher order terms
(ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 )2
𝑟1 = 𝑑 +
2𝑑
Similarly we can write
ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 2 1 ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 2
𝑟2 = √𝑑2 + (ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 )2 = 𝑑√1 + ( ) = 𝑑 [1 + ( ) +⋯]
𝑑 2 𝑑
Neglecting the higher order terms
(ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 )2
𝑟2 = 𝑑 +
2𝑑
Therefore subtracting equation 1 from equation 2, the path difference is given by,
(ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 )2 (ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 )2
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = [𝑑 + ] − [𝑑 + ]
2𝑑 2𝑑
(ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 )2 − (ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 )2 2ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = =
2𝑑 𝑑
Hence the phase difference introduced by the path difference is given by
2𝜋 2ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 4𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝜙= = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜆 𝑑 𝜆𝑑

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With this phase difference obtained, we can write two waves at receiver along path r1 and r2 as,
4πh h
𝐸0 cos 𝜔𝑡 and – 𝐸0 cos (𝜔𝑡 + λdt r ) respectively. Note that the minus sign in the expression for the
ground reflected wave along r2 indicates phase reversed at point G.
Now that resultant wave at receiver is the vector sum of two waves, hence we get,
4𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡−𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + )
𝜆𝑑
Simplifying the cosine term, we get
1 4𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 1 4𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸0 {2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑡 + ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 − )}
2 𝜆𝑑 2 𝜆𝑑
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
∵ [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )]
2 2
2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 4𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑅 = 2𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝜆𝑑 2𝜆𝑑
4πh h
Assuming 2λdt r ≪ 𝜔𝑡 for high frequencies, then we get
2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑅 = 2𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡). 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝜆𝑑
2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑅 = [2𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )] 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡)
𝜆𝑑
Above expression indicates expression for the resultant of field strength. The term inside square bracket in
above expression indicates magnitude. Hence actual field strength at a distance D is given by,
𝐸0 2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑑 𝜆𝑑
2𝜋ℎ ℎ
But according to trigonometric relations 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 when x is very small. Similarly quantity ( 𝜆𝑑𝑡 𝑟 ) is very
smaller value, hence actual field strength receiver can be written as,
𝐸0 2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 2 ( )
𝑑 𝜆𝑑
therefore 4𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 𝐸0
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = ( ) 2
𝜆 𝑑
From above equation we can conclude that the field strength varies inversely with square of distance d
between two antennas. If the ground reflected wave is absent, then strength varies inversely, with
distance d only. But with ground reflected wave present there is inverse square relationship. As the
strength varies inversely with square of a distance d, strength now rapidly decreases with distance. From
equation (5.9.5) we can draw a conclusion that the field strength becomes zero when the value of term
2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝜆𝑑
is equal to integral multiple of 7t. In between two minima, we get a maxima when two waves
reinforce each other.

Effects Of Imperfect Earth:

While discussing space wave propagation, we assumed that the wave incident on the ground i.e. earth’s
surface, gets reflected without any change in magnitude but phase reversal by 1800. This assumption holds
well for vertically as well as horizontally polarized waves under condition that angle of incidence is nearly
glancing. So the value of reflection coefficient assumed is 𝜌 = 1∠1800 . But practically due to finite
conductivity and dielectric constant of the earth, the magnitude of reflection coefficient is found to be less
than 1 (unity) and also the phase shifts differ from 1800 after reflection.

Shadowing Effect Of Hills And Buildings:

The space wave propagation is affected by structures like trees, tall buildings and hills. Due to all these
structures, scattering of transmitted energy as well as absorption of some part of transmitted energy is
resulted. Thus effectively the strength of ground reflected wave reduces. Naturally it indicates the
reduction in the coefficient of reflection. This effect is found to be dominant in areas consisting forests,

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crowdy cities or rough surfaces. The effect of rough surfaces on the space waves is illustrated in the Fig.
5.4.

Figure 5.4 Different path lengths due to irregularities on the surface of the earth

Variation Of Field Strength With Height:

The field strength varies with height as
shown in the Fig. 5.12.1 where nulls
are at zero while the maxima are equal
to twice the actual free space field
strength. But actually ground cannot
reflect waves perfectly at angles of
incidence other than zero, it restricts
the nulls to be obtained zero exactly.
Not only this, the maxima value
reaches to the value slightly less than
twice the field strength E' in the free
space. It is shown by dotted lines in the
Fig. 5.5. Figure 5.5 Variation in the field strength as a function of height

Super Refraction or Duct Propagation:

The VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies are the frequencies which are neither propagated along the
surface of the earth nor reflected by ionosphere. But in the troposphere region, the high frequency waves
are refracted and transmission takes far beyond line of sight (LOS) distance.
An atmosphere where the dielectric constant is assumed to decrease uniformly with height to value equal
to unity at which air density is supposed to be zero is commonly called normal atmosphere or standard
atmosphere. There are different air regions or layers one above other with different temperatures and
water vapor contents. In one of the regions, there is a region where 𝑑𝜇𝑚 /𝑑ℎ is negative. In this region, the
curvature along which the radio waves pass is slightly greater than that of the earth. Due to this, the wave
originally directed almost parallel to the surface of the earth gets trapped in such regions. The energy
originating in this region propagates around curved surfaces in the form of series of hops with successive
reflections from the earth as shown in the Fig. 5.6. This phenomenon is called super refraction or duct
propagation. Two boundaries of surfaces between two air layers form a duct which guide the radio waves
between walls i.e. boundaries.

Figure 5.6 Duct Propagation

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The concepts like line of sight and diffraction cannot be applied when the wave propagates through duct
and it is found that the energy travels high distances round the earth without much attenuation.
The concept of wave trapping can be considered as a phenomenon similar to waveguide. But the main
difference between waveguide and duct propagation is that in waveguide all the modes are confined
within guide only. But in case of duct propagation, part of energy within duct may escape to the space as
shown in the Fig. 5.7. There is a limit on the wavelength of the signal of maximum value 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 to be
trapped in duct. It is the maximum wavelength for which the duct propagation holds good. If the
wavelength of the signal exceeds the value 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then duct effect vanishes almost completely. The value
of 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by,
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.5ℎ𝑑 √𝛥𝜇𝑚 × 10−6
Where Δμm = Change in μm value across height of duct
hd = Height of duct

Figure 5.7 Duct propagation as leaky waveguide

In general, the duct height hd ranges from 10 to hundreds of meters. While the Δμm value is typically 50
units. So considering these values, the phenomenon of duct propagation is found mostly in UHF and
microwave frequency regions. Table 5.1 specifies the values of 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 and corresponding duct heights.

Maximum wavelength 𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 in cm Duct height hd in cm

1 500
10 2300
100 10700
1000 50000
Table 5.1
Moreover the duct propagation is possible only if height of transmitting antenna is less than that of duct
height. If the transmitting antenna exists considerably above duct, there is comparatively less effect of
presence of duct on the signal either inside or above duct.

Tropospheric Propagation:
• The tropospheric propagation is nothing but the propagation of VHF, UHF and microwave signals
beyond the horizon. It is also called forward scatter propagation or scatter propagation or simply
troposcatter.
• The name for such wave propagation is given as troposcatter because such propagation uses certain
troposphere properties where troposphere is the nearest portion of the atmosphere about 15 km
above the surface of the earth. Using tropospheric scatter propagation mainly UHF and microwave
signals are propagated beyond the line of sight.
• The scatter propagation mechanism can be explained on the basis of two different theories. First one is
based on ionospheric propagation and assumed that the scatter propagation is resulted from the
scattering of the radio waves from lower E layer of ionosphere. While the second one is supposed to be
the outcome of scattering from fine layers of troposphere.

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Tropospheric Scatter Phenomenon:

In general the radio waves diffract or bend around curved surface of the earth exactly similar to the sound
waves which bend at comer. The strength of the diffracted field in the shadow zone is decided by the
roughness of the earth’s surface. In general, over most of the land the earth’s surface is really rough. Thus
it is found that the field strength in such shadow zones is very large as compared to that would be for the
smooth earth’s surface. In addition to this, due to the air turbulence, there is a formation of eddies or
blobs in the atmosphere. Due to such disturbances and discontinuities, there is a small irregularity in the
refractive index value in the regions especially in those tropospheric regions which drives energy to pass
through troposphere just above intersection of the horizon lines to the points in the shadow zone where
energy gets scattered. Sometimes in the non-turbulent atmosphere, the refractive index varies slowly but
continuously. This causes small reflections of the radio waves which can also scatter energy into shadow
zone. The tropospheric propagation is as shown in Fig.5.8.

Figure 5.8 Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

According to the other theory, the air is trapped in between different layers of varying thickness in the
troposphere. The boundaries between these layers becomes partially reflecting surfaces for radio waves
only and thus waves are scattered downwards over the horizon.
Practically for tropospheric scatter propagation, we get better results if both the antennas are elevated
and directed in downward direction toward the horizon. The tropospheric scatter propagation is called as
extended range propagation as one can obtain signals beyond the horizon for distances up to 300 to 400
miles more consistently and reliably.

Fading, Path Loss Calculations:

When the power is radiated by the antenna in the free space, the radio energy may be absorbed or
radiated by the objects in the region. So it becomes essential to calculate the loss during radio
transmission. This is nothing but radio transmission loss. The basic definition of radio transmission loss is
the ratio of the radiated power to the received power. This loss is based on the concept of the inverse
square law in optics applied to radio transmission. For the isotropic radiator, the radiation is uniform in all
the directions. Hence the power density is same everywhere at all the points on the surface of a sphere
with radius r. Thus the average power can be expressed in terms of radiated power as,
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑊/𝑀2
4𝜋𝑟 2
The maximum directive gain or Directivity of the antenna is given by,
𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
( 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑡 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
4𝜋𝑟 2
therefore 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝜋𝑟 2

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Now the receiving antenna is placed such that ideally it receives total power from the radio waves. Let Prec
be the maximum power delivered by the receiving antenna to the receiver load under matched load
conditions. Let (Ae)r be the effective aperture of receiving antenna. Then we can write
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐴𝑒 )𝑟
∴ 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 = ( 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑡 (𝐴 )
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑟
But the directivity and the effective area are related as
4𝜋
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝐴𝑒
𝜆
Let ( GDmax )r be the directivity of the receiving antenna, then
4𝜋
( 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑟 = 2 (𝐴𝑒 )𝑟
𝜆
then 𝜆2
(𝐴𝑒 )𝑟 = ( 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑟
4𝜋
Substituting the value of (Ae )r in equation of 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 = ( 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑡 [ ( 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑟 ]
4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒄 𝝀 𝟐
= ( 𝑮𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒕 ( 𝑮𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒓 [ ]
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝟒𝝅𝒓

The equation above is called fundamental equation for free space propagation. This is also called Friss free
𝜆 2
space equation. The factor [ ] is called free space path loss. This indicates the loss i.e. attenuation of
4𝜋𝑟
signal as the power spreads with distance r. The path loss can be expressed as
𝝀 𝟐
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝟒𝝅𝒓

Sky Wave Propagation- Introduction:

• The radio waves propagate by different possible modes as ground wave or surface wave propagation,
sky wave or ionospheric wave propagation, space wave propagation and tropospheric wave
propagation.
• Out of these modes, the sky wave propagation is very important from the point of view of long distance
radio communication. This mode is most effective from the frequencies between 2 MHz to 30 MHz,
hence this mode is also commonly called short wave propagation.
• In the sky wave or ionospheric propagation mode the electromagnetic waves reaching the destination
point first get reflected by the region of ionized gases in the upper atmosphere region which is situated
between 50 km to 400 km above earth’s surface. Thus region of ionized gases is called ionosphere
hence mode of wave propagation is called ionospheric propagation.
• With the sky wave propagation, a long distance point to point communication is possible. The main
advantage of the sky wave propagation is that the long distance communication is possible with the
help of multiple reflections of the sky waves. But these signals are affected by fading in which the
strength of the signal varies with time. Let us now discuss the structure of the ionosphere and the
concept of the propagation of the waves through ionosphere.

Structural Details Of The Ionosphere:

• The ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere of the earth. It gets heated due to the
absorption of the large energy radiated by the sun. After heating, it gets ionized. This region is located
about 70 km above the surface of the earth and extends to several earth radii.
• There are different variations in properties of the atmosphere such as temperature, pressure, density,
composition etc. Due to the variation in these physical properties and the absorption of different

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radiations by the ionosphere, it becomes irregular in its distribution and thus four main layers namely
D, E, F1 and F2 are formed as shown in the Fig. 5.9.
The ionizing agents involved are mainly the ultraviolet, α, β 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 radiations from sun. Along with these
radiations, cosmic rays and meters are also important ionizing agents out of these four layers, F1 and F2
combine during night time in single layer. The D-layer is nearest to the earth’s surface and it exists at an
average height of 70 km. Its average thickness is about 10 km. This layer disappears night because its
degree of ionization depends on the altitude of the sun.
It reflects only VLF and LF waves while
absorbs MF and HF wave to some extent,
hence it has least importance from the point
of view of propagation of HF waves. At about
100 km above the earth’s surface, the next
layer existing is the E-layer. It has thickness of
about 25 km, Along with the E-Iayer, there
exists the Es-layer which has very high
ionization density. This is known as sporadic
E-layer and it exists during night time also.
The next layer existing about an average
height of 180 km is the F1 layer. During day
time its thickness is approximately 20 km and
during night time it combines with F2 layer.

Figure 5.9 Variations of Ionospheric layers

Even though some HF waves are absorbed by the F1 –Iayer, most of the HF waves are penetrated through
the F1 layer and are reflected by the F2 layer.

Wave Propagation Mechanism :

• The sky wave propagation or ionospheric wave propagation is important as it assists global short wave
communication. Due to the existence of the different ionized layers in the ionosphere, the long
distance communication is possible. The composition of the layers and heights of the layers vary with
time, but the E and F layer persists permanently.
• These layers are mainly useful in long distance communication. The D-Iayer exists during day time. It
cannot reflect high frequency waves back to the earth. Instead the intensity of the waves reflected
back from the E or F layers decrease during day time due to the presence of the D-Iayer. The layers
which exist permanently act as a radio mirror to bounce back the sky waves to the earth.
• The waves which return back to the earth appear to be the waves reflected by the layers of the
ionosphere. But practically the ionized layers refract or bend the waves back towards the earth in much
the same way as the refraction of the light waves travelling through media of different densities.

(a) Refraction Mechanism

(b) Refraction by different layers
Figure 5.10 Propagation through ionosphere

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• The refraction mechanism can be explained in this fashion. When the wave approaches the ionized
layer an angle, the refractive index decreases as the ionization density increases. Hence the incident
wave bends gradually further and further away from the normal as shown in the Fig. 5.10 (a).
• If the rate of change of the refractive index is sufficient, the refracted wave becomes parallel to the
layer first, then it bends downward and then comes out of the ionized layer at an angle of incidence.
The propagation of radio waves through ionosphere is as shown in the Fig. 5.10.

Refraction And Reflection Of Sky Waves By Ionosphere:

• The reflection and refraction of the radio waves is the function of the frequency of the wave. So we
may consider three regions such as low frequency region (below 100 kHz), higher end of the high
frequency band and the region in between these two bands.
• At lower frequencies below 100 kHz, for the wavelength at these frequencies, the changes in the
electron density and ion density are very large. So the layer through which the waves at lower
frequencies propagate acts as abruptly discontinuous medium. So such medium shows reflection of the
waves by the dielectric medium such that the waves may suffer losses. On the contrary, for very high
frequencies, the wavelengths become very short. This indicates within the short distance the changes
in the ionization density are negligibly small. Thus the ionosphere acts as a dielectric with variable
refractive index for higher frequencies.
• Now for the frequencies in between these two extreme frequency bands, the ionosphere can be
considered to be made up of thin but discrete layer with different refractive index. For all such several
layers, the ionization density is considered to be constant.
• Moreover the ionization densities of the two adjacent layers are not same. So when the wave enters
first layer, it gets partially refracted and penetrates to the second layer. In the second layer again the
wave gets partially refracted and penetrates to the next layer and so on. Through each layer the
incident wave suffers tremendous attenuation and the resultant reflected wave is the combined effect
of the reflections in each layer. As the reflected wave is attenuated heavily practically this wave is not
useful for the long distance communication.

Reflection at low frequencies:

The wavelength for lower frequencies is sufficiently long. Thus the changes in the ionization density are
considerably large. At lower frequencies, the reflection coefficient depends on,
i) Frequency of wave
ii) ii) Angle of incidence of wave
iii) Polarization of wave (either horizontal or vertical)
If the effective conductivity is considered to be zero, then the layer acts as the perfect dielectric at lower
frequencies. For the perfect dielectric, the reflection coefficient is always less than unity.
The total reflection of the wave for both the types of the polarization is observed if the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle. But if the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, the reflection
coefficient will be less than unity and its value depends on the angle of incidence.

Ray Path (Reflection at high frequencies):

The analysis at the high frequencies is carried out using the ray optics if the change in the phase velocity
within short wavelength is very small.
The phase velocity of the wave within a medium is given by,
1 1 𝑐
𝑉𝑃 = = =
√𝜇𝜀 √𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
Where 1
𝑐= = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
√𝜇0 𝜀0

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Assume that the permeability of the ionosphere is unchanged due to the presence of electrons,
hence μr = 1. Thus the phase velocity can be rewritten as,
𝑐
𝑉𝑃 =
√𝜀𝑟
Thus from the above equation it is clear that the phase velocity depends on εr . The relative permittivity of
the ionosphere depends on the electron density N, so the phase velocity also depends on the electron
density N. Hence for the high frequency, the wavelength is shorter so that the change in the electron
density is small and ultimately the changes in the phase velocity are further smaller.

Now consider the wave is incident on the lower edge

of the ionosphere without any reflection. But as the
wave penetrates the ionosphere, the wave follows
the curved path and it moves away from the region
of greater electron density. Thus at any point on the
curved path the angle between the path and the
normal at that point can be obtained by using the
Snell’s law. Let the angle made by the wave at the
lower edge of the ionosphere and the normal at that
point be ell Let the refractive index at point P in the
ionosphere be n. Figure 5.11. Application of Snell’s Law
Then by Snell’s law,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑖 = 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 =
𝑛
In general the refractive index of the medium is given by
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐
𝑛= =
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑝
For the medium in which the change in the phase velocity is negligibly small, the refractive index is given
by,
𝑐
𝑛= 𝑐
√𝜀𝑟
𝑛 = √𝜀𝑟
Basically the reflections occur at F layer. In F layer the collision frequency is very small as compared to the
frequency of wave and thus the effective conductivity is also very small. Hence we can neglect the effects
of the conductivity. Under the condition 𝜔𝑣 ≪ 𝜔 , the expression for εr is given by,
𝑁𝑒 2
𝜀𝑟 = (1 − )
𝜀0 𝑚𝜔 2
For electron m = 9 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

Therefore the equation 5.19.6 can be written as

81𝑁 Where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜀𝑟 = (1 − 2 )
𝑓
Substituting the value of εr in equation 5.19.5, we get
81 𝑁
𝑁 = √(1 − )
𝑓2
When the wave enters the region of the ionosphere in which the electron density is higher, the refractive
index decreases considerably and so the angle of retraction increases. At a certain point, when refractive

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index decreases to the value equal to 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ϕi , the wave travels horizontally as the angle of refraction
becomes 900. At this point, the electron density is denoted by N’ and it is calculated as follows,
81 𝑁 ′
𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑖 = √(1 − )
𝑓2
∴ 81 𝑁 ′
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙𝑖 = 1 −
𝑓2
∴ (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙𝑖 )𝑓 2
𝑁′ =
81
2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙𝑖 𝑓 2
𝑁′ =
81
From equation above we can conclude that if at any point in the ionosphere if the electron density is equal
to that given by the equation (5.19.9), the wave returns back to the earth. And if the electron density N is
less than N’ then the wave further penetrates in the ionosphere. Also the electron density is maximum if
the angle of incidence is zero i.e. the wave is incident vertically. The maximum electron density for vertical
incidence is given by,
𝑓2
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Where 𝜙𝑖 = 00
81

From above equation , it is clear that n is a function of frequency f and thus the velocity of the wave is also
the function of velocity. Similar to the waveguides we get two velocities as phase velocity (Vp) and group
velocity Vg.
The phase velocity is given by, for μr = 1,
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑉𝑃 = = =
√ 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 √𝜀𝑟 81 𝑁
√1 − 2
𝑓
Similarly the phase and group velocities are related through the expression
𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑐 2
Hence 𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝟖𝟏 𝑵
𝑽𝒈 = = = 𝒄√𝟏 − 𝟐
𝑽𝑷 𝟖𝟏 𝑵 𝒇
𝒄/√𝟏 − 𝟐
𝒇

Critical Frequency :
The critical frequency for the ionized layer of the ionosphere is defined as the highest frequency that can
be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for a vertical incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟 . Note that
the critical frequency is different for different layers.
As already discussed in the previous section, for the vertical incidence, angle of incidence ϕi becomes zero,
the electron density becomes maximum. Then the critical frequency can be defined mathematically as
follows,
𝒇𝒄𝒓 = √𝟖𝟏𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗√𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙
Where 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 is expressed per cubic meter and the critical frequency 𝑓𝑐𝑟 is expressed in megahertz (MHz).
Even though the critical frequency is the highest frequency that is reflected back for vertical incidence, it is
not the highest frequency that can be reflected back to the earth for any other angle of incidence. So it
represents that a radio wave with a frequency less than or equal to the critical frequency will certainly be
reflected back to the earth by the ionospheric layer for any angle of incidence.
Now when the angle of incidence is smaller, the refractive index of the layer is also smaller; which indicates
that the value of electron density necessary to return the radio wave from the layer back to the earth
should be higher. When the angle of incidence ϕi becomes zero, the refractive index also becomes zero
which indicates that the value of the electron density should be maximum i.e. 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

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In general, the refractive index is given by,

𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑖
Now if the radio wave with a frequency greater than the critical frequency is propagated through the
ionosphere then this wave can also be reflected back to the earth but the angle of incidence must be such
that at the frequency greater than 𝑓𝑐𝑟 equation (5.20.2) must be satisfied, otherwise the wave penetrates
the layer. Thus for a radio wave with a frequency greater than fa to be reflected back to the earth, the
condition is given by,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑖 > 𝑛
81 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑖 > √1 −
𝑓2
But 𝑓𝑐𝑟 = √81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
Hence
𝒇𝒄𝒓 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓𝒊 > √𝟏 −
𝒇𝟐
Maximum Usable Frequency (FMUF):
• The maximum usable frequency is defined as the limiting maximum frequency that can be reflected
back to the earth by the ionospheric layer for a specific angle of incidence other than the angle of
incidence for vertical incidence. It is denoted by FMUF.
• The maximum usable frequency FMUF can also be defined as the maximum frequency that can be used
for the sky wave propagation for specific distance between two points on the earth. Thus FMUF is the
highest frequency used for the sky wave communication and for each pair of points on the globe, the
value of FMUF will be different.
• Generally the value of FMUF ranges between 8 MHz to 35 MHz. But due to the solar activities, the higher
limit may even extend to 50 MHz. But it is important that the highest frequency used for propagation
between two particular points is slightly less than FMUF.

Lowest Usable High Frequency (LUF):

• For the ionospheric transmission, the optimum working frequency is selected as value about 15 % less
than MUF. Because the attenuation varies inversely with the square of the frequency high value of
optimum working frequency is selected. But for the high frequencies, the reflection takes from the F
layer and the waves suffer absorption.
• The absorption in the F layer is comparatively smaller. But for the high frequencies near MUF, the
waves undergo abnormal retardation and considerable amount of absorption takes place. Hence the
strength of the signal received on the earth becomes very less. Hence there is a limit on the highest
frequency used as the optimum working frequency and it is denoted as the lowest usable high
frequency (LUHF).
• For the given transmission distance and transmitter power, the lowest usable high frequency is defined
as the lowest frequency in the high frequency band that useful, satisfactory reception for the given
transmission distance and power. Thus for the useful ionospheric propagation the frequency should be
selected in between MUF and the lowest usable high frequency (LUHF).
• The lowest usable high frequency (LUHF) depends on
i) The effective radiated power,
ii) The ionospheric characteristics between transmission distance, and
iii) The radio noise of the receiver and type of the receiver.

Optimum Working Frequency (OF/OWF):

For the ionospheric propagation, it is desirable to use as high a frequency as possible. This clearly points
out that the frequency used for the ionospheric transmission should be the maximum usable frequency i.e.
MUF. But MUF depends upon the distance between the transmitter and the receiver and also upon the

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state of ionosphere. It is observed that due to the daily continuous changes and irregularities in the
ionosphere, the MUF varies about 15 % of its maximum value. Hence practically the frequency used should
be 15 % less than the value of MUF. Thus the frequency normally used for the ionospheric propagation is
known as optimum working frequency. The optimum working frequency between the transmitter and the
receiver for the ionospheric transmission is defined as the frequency, laying between 50% to 85% of the
predicted MUF, between the transmission and the reception points. It is observed that the maximum
usable frequency at a particular location varies considerably with time of the day, from season to season
and from months to months. As the optimum working frequency is selected as the fraction of the
maximum usable frequency, the OWF also varies in the similar way as the maximum usable frequency
varies.
Practically it is not at all possible to
change the frequency of the signal
propagated from hour to hour.
Hence for the propagation of wave,
two frequencies are used namely
one for the day time, while other for
the night time. Sometimes it is
preferred to have a third frequency
even during the transition period
from the day time to night time.
Figure 5.12 Increase in vertical height and skip distance during
night time
It is observed that in the night time vertical height of the ionospheric layer increases as compared to that
during the day time. Thus the skip distance also increases. It is illustrated in the Fig. 5.12

Virtual Height :
For the long distance communication, the sky wave propagation is effective due to the presence of
different ionized layers which act as radio mirror and bounce the sky waves back to the earth. The action of
the ionized layers to refract or bend the sky waves back to the earth is very much similar to the travelling
of light through media of different densities. The amount of refraction that the sky waves suffer depend on
the frequency of the transmitted wave the ionization density of the layer and angle of incidence of the
wave.
When the sky wave used for the long distance communication reaches a given ionospheric layer, the
ionization density increases and this in turn reduces the refractive index of the layer. According to the law
of refraction, as the wave enters a rarer medium from a denser medium, it bends gradually further and
away from the normal and follow the path L-M-N as shown in the Fig. 5.13.
When the wave bends away from the
normal, at a certain point it almost
becomes parallel to the layer and then
bends further downwards. Such a wave
finally emerges out of the ionosphere layer
at an angle equal to that of incidence. The
height at a point above the surface at
which the wave bends down to the earth is
called actual height or true height.
Figure 5.13 Actual & Virtual heights of an ionized layer
However, below the ionized layer, the incident and reflected waves follow the paths which are exactly the
same if reflection takes place along path at a height above the earth surface, which is greater than the
actual height of the layer. Such height is called virtual height which is denoted by h’ as shown in above Fig.
5.13.

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Skip Distance & Ray Path and Relation Between Muf And Skip Distance:
A Ray Path is nothing but the path followed by an electromagnetic wave. The Skip Distance is the shortest
distance from the transmitter, measured along surface of the earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency
will return back to the earth.
The angle of incidence for which the wave returns back to the earth at minimum distance from the
transmitter i.e. at the skip distance is called angle of critical incidence and it is denoted by at. This angle
depends on the frequency of the wave transmitted. Higher the frequency, lower is the angle of critical
incidence.
Consider that the frequency of the transmitted wave is kept constant and the angle of critical incidence 𝜃𝑐
is varied. If the angle of incidence is less than 𝜃𝑐 the waves are received beyond point B as shown by the
waves L and M in the Fig. 5.14. If the wave is transmitted at 𝜃𝑐 then the wave returns back to the earth at
point B. If the waves are transmitted from point A at angles greater than 𝜃𝑐 , the waves escape in the space
as shown by the waves O and P. Along the surface of the earth, in between points A and C, the waves
received at point C, are because of the ground wave propagation. So the distance AC is the ground-wave
range for the transmitter at point A. The distance AB is called skip distance. While the distance BC is called
skip zone, where signal is received neither by ground-wave propagation nor by sky-wave propagation.

Figure 5.14 Representation of skip distance & effect of variation in angle of incidence of fixed frequency
of transmission wave
For a given frequency 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 , the skip distance can be calculated as follows
𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 2
√
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐𝑟 1 + ( )
2ℎ
∴ 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 2 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 2
( ) −1=( )
𝑓𝑐𝑟 2ℎ
Therefore
𝒇𝑴𝑼𝑭 𝟐
𝑫𝒔𝒌𝒊𝒑 = 𝟐𝒉√( ) −𝟏
𝒇𝒄𝒓
The above equation represents the skip distance from the transmitter measured along the flat surface of
the earth.

END OF UNIT 5

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