2141-375

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement System
Behavior
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor
responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or
the measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.

Sensor Output signal

Input signal
x(t) or y(t)
system

In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a

qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor or
measurement system performs is imperative to understanding the
input signal correctly.
 General Model For A Measurement System
nth Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x (t ) d m −1 x (t ) dx (t )
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+ L + a1 + a 0 y ( t ) = b m m
+ b m −1 m −1
+ L + b1 + b0 x ( t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt

F(t) = forcing function

Where m≤n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t ) = y ocf + y opi

x(t) y(t) Where yocf = complementary-function part of solution

Measurement
system yopi = particular-integral part of solution
Complementary-Function Solution

The solution yocf is obtained by calculating the n roots of the algebraic characteristic
equation

Characteristic equation an D n + an −1 D n −1 + ... + a1 D + a0 = 0

Roots of the characteristic equation: D = s1 , s2 ,..., sn

Complementary-function solution:

1. Real roots, unrepeated: Ce st

2. Real roots, repeated:

each root s which appear p times (C 0 + C1t + C2t 2 + ... + C p −1t p −1 ) e st

3. Complex roots, unrepeated: Ceat sin(bt + φ )

the complex form: a ± ib
[C0 sin(bt + φ0 ) + C1t sin(bt + φ1 ) + C2t 2 sin(bt + φ2 )
4. Complex roots, repeated:
each pair of complex root which appear p times + ... + C p −1t p −1 sin(bt + φ p −1 )]e at
Complementary-Function Solution

Case 1: Real roots, unrepeated:

ex: -1.7, 3.2, 0

Case 2: Real roots, repeated:

ex: -1, -1, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0

Case 3: Complex number, unrepeated:

ex: -3 ± j4, 2 ± j5, 0 ± j7

Case 4: Complex number, repeated:

ex: -3 ± j2, -3 ± j2, -3 ± j2
Particular Solution

Method of undetermined coefficients:

y opi = Af (t ) + B f ′(t ) + C f ′′(t ) + ...

Where f(t) = the function that describes input quantity

A, B, C = constant which can be found by substituting yopi into ODEs

Important Notes

•After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives are zero.

•After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives have the same
functional form as some lower-order derivatives.

•Upon repeated differentiation, new functional forms continue to arise.
Zero-order Systems

All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.

a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t ) y (t ) = Kx (t ) where K = static sensitivity = b0/a0

The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains

constant regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).

xm
x
V = Vr ⋅ here, K = Vr / xm
Vr + xm
Where 0 ≤ x ≤ xm and Vr is a reference voltage
y=V
x=0 -

A linear potentiometer used as position

sensor is a zero-order sensor.
First-Order Systems
All the a’s and b’s other than a1, a0 and b0 are zero.
dy (t )
a1 + a 0 y (t ) = b0 x (t )
dt
dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = Kx (t )
dt

Where K = b0/a0 is the static sensitivity

τ = a1/a0 is the system’s time constant (dimension of time)
 First-Order Systems
Consider a thermometer based on a mass m =ρV
with specified heat C (J/kg.K), heat transmission
area A, and (convection heat transfer coefficient U
(W/m2.K).
Surface
Ti (Heat in) – (Heat out) = Energy stored
area A
q Assume no heat loss from the thermometer

Sensor UA(Ti − Ttf )dt − 0 = ρVCdTtf

m, Ttf, C dTtf
ρVC + UATtf = UATi
dt
Thermometer based on a mass,m with ρVC dTtf
specified heat, C + Ttf = Ti
UA dt
Therefore, we can immediately define K =1 and τ = ρ VC/UA

dTtf
τ + Ttf = Ti
dt
 First-Order Systems: Step Response
Assume for t < 0, y = y0 , at time = 0 the input quantity, x increases instantly
by an amount A. Therefore t > 0

dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = KAU (t )
dt

The complete solution y (t ) = Ce −t /τ + KA

2

yocf yopi
Transient Steady state
response response
U(t)

Applying the initial condition, we get C = y0-KA, thus

gives
0 y (t ) = KA + ( y0 − KA)e − t /τ t>0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, t
 First-Order Systems: Step Response

Here, we define the term error fraction as

y (t ) − KA y (t ) − y (∞)
Γ= = = e −t / τ
y0 − KA y ( 0) − y ( ∞ )

1.0 1.0
Output Signal, (y(t)-y0)/(KA-y0)

y (t ) − KA
.8 .8 = e −t / τ
y (0) − KA

Error fraction, Γ
.6 0.632 .6

y (t ) − y0
.4 = 1 − e −t /τ .4
KA − y0 0.368

.2 .2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t/τ t/τ
Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument
First-Order Systems: Step Response

Time constant, τ : the time required for a system to response

63.2% of a step change

Rise time, tr : the time required for a system to response 90% of a

step change. (sometimes defined time for 10 to 90% of a step
change) ~ 2.3 τ
First-order system response

t/ττ % response
1 63.2
2 86.5
2.3 90.0
3 95.0
5 99.3
 Determination of Time constant

y (t ) − KA t
Γ= = e −t /τ ln Γ = 2.3 log Γ = −
y (0) − KA τ

1
y (t ) − KA Advantage
0.368 = e −t /τ
y (0) − KA - Check whether the system is
Error fraction, em

.1
1st order
Slope = -1/2.3τ - Avoid the influence of an
error in any one data point
- eliminate the need to
.01 accurately determine the 0.368
point

.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
t/τ
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
Assume that at initial condition, both y and x = 0, at time = 0, the input quantity
start to change at a constant rate q&is Thus, we have

0 t≤0
x(t ) =  Initial condition: y(0) = 0
q&is t t > 0
Therefore dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = Kq&is tU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce − t /τ + Kq&is (t − τ )

Transient Steady state
response response

Applying the initial condition, gives y (t ) = Kq&is (τe −t /τ + t − τ )

y (t )
Measurement error em = − x (t ) = q&isτe −t /τ − q&isτ
K

Transient Steady
error state error
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response

10

Input x(t)
Output signal, y/K 8

y(t)/K
6
Steady state
time lag = τ
4
Steady state
2 error = q&isτ

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/τ

Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument

First-Order Systems: Frequency Response

From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs, x(t ) = A sin ωt

we have
dy
τ + y = KA sin ωt
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce −t /τ +

KA
(
sin ωt − tan −1 ωτ )
1 + (ωτ ) 2

Transient Steady state Frequency

response response = response
If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form
y (t ) = Ce −t /τ + B(ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]
KA
B(ω ) =
[1 + (ωτ ) ]
2 1/ 2

φ (ω ) = − tan −1 ωτ
Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response

x(t ) = A sin ωt

y (t ) = Ce −t /τ + B(ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]

2.0 Input
Output
1.5
Input x(t) and Output y(t)

1.0 B

.5 A

0.0
-.5
-1.0
-1.5 td
-2.0
0.00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06
Time (sec)
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
B 1
M (ω ) = =
KA 1 + (ωτ )2 1/ 2 [ ]
1
The amplitude ratio M (ω ) = The phase angle is φ (ω ) = − tan −1 (ωτ )
(ωτ ) 2 + 1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20

Phase shift, φ(ω)

Amplitude ratio

-30

Decibels (dB)
.8 -2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100

ωτ ωτ
Frequency response of the first order system

Dynamic error, δ(ω) = M(ω) -1: a measure of an inability of a system to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
x(t ) = sin 2t + 0.3 sin 20t
x(t) With a first-order instrument whose τ is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K

Superposition concept:

For ω = 2 rad/s: 1
M (2 rad/s) = ∠ − 21.8o = 0.93∠ − 21.8o
0.16 + 1

1
y(t)/K For ω = 20 rad/s: M (20 rad/s) = ∠ − 76o = 0.24∠ − 76o
16 + 1

Therefore, we can write y(t) as

y (t ) = (1)(0.93K ) sin(2t − 21.8o ) + (0.3)(0.24 K ) sin(20t − 76o )

y (t ) = 0.93K sin(2t − 21.8o ) + 0.072 K sin(20t − 76o )

 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with
an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase shift
at 50 and 100 Hz?
1
Solution: Define M (ω ) =
ω 2τ 2 + 1
 1 
Dynamic error = (M (ω ) − 1)× 100% =  − 1 × 100%
 ω τ +1 
2 2

1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0.95 ≤ ≤ 1.05
ω τ +1
2 2

But for the first order system, the term 1 / ω 2τ 2 + 1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95 ≤ ≤1
ω τ +1
2 2

Solve this inequality give the range 0 ≤ ωτ ≤ 0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is τ= = 0.52 ms
2π 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from φ = − arctan ωτ

This give φ = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively

Dynamic Characteristics

1.05

ω)
0.95
Amplitude ratio M(ω

M(ωω) ≥ 0.95 region or

δ(ω
ω) ≤ 0.05 region

ωτ
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A temperature measuring system, with a time constant 2 s, is used to
measured temperature of a heating medium, which changes sinusoidally between 350
and 300oC with a periodic of 20 s. find the maximum and minimum values of
temperature, as indicated by the measuring system and the time lag between the output
and input signals
 2π 
Solution: y (t ) = 325 + 21.3 sin  t − 31.36 o  t d = 1.75 s
 20 

x(t) x(t), y(t)

350oC 350oC

325oC 325oC

300oC 300oC
T T
td

t t
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: The approximate time constant of a thermometer is determined by immersing
it in a bath and noting the time it takes to reach 63% of the final reading. If the result is
28 s, determine the delay when measuring the temperature of a bath that is periodically
changing 2 times per minute.

Solution: t d = 6.69 s
Second-Order Systems

In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
a2 + a1 + a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t )
dt 2 dt

1 d 2 y (t ) 2ζ dy (t )
+ + y (t ) = Kx (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

The essential parameters

b0
K= = the static sensitivity
a0
a1
ζ = = the damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a2

a0 = the natural angular frequency

ωn =
a2
Second-Order Systems

Consider the characteristic equation

1 2 2ζ
D + D +1 = 0
ωn
2
ωn
This quadratic equation has two roots:
D1, 2 = −ζω n ± ωn ζ 2 − 1

Depending on the value of ζ, three forms of complementary solutions are possible

 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t
ζ > 1):
Overdamped (ζ yoc (t ) = C1e   n
+ C2 e   n Unrepeated real roots

−ω n t
ζ = 1): yoc (t ) = C1e
Critically damped (ζ + C2te −ωnt Repeated real roots

ζ< 1): :
Underdamped (ζ (
yoc (t ) = Ce −ζω nt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t + Φ ) Complex roots
Second-Order Systems

ζ< 1):
Case I Underdamped (ζ ζ > 1):
Case 2 Overdamped (ζ

D1, 2 = −ζω n ± ωn ζ 2 − 1 ( )
D1, 2 = − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ωn
= −σ ± jωd

y(t)
HL ζ = 1):
Case 3 Critically damped (ζ

−σt D1, 2 = −ωn

Ae
y(t)
HL
t
ζ =1
sin(ωd t + φ )

ζ >1

The complementary function solution determines the transient responses of the system
Second-order Systems: Step Response

1 d 2 y 2ζ dy
For a step input x(t) + + y = KAU (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

With the initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0+, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0

The complete solution:

 ζ + ζ 2 − 1  −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω n t ζ − ζ 2 −1  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t 
ζ > 1):
Overdamped (ζ y (t ) = KA− e 
+ e   n
 + KA
 2 ζ − 1
2
2 ζ −12


ζ = 1):
Critically damped (ζ y (t ) = − KA(1 + ωn t )e −ωnt + KA

ζ< 1): :
Underdamped (ζ
 e −ζω nt
y (t ) = − KA (
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + φ )

 + KA φ = sin −1 1 − ζ 2( )
 1 − ζ 2 
Second-order Systems: Step Response
2π
Ringing period Td =
ωd
2.0 ζ=0 Ringing frequency: ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

0.25 Rise time decreases ζ with but

1.5
increases ringing
0.5

1.0 Optimum settling time can be obtained

from ζ ~ 0.7

.5
1.0
2.0 Practical systems use 0.6< ζ <0.8

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ωnt
Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument
Second-Order Systems

1.4
overshoot
1.2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

1.0 100% ± 5%

.8

.6

.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system
Second-order Systems: Ramp Response

1 d 2 y 2ζ dy
For a ramp input x(t ) = q&is tU (t ) + + y = Kq&is tU (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

With the initial conditions: y = dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+

The possible solutions:

2ζKq&is  2ζ 2 − 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω n t

Overdamped: y (t ) = Kq&is t − 1+ e 
ωn   4ζ ζ − 12

− 2ζ 2 + 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1  −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t 
+ e   n 
4ζ ζ − 12 

2 Kq&is  ωnt −ωnt 
y (t ) = Kq&is t − 1 − (1 + )e 
ωn 
Critically damped:
1 

Underdamped:
y (t ) = Kq&is t −
2ζKq&is 
1 −
e −ζω nt
ωn  2ζ 1 − ζ 2
(
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + φ )
 φ = tan

−1 2ζ 1 − ζ
2ζ 2 − 1
2
Second-order Systems: Step Response
2q&isζ
Steady state error =
10 ωn

8 Steady state
Output signal, y(t)/K Ramp input time lag = 2ζ
ωn
6

4 ζ = 0.3
0.6
2 1.0
2.0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t (s)

Typical ramp response of second-order instrument

Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response

The response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the form x(t) = Asinω ωt

KA
y (t ) = yoc (t ) + sin[ωt + φ (ω )]
{[ ]
1 − (ω / ωn ) + (2ζω / ωn )
2 2 2
1/ 2
}
 2ζ 
where φ (ω ) = tan −1  − 
 ω / ωn − ω n / ω 
The steady state response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input

ysteady (t ) = B(ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]

KA  2ζ 
B(ω ) = −1

φ (ω ) = tan  − 
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + (2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 ω / ωn − ω n / ω 

Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
B 1
M (ω ) = =
{[ ]
KA 1 − (ω / ω )2 2 + (2ζω / ω )2 1/ 2
n n }
 Second-order Systems: Frequency Response

The amplitude ratio The phase angle

1 − 2ζ
M (ω ) = φ (ω ) = tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + (2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω

0
ζ0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
ζ = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5

Phase shift, φ(ω)

Amplitude ratio

1.5 0.3
-60

Decibel (dB)
3
1.0
0.5
-80
1.0 0 -100 2.0

-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
ω/ωn ω/ωn
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
 Second-order Systems
For overdamped (ζ >1) or critical damped (ζ = 1), there is neither overshoot nor steady-
state dynamic error in the response. (Time response)
In an underdameped system (ζ < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the speed
and overshoot in the transient are related. (Time response)
1.4
0.8 + 2.5ζ Td
Rise time: tr ~ ; 0 < ζ <1 overshoot
ωn 1.2

Output signal, y(t)/KA

Maximum
overshoot: (
M p = exp −πζ / 1 − ζ 2 ) 1.0

π .8
Peak time: tp =
ωd peak
.6 time
Resonance
frequency: ω r = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2 .4
settling
1 time
Resonance Mr = .2
amplitude: 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
where δ =ζω n , ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2 , and φ = arcsin( 1 − ζ 2 ) Time, t (s)
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A pressure transducer has a natural frequency of 30 rad/s, damping ratio of
0.1 and static sensitivity of 1.0 µV/Pa. A step pressure input of 8x105 N/m2 is applied.
Determine the output of a transducer.

Solution: y (t ) = 0.8[1 − e −3t sin( 29.85t + 1.47)] V

Example: A second order instrument is subjected to a sinusoidal input. Undamped

natural frequency is 3 Hz and damping ratio is 0.5. Calculate the amplitude ratio and
phase angle for an input frequency of 2 Hz.

Solution: Amplitude ratio M(ω)= 1.152 and phase shifts = -0.875 rad =–50.2o.
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: An Accelerometer is selected to measure a time-dependent motion. In particular, input
signal frequencies below 100 Hz are of prime interest. Select a set of acceptable parameter
specifications for the instrument, assuming a dynamic error of ±5% and damping ratio ζ =0.7

Solution: ωn ≥ 1047 rad/s

ω)
Amplitude ratio M(ω

ω)
Amplitude ratio M(ω
1.05 1.05

0.95 0.95

ω/ ωn ω/ ωn
Response of a General Form of System to a Periodic Input

The steady state response of any linear system to the complex periodic
signal can be determined using the frequency response technique and
principle of superposition.
∞
Let x(t) x(t ) = A0 + ∑ ( An cos nω0t + Bn sin nω0t )
n =1
∞
x(t ) = A0 + ∑ An2 + Bn2 sin (nω0t + φn (nω0 ))
n =1

The frequency response of the measurement system

∞
y (t ) = KA0 + ∑
n =1
( )
An2 + Bn2 KM (nω0 ) sin (nω0t + φM (nω0 ) + φn (nω0 ) )

Where KM(ω ω) = Magnitude of the frequency response of the measurement

system and
φM(nω
ω0) = Phase shift of the measurement system at nωω0
φn(nω
ω0) = tan-1(An/Bn)
Response of a General Form of System of a Periodic Input

HL HL

x(t) Linear y(t)

t t
system

|x(ω)| ω)|
|KM(ω ω)|
|Y(ω

X =

ω ω
ω0 2ω0 3ω0 4ω0 5ω0 ω ω0 2ω0 3ω0 4ω0 5ω0
φn φM φY(ω
ω)

+ =

ω ω ω
Response of a General Form of System to a Periodic Input

Example: If x(t) as shown in Figure below is the input to a first-order system with a
sensitivity of 1 and a time constant of 0.001 s, find y(t) for the periodic steady state.

x(t)
4 1
∞
1 
y (iω ) = ∑  ∠φ (nωo ) where n = odd number
π n =1  n (nωoτ ) + 1
2

+1  

4 ∞ 1 1 
-0.02 -0.01 0.01 0.02 t, sec y (t ) = ∑  sin( nωot + φ (nωo ) and φ (nωo ) = − arctan (nωoτ )
π n =1  n (nωoτ ) + 1
2

 
-1

y(t)
qoH tL
y(t)
HL

1 n=7 1
n=5 n = 25
0.5
n=3 0.5

t t
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

-0.5 -0.5

-1
-1