Chapter 1

Introduction to heat transfer

 Heat transfer
• Heat is the form of energy that transfers from higher to lower
temperature

CHENG 211 (thermodynamics) CHENG 314

• Calculates amount of heat transferred until • Calculate rate of heat transfer at any time
equilibrium
• No information on how long it takes to reach • Possible to determine how long it takes to
equilibrium reach equilibrium

• No information on mechanism of heat • Discusses the three mechanisms of heat

transfer transfer (Conduction, convection, radiation)
 Units
Quantity SI/MKS units English units

q = heat transfer rate J BTU

(W )
s hr
q‘ = heat transfer rate per W BTU
unit length = q/L m ft.hr
q“ = heat transfer rate per BTU
W
unit area = q/A
(Also called heat flux) m2 ft 2 .hr

T=Temperature o
C ,o F K ,o R

Useful temperature conversions: T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15

T(oR) = T(oF) + 459.67
For temperature changes (ΔT): ΔT(K) = ΔT(oC)
ΔT(oR) = ΔT(oF)
 Thermal resistance Units

Quantity MKS/SI units English units

T o
C K o
F .h o R.h
R= = =
q W W BTU BTU

T m.o C m.K ft.o F .h ft.o R.h

R' = = =
q' W W BTU BTU

T m 2 .o C m 2 .K ft 2 .o F .h ft 2 .o R.h
R" = = =
q" W W BTU BTU
 HT mechanism 1: Conduction
• “Heat transfer through a stationary (stagnant/not moving) medium (solid/liquid/gas).”
• No bulk/macroscopic movement (the medium appears to be not moving)
• Microscopic movement is present (diffusion, lattice vibration, electron movement)

Hot surface

Cold surface

Conduction HT by Conduction HT by Conduction HT by electron

molecular diffusion in lattice vibration in movement in some solids
fluids. solids. (ex: electrical conductors such
as metals)
 HT mechanism 1: Conduction
• “To calculate conduction heat transfer rate, use Fourier’s law (for 1 dimensional heat transfer only)

dT
q = −kA HT through a plane wall HT through the length of
dx a cylinder
Under following conditions:
- Steady state
- No heat generation H
- Constant k T1 q T2 T1 q T2 D
- Constant A
- 1 dimension heat transfer
The equation can be written as:
T W L
q = kA L
x=0 x=L
L
x=0 x=L
where,
q = heat transfer rate A = WH = constant A = πr2 = πD2/4 = constant
k = conductivity W = Width/Length D = diameter
A = area perpendicular to heat transfer H = Height
L = thickness of the wall
 dT
For 1 dimensional heat transfer: q = −kA
dx A = WH = constant
Plane
q.dx = −kAdT wall (k)
L T2

 q.dx = −  kAdT
0 T1
L
Energy balance: Input – Output + Generation = Accumulation x=0 x=L
At steady state and no heat generation: Input = Output T=T1 T=T2

Thus at steady state and no heat generation, q = constant

For plane wall, A = WH = constant
If k is assumed constant:
L T2 (T1 − T2 )
q  dx = −kA  dT qL = −kA(T2 − T1 ) q = kA
L
0 T1

Optional: If Area (A) isn’t given, we can assume A = 1m2.

 Conductivity (k)
Conductivity (k):
• Conduction transport coefficient
• Measure or ability of a material to conduct
heat.
• Higher k = higher conduction heat transfer
• Depends on
> temperature
> natural of material

T qL
q = kA k=
L AT
MKS or SI units
Wm W W
k= = or
m 2 .o C m.o C m.K

English units

k=
(BTU / h ) ft = BTU / h or BTU / h
ft 2 .o F ft.o F ft.o R
The north wall of an electrically heated home is 20 ft long, 10 ft high and 1 ft thick, and is made of brick whose
thermal conductivity is k = 0.42 BTU/h.ft.oF. On a certain winter night, the temperatures of the inner and outer
surfaces of the wall are measured to be about 62oF and 25oF respectively, for a period of 8 hours. Determine
a) Rate of heat loss (kW)
b) Cost of that heat loss if the cost of electricity is $0.07/kWh.

T2=25oF
T1=62oF
A = WH = 200 ft2 = constant
Assumptions
- Steady state -No heat generation
- Constant properties (k) -One dimensional heat transfer
(T1 − T2 )  BTU  ( 62 − 25 ) o
F
q = kA =  0.42 o

 ( 200 ft 2
) = 3108BTU / h
L  h. ft . F  1 ft Brick wall H = 10ft
k=0.42
3108 BTU 2.778 x10 −7 kWh btu/h.ftoF
q= −4
= 0.9102kW
h 9.486 x10 BTU

W = 20ft
0.9102kW $0.07 8h L = 1ft
Cost = = $0.51
kWh
A certain insulation has a thermal conductivity of 10 W/m.oC. What thickness is necessary to effect a temperature
drop of 500o C for a heat flow of 400 W/m2?

W q W T1 T2
k = 10 o T1 − T2 = 500 C
o
= 400 2
m. C A m
insulation
k=10W/m.oC
Assumptions: - Steady state
- No heat generation
- Constant property (k) L=?
- 1 dimensional heat transfer

(T 1 − T 2) q (T 1 − T 2) W  W  500o C
q = kA =k 400 2 = 10 o 
L A L m  m. C  L(m)

L = 12.5m
The 5 mm thick bottom of a 200 mm diameter pan is made from copper (k = 390 W/m.K). When used to boil
water, the surface of the bottom exposed to the water is nominally at 110oC. If the heat transferred from the
stove to the pan at a rate of 600 W, what is the temperature of the surface in contact with the stove?

D=200mm = 0.20 m
Surface of bottom
exposed to water (Ti)
(Ti) = 110oC
L = 5 mm
L = 0.005m
k = 390 W/m.oC (TO) = ?
q=600W Surface of bottom
in contact with stove (To)
q=600W

(To − Ti )
A= πD2 /4= 0.0314 m2 = constant q = kA
Assumptions
L
- Steady state  W  (T − 110) o
C
600W =  390 o (0.0314m 2 ) o
- No heat generation  m. C  0.005m
- Constant properties (k)
- One dimensional heat transfer
To = 110.24o C
An aluminium pan whose thermal conductivity is 237 W/m.oC has flat bottom with a diameter of 20 cm and
thickness of 0.4 cm. Heat is transferred steadily to boiling water in the pan through its bottom at a rate of 800 W.
If the inner surface of the bottom of the pan is at 105oC, determine the temperature of the outer surface of the
bottom of the pan.
D=20cm = 0.20 m
Inner surface of
Bottom of pan
Inner surface (Ti) = 105oC
L = 0.4 cm
L = 0.004m
k = 237 W/m.oC Outer surface (TO) = ?
q=800W Outer surface of
Bottom of pan
q=800W

(To − Ti )
A= πD2 /4= 0.0314 m2 = constant q = kA
L
Assumptions
- Steady state  W  (T − 105) o
C
800W =  237 o (0.0314m 2 ) o
- No heat generation  m. C  0.004m
- Constant properties (k)
- One dimensional heat transfer
To = 105.43o C
Consider a 1.5 m high and 0.6 m wide plat whose thickness is 0.15 m. One side of the plate is maintained at a
constant temperature of 500K while the other side is maintained at 350K. The thermal conductivity of the plate
can be assumed to vary linearly in that temperature range as k(T) = k0 (1+BT) where k0 = 25 W/m.K and
B=8.7x10-4K-1. Disregarding the edge effects and assuming steady one dimensional heat transfer, determine the
rate of heat conduction through the plate.
T2
 BT  2
T2 = 350K For 1 dimensional Heat transfer qL = −k0 AT + 
T1 = 500K

dT  2 T 1
q = −kA
dx  BT2  
2
BT1 
2
qL = −k0 A T2 +  −  T1 +
 

q.dx = −kAdT  2   2 
H=1.5m

L T2

 q.dx = −  k (1 + BT ) AdT
0 
− k0 A T2 +
BT2  
2
 −  T1 +
BT1 
2

Thick plate 0 T1
  2 
 2  
k=k0(1+BT) k0 = constant q=
q = constant (steady state + L
assume no heat generation)
A = WH = 0.9m2 =constant
L=0.15m
L T2 q = 30820W
q  dx = −k0 A  (1 + BT )dT
0 T1
Consider a 1.5 m high and 0.6 m wide plat whose thickness is 0.15 m. One side of the plate is maintained at a
constant temperature of 500K while the other side is maintained at 350K. The thermal conductivity of the plate
can be assumed to vary linearly in that temperature range as k(T) = k0 (1+BT) where k0 = 25 W/m.K and
B=8.7x10-4K-1. Disregarding the edge effects and assuming steady one dimensional heat transfer, determine the
rate of heat conduction through the plate.

T2 = 350K
T1 = 500K

Note: If the relation between k and T is linear, then average k can be used instead
of doing the integration.
k = k0 (1 + BT )
 T +T 
k avg = k0 (1 + BTavg ) = k0 1 + B 1 2   = 34.244W / m.K
H=1.5m

  2 
Thick plate T  W  2 (500 − 350) K
k=k0(1+BT) q = k avg . A =  34.244  ( 0.9 m )
L  m.K  0.15m
q = 30820W

L=0.15m
A = WH = 0.9m2
The heat generated in the circuitry on the surface of a silicon chip (k=130 W/m.oC) is conducted to the ceramic
substrate to which it is attached. The chip is 6mm x 6mm in size and 0.5 mm thick and dissipates 3 W of power.
Disregarding any heat transfer through the 0.5 mm high side surfaces, determine the temperature difference
between the front and the back surfaces in steady operation.

T2
L = 0.5mm
L=0.0005m q=3W
T1
W=6mm
W=0.006m

T
q = kA
A = W2 = 3.6x10-5 m2 = constant L
Assumptions
- Steady state qL 3W (0.0005m )
- No heat generation T = = = 0.3205o C = 0.3205K
- Constant properties (k)
kA 
 130
W 
 (3 . 6 x10 −5
m 2
)
 m. C 
o
- One dimensional heat transfer
 HT mechanism 2: Convection
• “Heat transfer between a solid surface and a moving fluid (bulk flow).”
• Includes microscopic movement (conduction)
• Includes macroscopic/bulk movement (advection)
T∞
• Convection heat transfer is calculated using Newton’s law of cooling: Fluid As = LW
q = hAs (Ts − T ) q

where, Flat surface Ts

q = convection heat transfer rate
h = convection heat transfer coefficient W
As = Surface area open to convection L
Ts = Surface temperature
T∞= Moving fluid tempearture
As = HW

H Fluid
Plane wall T∞
q

W
L
Convection in long cylinders (pipes/wires etc)
T∞
Fluid
As = π D L = 2 π r L
D = diameter
As D r = radius = D/2
L = length
Optional: If length of pipe/wire isn’t given, we can assume L=1m
L
Side view of pipe

ri = Inner radius
ro ro = Outer radius
t = thickness
ri t ro = ri + t
Do = Di + 2t
Di = inner diameter
Do = outer diameter
Cross section of pipe
 Convection in short cylinders
(ex: Containers/tanks/transistors etc)

T∞
Fluid
There are three areas open to convection
(if none are covered/insulated):

D Ac As Ac 1. Surface area = As = 2πrL = πDL

2. Right area = Ac = πr2 =πD2 /4
3. left area = Ac = πr2 =πD2 /4

Transistor Total area = As + 2 Ac

(Used in every electronic L
device to control circuits
and amplify signals)
Note: One ‘Ac’ is covered
 Convection in ducts
Convection occurs on the following surfaces
(if non are covered or insulated)
T∞
Fluid 1. Top surface = LW
2. Bottom surface = LW
W 3. Front surface = LH
Atop
4. Back surface = LH
Total area = Atop + Abottom + Afront + Aback
H Afront Total area = 2LW + 2LH
Note:
L For a square duct: W = H
Total area = 2LW + 2LH
Total area = 2LW + 2LW
Total area = 4LW

Optional: If length of duct isn’t given, we can

assume L = 1m
 Convection in spheres
Example: Spherical tank Inside cut view of
spherical tank

ri = Inner radius
ro ro = Outer radius
t = thickness
ri t ro = ri + t
Do = Di + 2t
Di = inner diameter
Do = outer diameter

As = 4 π r2 = π D2
 Convection in boxes/cubes
Convection could happen in all of the following surfaces (if none
of them are covered or insulated)
1. Top area = WL
Atop 2. Bottom area = WL
3. front area = LH
H 4. back area = LH
Aright 5. Right area = WH
6. left area = WH
Afront
Total area = Atop + Abottom + Afront + Aback + Aright + Aleft
Total area = 2WL + 2LH + 2WH
W
Note: For cubes, L = W = H
L Total area = 2LL + 2LL + 2LL
Total area = 6L2
 Forced vs Free(Natural) convection
Forced convection:
Fluid is forced over a surface by external means such as a pump, fan or wind.

Fluid movement due to pump Wind across a pipe

 Forced vs Free(Natural) convection
Free/Natural convection:
Fluid motion is caused by density variation resulting from temperature differences within a fluid

(low density)

(low density)

(high density)

(high density)
• Hot egg heats up surrounding cold air • Cold container cools the surrounding warm air
• Warm air produced rises due to lower density • Cold air produced sinks due to higher density
 Convection heat transfer coefficient (h)
• Transport coefficient for convection
• Not a property; Experimentally determined parameter
• Higher h = Higher convection heat transfer
• Depends on
- surface geometry
- nature of fluid motion (laminar or turbulent)
- properties of fluid
- bulk fluid velocity
• h(liquids) > h(gases)
• h(forced) > h(free/natural)
• h(turbulent) > h(laminar)
• h(phase change/latent) > h(no phase change/sensible)
q
q = hAs (Ts − T ) h=
As (Ts − T )
W W
MKS/SI units h = 2 o or 2
m . C m .K
BTU / hr BTU / hr
English units h= 2 o
or
ft . F ft 2 .o R
A flat wall is exposed to an environment temperature of 38oC. The wall is covered with a layer of insulation 2.5cm
thick with thermal conductivity of 1.4 W/m.oC and the temperature of the wall on the inside of the insulation is
315oC. The outer surface temperature does not exceed 41oC. If the wall loses heat to the environment by
convection, determine
a) the rate of heat transfer through the wall

Ti = 315oC

TO = 41oC
b) the convection heat transfer coefficient
Environment
(Ti − To)
qcond = kA T∞=38oC
L wall h=?
Assume A=1m2 (you can do this if area of plane wall isn’t given) insulation

W  2 (315 − 41) o C L=2.5cm

qcond

= 1.4 o  1m( ) = 15344W
 m. C  0.025m

Assuming steady state: qcond = qconv

qconv = hA(To − T)

qconv 15344W W
h= = = 5114.67 2 o
A(To − T) (1m 2 )(41 − 38) o C m .C
For heat transfer purposes, a standing man can be modelled as a 30 cm diameter, 170 cm long vertical cylinder
with both the top and bottom surfaces insulated with the side surface temperature of 34oC. For a convection heat
transfer coefficient of 15 W/m2.oC, determine the rate of heat loss from this man in an environment at 20 oC.

qconv = hA(Ts − T)

L=170cm=1.7m
For short cylinder Environment
Ts = 34oC T∞=20oC
A = Aside + Atop + Abottom h=15W/m2.oC

Neglecting top and bottom areas

A = Aside = DL = 1.602m 2 D=30cm = 0.3m

 W 
( )
qconv = 15 2 o  1.602m 2 (34 − 20 ) C
o

 m . C

qconv = 336.46W
As shown in the figure, a 1.5m diameter, 5m long cylindrical
propane tank is initially filled with liquid propane whose
density is 581 kg/m3. The tank is exposed to ambient air at
25oC in calm weather. The outer surface of the tank is polished
so that the radiation heat transfer is negligible. Assuming the
tank temperature to be -42oC and a convection coefficient of
5.733 W/m2.oC, determine
a) if the convection forced or free? Is it external or internal?
b) the rate of heat loss
The weather is calm which means the air is not forced to moved. This the convection is natural/free.
Since the fluid (air) is not surrounding by any walls, it is external convection.
Ts = -42oC T∞=25oC D = 1.5m L = 4m h = 5.733 W/m2.oC
qconv = hA(T − Ts )
For short cylinder: A = Aside + Aleft + Aright = DL + 2(D 2 / 4 ) = 22.38m 2
 W 
( )
qconv =  5.733 2 o  22.38m 2 (25 − (−42) ) C = 8597.88W
o

 m . C
c) how will the answer in part b change if the weather was windy?
The convection will be forced and h value will increase.
This will increase the heat loss by convection.
The components of an electronic system are located in a 1.5m long
horizontal duct whose cross section is 20cmx20cm. The duct is
cooled by air at 30oC flowing over the duct with a velocity of
200m/min with a convection coefficient of 15.24 W/m2.oC. If the
surface temperature of the duct is not to exceed 65oC, determine
a) if the convection is forced or free? External or internal?
b) the rate of heat transfer

Since air is moving with a velocity of 200m/min, it is forced convection.

Because the air is not surrounded by any walls, its is external convection.
Ts = 65oC T∞=30oC W = 20cm=0.2m L = 1.5m h = 15.24 W/m2.oC
qconv = hA(Ts − T)
For square duct: A = Atop + Abottom + Aleft + Aright = 2WL + 2WL = 4WL = 1.2m 2
 W 
( )
qconv = 15.24 2 o  1.2m 2 (65 − 30 ) C = 640.08W
o

 m . C
c) How would the answer in part b change if the air was quiescent (calm)?
The convection will be free/natural. This will reduce the h value.
Thus the convection heat transfer will be reduced.
 Air, h = 30W/m2.oC, T∞=55oC

D=0.6cm
Base Ts = 70oC D=0.006m

L=0.4cm=0.004m

Note: Heat is lost through the surface area and

right cross sectional area
(The left cross section is covered)

A = As + Ac = πDL + πD2 /4 = 1.0362x10-4 m2

q = h A (Ts-T∞) = 0.04663 W
 Air, h = 25W/m2.oC
T∞=25oC

q=4*15 = 60W

Ts
L=22cm=0.22m

L=22cm=0.22m
q = hAs (Ts − T )

q
= Ts − T
hAs

q 60W
Ts = + T = + 25o C = 74.6o C
 W 
hAs
 25  (0 . 22 * 0 . 22 )m 2

 m . C
2 o
 Air
T∞=20oC
h=?

Wire, Ts = 240oC D=0.2cm

V= 110volt, I = 3A D=0.002m

L = 1.4 m
As = πDL = 8.792x10-3 m2
q = I*V = (110volt)(3A) = 330 W
q = h As (Ts-T∞)

q 330W W W
h= = −4
= 170.61 2 o or 2
As (Ts − T ) 8.792 x10 m (240 − 20) C
2 o
m . C m .K
 HT mechanism 3: Radiation
• Radiation: Energy emitted (produced) by bodies in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons)
• Thermal Radiation: Form of radiation by bodies due to their temperature.
• Wavelength for thermal radiation: 10-1 nm – 102 nm
• All objects above zero kelvin emits thermal radiation
• No medium is required for radiation heat transfer
• Radiation emitted by an object is given by:
qrad = AsTs
4
If there is no surrounding

If there is a surrounding ( 4 4
)
qrad = As Ts − Tsurr = hr As (Ts − Tsurr )
where, (
2 2
)
hr =  Ts + Tsurr (Ts + Tsurr )
ε: emissivity
σ = Boltzman constant = 5.67x10-8 W/(m2.K4) = 0.1714x10-8 BTU/(h.ft2.oR4)
As = surface area open to radiation
Ts = surface absolute temperature (must use K or oR)
Tsurr = Surrounding absolute temperature (must use K or oR)
hr = Radiation heat transfer coefficient = W/(m2.K) or BTU/(h.ft2.oR)
Note: Transport coefficients for radiation= ε and hr
Emissivity (ε)
• Property of surface
• Measure of how much thermal radiation is emitted compared to an
ideal body (or blackbody)
• Blackbodies emit maximum thermal radiation (ε=1)
• Real bodies emit lesser thermal radiation (ε<1)
• More ε = More radiation heat loss

Which coffee cup will get cold faster?

• εblack > εwhite

• Thus black cup will have more radiation heat loss
• Therefore, black cup will get cold faster
Four containers shown below are filled with warm water.

• ε(dull or non polished) > ε(shiny or polished)

• ε(black) > ε(other colors)
• ε(dull black) > ε(shiny black) > ε(dull metal) > ε(shiny metal)

Which container would be the warmest after ten minutes?

Shiny metal because shiny surfaces reflects heat radiation back into
the container)
Which container would be the coolest after ten minutes?
Dull black (because it best at emitting heat radiation)
Incident radiation (Irradiation), G (W/m2): Incident radiation
• Rate at which radiation is incident (falling) on a surface (Irradiation)
• Only a fraction of irradiation is absorbed by an object qabs G (W/m2)

qabs = G * As
Surface
where
α = absorptivity α values
G = incident radiation (irradiation), W/m2 (for solar radiation)
As = Area open to radiation

Absorptivity (α)
• Property of surface (dull)
• Measure of how much irradiation is absorbed
compared to an ideal body (or blackbody)
• Blackbodies absorb all the irradiation (α=1)
• Real bodies do not absorb all the irradiation (α<1)
• More α = More irradiation absorbed
• α(black) > α(other colors)
• α(dull) > α(polished)
 α values
(for solar radiation)
Which coffee cup will get hot faster in a microwave?

(dull)

• αblack > α white

• Thus black cup will absorb more radiation
• Therefore, black cup will get hot faster
Four containers shown below placed near a heater.
α values
(for solar radiation)

(dull)

• α(dull black) > α(shiny black) > α(dull metal) >

α(shiny metal)
Which container would be the warmest after ten
minutes?
Dull black (because it absorbs heat radiation the best)
Which container would be the coolest after ten
minutes?
Shiny metal (because it is poorest at absorbing heat
radiation)
Two perfectly black surfaces are constructed so that all the radiant energy leaving a surface at 800oC reaches the oth
surface at 250oC. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area.

T1 = 800 o C = 1073.15 K
T2 = 250o C = 523.15 K

 = 1(black )
W
 = 5.67 x10 −8

m 2 .K 4

qrad = A(T14 − T24 )

=  (T14 − T24 ) = (1) 5.67 x10 −8 2 4 (1073.154 − 523.154 )K 4= 70954 2

qrad  W  W
A  m .K  m
Calculate the radiation heat exchange (joules) in 1 day between two black planes having the area of the surface of
a 0.7m diameter sphere when the planes are maintained at 70 K and 300 K.

W
T1 = 300 K T2 = 70 K  = 1(black )  = 5.67 x10 −8
t = 1day
m 2 .K 4

for spheres :
A = D 2 = 1.539m 2

qrad = A(T14 − T24 )

 W 
( )
= (1) 5.67 x10 −8 2 4 (1.539m 2 ) 1073.154 − 523.154 K 4 = 704.9W
 m .K 

704.9 J 3600 s 24hr 1day

Qrad = = 6.09 x107 J
s hr day
A small radiant heater has metal strips 6 mm wide with a total length of 3 m. The surface emissivity of the strips is
0.85. To what temperature must the strips be heated if they are to dissipate 2000 W of heat to a room at 25oC?

W = 6mm = 0.006m L = 3m  = 0.85 q = 2000W Tsurr = 25o C = 298.15 K

W
 = 5.67 x10 −8
m 2 .K 4

A = WL = 0.018m 2

q = A(Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)

q
Ts4 = + Tsurr
4

A

1/ 4
 q 4 
Ts =  + Tsurr  = 1233.28 K = 960.13o C
 A 
Calculate the energy emitted by a blackbody (W/m2) at 1000oC.
W
Ts = 1000 C = 1273.15 K
o
 = 5.67 x10 −8
 = 1(black )
m 2 .K 4

q
q = A(T − T
s
4 4
surr ) =  (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) = 148971 W
A m2

If the radiant flux from the sun is 1350 W/m2, what would be its equivalent blackbody temperature?

q W
= 1350W / m 2  = 5.67 x10 −8  = 1(black )
A m 2 .K 4

q = A(Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)

1/ 4
q  q 4 
T =
4
+ Tsurr
4 Ts =  + Tsurr  = 392.81K = 119.66o C
s
A  A 
Two infinite black plates at 500oC and 100oC exchange heat by radiation.
a) Determine the heat transfer per unit area.
W
T1 = 500o C = 773.15 K T3 = 100o C = 373.15 K  = 1(black )  = 5.67 x10 −8
m 2 .K 4
qrad
=  (T14 − T34 ) = 19160W / m 2
A
If another perfectly black plate is placed between the 500oC and 100oC plates, determine
b) Temperature of the centre plate
c) How much the heat transfer is reduced (%)
qrad qrad
=  (T14 − T24 ) =  (T24 − T34 ) =  (T14 − T24 ) = 10679W / m 2
A A
(T14 − T24 ) = (T24 − T34 )
new − old
%reduction = x100
old
T14 + T34 = 2T24
T +T
4 4

1/ 4
10679 − 19160
T2 =  1 3
 %reduction = x100
19160
 2 
%reduction = 44.26%
T2 = 641.13K = 367.98 C o
 Combined convection and radiation heat transfer
In many situations, convection and radiation happen together at the same time.
Surrounding
qcomb = qconv + qrad
wall (Tsurr)
(
qcomb = hAs (Ts − T ) + As Ts − Tsurr
4 4
)
Air (T∞)
qcomb = hAs (Ts − T ) + hr As (Ts − Tsurr ) qrad
qconv
In many situations, T∞ = Tsurr
Ts
qcomb = hAs (Ts − T ) + hr As (Ts − T )

qcomb = (h + hr ) As (Ts − T )

qcomb = hcomb As (Ts − T )

where,
hcomb = combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient = h + hr
 Thermal resistance
Driving .Force 1
Rate = q= T
Re sis tan ce R

Heat transfer rate Thermal resistance

T L
qcond = kA Rcond =
L kA

qconv = hAs (Ts − T ) 1

Rconv =
hAs

( 4 4
)
qrad = As Ts − Tsurr = hr As (Ts − Tsurr ) Rrad =
1
hr As
1
qcombined = hcombined As (Ts − T ) Rcombined =
hcombined As
 (b) Determine % heat loss by radiation.
qrad
%rad = x100 = 46.7%
qloss
(c) Determine radiation heat transfer coefficient.

(a) Determine the rate of heat loss.

( 2 2
)
hr =  Ts + Tsurr (Ts + Tsurr ) = 8.756W / m 2 .K

Air, h = 10 W/m2.K Tsurr = 25oC (d) Determine convection and radiation resistance.
T∞ = 25oC = 298 K Tsurr = 298K 1 K 1 K
Rconv = = 0.01274 Rrad = = 0.01455
hA W hr A W
D= 100mm Ts = 150oC = 423 K (e) Determine combined convection and radiation heat
D=0.1m ε=0.8 transfer coefficient.
hcombined = h + hr = 18.756 W/(m2.K)
L = 25 m
(f) Determine the combined convection and radiation
As = DL = 7.85m 2
 = 5.67 x10 W / m .K
−8 2 4
resistance.
qconv = hAs (Ts − T ) = 9812.5W 1 K
Rcomb = = 0.00679
qrad = As (Ts − Tsurr ) = 8591.9W
4 4
hcomb A W
qloss = qconv + qrad = 18404.4W
A spherical ice container has an inner diameter of 19.2 cm and thickness of 0.4 cm. The outer surface temperature
is 5oC and is exposed to room air at 25oC with convection coefficient of 15 W/m2.K. Assuming the outer surface is
a black body, determine
• The outer diameter (cm)
• The rate of heat gain (W)
Do = Di + 2t Air Tsurr = 25 oC
h = 15 W/m 2.K
Do = 19.2 + 2(0.4) = 20 cm Tsurr = 298K
T = 25oC=298K
ro = Do/2 = 10 cm = 0.10 m
As = 4π ro2 = 0.1256 m2
Ts = 5oC = 278K
σ = 5.67 x10-8 W/m2.K4
For blackbody, ε = 1
t Di t
qgain = qconv + qrad DO
qgain = h As (T∞-Ts) + εσ As (Tsur4 – Ts4)
qgain = 51.306 W
A small oxidized horizontal metal pipe is placed in a very large furnace enclosure with firebrick walls. The metal
tube has an outside diameter of 1 inch, a length of 2 ft, a surface emissivity of 0.6, and its surface is maintained at
600 oF. The hot air in the furnace is at 1500 oF and the furnace brick walls are at 1350 oF. The convection heat
transfer coefficient for the horizontal tube is 2.8 Btu/h.ft2.oF. Do the following for this problem statement:
a) Draw a schematic for this problem statement oF
b) Calculate convective heat transferred to the metal tube Hot air Tsurr = 1350
oF=1960oR Tsurr = 1810 oR
c) Calculate radiative heat transferred to the metal tube T ∞=1500
d) Calculate total heat transferred to the metal tube h=2.8BTU/h.ft2.oF
e) The percent of total heat transferred by radiation
f) The radiation heat transfer coefficient Ts=600oF=1060oR, ε = 0.6
part b: A = πDL = 0.5233ft2
qconv = hA(T∞-Ts) = 1318.72 BTU/h D=1in
part c: σ = 0.1714 x10-8 BTU/h.ft2.oR4 D=1/12 ft
qrad = εσA (Tsurr4 – Ts4) = 5096.82 BTU/h
part d: L=2ft
qtotal = qconv + qrad = 6415.54 BTU/h
part e:
%radiation = (qrad/qtotal)*100 = 79.44%
Comment: Radiation heat transfer is very significant at high temperatures.
part f:
hr = εσ(Ts2+Tsurr2)(Ts+Tsurr) = 12.986 BTU/h.ft2.oR4
 Tsurr=20oC
Heat is lost from the following surfaces of the charger: Tsurr=293K

L=0.050m
Front surface = WL = 0.001 m2 Atop
Back surface = WL = 0.001 m2
Top surface = WH = 0.0009 m2 Ts=306K
Bottom surface = WH = 0.0009 m2 ε=0.92
Right surface = HL = 0.00225 m2 Afront Aright
(Heat is not lost from left surface since it is attached to the wall) Air
Total area = Afront + Aback +Atop +Abottom + Aright = 0.00605m2 T∞=22oC=295K
h=4.5W/m2.K
w=0.020m
A = 0.00605m2 Tsurr=20oC
σ = 5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4 Tsurr=293K

L=0.050m
qloss = qconv + qrad
qloss = hA(Ts-T∞) + εσA (Ts4-Tsurr4)
qloss = 0.7406 W

0.7406W 1kW $0.18 24h $3.2 x10 −3

Cost = =
1000W kW .h 1day day Air
T∞=22oC=295K
h=4.5W/m2.K
w=0.020m
 Air Tsurr = 5oC=278K
h = 4 W/m2.K
T∞=5oC=278K

Ts = 50oC=323K, ε=0.5

H=0.2m
Atop

Heat loss occurs on following surface: Afront

top surface = WL = 5.25 m2
bottom surface = WL = 5.25 m2
front surface = LH = 3 m2 L = 15m
back surface = LH = 3 m2

Total surface area = 16.5 m2

σ = 5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4
qloss = qconv + qrad
qloss = hA(Ts-T∞) + εσA (Ts4-Tsurr4)
qloss = 5268 W
 Sun Tsky = Tsurr = 50oF
light Tsurr = 510oR
Air,
G h=2.5Btu/h.ft2.oF
T∞=70oC=530oR

qconv qrad
qabs

As = LW = 75 ft2 ε=0.9 ,
σ = 0.1714 x10-8 BTU/(h.ft2.oR) Ts=100oF=560oR W=5ft

qloss = qconv + qrad L=15ft

qloss = hAs (Ts-T∞) + εσAs (Ts4 – Tsurr4)

qloss = 2.5(75)(560-530) + 0.9(0.1714x10-8)(75)(5604-5104)

qloss = 9176 BTU/h

 Energy Balance
Ein − Eout + E gen = Est

Ein = Input heat transfer rate (W)

Eout = Output heat transfer rate (W)
Egen = Rate of heat generation (W)
Est = Rate of energy stored or accumulated (W)

Note:
Some conditions in which heat is generated are as follows:
• Electrical current flow through a wire
• Exothermic reactions
• Nuclear fuel elements
 Energy Balance on plane wall
For selected control surface:

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est T1 Tsurr

T2
No heat generated, Egen = 0 Plane wall (k)
Assume steady state, Est = 0 qrad

Ein = Eout qcond

qconv

qcond = qconv + qrad Air

h, T∞
(T1 − T2 )
= hA(T2 − T ) + A(T2 − Tsurr )
4 4
kA L
L Control surface
A = WH (ε given)

qloss = qcond = qconv + qrad

 Energy Balance on plane wall
For selected control surface:

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est T1 T2

No heat generated, Egen = 0 Plane wall (k)
Assume steady state, Est = 0 qrad

Ein = Eout qcond

qconv

qcond = qconv + qrad Air

h, T∞
(T1 − T2 )
= hA(T2 − T ) + A(T2 )
4
kA L
L Control surface
(ε given)
A = WH
qloss = qcond = qconv + qrad
 Energy Balance on plane wall
For selected control surface:

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est T1 Tsurr

T2
No heat generated, Egen = 0 Plane wall (k)
Assume steady state, Est = 0

Ein = Eout qcond

qconv

qcond = qconv Note: Radiation doesn’t pass Liquid

through liquids. h, T∞

L
(T1 − T2 )
kA = hA(T2 − T ) A = WH Control surface
L (ε given)

qloss = qcond = qconv

 Energy Balance on plane wall Light
source
Irradiation
For selected control surface: G(W/m2)

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est T1

qabs
T2
No heat generated, Egen = 0 Plane wall (k)
Assume steady state, Est = 0 qrad

Ein = Eout qcond

qconv

qcond + qabs = qconv + qrad Air

h, T∞
(T1 − T2 )
+ G * A = hA(T2 − T ) + A(T2 )
4
kA L
L Control surface
(ε given)
A = WH

qloss = qcond + qabs = qconv + qrad

 Energy Balance on plane wall Light
source
Irradiation
For selected control surface: G(W/m2)

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est T1

qabs
T2
Tsurr
No heat generated, Egen = 0 Plane wall (k)
Assume steady state, Est = 0 qrad

Ein = Eout qcond

qconv

qcond + qabs = qconv + qrad Air

h, T∞
(T1 − T2 )
+ G * A = hA(T2 − T ) + A(T2 − Tsurr )
4 4
kA L
L Control surface
(ε given)
A = WH
qloss = qcond + qabs = qconv + qrad
 Energy Balance on flat plate
For selected control surface:

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est Light

source
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Assume steady state, Est = 0 G Air, T∞
Ein = Eout
qconv
qabs
qabs = qconv
Ts
W
G * A = hA(Ts − T ) L
A = LW Control surface

qloss = qabs = qconv

 Energy Balance on flat plate
For selected control surface:

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est Light Light

source 1 source 2
No heat generated, Egen = 0 Tsurr
Assume steady state, Est = 0 G1 G2

Ein = Eout
qabs,2 qrad
qabs,1
qabs ,1 + qabs , 2 = qrad
Ts
W
1G1 * A +  2G2 * A = A(Ts 4 − Tsurr 4 ) L

A = LW Control surface
(ε given)
qloss = qabs ,1 + qabs , 2 = qrad
 Sun
light Air,
G=700W/m2 h=30W/m2.oC
T∞=10oC

qconv
qabs
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est
α=0.7 ,Ts
No heat generated, Egen = 0 W
Assume steady state, Est = 0
Ein = Eout L

qabs = qconv Control surface

G * A = hA(Ts − T )
G
Ts = + T = 26.33o C
h
Note: Heat loss per unit area = q”loss = h(Ts-T∞)= 489.9 W/m2
If we assume A = 1m2, qloss = (489.9 W/m2) * (1 m2) = 489.9 W
 Sun
light

G = 950W/m2

σ = 5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4 qrad

Taking spacecraft’s walls as control surface: qabs

Ein – Eout + Egen = Est ε=0.8, α=0.3
Assuming steady state, Est = 0 Ts=?
Assuming no heat generation, Egen = 0
Thus Ein = Eout
Control surface of
qabs = qrad
spacecraft
αG*As = εσ*As Ts4

 G 
1/ 4

Ts =   = 281.54 K
  
 Assume Tsurr=T∞
The inner surface of the skin/fat of a human has a temperature of 35oC Ti=308K To=?
= 308K. Consider a person with a skin/fat layer of thickness L = 3mm and Tsurr= 297K
a thermal conductivity of 0.3 W/m.K. The person has a surface area of Skin/fat
1.8m2 and is dressed in a bathing suit. The emissivity of the skin is 0.95. k=0.3W/m.K qrad
Assume the person is in an enclosed area.
qcond
qconv
1. When the person is in air (T∞=297K), what is the skin outer surface
temperature and the rate of heat loss to the environment. Convection Air
heat transfer to the air has a value of h = 2 W/m2.K. h=2W/m2.K
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est T∞=297K
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Ein = Eout L=0.003m
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Control surface
qcond = qconv + qrad
A = 1.8m2
(Ti − To ) ε=0.95
= hA(To − T ) + A(To − Tsurr )
4 4
kA
L
(308 − To )
= (2)(1.8)(To − 297) + 0.95(5.67 x10 −8 )(1.8)(To − 297 4 )
4
(0.3)(1.8)
0.003
To = 307.2 K

qloss = hA(To − T ) + A(To − Tsurr ) = 145.68W

4 4
 Ti=308K To=? Tsurr= 297K
2. If the person is in water at T∞=297K, what is the skin outer surface Skin/fat
temperature and heat loss rate? Heat transfer to the water a convection k=0.3W/m.K
coefficient of h =200 W/m2.K.

Ein − Eout + E gen = Est qcond

For selected control surface: qconv
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Ein = Eout Water
h=200W/m2.K
qcond = qconv T∞=297K
L=0.003m
(T − T )
kA i o = hA(To − T ) Control surface
L A = 1.8m2
(308 − To )
(0.3)(1.8) = (200)(1.8)(To − 297)
0.003

To = 300.7 K

qloss = hA(To − T ) = 1320W

 Sun
light
Air,
Gs=750W/m2 h=7W/m2.oC
T∞=16oC=289K

qconv qrad
qabs
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est
No heat generated, Egen = 0 ε=0.13, αs=0.65
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Ein = Eout Ts=?

qabs = qconv + qrad insulated

 s Gs A = hA(Ts − T ) + A(Ts 4 ) Control surface

 s Gs = h(Ts − T ) +  (Ts 4 )

Ts = 343.91K = 70.1o C
 Sun
light
Air,
Gs h=12W/m2.oC
T∞=20oC=293K

qconv
q”abs
=800W/m2
Ts=?
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est
insulated
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Ein = Eout Control surface
qabs = qconv

 s Gs A = hA(Ts − T )

 s Gs = h(Ts − T )

Ts = 359.67 K
 Sun
light
Air,
Gs h=12W/m2.oC
T∞=20oC=293K

qconv qrad
q”abs
=800W/m2

For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est ε=0.8

Ts=?
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Ein = Eout insulated

qabs = qconv + qrad Control surface

 s Gs A = hA(Ts − T ) + A(Ts 4 )
 s Gs = h(Ts − T ) +  (Ts 4 )

Ts = 320.02 K
 Tsurr=300K
Ti=? To=400K

oven wall
k=0.7W/m.K qrad

qcond
qconv

Air
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est h=20W/m2.K
No heat generated, Egen = 0 T∞ =300K
Ein = Eout
Assume steady state, Est = 0 L=0.05m
qcond = qconv + qrad Control surface
ε=0.8
(Ti − To )
= hA(To − T ) + A(To − Tsurr )
4 4
kA
L
(Ti − 400)
( 0 .7 ) = 20(400 − 300) + 0.8(5.67 x10 −8 )(400 4 − 300 4 )
0.05
To = 600 K
 The roof of a house of a 15cm thick concrete slab
(k=2W/m.oC) that is 15m wide and 20m long. The Air Tsky=Tsurr
emissivity of the outer surface of the roof is 0.9, and the h=15W/m2.K Tsurr = 255K
convection heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2.oC. The T∞=10oC=283K
inner surface of the roof is maintained at 25oC. On a clear qrad
winter night, the ambient air is reported to be at 10oC qconv
while the night sky temperature for radiation heat H=20m
transfer is 255 K. Determine (a) the outer surface ε=0.9
temperature and (b) rate of heat loss through the roof. To=?
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est L=15cm
No heat generated, Egen = 0 Roof wall qcond
L=0.15m
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Ein = Eout k=2W/m.K
Ti = 25oC=298K
qcond = qconv + qrad
(Ti − To ) Control surface
= hA(To − T ) + A(To − Tsurr )
4 4
kA
L A=WH=300m2

To = 285.68 K

qloss = hA(To − T ) + A(To − Tsurr ) = 49287W

4 4
A plane wall (thickness = 0.5 ft, k = 1.2 Btu/h.ft2.oF) is sun
protected with a substance (ε=0.8, α=0.45). The inside Ti=520oR To=?
surface temperature of the wall is 520oR. The outside
surface temperature of the wall is exposed to sun wall G=300Btu/h.ft2
radiation of 300 Btu/h.ft2. The outer surface is also losing k=0.4W/m.K
qabs
heat by radiation. Determine the heat transfer flux
through the wall when steady operating conditions is qcond
reached. qrad
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Ein = Eout
Assume steady state, Est = 0
qcond + qabs = qrad L=0.5ft
Control surface
(Ti − To ) ε=0.8, α=0.45
+ G * A = A(To )
4
kA
L
(Ti − To ) To = 289.65o R
+ G =  (To )
4
k
L
(Ti − To )
q" = k + G =  (To ) = 319.28W / m 2
4

L
The inner and outer surfaces of a 25 cm thick wall in summer at
sun
27oC and 44oC respectively. The outer surface of the wall exchanges
heat by radiation with surrounding surfaces at 40oC and convection
with ambient air is also at 40oC with a convection heat transfer G=150W/m2
qabs
coefficient of 8W/m2.oC. Solar radiation is incident on the surface
2 Ti=27oC To=44oC
at a rate of 150 W/m . Both emissivity and the solar absorptivity of Tsurr=40oC=313K
T =300K To=317K
the outer surface are 0.8. Determine the thermal conductivity of i
the wall. Wall
σ=5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4 k=? qrad
For selected control surface: Ein − Eout + E gen = Est qcond
qconv
No heat generated, Egen = 0
Assume steady state, Est = 0 Ein = Eout
Air
qabs = qcond + qconv + qrad h=8W/m2.K
T∞ =40oC=313K
(To − Ti )
G * A = kA + hA(To − T ) + A(To − Tsurr )
4 4
L=25cm
L L=0.25m Control surface
(To − Ti )
G = k + h(To − T ) +  (To − Tsurr )
4 4 ε=0.8, α=0.8
L
k = 0.9605W / m.K