1 ALGEBRA

CONTENTS:

Variation
Proportion
Domain of Functions
Sum of the Coefficients of a Polynomial
Nested Form of a Polynomial
Remainder Theorem
Linear Inequalities in Two Variables
Quadratic Inequalities
Rational Inequalities
Absolute Value Equations
Absolute Value Inequalities
Second-Degree Inequalities
System of Second-Degree Inequalities
Logarithm
Complex Numbers
Vieta’s Formula
Arithmetic Sequence
Harmonic Sequence
Geometric Sequence
Fibonacci Sequence
Lucas Sequence
Relationship Between Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers
The Cubic Equation
Sigma Notation
Telescoping Technique
Series by Partial Fraction Decomposition
Arithmetic Triangle
Number of Odd Entries in a Row of a Pascal’s Triangle
Solving Recurrence using Generating Functions
Lagrange Interpolation
Diophantine Equations
Work Problems
Mixture Problems
PREPARED BY: Sum of Ages Problems
Joselito Torculas Number-Digit Problems
BSECE, Adamson University Clock Problems
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc. Laplace Method of Cofactors and Minors
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com Gauss-Jordan Method
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 ALGEBRA 4. If z varies directly as w and square of x and inversely as the cube root
5 2
of y. If y  27 , w  and x  12 then z  . Find the value of x
VARIATION 12 5
7 24
Types of Variation when y  8 , w  and z  .
6 7
a. Direct Variation
“If x and y are variables such that y  kx , then y varies directly as Solution:
x.” Since z varies directly as w and square of x and inversely as the cube
b. Inverse Variation root of y, then for a certain proportionality constant k:
k
“If y  , then y varies inversely as x.” wx 2
zk
x 3 y
c. Joint Variation
“If x, y and z are variables related by the equation z  kxy , then z 5 2
When y  27 , w  , x  12 and z  :
varies jointly as x and y.” 12 5
 5
 12
2
EXAMPLES: 2  12  1
k  k
1. If y varies directly as x and y  5 when x  2 . Find x when y  2 . 5 3 27 50
So that the new expression for z is:
Solution:
Since y varies directly as x, then for a certain proportionality constant 1  wx 2 
z
k: 50  3 y 
y  kx  
When y  5 and x  2 : 7 24
If y  8 , w  and z  , then:
6 7
5  k 2  k 
5
7 2
24 1  6
2 x 
So that the new expression for y is:    x   120 .
7 50  8 3 7
y x
5  
 
2
If y  2 , then: PROPORTION
5 4
2 x  x . PROPORTION – a statement of equality between two ratios.
2 5
Mathematically;
2. If y varies inversely as x and y  5 when x  2 . Find x when y  2 . a c
a : b  c : d or 
b d
Solution:
Since y varies directly as x, then for a certain proportionality constant wherein b and c are the MEANS while a and d are the EXTREMES. The
k:
fourth number d is the “FOURTH PROPORTIONAL” to a, b and c.
k
y
x A MEAN PROPORTION between two quantities is the second or third
When y  5 and x  2 : term of a proportion. When the means are equal like in a : b  b : d , the
k mean proportion between a and d is b where b  ad .
5  k  10
2
So that the new expression for y is: PROPERTIES OF PROPROTION
10 There are several properties of proportion that may aid you in solving
y
x problems involving proportions. These are:
If y  2 , then:
1. PROPORTION BY INVERSION
10
2  x 5 . a c b d
x If  , then  .
b d a c
2. PROPORTION BY ALTERNATION
3. If z varies jointly as x and y and z  1 when x  4 and y  3 . Find y
a c a b
when z  2 and x  5 . If  , then  .
b d c d
Solution: 3. PROPORTION BY COMPOSITION
Since z varies jointly as x and y, then for a certain proportionality a c ab cd
constant k: If  , then  .
b d b d
z  kxy
4. PROPORTION BY DIVISION
When z  1 , x  4 and y  3 :
a c ab cd
If  , then  .
1  k 43  k 
1
b d b d
12 5. PROPORTION BY COMPOSITION AND DIVISION
So that the new expression for z is:
a c ab cd
1 If  , then  .
z xy b d ab cd
12
If z  2 and x  5 , then: EXAMPLES:
2  5y  y 
1 24
. x 10 x y
12 5 1. If  , then what is the value of ?
y 11 x y

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 Solution: SUM OF THE COEFFICIENTS OF A POLYNOMIAL
By Property #5:
x  y 10  11 For a general polynomial P x  :
  21
x  y 10  11 Px   an x n  an 1 x n 1    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0

where an , an 1,  , a2 , a1, a0 are the coefficients of the polynomial, we

x 2  5x  3 1 11x  1
2. If  , then what is the value of ? can say that the sum of these coefficients is equal to:
2
x  6x  2 2 x 2  6x  2

Solution: sum of coefficients  P1

You can notice that we can apply Property #4 here whereas:
11x  1


x2  5x  3  x2  6 x  2  11x  1
For a polynomial in more than one variable Px, y, z, 

x2  6x  2 x2  6x  2 x2  6x  2 sum of coefficients  P1, 1, 1, 

11x  1 1 2 1
 
x 2  6x  2 2 2 EXAMPLE:

1. What is the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of the polynomial

DOMAIN OF FUNCTIONS
2 x  1100 ?
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B respectively while C be the
Solution:
domain of the composite function f  g . Then the domain of the
Using the definition above:
functions below is defined as follows:
sum of coefficients  P1  21  1100
(a) ADDITION
sum of coefficients  21  1100  1
 f  g ( x)  f x  gx ; DOMAIN : A  B
(b) SUBTRACTION
2. What is the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of the polynomial
 f  g ( x)  f x  gx ; DOMAIN : A  B
2 x  3 y  2z 143 ?
(c) MULTIPLICATION
 fg ( x)  f x  gx ; DOMAIN : A  B Solution:
(d) DIVISION Again, using the definition above:

 f  f x  sum of coefficients  P1, 1, 1,   21  31  21143

 x  
g x 
; DOMAIN : x  A  B g x   0  sum of coefficients  1
g
(e) COMPOSITION
 f  g ( x)  f gx ; DOMAIN : C  B NESTED FORM OF A POLYNOMIAL

Sometimes, when evaluating a polynomial in one variable to a certain

EXAMPLES:
value, we encounter the difficulties in expanding each term because the
1. Find the domain of the function below: exponents were quite large. Thus, it is recommended to use the nested
form of a polynomial.
y  x  4  x2
For the polynomial say in x:
Solution: Px   an x n  an 1 x n 1    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0
This is a sum of two functions let’s say
The equivalent “nested form” is:
f x   x ; g x   4  x2 Px   an x  an 1 x  an  2 x  x  a0
Wherein, the domain of f is all non-negative real numbers, that is the
interval 0,   while the domain of g consist of all numbers x such that EXAMPLE:

4  x  0 , that is, the interval 2,2 .

2
1. Transform the cubic polynomial x 3  2 x 2  3x  4 into its equivalent
nested form.
Therefore, by the property given by this lecture, the domain of the
function is the INTERSECTION of these two intervals:

DOMAIN : 0  x  2 Solution:
x 3  2 x 2  3x  4  x  2x  3x  4
2. If f x   x and g x   2  x , find the domain of the composite
function g  f .
2. Evaluate the quintic polynomial: x 5  4 x 4  2 x 3  5x 2  13x  23 at
Solution: x  3.

g  f x  g  f x  g  
x  2 x Solution:
The equivalent nested polynomial of the problem is:
For x to be defined, we must have x  0 . For 2  x to be x 5  4 x 4  2 x 3  5x 2  13x  23 = x  4x  2x  5x  13x  23
defined, we must have 2  x  0 , that is x  4 . Thus, the domain of Evaluating at x  3 , we have:

g  f is the INTERSECTION of these two intervals: 3  43  23  53  133  23  56
DOMAIN : 0  x  4

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 REMAINDER THEOREM QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

Remainder Theorem gives us the ease of determining the remainder when A QUADRATIC INEQUALITY is an inequality of the form:
a polynomial is divided by a linear divisor. Ax 2  Bx  C  0
Thus, when the polynomial: where a, b and c are real numbers with A  0 . The inequality symbols
Px   an x n  an 1 x n 1    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0  ,  , and  may also be used.

is divided by a certain linear polynomial (x-a), then we can simply Strategy for Solving a Quadratic Inequality with a Sign Graph:
substitute x  a on the polynomial so that: 1. Write the inequality with zero on the right.
remainder  Pa  2. Factor the quadratic polynomial on the left.
3. Make a sign graph showing where each factor is positive, negative,
or zero.
EXAMPLE:
4. Use the rules for multiplying signed numbers to determine which
intervals satisfy the original inequality.
1. What is the remainder when the polynomial 5. Write the solution set using interval notation or the like.
x 5  4 x 4  2 x 3  5x 2  13x  23
is divided by x  3 ? EXAMPLE:
Find the solution interval of the inequalities below:
Solution:
We can use the advantage of evaluating a nested polynomial to find
1. 2 x 2  5x  3 .
the remainder mentally… Solution:
The equivalent nested polynomial of the problem is: 2 x 2  5x  3  0
x  4 x  2 x  5x  13x  23 = x  4x  2x  5x  13x  23
5 4 3 2
2 x  1x  3  0
Evaluating at x  3 , we have:
Using Sign Graph:
3  43  23  53  133  23  56
Thus remainder  P3  56 .  1 1 
 ,  3  3, 2   2 , 
   
LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN TWO VARIABLES
2 x  1x  3      
If A, B and C are real numbers with A and B not both zero, then:
Ax  By  C
 1
is called a linear inequality in two variables. In place of  , we can also use Thus, the solution interval is  3 ,  .
 2
 ,  , or  .
2. x2  6x  9  0 .
GRAPHING LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN TWO VARIABLES:
Solve the inequality for y, then graph y  mx  b . Solution:
CASE 1: y  mx  b is satisfied above the line. x  32  0
CASE 2: y  mx  b is satisfied on the line itself. Since the square of every nonzero real number is greater than zero,
there is only one number that fails to satisfy this inequality and that
CASE 3: y  mx  b is satisfied below the line.
number is the solution to x  3  0 . So the solution set is all real
numbers except -3.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Graph each inequalities: Thus, the solution interval is ,3  3,  .
1. 3x  4 y  7 .
1
2. y  x  3 and y x2 3. x 2  10 x  25  0 .
2
3. 2 x  3 y  6 or x  2y  4 . Solution:
4. y  x  1 and y  x  2 . x  52  0 .
Since the square of every real number is greater than or equal to zero,
A COMPOUND INEQUALITY is two inequalities joined by a connective all real numbers satisfy the inequality.
“and” or the connective “or” where:
“AND” means INTERSECTION of the two solution sets of the compound Thus, the solution interval is ,  .
inequality. For two-variable inequalities, the solution set must satisfy BOTH
inequalities. 4. 4 x 2  20 x  25  0 .
“OR” means UNION of the two solution sets of the compound inequality. Solution:
For two-variable inequalities, the solution set must satisfy either one or
both of the inequalities. 2 x  52  0 .
Since no real number has a negative square, there is no solution to
SAMPLE PROBLEMS: this inequality.
Graph the compound inequalities below:
Thus, the solution set is the empty set  .
1
1. y  x  3 and y x2.
2
2. 2 x  3 y  6 or x  2y  4 . 5. 9 x 2  6x  1  0 .
3. y  x  1 and y  x  2 . Solution:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

 3x  12  0 . 5. Use the rules for multiplying and dividing signed numbers to
determine the intervals that satisfy the original inequality.
Since no real number has a negative square, there are no solutions 6. Write the solution set using interval notation or the like.
to 3x  12  0 . But 3x  12  0 does have one solution and that is
EXAMPLE:
1 1  Find the solution set:
. Thus the solution set is   .
3 3
x2
1. 2.
6. x 2  4x  6  0 . x3

Solution: Solution:
We do not multiply each side by x  3 . Instead, subtract 2 from each
The quadratic polynomial is prime but we can solve x 2  4 x  6  0
side to get 0 on the right:
by the quadratic formula:
x2
20
4  16  41 6 x3
x  2  10
21 x  2 2x  6
 0
Using Sign Graph: x3 x3
x  8
0
x 2  4x  6 x3

  , 2  10   
Using Sign Graph:

 , 3 3, 8 8 , 
2  10 , 2  10   
2  10 ,   
x  8
x3
     

Thus the solution interval is   , 2  10  2  

10 ,  .
Thus the solution interval is  , 3  8 ,  .

7. x 2  5x  8  0 . 2 1
2.  .
Solution: x  4 x 1
The discriminant is 7 . So the equation has no real solutions and Solution:
x 2  5x  8 does not change in sign. So x 2  5x  8  0 is either We do not multiply by the LCD as we do in solving equations. Instead,
correct for all real numbers or incorrect for all real numbers. Select a 1
subtract from each side:
x 1
test point say 0, to get 0  50  8  0 which is true. So the inequality
2
2 1
is satisfied by 0 and all other real numbers.  0
x  4 x 1
Thus, the solution interval is ,  . x2
0
x  1x  4
8.  x 2  3x  5  0 . Using Sign Graph:
Solution:
The discriminant is found to be -11. So the quadratic equation has no  ,  4 4 , `1 1, 2 2 , 
real solution. Select a test point, say 0, to get  0  30  5  0 , which
2
x2
is false. So no real numbers satisfy the inequality.
x  1x  4        
Thus, the solution set is the empty set  .
Thus the solution interval is 4 ,  1  2 ,  .
RATIONAL INEQUALITIES
ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS
The inequalities:

x2 2x  3 2 1 BASIC ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS

 2,  0 and  Absolute Value
x3 x5 x  4 x 1 Equivalent Equation Solution Set
Equations
are examples of rational inequalities. When we solve equations that
involve rational expressions, we usually multiply each side by the LCD. x  k k  0 x  k or x  k k ,k
However, if we multiply each side of an inequality by a negative number, x 0 x0 0
we must reverse the inequality, and when we multiply by a positive
number, we do not reverse the inequality. For this reason we generally do x  k k  0 NONE 
not multiply inequalities by expression involving variables.
EXAMPLE:
Strategy for Solving a Rational Inequality with a Sign Graph:
Solve each equation:
1. Rewrite the inequality with zero on the right-hand side.
2. Use only addition and subtraction to get an equivalent inequality.
3. Factor the numerator and denominator if possible. 1. 3x  5  7 .
4. Make a sign graph showing where each factor is positive, negative,
or zero.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

 Solution: 2. 3x  5  2 .
First rewrite 3x  5  7 without absolute value:
Solution:
3x  5  7 or 3x  5  7
2  3x  5  2
x4 or x  2 3
7  3x  3
 2 
The solution set is  , 4  . 
7
 x  1
 3  3
 7
2. 2x  6  7  0 . Thus, the solution interval is    ,     1,  .
 3
Solution: 3. 5  3x  6 .
Since 0 is the only number whose absolute value is 0, the expression
within the absolute value bars must be 0. Solution:
2x  6  7  0 6  5  3x  6
5 11  3x  1
x
2 11 1
x
5  3 3
The solution set is   .
2  
1
x
11
3 3
3. 5 3x  7  4  14 .  1 11 
Thus, the solution interval is  ,  .
 3 3
Solution:
First subtract 4 from each side to isolate the absolute value
expression: 4. 3  7  2x  3 .
5 3x  7  4  14
Solution:
5 3x  7  10 Subtract 3 from each side to isolate the absolute value expression:
7  2x  0
3x  7  2
Because the absolute value of any real number is greater than or
Thus, there is no solution because no quantity has a negative
equal to 0, the solution set is the set of all real numbers.
absolute value.
Thus, the solution interval is  ,  .
4. 2x  1  x  3 .

Solution: 5. 5x  12  2 .
Two quantities have the same absolute value only if they are equal
Solution:
or opposites. So we can write an equivalent compound equation:
We write an equivalent inequality only when the value of k is positive.
2x  1  x  3 or 2 x  1  x  3
With -2 on the right-hand side, we do not write an equivalent
x4 or x  2 3 inequality. Since the absolute value of any quantity is greater than or
 2  equal to 0, no value for x can make this absolute value less than -2.
The solution set is  , 4  . The solution set is an empty set.
 3 

SECOND-DEGREE INEQUALITIES
ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES
A SECOND-DEGREE INEQUALITY is an inequality involving squares of at
BASIC ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES (k>0) least one of the variables. Second-degree inequalities are graphed in the
Absolute Value Equivalent same manner as linear inequalities.
Solution Set
Inequality Inequality
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
x k k  x  k ,k   k ,  Graph the second-degree inequalities below:
x k k  x  k  ,  k  k ,   1. y  x 2  2x  3 .
x k k  x  k k, k  2. x2  y2  9 .
x k k  x  k k, k  3.
x2 y2
 1.
4 9
EXAMPLE:
Find the solution interval of each inequality below: SYSTEMS OF SECOND-DEGREE INEQUALITIES

System of second-degree inequalities follow the “AND” rule. So the

1. x9  2. resulting graph will be the INTERSECTION of the graphs.

Solution: SAMPLE PROBLEM:

2  x  9  2 Graph the system of inequalities:
7  x  11 y2 x2 x2 y2
 1 ;  1
Thus, the solution interval is 7 ,11 . 4 9 9 16

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 LOGARITHM b
where: r  a 2  b2 ;   arctan 
LOGARITHM - is the power or exponent to which the base must be a
raised in order to produce the number.
3. EXPONENTIAL FORM
Types of Logarithm: a  bi  re i
1. BRIGGSIAN LOGARITHM – a type of logarithm named after Henry
Briggs, a 17th century British mathematician. It is more commonly b
where: r  a 2  b2 ;   arctan 
known as “COMMON LOGARITHM”. Sometimes it is called as “decadic a
logarithm” because this is a logarithm in base 10.
angle should be in radians.
2. NAPERIAN LOGARITHM – more commonly known as “NATURAL
LOGARITHM” where the base is the number e. Named after the
4. POLAR FORM/STEINMETZ FORM
Scottish mathematician John Napier of Merchistoun.
a  bi  r
Some Properties of Logarithm:
1. log b xy  log b x  log b y b
where: r  a 2  b2 ;   arctan 
a
x
2. log b    log b x  log b y
 y SPECIAL FORMULAS IN RELATION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS
3. log b a n  n log b a
a. DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
4. M  b logb M  e ln M  - named after the French mathematician, Abraham De Moivre and
log c a is stated as:
5. log b a 
log c b “If rcos  i sin   is a complex number and if n is any real number,
6. log b 1  0 ; ln 1  0 then:”
7. log 10  1 ; ln e  1 rcos  i sin  n  r n cosn  i sin n 
NOTE: This theorem is most suitable to be used on the expansion of
COMPLEX NUMBERS a complex number in the quickest possible way!

In mathematics, the complex numbers are an extension of the real b. NTH ROOT THEOREM
numbers obtained by adjoining an imaginary unit, denoted i, which “If n is any positive integer and r is a positive real number, then the
satisfies: complex number r cos  i sin   has exactly n distinct nth roots
i 2  1 given by:”
Every complex number can be written in the form a + bi, where a and b       
are real numbers called the real part and the imaginary part of the complex n r cos  i sin    n r cos   360 k   i sin    360 k 
number, respectively.   n n 

n

n 


where: k = 0, 1, 2, … , n-1
OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS
Complex numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided by c. SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF POWERS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
formally applying the associative, commutative and distributive laws of “If z is a complex number and n is a real number, then:”
 2 cosn  ; z n   2i sin n 
1 1
algebra, together with the equation: i 2  1 : zn 
zn zn
1. Addition: a  bi   c  di   a  c  b  d i EXAMPLES:
2. Subtraction: a  bi   c  di   a  c  b  d i
1. Expand: 1  i 13 .
3. Multiplication: a  bi c  di   ac  bd   bc  ad i
a  bi ac  bd bc  ad Solution:
4. Division:  
c  di c 2  d 2 c 2  d 2
i

Since: 1  i  2 cos45  i sin 45 , then: 
1  i 13   2  cos13  45  i sin 13  45 
13
MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
1  i 13  64 2 cos585  i sin 585 
1  i 13  64 2 cos225  i sin 225 
MODULUS – also called as the absolute value of a complex number
z  a  bi is found as:
 2 
modulus  z  r  a 2  b 2 1  i 13  64 2
 2
2
i
 2 
ARGUMENT – is the angle subtended by a complex number from a
complex plane or Argand plane read counter-clockwise with respect to the 1  i 13  64  64i
positive horizontal axis.
2. Find all the cube roots of 1.
b
argz     arctan 
a Solution:
FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 1  1  0i  cos0  i sin 0
     
1. RECTANGULAR FORM 3 1  0i  cos 0  360 k   i sin  0  360 k 
z  a  bi  3   3 
   

2. TRIGONOMETRIC FORM  
3 1  0i  cos 120 k  i sin 120 k  
a  bi  rcis  rcos  i sin  

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

 For k  0, 1, 2 2. The roots of x 3  11x 2  x  2  0 are r, s and t. What is the value of
 
k  0 ; cos0  i sin 0  1 r 2 st  rs 2t  rst 2 ?
1 3
k  1 ; cos120  i sin 120    i Solution:
2 2
For the given cubic:
1 3 11
k  2 ; cos240  i sin 240    i sum of roots  r  s  t    11
2 2 1
product of roots  rst   13  2
2
VIETA’S FORMULA
1
VIETA'S FORMULAS, otherwise called VIÈTE'S LAWS, are a set of equations Thus:
relating the roots and the coefficients of polynomials. This were discovered r 2 st  rs 2t  rst 2  rst r  s  t 
by the French mathematician FRANÇOIS VIÈTE.
r 2 st  rs 2t  rst 2   211
Any general polynomial of degree n
r 2 st  rs 2t  rst 2  22

(with the coefficients being real or complex numbers and an ≠ 0) is known

3. Let r1 , r2 , r3 be the roots of the polynomial 5x 3  11x 2  7 x  3 .
by the fundamental theorem of algebra to have n (not necessarily distinct)
complex roots x1, x2, ..., xn. Vieta's formulas relate the polynomial's Evaluate:
coefficients { ak } to signed sums and products of its roots { xi } as follows: r1 (1  r2  r3 )  r2 (1  r3  r1 )  r3 (1  r1  r2 )

Solution:
The expression is equal to
r1  r2  r3  2r1r2  r2 r3  r3r1 
By Vieta’s Formula, we know that
11 11 7 3
Equivalently stated, the (n−k)th coefficient a n−k is related to a signed sum r1  r2  r3    , r1r2  r2 r3  r3 r1  , r1r2 r3  
5 5 5 5
of all possible sub-products of roots, taken k-at-a-time:
So
 7  25
r1  r2  r3  2r1r2  r2 r3  r3 r1  
11
 2   5
5 5 5
for k = 1, 2, ..., n (where we wrote the indices ik in increasing order to
ensure each sub-product of roots is used exactly once).
The left hand sides of Vieta's formulas are the ELEMENTARY SYMMETRIC 4. Let r1 , r2 , r3 be the roots of the polynomial 5x 3  11x 2  7 x  3 .
FUNCTIONS of the roots. Evaluate:
r13  r2 3  r33
Simple application is with a second-degree (quadratic) and third-degree
(cubic) polynomials:
Solution:
In this problem, the application of Vieta's formulas is not immediately
 FOR THE SECOND-DEGREE POLYNOMIAL (QUADRATIC)
obvious, and the expression has to be transformed. From factorization,
we have
roots x1, x2 of the equation P(x) = 0 satisfies the following: 
r13  r2 3  r33  3r1r2 r3  r1  r2  r3  r12  r2 2  r32  r1r2  r2 r3  r3r1  
2 2
Now we only need to know how to calculate r1  r2  r32 . Again,

 FOR THE THIRD-DEGREE POLYNOMIAL (CUBIC) from factorization, we have

r12  r2 2  r32  r1  r2  r3 2  2r1r2  r2 r3  r3r1 
roots x1, x2, x3 of the equation P(x) = 0 satisfies the following: Which allows us to conclude that

r13  r2 3  r33  3r1r2 r3  r1  r2  r3  r12  r2 2  r3 2  r1r2  r2 r3  r3 r1  
EXAMPLE:

 3r1r2 r3  r1  r2  r3 r1  r2  r3 2  3r1r2  r2 r3  r3 r1  
 3  11  11   7 
2
49
1. If 5 is the sum of the roots of 3x 2  bx  9  0 , what is the sum of the  3       3   
 5  5  5   5  125
roots of 9 x 2  bx  3  0 ?

Solution: 5. Determine all real values of the parameter a for which the equation
16 x 4  ax 3  2a  17x 2  ax  16  0
2
For 3x  bx  9  0 :

sum of roots  5  
b has exactly four distinct real roots that form a geometric progression.
3
Solution:
b  15
Suppose that a satisfies the requirements of the problem and that
Thus, for 9 x 2  bx  3  0 :
b 15 x, qx, q 2 x, q 3 x are the roots of the given equation. Then x  0 and we
sum of roots   
9 9 may assume that q  1 , so that x  qx  q 2 x  q 3 x . Notice that the
5
sum of roots  coefficients are symmetric, namely the first coefficient is the same as
3
the fifth one, the second is the same as the fourth and the third is the

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

 same as the third. It guarantees us that if  is a root, then its reciprocal c. r th term from n arithmetic means from a to b:

2 a n  r  1  br
r th term 
(which is  1  ) will also be a root. Hence
1 1
 q 3 x, so q  x 3 n 1
 x
1 1
 d. Sum of n arithmetic means between a and b:
and the roots are x, x 3 , x 3 , x 1 . Now, by Vieta’s formula we have
sum  a  b
n
1 1 4 2 2 4 2
 2a  17
x  x 3  x 3  x 1 
a
and x 3  x 3  1  1  x 3  x 3 
16 16
ARITHMETIC MEAN – most commonly known as “AVERAGE”. It is the
1 1 average of n given numbers. Let us denote it as A.
On setting z  x 3  x 3 these equations become

z 3  2z 
a
 2

, z2  2  z2  2 
2a  17 Given numbers: a1, a2 , a3 ,, an
16 16 a  a 2  a3    a n
 
Substituting a  16 z 3  z 2 in the second equation leads to
A 1
n
15
z 4  2 z 3  3z 2  4 z  0 EXAMPLE:
16
We observe that this polynomial factors as
1. What is the sum of all integers from 35 to 143 inclusive?
1 1
 3  5  2 1 Solution:
 z   z   z  z   Since z  x 3  x 3  2 , the only viable
 2  2  4
Sn 
143  35  1143  35  109178
21 2
5
value is z  . Consequently a  170 . S n  9701
2
 1 
  170 x    357  0
1 1
Rearranging the equation, we get 16 x 2  2. In an arithmetic sequence, the first term is and the hundredth term
  x 10
 x2 
1
1 1 is . Find the sum of the first 50 terms.
To simplify it, we can call y  x  and therefore y 2  x 2  2  , 5
x x2
thus getting a new form Solution:
16( y 2  2)  170 y  357  0  16 y 2  170 y  325  0 First, solve for the common difference (d):
5 65 a100  a1  100  1d
Whose roots are and . We have to plug the two back into
2 8 1 1
  99d
1 1 1 5 10
y  x  , leading us to two more quadratics getting finally , , 2, 8
x 8 2 1
d
990
Thus the sum of the first 50 terms is:
SEQUENCE AND SERIES
50   1   1 
S50  2   50  1 
SEQUENCE – also known as PROGRESSION. These are ordered sets of 2   10   990 
quantities that are in one-to-one correspondence with the set of positive
integers and are governed by a certain condition. 1235
S 50 
198
SERIES – is an expression which is an INDICATED SUM of the terms of a
given sequence. HARMONIC SEQUENCE

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE A sequence whose reciprocals of the terms form an arithmetic sequence.

A sequence in which the difference between each term is constant PARAMETER:

wherein that constant is called the “common difference” (d).
HARMONIC MEAN – is the RECIPROCAL OF THE AVERAGE OF THE
PARAMETERS: RECIPROCALS of two or more numbers. Let us denote it as H.
a. nth term a n  :
Given numbers: a1, a2 , a3 ,, an
an  a1  n  1d
na1a 2 a3    a n 
b. Sum of the first n terms S n  : H
a1a 2 a3 a n 1  a1a 2 a3 a n  2 a n  a 2 a3 a n 1a n
i. Given a1 and a n :
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
Sn 
n
a1  an 
2
ii. Given a1 and d : A sequence in which any term after the first term is the product of the
preceding term and a constant number. The constant number is called the
Sn 
n
2a1  n  1d  “common ratio” usually denoted by r.
2
iii. Given a1 , an and d : PARAMETERS:
a. nth term g n  :
an  a1  d an  a1 
Sn 
2d  
g n  g1 r n 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 8

b. Sum of the first n terms ( Sn ) : Some Properties of Fibonacci Sequence:

i. Given g1 and r : 1. If Fn is the nth Fibonacci number, then:

g 1  rn
Sn  1
 
where r  1 Fn  Fn1  Fn2
1 r
2. For every nth Fibonacci number, the greatest number that can divide
ii. Given g1 , g n and r : them is the nth Fibonacci number ( Fn ).
g  rg n
Sn  1 3. As n becomes larger, the ratio
Fn
tend to reach the “GOLDEN
1 r Fn 1
iii. For infinite geometric series (n  ) :
RATIO”.
g1
S  1 5
1 r Golden Ratio   1.61803
2
c. m th term from n geometric means from a to b: 4. No two consecutive Fibonacci numbers have a factor greater than 1.
m term  a b th n 1 n m1 m gcdFn 1, Fn   1
d. Sum of n geometric means between a and b: 5. For any prime p  2 , 5 , it is known that either F p 1 or F p 1 is
n 1 n divisible by p.
ab  a a b
sum  6. The greatest common divisor of two Fibonacci numbers is also a
n 1 n
a b a Fibonacci number.
e. Product of n geometric means between a and b: gcdFm , Fn   Fd ; where d  gcdm, n
product  abn Formulas regarding Fibonacci numbers:
GEOMETRIC MEAN – also known as “MEAN PROPORTION”. It is the nth 1. Sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers ( S n ):
root of the product of n numbers. Let us denote it as G.
Sn  F1  F2  F3    Fn  Fn  2  1
Given numbers: a1, a2 , a3 ,, an 2. Sum of the first n Fibonacci number with odd indices:
F1  F3  F5    F2n 1  F2n
G  n a1a 2 a3 a n
3. Sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers with even indices:
EXAMPLES: F2  F4  F6    F2n  F2n 1  1
4. Alternating Series of Fibonacci numbers:
F1  F2  F3  F4     1n 1 Fn  1   1n Fn 1
1 1 1
1. Find the sum of the sequence: 1    
3 9 27
5. Square of a Fibonacci number:
Solution: Fn 2  Fn 1Fn 1   1n ;n2
1 6. Sum of squares of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers:
This is an infinite geometric series with r  . Thus:
3
Fn 2  Fn 12  F2n 1
1
S  7. Sum of the squares of the first n Fibonacci numbers:
1
1 F12  F2 2  F32    Fn 2  Fn Fn 1
3
2
S 
3 BINET’S FORMULA

2. What is the sum of 5 geometric means between 8 and 125? BINET’S FORMULA, formulated by the French mathematician Jacques
Philippe Marie Binet was used to determine the nth Fibonacci number by
Solution: a closed form formula.

1258  86 85 125 1000  8 2 5 5 BINET’S FORMULA is mathematically stated as:

sum  
6 85 125  8 2 5 5  8 a n  bn
Fn 
ab
1000  8 2 5 5 2 5 5  8 where a and b are the two roots of the quadratic equation x 2  x  1  0 .
sum  
2 5  8
5
2 5  8
5 So that:
n n
6720  3744 10 1 5   
sum     1 5 
96  2   2 
Fn     
sum  70  39 10 5

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE LUCAS SEQUENCE

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE – a sequence of integers starting from 1 wherein LUCAS SEQUENCE - is a particular generalization of the Fibonacci
the next term is equal to the sum of the two terms immediately preceding numbers and Lucas numbers. Lucas sequences are named after French
it. mathematician Edouard Lucas.
“0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, …” LUCAS NUMBERS are an integer sequence named after the
mathematician François Édouard Anatole Lucas (1842–1891), who
studied both that sequence and the closely related Fibonacci numbers
(both are Lucas sequences). Like the Fibonacci numbers, each Lucas
number is defined to be the sum of its two immediate previous terms, i.e.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 9

it is a Fibonacci integer sequence. Consequently, the ratio between two  Tschirnhaus Transformation
consecutive Lucas numbers converges to the golden ratio. Given the general monic cubic equation
However, the first two Lucas numbers are L0 = 2 and L1 = 1 instead of 0 x 3  ax 2  bx  c  0
and 1, and the properties of Lucas numbers are therefore somewhat
different from those of Fibonacci numbers.
We transform this to the reduced cubic
The sequence of Lucas numbers begins:
y 3  py  q  0
“2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, ...”
a
by letting x  y  t , where t  . Given these, we get
The nth Lucas number ( Ln ) is expressed in closed form formula as: 3

n n p  b  3t 2 ; q  c  t (b  2t 2 )
1 5   
Ln  a  b  
n n   1 5 
 2   2 
    Examples:

1. Reduce the cubic equation

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIBONACCI AND LUCAS NUMBERS
x 3  9 x 2  36 x  80  0
The Lucas numbers are related to the Fibonacci numbers by the identities:
F  Ln Solution:
1. Fn 1  n Apply Tschirnhaus Transformation. Letting
2
5Fn  Ln 9
2. Ln 1  x  y t  y   y  3 ; t  3
2 3
3. F2n  Fn Ln We get
p  b  3t 2  36  3(3)2  9
4. L2n  Ln 2  2 1n

Take Note: As n approaches infinity, the ratio

Ln
approaches 5 .
 
q  c  t (b  2t 2 )  80  (3) 36  2(3) 2  26
Fn Therefore, our reduced cubic will be
EXAMPLE: y 3  9 y  26  0

1. What is the 14th Lucas number?

2. By means of transformation, convert the equation
Solution:
x 3  15x 2  33x  847  0
To find the 14th Lucas number, we will use the identities above. We will
consider the values for k in the table below as k  1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14 . to the form y 3  py  q  0 .

k Fk Lk Solution:
1 1 1 Applying Tschirnhaus Transformation:
2 1 3 15
x  y t  y   y  5 ; t  5
3 2 4 3
6 8 18 We get
7 13 29
14 377 843 p  b  3t 2  33  3(5)2  108

So the 14th Lucas number is 843.  

q  c  t (b  2t 2 )  847  (5)  33  2(5)2  432
Therefore, our reduced cubic will be
2. What is the 25th Fibonacci number? y 3  108 y  432  0
Solution:
Again, using the identities above, we will consider values for k as CARDAN’S METHOD ON SOLVING THE CUBIC
k  1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 25 .
For the general cubic equation
k Fk Lk
x 3  ax 2  bx  c  0
1 1 1
We will do the following steps:
2 1 3
3 2 4 STEP 1: Convert to the reduced cubic by applying the Tschirnhaus
6 8 18 Transformation. Your result must be in the form
12 144 322
y 3  py  q  0
24 46368 103682
25 75025 167761 p q
STEP 2: Set s  and v  and solve y from
3 2
So the 25th Fibonacci number is 75025.
3 3
y   v  v 2  s3   v  v 2  s3
THE CUBIC EQUATION
We can say that the term v 2  s 3 is a discriminant of the cubic with the
Several methods have already been discussed in finding the roots of
different forms of cubic equations. I will just discuss some of these. Among following consequences:
these methods, it is necessary that we find the reduced cubic form of the
general monic cubic equation  If v 2  s 3  0 , there is only 1 real root.

x 3  ax 2  bx  c  0  If v 2  s 3  0 , 3 real roots (at least two are equal).

One of the most known techniques in getting the reduced cubic is the  If v 2  s 3  0 , 3 real and distinct roots.
Tschirnhaus Transformation.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 10

 a 2 3
STEP 3: Solve x from x  y  .   20   15 
3 v 2  s3      0
 2   3
So we only have 1 real root. Using Cardan’s formula:
CASE 1: v 2  s 3  0 .
There is only 1 real root in this case so that this root can be determined by 3 3
y   v  v 2  s3   v  v 2  s3
using the formula
3 3 y  3 10  ( 10) 2  (5)3  3 10  (10) 2  (5)3
y   v  v 2  s3   v  v 2  s3

y  3 10  225  3 10  225  3 25  3 5
CASE 2: v 2  s 3  0 .
So our only real root should be
There are 3 real roots in this case and we are assured that at least two are
equal (a double root). Using Cardan’s formula we see that one of its root x  y  t  y  2  2  3 5  3 25
is
a 3 a a 3. Find all real roots in the cubic equation
  v  0  3  v  0   23  v 
x y
3 3 3 x 3  5x 2  8 x  4  0
And we can proceed with using synthetic division or factoring to get the Solution:
other roots. We can also use the formula for the “irreducible case” as
5 5
shown below. First we reduced the cubic using t    to get
3 3
2
CASE 3: v 2  s 3  0 (IRREDUCIBLE CASE).  5 1
p  b  3t 2  8  3    
Applying Cardan’s method to this case will yield negative value under the  3 3
square root symbol in the formula
 5   5  2
2
3 3 q  c  t (b  2t 2 )  4     8  2    
y   v  v 2  s3   v  v 2  s3  3    3   27
Since we know that we have 3 real and distinct roots for this case, having
So our reduced cubic would be
square root of a negative number does not make sense (imaginary
number). As an alternative, we can use the following formula in solving y: 1 2
y3  y 0
3 27
1  v'  2k 
y  2 s' cos arccos   ; k  0,1,2 Next, test for the discriminant v 2  s 3 :
 3  s' s'  3 
 
2 3
 1   1
p q v 2  s3         0
NOTE: s'   s   and v'  v   in this case.  27   9
3 2
So we have 3 real roots (at least two are equal). Using Cardan’s formula
Examples: we see that one of the root is

1. Find all real roots in the cubic equation a 1 5

x  23  v   23   1
3 27 3
x 3  6 x 2  20 x  33  0
Solution: Test if x  1 is a double-root:
6 f ( x )  x 3  5x 2  8 x  4
First we reduced the cubic using t   2 to get
3
f ' ( x)  3x 2  10x  8  f ' (1)  3(1) 2  10(1)  8  1  0
p  b  3t 2  20  3(2) 2  8 Therefore x  1 is not a double-root. It follows that
 
q  c  t (b  2t 2 )  33  (2) 20  2(2) 2  9 c
 
4
x 
2
So our reduced cubic would be 1 1
y3  8y  9  0 is the double-root of the cubic. So our real roots should be
In this case, it is easy to see that y  1 satisfy this cubic and therefore x  1,2 (double  root ) .

x  y  2  3 satisfy our original cubic. Since the discriminant Alternative Solution:

81 512 Using our formula for the irreducible case:
2 3
v s   is positive, we are rest assured that there is only 1
4 27 1  v'  2k 
y  2 s' cos arccos   ; k  0,1,2
real root for this problem. So x  3 is our only real root.  3  s' s'  3 
 

2. Find all real roots in the cubic equation   1  

   
x 3  6 x 2  27 x  58  0 y2
1 1
cos arccos 27   2k  ; k  0,1,2
1 1  
9 3 3 
Solution:  
 
6   9 9  
First we reduced the cubic using t   2 to get
3 1 2k 
cos arccos 1 
2
y ; k  0,1,2
2 2
p  b  3t  27  3(2)  15 3 3 3 

 
q  c  t (b  2t 2 )  58  (2) 27  2(2)2  20 y
2   2k 
cos   ; k  0,1,2
So our reduced cubic would be 3 3 3 

y 3  15 y  20  0 2   1 5
at k  0 : y  cos    x  y   2
3 3 3 3
Next, test for the discriminant v 2  s 3 :

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 11

 2   1 5 Examples:
at k  1 : y  cos     x  y   2
4
3  3 3 3
1. i2  12  22  32  42  30
at k  2 : y  cos      x  y   1
2 2 5
i 1
3 3 3

 k 2  3k  1   k 2  3 k  1
n n n n
2.
4. Find all real roots in the cubic equation
k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
8x 3  6 x  1  0 4
Solution:
Express the cubic as monic by dividing 8 to both sides
3. 2  2  2  2  2  8
i 1
3 1
x3  x 0
4 8
TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE
The cubic is already reduced so we now test the discriminant v 2  s 3 :
TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE - this method is very powerful in obtaining a
2 3
 1  1 closed-form formula for a sum with great extent (or sometimes infinite)
v 2  s3          0
 16   4 number of terms. This technique is also called “collapsing technique” in
So we have 3 distinct real roots for this case. Applying the formula for which the main process lies on collapsing the terms between the first and
the irreducible case: the last terms of the sum.
  1   In obtaining a closed-form formula for the sum (S)
   
1  1 2 k  n
cos arccos 16 
x2
4 3 1 1



3 
 ; k  0,1,2 S ik  1k  2k  3k    n  1k  nk
 4 4   i 1
 
We follow these three steps:
1  1  2k  STEP 1
x  cos arccos    ; k  0,1,2
 3 2 3  Express the telescoping sum:

i  1k 1  ik 1

n
  2k 
x  cos   ; k  0,1,2
9 3 
i 1
  in closed-form using the basic definition of summation notation. You
at k  0 : x  cos 
9 will notice that the sum collapses, meaning to say, terms between
the first and the last terms cancels each other.
 5   5  STEP 2
at k  1 : x  cos    cos 
 9   9  Expand first the term in the telescoping sum, in this case, the term
 11 
at k  2 : x  cos 
 7 
  cos 
i  1k 1  i k 1 , then apply Property (c) given above.
 9   9  STEP 3
Equate the results from steps 1 and 2 and obtain the closed-form
formula for S.
SIGMA NOTATION
SIGMA NOTATION - a convenient way of writing sums uses the Greek EXAMPLES:
letter  (capital sigma, corresponding to our letter S) and is called sigma 1. Evaluate:
notation.
12  22  32    992  1002
Solution:
The sum (S) can also be expressed in the form
n
S i2
i 1
First we obtain a closed-form formula for this kind of sum using the
DEFINITION: If am, am+1, …, an are real numbers and m and n are integers telescoping technique:
such that m ≤ n, then
STEP 1:
n
 ai  am  am1  am2    an1  an  i  13  i3 
n

i m
i 1
PROPERTIES:
n n n   
 2 3  13  33  2 3  4 3  33    [(n  1) 3  n 3 ] 
(a)  c  cn  m  1 (b) cai  c  ai  n  1  1  n  3n  3n
3 3 3 2
i m i m i m
STEP 2:
n n n
 ai  bi    ai  bi  i  13  i3    3i2  3i  1
n n
(c)
i m i m i m
i 1 i 1

 nn  1 
n n n
3 i2  3i  1  3S  3 2 
n
i 1 i 1 i 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 12

 3 2 5 n n
1 1 
 3S  n  n
 ii  1   i  i  1 
1
2 2
STEP 3: i 1 i 1

1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1 1 1 
n  13  13  n3  3n2  3n  3S  3 n2  5 n                  
2 2  1 2   2 3   3 4   n  1 n   n n 1

2n  3n  n nn  12n  1
n 3 2 1 1
S i2  6

6
 
1 n 1
i 1
n
 ii  1  n  1
1 n
Thus, going back to the problem: i 1
100 Going back to the problem:
12  22  32    992  1002  i2 99
i 1
 ii  1  100
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 99
     
100101201 2 6 12 20 9702 9900
i 1
12  22  32    992  1002   338350
6
2. Evaluate:
2. Evaluate: 1 1 1 1
   
3  i   1  5 5  9 9  13 13  17
n 2
lim
n
 n 
   1
 
n  Solution:
i 1  
The sum above can be expressed in sigma notation as:
Solution: 
 4n  34n  1
1 1 1 1 1
    
3  i  
n 2 n
 3 2 3
lim
n
 
   1  lim
   n

 i  
3
1  5 5  9 9  13 13  17
n 1
i 1  n
n n n
i 1   Wherein by partial fraction decomposition:
3 n n   
 
   4n  34n  1  4  4n  3  4n  1 
3 1 1 1 1
 lim  i2  1
n  n3 n 
n 1 n 1
 i 1 i 1 

 3 nn  12n  1 3  1  1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1  
 lim     n                  
n  n3 6 n  4  1 5   5 9   9 13   13 17  

 1 n  n  1  2n  1   1
 lim       3 
n  2 n  n  n 
4

1  1  1  1 
 lim  1   2    3   1  2  3

n
n  2  n  n  2 SUMMATION OF THE FORM
n
n 0 a
3  i  
n 2
lim
n
    1  4
n  n  
Derivation:

i 1  
 an , then
n
Let S 
SERIES BY PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION n 0
 
n 11
Most of the time, a series (whether finite or infinite) is most suitably solved
 an1  
1 n
S
by using partial fraction decomposition on the representation of each term a
n 0 n 0 a n 1
in the sum
 
n 1
 an1   an1
1 1
In this topic, it is assumed that the trainees know the fundamental S
concepts of obtaining a partial fraction decomposition given a certain a
n 0 n 0
rational expression.    
 an  an1  an  an
1 n 1 n 1
S   
EXAMPLES: a
n1 n 0 n 0 n 0
1. Evaluate:  1 
  
 an  a  12
1 n a
1 1 1
  
1

1

1 S  S  a   S
a  1 
2 6 12 20 9702 9900 1  n 0
 a 
Solution:
1 EXAMPLES:
Notice that each term of the sum above has the form so that
nn  1
 n
1

the sum can be expressed in sigma notation as:
1. Compute: n  .
99 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 0
     
2 6 12 20 9702 9900 nn  1
n 1 Solution:
Now, let’s obtain a closed-form formula for this kind of sum. Using 
 5n , then:
n
partial fraction decomposition: Let S 
n 0

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 13

     3. Sum of all the entries in a row:
n 11 n 1
   
1 n 1
S    n n n n
n 1
5
n 0 5 n 0 5n 1 n 0 5
n 1
n 0 5
n 1               2n
     
0 1 2 n
1
 4. The numbers in any row are symmetric with respect to the middle
 5n  1  1  S  4
1 n 5 1
S term or terms.
5
n 1 n  n 
5     
 n  r  n  r
1
 n  5 
1 1 5
S S  S  5. HOCKEY-STICK IDENTITY: Each number in the triangle is the sum of
4 4 16
n 0 the entries in the preceding northeast-running diagonal, beginning
with the entry above the given number
2. Evaluate:  n   n  1  n  2   n  3  r  1
 r    r  1   r  1    r  1      r  1
1  21  3  22  5  23  7  24            
6. Ratio of 2 succeeding terms in a row:
Solution:
 n 
  
2n  1
1  21  3  2 2  5  23  7  24     n
 r  1  n  r
n r 1
n 1 2  
   
r
1  21  3  22  5  23  7  24    2  2 n  2n
n 1
 7. Alternating sums of entries in a row is always zero.
n 1 n 1
n n n n n
1                1n    0
 0   1   2   3 n
1  21  3  2 2  5  23  7  2 4    2 
2 2

2  12 1
1
n n n n n n
2 8.                       2n 1
     
0 2 4  1   3  5
1  21  3  22  5  23  7  24    4  1  3
n n n n
9.    2   3   n   n2n 1
 1   2   3 n
ARITHMETIC TRIANGLE
10.
n 1 n 1 n 1 n
             
 1n  n   1
ARITHMETIC TRIANGLE – now generally known as PASCAL’S TRIANGLE.
 
0 2  
1 3  
2 4  
3 n  1  n  n  1
It is an infinite numerical table in “triangular form” where the nth row of
the triangle lists the successive coefficients in the binomial expansion of 11. All entries in the 2n th row are odd integers.

( x  y) n EXAMPLE:

1. In the expansion of x  4 y 12 , the numerical coefficient of the 5th term

is what?

Solution:
Since we are looking for the 5th term, then r=5.
 12  1251
5th term   x  4 y 51
 5  1
12 
5th term   x 8 4 y 4
4
12 
5th term   x 8 4 y 4
4
5th term  126720 x 8 y 4
So the numerical coefficient of the 5th term is 126720.

2. How many even numbers are there in the 64th row of the Arithmetic
Triangle?
SOME PROPERTIES OF THE ARITHMETIC TRIANGLE:
Solution:
1. Each entry in the interior of the triangle is the sum of the numbers
Based on property number 11 above, we can say there are NO EVEN
nearest (diagonally) to it in the row above. In “combination” notation:
entry on the 64th row of the arithmetic triangle!
 n   n   n  1
        ; 0  r  n , n  0
 r   r  1  r  1 3. Evaluate:
15  14   13  12 
2. The numbers on the nth row gives the coefficients in the expansion           
12  12  12  12 
of the binomial ( x  y ) n 1 . Thus, in the 5th row for example: Solution:
( x  y ) 4  x 4  4 x 3 y  6 x 2 y 2  4 xy 3  y 4 Looking at property number 5, we can say that:
or generally;  15  14   13  12  16 
             
n n n  n  n 1  n  n 12  12  12  12   13 
( x  y ) n    x n    x n 1 y    x n 2 y 2      xy    y
 
0  
1  
2  n  1 n  15  14   13  12  16!
           
12  12  12  12  13! 3!

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 14

  15  14   13  12  LHS:
            560 
12  12  12  12 
 an 1x n  a1  a2 x  a3 x 2  a4 x 3  
n 0
NUMBER OF ODD ENTRIES IN A ROW OF A PASCAL’S TRIANGLE 
 an 1x n 
a0  a1x  a2 x2  a3x3   a0  A( x)
In here, we developed the easiest way in finding the number of odd n 0 x x
entries in a particular row of a Pascal’s Triangle. Here’s how it goes: RHS:
For the nth row of a Pascal’s Triangle:   1
STEP 1: Convert n  1 in base 2.  (2an  1) x n  2 A( x )   x n  2 A( x) 
n 0 n 0 1 x
STEP 2: Count the number of 1’s in the base 2 representation of n.
Equate both sides:
Denote this as x.
STEP 3: The number of odd entries in this row is found by the A( x ) 1 x
 2 A( x )   A( x ) 
formula: x 1 x (1  x )(1  2 x )
no. of odd entries  2 x To find explicit formula for a n ' s we use partial fraction decomposition:
TAKE NOTE: For the nth row of a Pascal’s Triangle, there are a total of
n entries. x  2 1 
 x  
(1  x )(1  2 x )  1  2 x 1  x
EXAMPLE:

1. How many odd entries are there in the 2009th row of the Pascal’s
x
(1  x )(1  2 x )
 
 2 x  2 2 x 2  23 x 3    x  x 2  x 3   
Triangle?
x
 (2  1) x  (2 2  1) x 2  (23  1) x 3  
Solution: (1  x )(1  2 x )
n  2009 therefore n  1  2008
It is now clear that the coefficient of x n is equal to 2 n  1 .
STEP 1: In base 2, 2008 = 11111011000
STEP 2: The number of 1’s in 11111011000 is 7.
EXAMPLE 2: TWO-TERM RECURRENCE
STEP 3: By applying the formula:
no. of odd entries  2 7  128 A certain sequence of numbers a0 , a1,  satisfies the conditions
an 1  2an  n (n  0 ; a0  1)
SOLVING RECURRENCE USING GENERATING FUNCTIONS
Find the sequence.

1. Make sure that the set of values of the free variable (say n) for which Solution:
the given recurrence relation is true, is clearly delineated. To find the sequence an  , let’s find the generating function
2. Give a name to the generating function that you will look for, and
write out that function in terms of the unknown sequence (e.g, call A( x )   an x n
n 0
it A(x ) and define it to be n 0 an x n ).
Multiply both sides of the recurrence relation by x n and sum over the
3. Multiply both sides of the recurrence by x n , sum over all values of values of n for which the recurrence is valid, namely over n  0 .
n for which the recurrence holds. LHS:
4. Express both sides of the resulting equation explicitly in terms of 
your generating function A(x).  an 1x n  a1  a2 x  a3 x 2  a4 x 3  
5. Solve the resulting equation for the unknown generating function n 0
A(x).
6. If you want an exact formula for the sequence that is defined by the

 an 1x n 
a0  a1x  a2 x2  a3x3   a0  A( x)  1
n 0 x x
given recurrence relation, then attempt to get such a formula by
expanding A(x) into a power series by any method you can think of. RHS:
In particular, if A(x) is a rational function (quotient of two  
polynomials), then success will result from expanding in partial  (2an  n) x n  2 A( x )   nx n
n 0 n 0
fractions and then handling each of the resulting terms separately.
   d 
 (2an  n) x n  2 A( x)   x  x n
EXAMPLE 1: TWO-TERM RECURRENCE n 0 n  0  dx 
  d  
A certain sequence of numbers a0 , a1,  satisfies the conditions  (2an  n) x n  2 A( x )  x   x n
n 0  dx n  0
an 1  2an  1 (n  0 ; a0  0)
  d  1 x
Find the sequence.  (2an  n) x n  2 A( x)  x   2 A( x ) 
n 0  
dx 1  x (1  x ) 2
Solution:
Equate both sides:
To find the sequence an  , let’s find the generating function
A( x )  1 x 2x2  2x  1
 2 A( x )   A( x ) 
A( x )   an x n x (1  x ) 2 (1  x ) 2 (1  2 x )
n 0
To find explicit formula for an ' s we use partial fraction decomposition:
Multiply both sides of the recurrence relation by x n and sum over the
values of n for which the recurrence is valid, namely over n  0 . 2x2  2x  1 2 1
 
(1  x ) 2 (1  2 x ) 1  2 x (1  x ) 2


 (2  22 x  23 x 2  )  1  2 x  3x 2  4 x 3   
Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 15
It is now clear that the coefficient of x n is equal to 2n 1  (n  1) .
EXAMPLE:

EXAMPLE 3: THREE-TERM RECURRENCE 1. Find the polynomial equation that satisfy the points
0,4, 1,1 and 2,12 .
For the Fibonacci recurrence
Fn 1  Fn  Fn 1 (n  1 ; F0  0 ; F1  1) Solution:
Solve for the generating function. Applying Lagrange’s Formula where:
x1 , y1   0,4
Solution:
x2 , y 2   1,1
To find the sequence Fn  , let’s find the generating function x3 , y3   2,12
F ( x)   Fn x n
y
x  1x  2  4  x  0x  2 1  x  0x  1 12
n 0
0  10  2 1  01  2 2  02  1
Multiply both sides of the recurrence relation by x n and sum over the
values of n for which the recurrence is valid, namely over n  1 .
   
y  2 x 2  3x  2  x 2  2 x  6 x 2  x 
LHS: y  3x 2  2 x  4
 F ( x)  x
 Fn 1x n  F2 x  F3 x 2  F4 x 3    DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
n 1 x
RHS: DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS – system of equation(s) wherein the number

  
 of unknowns is not equal to the number of available equations.
 Fn  Fn 1  x n  F1 x  F2 x 2  F3 x 3    F0 x  F1 x 2  F2 x 3  
n 1
For the Diophantine Equation of the form:
 F ( x)  xF( x) ax  by  c
Equate both sides: where a, b, c   and gcda, b divides c.
F ( x)  x x
 F ( x )  xF ( x )  F ( x ) 
x 1 x  x2 PROCESS:
a. First, solve for the greatest common divisor of a and b by
To find explicit formula for an ' s we use partial fraction decomposition: Euclidean Algorithm.
x x b. Next, express the result in its Diophantine form. That is:
 ax1  by1  gcda, b
1 x  x2  1  5  1  5 
1  x  1  x NOTE: To easily get this form, reverse the process of Euclidean
 2  2  Algorithm.
  
c. Now, since gcda, b divides c, multiply gcda, b by the
 
  necessary multiplier c1 so that:
x
  1

1 1 

1 x  x2 1 5 1 5  1 5

1 5  c1 ax1  by1   c1 gcda, b
  1 x 1
where c1 gcda, b  c
x
2 2  2 2 
d. Lastly, the general solutions for x and y is given by the
 n n 
x 1    1  5  n   1  5  n  equations below:
  x   x  
1 x  x2 5 n  0  2   
n 0  2 

 x  c1 x1  
b
n
  gcda, b  
It is now clear that the coefficient of xn is equal to  a 
y  c1 y1   n
 n n  gcda, b  
1  1  5   1  5   where n is any integer.
 .
5  2   2  
 
EXAMPLE:

LAGRANGE’S INTERPOLATION 1. Solve for all values of x and y:

42 x  70 y  28
A general method for finding the explicit polynomial equation of any
degree if we are given set of points that satisfy the polynomial equation. It Solution:
was formulated by Joseph Louis Lagrange. a. By Euclidean Algorithm: gcd42,70  14
b. Reversing the Euclidean Algorithm:
The method for each cases are as follows. Take note of the pattern
onto how these equations were constructed. 42  28  14
42  70  42   14
a. LINEAR 422   70 1  14
Given: set of points x1, y1  and x2 , y2 
c. Multiply 2 to both sides of the equation: 424  702  28
x  x2 x  x1
y y1  y2
x1  x 2 x 2  x1 d. Finally, the general solutions are:
b. QUADRATIC
 70 
Given: set of points x1, y1 , x2 , y2  and x3 , y3  x  4   n
 14 
y
x  x2 x  x3  y  x  x1x  x3  y  x  x1x  x2  y  42 
x1  x2 x1  x3  1 x2  x1x2  x3  2 x3  x1x3  x2  3 y  2   n
 14 
for any integer n.
… and so on and so forth …

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 16

 WORK PROBLEMS EXAMPLE:

PRINCIPLE: 1. The sum of parents’ ages is twice the sum of their children’s ages. Five
A : rate of wor ker A years ago, the sum of the parents’ ages is four times the sum of their
children’s ages. In 15 years, the sum of the parents’ ages will be equal
t A : time A worked to the sum of their children’s ages. How many children are there?
At A  : amount of work done by A for time t
Solution:
Key Relationships: Let:
n : number of children
For a completed work, the amount of work done is equal to 1. Thus, A : average age of the children at present
At A   1  A 
1 1 A – 5 : average age of the children 5 years ago
or t A 
tA A A + 5 : average age of the children in 15 years

EXAMPLE: Consider the sum of ages of parents and children:

1. Ding can finish a job in 8 hours. Tito can do it in 5 hours. If Ding worked WAS IS WILL BE
for 3 hours and then Tito was asked to help him finish it, how long Tito PARENTS 4nA  5 2nA nA  15
will have to work with Ding? CHILDREN nA  5 nA nA  15
Solution: Consider the time elapsed from past to present for parents:
Let t be the time Tito worked with Ding to finish the job. Therefore: 2nA  4nA  5  10
11 1 1 nA  10n  5  eqn.1
D  and T  
tD 8 tT 5 Consider the time elapsed from present to future for parents:
And from the problem: nA  15  2nA  30
D3  D  T t   1 nA  15n  30  eqn.2
Solving equations 1 and 2 we have: n  5
1
3   1  1 t   1
8 5 8 Therefore, there are 5 children in the family.
25
t hrs. NUMBER-DIGIT PROBLEM
13
PRINCIPLE:
MIXTURE PROBLEMS If there is a three-digit number for example:
Let:
PRINCIPLE:
x : hundred’s digit
c : percent concentration of solute y : ten’s digit
A : amount of mixture z : unit’s digit
cA: amount of solute or any fractional part the number  100x  10 y  z
the number with reversed digits  100z  10 y  x
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
1. How much tin and how much lead must be added to 700 kg. of an
alloy containing 50% tin and 25% lead to make an alloy which is 60% 1. The sum of the digits of a three-digit number is 17. The hundred’s digit
tin and 20% lead? is twice the unit’s digit Subtract 396 from the number and the order of
the digits will be reversed. Find the number.
Solution:
Let x be the amount of tin and y be the amount of lead to be added Solution:
on the original alloy. From the problem:
x  y  z  17  eqn.1
Considering tin content:
x  2z  eqn.2
0.5(700)  x  0 y  0.6(700  x  y)
100 x  10 y  z   396  100z  10 y  x
0.4 x  0.6 y  70  eqn.1
x  z  4  eqn.3
Considering lead content: Substitute the value of x from equation 2 to equation 3 we have:
0.25(700)  0x  y  0.2(700  x  y) z4
0.2 x  0.8 y  35  eqn.2 And it follows that x  8 and y  17  x  z  5 . Thus the number we
are looking for is 854.
Solving for equations 1 and 2, we have:
x  175 kg. ; y  0 kg CLOCK PROBLEMS
Thus, add 175 kg. of tin and no lead.
PRINCIPLE:
Let:
SUM OF AGES PROBLEMS
H : distance traveled by the hour hand
PRINCIPLE: M : distance traveled by the minute hand
Represent the average age of group of people whose number is unknown. S : distance traveled by the second hand
sum of ages
average   sum of ages  n(average)
n

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 17

CASE 1: If the minute and hour hand were involved, you may use the STEP 2: Now, the determinant of A is obtained by getting the sum
formula: of all the cofactors:
n n
M
2
reference  required  det( A)  A   Cij   Cij
11 j 1 i 1
Please take note the following:
 Use positive sign when minute hand is ahead of the hour hand. EXAMPLE:
 Use negative sign when minute hand is behind the hour hand.
 reference : angle between the hands of the clock during preceding  11 23 30
 
1. Find the determinant of matrix A: A   13 0 4  .
exact time.
 M in the formula will give us an answer in unit of minutes.  1 7 10
Solution:
CASE 2: Otherwise, use the following formulas: Choosing row 2 of matrix A:
M 3
H ; S  60M
12 det( A)   C2 j  C 21  C 22  C 23
j 1
EXAMPLE: 23 30 11 30 11 23
det( A)  ( 1)21  13  ( 1)22  0  ( 1)23  4
1. At what time after 3’oclock will the hands of the clock be bisected by 7 10  1 10 1 7
the second hand? det( A)  13(23  10  7  30)  0  4(11  7  1  23)
det( A)  13(20)  4100  660
Solution:
If you will draw the analog clock, we can see that:
GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD
M
15   M  2  eqn.1
12 GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD – is a method for solving the values of the
But   60M  M  59M , thus: unknowns in simultaneous linear equations by the use of matrix-
elementary row operations. This method was named after mathematicians
 M  259 M 
M
15  Carl Friedrich Gauss and Camille Jordan.
12
PROCESS:
180 STEP 1: For the simultaneous linear equations (where the number of
M  min.
1427 unknowns equal the number of equations),
 180  10800
S  60M  60  sec s a11x1  a12 x 2    a1n x n  b1
 1427  1427
a 21x1  a 22 x 2    a 2n x n  b2
10800
So the required time is 3 : 00 : .   
1427
a n1 x1  a n 2 x 2    a nn x n  bn
Obtain a corresponding matrix of the form:
LAPLACE’S METHOD OF COFACTORS AND MINORS
 a11 a12  a1n b1 
LAPLACE’S METHOD OF COFACTORS AND MINORS – is a special method  
a 21 a 22  a 2n b2 
for obtaining the determinant of any square matrix.      
 
Suppose that for a matrix of size n  4 , we choose a specific row i  or  n1
a a n2  a nn n 
b

column  j  , say i  4 : STEP 2: Transform the matrix from the left of the augmenting line to
an identity matrix by performing series of matrix
 a11 a12 a13 a14  elementary row operations, that is:
  1 0  0 x1 
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 24 
 
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 34  0 1  0 x 2 
       
a 41 a 42 a 43 a 44 
 
Starting from a 41 , all elements in the chosen row will produce its minor 0 0  1 x n 
Note: As you can see, the values from the right of the augmenting
denoted by M ij and cofactor denoted by C ij . So for a 41 : line will serve as the solutions to the problem.
a12 a13 a14 EXAMPLE:
MINOR : M 41  a 22 a 23 a 24
a 32 a 33 a 34 1. Find the values of x, y and z from the simultaneous linear equations:
x yz 8
COFACTOR : C41  (1) i  j a 41  M 41  a 41  M 41 2 x  3 y  5z  1
Therefore, we can summarize the method as: 3x  2 y  4z  7
Solution:
LAPLACE’S METHOD OF COFACTORS AND MINORS
The simultaneous linear equations above are equivalent to an
To find the determinant of matrix A, augmented matrix:
STEP 1: From the square matrix A of size n, choose a specific row or 1 1 1 8
column, say row 1 (i  1) .  
 2 3  5  1
 a11 a12 a13  a1 j  3  2 4 7 
   
a 21 a 22 a 23  a 2 j 
Performing matrix elementary row operations:
      
 
 i1
a a i2 a i 3  a ij 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 18

 1 1 1 8 1 1 1 8
   
 2 3  5  1 2
 1 R  R 
2  0  1 7 17
 3  2 4 7  3R1  R3 0 5  1 17
   
1 1 1 8 1 1 1 8 
   
0  1 7 17   R 
2  0 1  7  17
0 5  1 17 0 5  1 17 
   
1 1 1 8  R1  R2 1 0 8 25 
   
 0 1  7  17    0 1  7  17 
0 5  1 17  5R2  R3 0 0  34  102
   
1 0 8 25  1 0 8 25 
   
0 1  7  17   0 1  7  17
0 0  34  102 1 0 0 1 3 
  R3 
34
1 0 8 25  R1  8R3 1 0 0 1  x
   
0 1  7  17 R 2 7 R3  0 1 0 4  y
0 0 1 3  0 0 1 3  z
  
Therefore,
x  1; y  4 ;z  3

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 19

 2 TRIGONOMETRY

CONTENTS:

Ancient Trigonometric Functions

Primitive Pythagorean Triples
Finding All Pythagorean Triples
The Six Trigonometric Functions
Special Angle Values on a Unit Circle
Trigonometric Identities
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Triangle Solutions
Summation of Sine and Cosine
36° as a Special Angle
Multiple Angle Formulas – Chebyshev Polynomials
General Formula for Product of Sine and Cosine
Product of Cosines with Angle Multiplied by Powers of 2
Expansion of tan(nx)

PREPARED BY:

Joselito Torculas
BSECE, Adamson University
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc.
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 TRIGONOMETRY EXAMPLES:

ANCIENT TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 1. What is ver sin 60 ?

Solution:
There are some trigonometric function used before the computer age that Simply using the formula for versine:
were mainly used in navigation. But geometrically speaking it has some
application in relation to the circle, tangent and secant line. The unit circle vers60  1  cos 60
below will illustrate this: 1 1
vers60  1  
2 2

2. Find the value of ex sec 45 .

Solution:
ex sec 45  sec 45  1
ex sec 45  2  1

3. A circle of radius 3 has two chords AB and CD wherein AB passes thru

the center of the circle and CD intersects AB at E. If CD is nearer in B
and CD equals 4, find the length of EB.
From the figure above, there are some unfamiliar functions introduced. Solution:
These are: If you will draw the figure, you will see that EB is equal to rcvs where

1. VERSINE ( vers ) 32  2 2 5
r  3 . But DE  2 and sin    . Thus;
The versed sine, also called the versine and, in Latin, the sinus versus 3 3
("flipped sine") or the sagitta ("arrow"), is a trigonometric function  5 
versin(θ) (sometimes further abbreviated "vers"). The versine function EB  rcvs  31  sin    31 
is computed using the formula:  3 
 
  EB  3  5
ver sin    vers   1  cos  2 sin 2  
2
PRIMITIVE PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES
2. COVERSINE ( cvs )
The coversine, denoted cvs(x), of an angle is defined as one minus the A PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLE (a,b,c) is said to be PRIMITIVE if the three
sine of the angle. Very few applications of this function exist, and it is integers a, b and c are PAIR-WISE RELATIVELY PRIME, that is each pair has
generally only used to provide a co-function for the versine. The gcd of 1.
coversine function is computed as:
From ancient times, there are some methods for finding Pythagorean
 
cov er sin    cvs   1  sin   vers    triples (a,b,c). Some of these are:
 2 
a. PYTHAGORAS’ METHOD:
3. EXSECANT ( ex sec )
The exsecant, also abbreviated exsec, is a trigonometric function a  2n  1 ; b  2n 2  2n ; c  2n 2  2n  1
defined in terms of the secant function sec(θ): for n  0 .
ex sec  sec  1
or use the formula: b. PLATO’S METHOD:
a  2n ; b  n 2  1 ; n 2  1
1  cos vers  
ex sec    2 sin 2   sec for n  1 .
cos cos 2

4. EXCOSECANT ( ex csc ) c. EUCLID AND DIOPHANTUS’ METHOD:

A related function is the excosecant (excsc), the exsecant of the
a  2mn ; b  m 2  n 2 ; c  m2  n 2
complementary angle:
where m  n , m and n are positive integers
 
ex csc  ex sec     csc  1
2  But in the case of primitive Pythagorean triples, it was Leonardo of Pisa
(commonly called Fibonacci) who device some conditions for obtaining
5. HAVERSINE ( hav )
these triples.
The haversed sine or haversine (half the versed sine), most famous
from the haversine formula used historically in navigation.
Some Characteristics of Primitive Pythagorean Triples:
vers  
hav   sin 2  
2 2 a. If a, b, c  is a primitive Pythagorean triple, then ONE OF THE
INTEGERS A AND B IS EVEN AND THE OTHER IS ODD.
6. HACOVERSINE ( cohav ) b. In a primitive Pythagorean triple a, b, c  , EITHER A OR B IS DIVISIBLE
The hacoversed sine (half the coversed sine, also called the BY 3.
hacoversine, cohaversine or havercosine).
Now, for the method on solving Primitive Pythagorean Triples:
  cvs
cohav  hav    
2  2 Based on the argument of Fibonacci, we will use the following
formulas:
a  2st ; b  s 2  t 2 ; c  s2  t 2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 wherein for each value of s  2 , we have taken those values of t that TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
are relatively prime to s, less than s and “even” whenever s is odd.
TRIGONOMETRY - (from Greek Τριγωνομετρία "tri = three" + "gon = angle"
+ "metr[y] = to measure") is a branch of mathematics that deals with
EXAMPLE:
triangles, particularly those plane triangles in which one angle has 90
degrees (right triangles). Trigonometry deals with relationships between
1. Find all primitive Pythagorean triples wherein 15 is one of the leg.
the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions,
Solution: which describe those relationships.
It is obvious that a  15 because a by nature is even. Thus:
b  s 2  t 2  15 ANGLE CONVERSIONS
s  t s  t   15 where 15  53  151
Suppose that: 360  2 radians  6400 mils  400 grads
s  t  15 and s  t  1 thus s  8 and t  7
s  t  5 and s  t  3 thus s  4 and t  1 THE SIX TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
So that the primitive Pythagorean triples are:
a, b, c   8,15,17
a, b, c   112,15,113

FINDING ALL PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES

This method was devised by BRAHMAGUPTA for finding all Pythagorean

triples involving a given measure of one leg (a).

For a triplet of the form:

opposite a
1. sin A  
a 2  b2  c 2 hypotenuse c
where a and b are the legs of a right triangle and c is the hypotenuse, adjacent b
2. cos A  
hypotenuse c
We can look for all possible combinations of b and c for a given value
opposite sin A a
of a. 3. tan A   
adjacent cos A b

Look for all values of m that are factors of a 2 , and where a  m 

hypotenuse 1 c
a. 4. csc A   
opposite sin A a
is a positive even number. Also, it must satisfy the following:
hypotenuse 1 c
a2 5. sec A   
i. If a is even, must be even. adjacent cos A b
m
adjacent 1 b
a2 6. cot A   
ii. If a is odd, must be odd. opposite tan A a
m
b. For each value of m, calculate the value of b. Thai is: Students often use mnemonics to remember facts and relationships in
trigonometry. For example, the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios in a right
a 2  m2
b triangle can be remembered by representing them as strings of letters, as
2m in SOH-CAH-TOA.
c. Similarly, calculate the corresponding value of c:
c  bm SINE = OPPOSITE / HYPOTENUSE
d. In addition, you can actually determine the radius of the
inscribed circle based on the values of a, b and c. That is:
COSINE = ADJACENT / HYPOTENUSE
abc TANGENT = OPPOSITE / ADJACENT
inradius 
2
SPECIAL ANGLE VALUES ON A UNIT CIRCLE
EXAMPLE:
1. Find all possible Pythagorean triples produced for a given leg whose The figure below tells us of all the special angles along a unit circle (a circle
measure is 15 units. of radius 1) and their respective positions on the Cartesian plane.
Solution:
a  15  35 thus a 2  225  32  52
Possible values for m are: m  1, 3, 5 and 9

a 2  m2
a m b c  bm
2m
15 1 112 113
15 3 36 39
15 5 20 25
15 9 8 17
Thus, possible triplets a, b, c  are 15,112,113 , 15,36,39 , 15,20,25
and 15,8,17 . wherein a point Px, y  along the perimeter of the unit circle corresponds
to the value Pcos A, sin A .

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
cos A cos B 
1
cosA  B  cosA  B 
2
Here are some of the identities that you must know and understand
when solving problems in trigonometry:
1
cosA  B   cosA  B
sin A sin B 
2
STEREOGRAPHIC (OR PARAMETRIC) IDENTITIES:
PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES:
2T
sin 2 A  cos2 A  1 sin A 
1 T 2
2 2
sec A  tan A  1 1 T 2
2 2 cos A 
csc A  cot A  1 1 T 2
A
COMPLEMENT IDENTITIES: where T  tan
2
  EXAMPLE:
sin   A  cos A
2 
1. Evaluate: sin 75  sin 15 .
 
tan  A  cot A
 2  Solution:

 
sec  A  csc A
  
sin 75  sin 15  sin 45  30  sin 45  30 
 2   
 sin 45 cos30  cos 45 sin 30 
  
ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS:
sin  A   sin A ; csc A   csc A
sin 45 cos30  cos45 sin 30 
   

 2   3   2  1  
cos A  cos A ; sec A  sec A        
 2  2   2  2 
tan A   tan A ; cot A   cot A
SINE, COSINE AND TANGENT OF A SUM:  2  3   2   1  
     
sin A  B  sin Acos B  cos Asin B  2  2   2  2 
cosA  B  cos Acos B  sin Asin B
6
tan A  tan B sin 75  sin 15 
tanA  B   2
1  tan A tan B
HALF-ANGLE IDENTITIES: sin 4 x  sin 3x
2. Express in terms of sin x and cos x .
A 1  cos A cos 4 x  cos 3x
sin  
2 2
Solution:
A 1  cos A Using sum to product identities on the numerator and denominator of
cos  
2 2 the given expression, we have:
A  4 x  3x   4 x  3x 
sin 2 sin   cos 
A2  sin A  1  cos A sin 4 x  sin 3x  2   2 
tan  
2A 1  cos A sin A cos 4 x  cos 3x  4 x  3x   4 x  3x 
cos 2 cos  cos 
2  2   2 
DOUBLE-ANGLE IDENTITIES: x
sin
sin 4 x  sin 3x 2  tan x
sin 2 A  2 sin Acos A 
cos 4 x  cos 3x x 2
cos
cos 2 A  cos2 A  sin 2 A 2
sin 4 x  sin 3x sin x 1  cos x
 2 cos2 A  1  
cos 4 x  cos 3x 1  cos x sin x
 1  2 sin 2 A
2 tan A 3. If 3cos x  4 sin x , find the value of 900 cos x sin x .
tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A Solution:
SUM TO PRODUCT IDENTITIES: 3cos x  4 sin x
 A B   A B 
sin A  sin B  2 sin   cos  sin x 3
 ; sin x 
3
; cos x 
4
 2   2  cos x 4 h h
 A B   A B  sin 2 x  cos2 x  1
cos A  cos B  2 cos  cos 
 2   2  2 2
 3 4
    1  h  5
 A B   A B  h h
cos A  cos B  2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
PRODUCT TO SUM IDENTITIES:
Therefore:
sin A cos B 
1
sin A  B   sin A  B 
2  4  3 
900 cos x sin x  900    432
 5  5 
cos A sin B  sin A  B   sin A  B 
1
2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS So that:
15 4
Here are the table of the six inverse trigonometric function and their tan A  ; tan B 
8 3
parameters:
Going back to the problem:
  8   4 
Usual Domain of x Range of usual x  tan Arc cos   Arc sin    tan A  B 
Name Definition   
17  5 
notation for real result principal value
15 4

tan A  tan B 8 3
ARCSIN y = arcsin(x) x = sin(y) −1 to +1 −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2 x 
1  tan A tan B  15  4 
1    
ARCCOS y = arccos(x) x = cos(y) −1 to +1 0≤y≤π  8  3 
77
ARCTAN y = arctan(x) x = tan(y) all −π/2 < y < π/2 x
36
ARCCOT y = arccot(x) x = cot(y) all 0<y<π
−∞ to −1 or 1 0 ≤ y < π/2 or TRIANGLE SOLUTIONS
ARCSEC y = arcsec(x) x = sec(y)
to ∞ π/2 < y ≤ π
 When dealing with Right Triangles, just use Pythagorean Theorem or
−∞ to −1 or 1 −π/2 ≤ y < 0 or 0
ARCCSC y = arccsc(x) x = csc(y) the six trigonometric Functions (sin, cos, tan, etc.).
to ∞ < y ≤ π/2
 When the triangle is oblique, you can these following Laws:
Note: When we take the inverse trigonometric function of a number, this
means that we are finding its equivalent angle along the unit circle. If the
inverse trigonometric function requires principal values, then we must
follow the restrictions on the table above.

EXAMPLE:

3
1. Find Arc tan .
3
Solution:
Since Arc denotes principal value, then:
LAW OF SINES:
3
A  Arc tan a b c
3    2R
sin A sin B sin C
Therefore:
where: R is the radius of the circumcircle.
3  
tan A  ;   A
3 2 2
sin A 3 3 3 LAW OF COSINES:
 ; sin A  ; cos A 
cos A 3 h h a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A
sin 2 A  cos2 A  1  h  2 3 b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B
Thus: c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cosC
1 3
sin A  ; cos A  LAW OF TANGENTS:
2 2
1 
An angle satisfying this is: tan   A  B 
ab 2 
3  
A  Arc tan  ab 1 
3 6 tan   A  B 
2 

  8   4 
2. Evaluate: tan Arc cos   Arc sin   . SUMMATION OF SINE AND COSINE
  
17  5 
Solution:  SUMMATION OF SINE and COSINE
Let:
n sin
nx
 sin
n  1x
  8   4 
x  tan Arc cos   Arc sin  
(a) 
sin ix   2
x
2
  
17  5  i 1 sin
2
and;
n sin
nx
 cos
n  1x

8 4
A  Arc cos ; B  Arc sin (b) cosix   2 2
17 5 x
i 1 sin
Therefore: 2
8 4 EXAMPLE:
cos A  ; sin B 
17 5
1. Find all possible solutions for x from the equation
It follows that by familiarity of the Pythagorean triples:
15 3 sin x  sin 2x  sin 3x  cos x  cos2x  cos3x
sin A  ; cos B 
17 5
in the interval 0,2  .

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

 Solution: where n is the dimension of the determinant and T 0(x) = 1.
Using the given formulas above, we can express the problem as:
The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are listed below:
3 3
T0 x   1
 sin ix    cosix 
T1x   x
i 1 i 1
3 3 T2 x   2 x 2  1
sin ix   cosix   0 T3 x   4 x3  3 x
i 1 i 1
3x 3x T4 x   8 x 4  8 x 2  1
sin  sin 2 x sin  cos 2 x
2  2 0 T5 x   16 x5  20 x3  5 x
x x
sin sin
2 2 In addition, these polynomials are also satisfied by the recurrence relation:
 3x 
 sin sin 2 x  cos 2 x   0 Tn x  2xTn1x  Tn2 x
 2 

So we must solve these two equations: CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIAL OF THE SECOND KIND
3x Denoted by Un(x), one representation is by using this determinant
i. sin 0
2 equation:
ii. sin 2x  cos2x  0
2x 1 0  0 0
2 4 1 2x 1  0 0
Equation (i) has solutions equal to and while equation (ii) has
3 3 0 1 2x  0 0
U n ( x) 
     1 0
solutions equal to only. Therefore, there are a total of three
8 0 0 0 1 2x 1
solutions for this problem, namely 0 0 0 0 1 2x

2 4  where n is the dimension of the determinant and U 0(x) = 1.

x , ,
3 3 8 The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are listed below:

36 DEGREES AS A SPECIAL ANGLE U 0 x   1

U1x   2 x

Here are some useful facts regarding trigonometric function of 36 . U 2 x   4 x 2  1
U 3 x   8 x 3  4 x
1 5
  1 5
cos 36 
4
; cos 72 
4 U 4 x   16 x 4  12 x 2  1
U 5 x   32 x5  32 x3  6 x

MULTIPLE ANGLE FORMULAS Just like the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind, these polynomials are
also satisfied by the recurrence relation:
On this topic, our aim is to expand the multiple angles
sin( nx) and cos(nx) U n x  2 xUn1x  U n2 x
into powers of sin x and cos x. There are several ways to do that and in this
lecture, we will try to use the concept of Chebyshev polynomials in
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE SECOND KINDS
accomplishing the tasks.
Chebyshev polynomials of the first and second kinds are beautifully related
CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIALS by means of the first derivative:

Named after PAFNUTY CHEBYSHEV, Chebyshev polynomials are

sequence of orthogonal polynomials and which are easily defined
U n x  
1 d
Tn1x
n  1 dx
recursively, like Fibonacci or Lucas numbers. Although these polynomials
have broad applications, we will just expand our thoughts on applying APPLICATION #1: EXPANSION OF cos(nx)
these polynomials in solving multiple angle formulas of trigonometric
functions. Simply stated, for n to be a non-negative integer, cos(nx) can be expressed
in terms of integral powers of cosines using the Chebyshev polynomial of
CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIAL OF THE FIRST KIND the first kind:
Denoted by Tn(x), one representation is by using this determinant cosnx  Tn cos x
equation:

x 1 0  0 0 EXAMPLE:
1 2x 1  0 0
0 1 2x  0 0 1. Expand cos(4x) in terms of powers of cosines.
Tn ( x) 
    1 0 Solution:
0 0 0 1 2x 1 By the use of Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind:
0 0 0 0 1 2x cos 4x  T4 cos x

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 We just need to be familiarized with T0(x) = 1 and T1(x) = x. From here, Given that n is a positive integer,
we can move forward without ease by using the recurrence relation
For the SINE FUNCTION
Tn x  2xTn1x  Tn2 x
So that, n 2 n
 k   k 
sin  n   sin  n   0
n
 2
2 ;
T2 ( x)  2 xT1( x)  T0 ( x)  2 x( x)  1  2 x  1 n 1
k 1 k 1
T3 ( x)  2 xT2 ( x)  T1( x)  2x(2x2  1)  x  4 x3  3x
For the COSINE FUNCTION
T4 ( x)  2 xT3 ( x)  T2 ( x)  2 x(4x3  3x)  (2 x2  1)  8x4  8x2  1
Therefore, 
n 2 0 if n is even
cos 4 x  T4 cos x  8 cos4 x  8 cos2 x  1  k  
 cos  1
 2 n1
if n is odd
k 1
 n  

APPLICATION #2: EXPANSION OF sin(nx)

In this case, for n to be non-negative integer, sin(nx) cannot be always n  0 if n is even

 k  
expressed as integral powers of sines. This happens when n is even.
Therefore, we have two cases:
 cos    1
 n   2i n 1
if n is odd
k 1 


 i n 1 Tn sin x  Examples:
sin nx    n  2
; if n is ODD

 i (cos x )U n 1 sin x  ; if n is EVEN 1. Evaluate

where i is the imaginary number sqrt(-1).     2   3 

sin   sin   sin  
7  7   7 
EXAMPLES:
Solution:
1. Expand sin 3x in terms of angle x only.
Using our formula with n = 7:
Solution: 7 2 3
    2   3   k   k 
Since 3 is ODD, we will use the formula sin   sin 
  
7 7
 sin 
  7

 k 1 

sin 
7
 sin 
 k 1  7 
 
sin nx   i n1 Tn sin x 
Solving for T3:     2   3  n 7
sin   sin   sin   
T2 ( x)  2 xT1( x)  T0 ( x)  2 x( x)  1  2 x  1 2 7  7   7   2 n 1
 2 71
T3 ( x)  2 xT2 ( x)  T1( x)  2 x(2 x2  1)  x  4x3  3x     2   3  7
sin   sin   sin  
Therefore,   
7 7   7  8

 
sin 3x  i31 T3 sin x    1 4 sin 3 x  3sin x  3sin x  4 sin 3 x 2. Evaluate

2. Expand sin 4x in terms of angle x only.     2   3   4   5 

cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 
 11   11   11   11   11 
Solution:
Since 4 is EVEN, we will use the formula Solution:
sin nx   i n 2
(cos x)U n1sin x  Using our formula with n = 11 and 11 is odd:
11 2
Take note that we just need to be familiarized with U0(x) = 1 and U1(x)     2   3   4   5   k 
= 2x. From here, we can move forward without ease by using the
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 
 11   11   11   11   11 
cos 
 11 

k 1
recurrence relation
U n x  2 xUn1x  U n2 x
5
    2   3   4   5   k 
So that, by solving U3:
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos  cos
 11   11   11   11   11  k 1  11 
 
U 2 ( x)  2 xU1( x)  U0 ( x)  2 x(2x)  1  4 x2  1     2   3   4   5  1 1
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos  
2
U3 ( x)  2 xU2 ( x)  U1( x)  2 x(4 x  1)  2 x  8x  4 x 3  11   11   11   11   11   2 111 32

Therefore, 3. Evaluate

sin 4 x  i 4 2
(cosx)U3 sin x   (1)(cosx)(8sin x  4 sin x)
3 cosacos2acos3a  cos998acos999a
2
sin 4 x  4 sin x cos x  8 sin 3 x cos x where a  .
1999
Solution:
 k   k  2
GENERAL FORMULA FOR sin  n  and  cos n  Given that a 
1999
:

There are times we are asked on the exact value of product of sines and cos a cos 2a cos3a     cos998a cos999a 
cosines of certain angles. One such example is 2 4 6 1996 1998
 cos cos cos    cos cos
    2   3  1999 1999 1999 1999 1999
sin   sin   sin  
7  7   7   2 998  1000 1998 
  cos    cos  cos    cos 
Of course, solving for the value of each of the factors is not practical and  1999 1999  1999 1999 
even difficult to obtain. Therefore, a general formula was devised to solve The angles in the first parentheses are angles in the first quadrant
these kinds of problems. We will now present these formulas: while angles in the second parentheses are angles in the second

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

 quadrant. In addition, there are a total of 499 factors inside the first EXAMPLE:
parentheses while there are 500 factors in the second parentheses.
Using the concepts of reference angles, we say that 1. Express tan5x  in terms of tan x .
1998  1998  
cos   cos      cos Solution:
1999  1999  1999 Looking at the 6th row of the Pascal’s Triangle, the coefficients on the
1996  1996  3 numerator part of the formula above is just the even-placed entries in
cos   cos      cos
1999  1999  1999 that row while the coefficients on the denominator is just the odd-
 placed entries on that same row of the Pascal’s Triangle. Thus:
1000  1000  999 5 tan x  10 tan 3 x  tan 5 x
cos   cos      cos tan 5x 
1999  1999  1999 1  10 tan 2 x  5 tan 4 x
So that
2 4 6 1996 1998
cos cos cos    cos cos
1999 1999 1999 1999 1999
   2  3  998  999 
   cos  cos   cos     cos   cos 
 1999  1999  1999  1999  1999 
1999 2 999
 k   k 
  cos  cos  
 1999  k 1  1999 
k 1
1 1
 
 219991
2999

PRODUCT OF COSINES WITH ANGLE MULTIPLIED BY POWERS OF 2

Another useful identity for COSINE (for any value of angle x) in
which x is multiplied by powers of 2 is given below.

cos2k x  2n 
n

1  sin 2n 1 x 

sin 2 x 
k 1

Example:

1. Evaluate:
cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 )

Solution:
Using the identity given by this lecture:

cos2k 10 
3
cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 ) 
k 1


1  sin 24  10   1  sin 160 
cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 )  

23  sin 2  10   8  sin 20 
1
cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 ) 
8

EXPANSION OF tan(nx)

In this procedure, we will use a modified Pascal’s Triangle to easily

determine the expansion of tan(nx) in terms of powers of tan x . As you
can see, every two entries in each row alternates sign.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3  3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5  10  10 5 1


To express tan(nx) in terms of tan x , look at the n  1th row and apply
the formula:
n tan x  n C 3 tan 3 x  n C5 tan 5 x  
tan(nx ) 
1 n C 2 tan 2 x  n C 4 tan 4 x  

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

 3 GEOMETRY

CONTENTS:

Triangle Side-Angle Relations

Cevians
Inscribed-Angle Theorem
Power of a Point Theorem
Tangent-Secant Theorem
Ceva and Menelaus Theorem
Routh’s Theorem
Triangle-Point Relations
Additional Triangle Relations
Polygons
Lines and Line Segments
Division/Extension of a Line Segment
Quadric Surfaces

PREPARED BY:

Joselito Torculas
BSECE, Adamson University
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc.
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 GEOMETRY CEVIANS

There are so many ways we can incorporate a line segment in a triangle.

TRIANGLE’S SIDE-ANGLE RELATIONS The most common is the “CEVIAN”. But what is a cevian?
CEVIAN – a line segment which connects one vertex to the opposite side
(or its extension) of the triangle.
Generally speaking, the length of a cevian is determined using
STEWART’S THEOREM.
Let be given a triangle ABC and a point D on AB such that m = AD, n
= BD, and x = CD. Then Stewart's theorem, states that:

For any triangle with side lengths a, b and c with corresponding opposite
angles A, B and C respectively, we have these basic formulas:

(a) SEMIPERIMETER (s)

abc
s
2

(b) SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES a 2 m  b 2 n  x 2 c  cmn


A  B  C  180
On this handout, we will tackle the three most popular and special types
(c) SINE LAW of cevian. These are the ALTITUDE, MEDIAN and the ANGLE BISECTOR.
a b c (a) ALTITUDE
   2R
sin A sin B sin C Altitude – also known as height. It is a cevian drawn from one vertex
perpendicular to the opposite side of the triangle. The three altitudes
where R is the radius of the circumscribing circle (EXTENSION OF SINE
of a triangle meet at a common point called ORTHOCENTER.
LAW).
Length of Altitudes:
(d) COSINE LAW
2K
a 2  b2  c 2  2bc cos A ha 
a
b2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B
2K
hb 
c 2  a 2  b2  2ab cosC b
(e) AREA FORMULAS 2K
hc 
c
i. SSA CASE
(b) MEDIAN
 1
 ab sin C Median – is a cevian drawn from one vertex to the midpoint of the
 2
 1 opposite side of a triangle. The three medians of a triangle meet at a
K  ac sin B point called CENTROID.
 2
 1
bc sin A

 2 For a triangle of side lengths a, b and c with corresponding opposite
angles of A, B and C respectively, the length of the medians are
computed using Apollonius Theorem:
ii. ASA CASE
 a 2 sin B sin C

 2 sin A
 b 2 sin A sin C
K 
 2 sin B
 c 2 sin A sin B

 2 sin C

iii. SSS CASE (HERON’S FORMULA)

K  ss  a s  bs  c  b2
a 2  c 2  2m 2 
2
(f) RADIUS OF INSCRIBED and CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLES So that:
K abc Length of Medians:
r R
 
;
s 4K 1
ma  2 b2  c2  a2
2

mb 
1
2
2a 2
 c2  b 2

mc 
1
2
2a 2
 b2  c 2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 Heron’s Formula for Medians
We can actually compute for the area (K) of the triangle if we ma 
1
2
 
2 b2  c2  a2 
1
2

2 4 2  52  32 
are given the length of the three medians. Take note of the formula,
it somehow resemble of that of Heron’s Formula: 73
ma 
2
If triangle ABC has medians ma, mb, and mc and
3. A triangle has side lengths 5, 6 and 7. How long is the angle bisector
m  mb  mc drawn to the side of the triangle with length 6?
m a
2
Solution:
then, the area of the triangle is found by the formula:
Let a  5 , b  6 and c  7 , then the length of the angle bisector
mm  ma m  mb m  mc 
4 drawn to side b is:
K
3
ac[a  c 2  b2 ] 5  7[5  72  62 ]
tb  
(c) ANGLE BISECTOR ac 57
Angle Bisector – is a cevian drawn from one vertex bisecting the
105
vertex angle to the opposite side of the triangle. The three angle tb 
2
bisectors of a triangle meet at a common point called INCENTER.

Euclid’s Angle Bisector Theorem INSCRIBED-ANGLE THEOREM

“The angle bisector BD of an angle in a triangle ABC divides the INSCRIBED ANGLE – also known as peripheral angle. They are angles
opposite side in the same ratio as the sides adjacent to the angle.” whose vertex is on the periphery of a circle and whose two sides are
chords of the said circle, though one side may be a tangent line.
CENTRAL ANGLE – an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle
and whose two sides are radius of the said circle.
INSCRIBED ANGLE THEOREM states that:
“An angle θ inscribed in a circle is half of the central angle 2θ that
subtends the same arc on the circle. Therefore, the angle does not
change as its apex is moved to different positions on the circle.”
c a

m n

Length of Angle Bisectors:

A
A
2bc cos
2  bc[b  c 2  a 2 ]
ta  H b,c  cos 
2 bc bc
B
B
2ac cos
2  ac[a  c 2  b2 ]
tb  H a,c  cos 
2 ac ac POWER OF A POINT THEOREM
C
C
2ab cos
2  ab[a  b2  c 2 ] POWER OF A POINT - in geometry, the power of a point is a real number
tc  H a,b  cos  h that reflects the relative distance of a given point from a given circle.
2 ab ab
Specifically, the power of a point P with respect to a circle C of radius r
TAKE NOTE : H(x,y) is the Harmonic Mean of x and y. Recall that is defined as:
Harmonic Mean is “the reciprocal of the average of the reciprocals of
two numbers.”

Examples:
1. Find the height of the triangle ABC drawn to side BC if AC  7 ,
BC  11 and mACB  60 .
Solution:
The height drawn to BC is found by the formula:
 2  2
h  PO  OT
2K
hBC 
BC The power of a point can be defined equivalently as the product of
distances from the point P to the two intersection points of any ray
But K 
1
2
  
AC BC sin 60  711sin 60 
1
2
77 3
4
s.u. thus:
emanating from P. For example, in the figure above, a ray emanating
from P intersects the circle in two points, M and N, whereas a tangent
 77 3  ray intersects the circle in one point T; the horizontal ray from P
2  intersects the circle at A and B, the endpoints of the diameter. Their
 4  7 3
hBC    respective products of distances are equal to each other and to the
11 2 power of point P in that circle.
2. Find the length of the median of a triangle ABC drawn to side BC if AB POWER OF A POINT THEOREM states that:
= 5, AC = 4 and BC = 3.
“Given a point P and a circle, pass two lines through P that intersect
Solution: the circle in points A and D and, respectively, B and C. Then
If we let a  3 , b  4 and c  5 , then: (AP)(DP) = (BP)(CP). The point P may lie either inside or outside the
circle. The line through A and D (or that through B and C or both)

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 may be tangent to the circle, in which case A and D coalesce into a
single point.”

Solution:
By the Tangent-Secant Theorem:

mx 
1
2
 
108  18  45
AP  DP  BP  CP
AP

BP

AB CEVA AND MENELAUS THEOREM
CP DP CD
We will begin with a simple but useful theorem concerning the “area ratio”
TANGENT-SECANT THEOREM of TWO TRIANGLES WITH A COMMON SIDE. With this theorem in hand,
we will prove the famous Ceva’s Theorem and Menelaus’ Theorem.
TANGENT LINE – is a line intersecting a circle at only one point which
is called the “point of tangency.” A SIMPLE THEOREM ON AREA RATIO

SECANT LINE – is a line intersecting a circle at two different points. Notation: Given a triangle ABC, we denote the length of three sides by a
The three theorems for the intercepted arcs to the angle of two tangents, = BC, b = CA, c = AB. The lengths of three altitudes are h a, hb, and hc. Also,
two secants or 1 tangent and 1 secant are summarized by the pictures the area of a triangle ABC will be denoted by (ABC).
below. If you look at each theorem, you really only need to remember one Recall that the area of a triangle ABC is given by (ABC) = (1/2)chc. It means
formula. that if hc is fixed, then the area is directly proportional to c. For example, in
the figure below:

We can say that

TANGENT-SECANT THEOREM states that:
( ACD ) AD

“The angle formed by the intersection of 2 tangents, 2 secants or 1 ( BCD ) BD
tangent and 1 secant outside the circle equals half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.”
Now, let’s take a look on the figures below:

EXAMPLES:

1. If the central angle AOB of a circle is equal to 45  and C is another

point in the circumference of the circle, find mACB .

Solution:
This is just an application of the Inscribed Angle Theorem. Thus:

mACB 
1
2
1
mAOB  45
2
 
mACB  22.5

2. Two chords AB and CD meet at point P inside the circle. If AP  4 ,

As we will observe, all these figures are composed of two triangles ABP
DP  5 and BP  6 , find the length of CP.
and ABQ with a common side which is AB in which PQ intersects AB at M.
Solution: Without loss of generality:
By virtue of the Power of a Point Theorem: ( ABP)

( ABP) ( AMP) ( AMQ)
 
( ABQ) ( AMP) ( AMQ) ( ABQ)
AP  DP  BP  CP
( ABP) AB PM AM
45  6  CP  CP 
10   
3 ( ABQ) AM QM AB
( ABP) PM

3. From the figure below, arc ABC equals 108 and arc XYZ equals 18 . ( ABQ) QM
If the circle is a unit circle, find angle x. Therefore, if the lines AB and PQ intersect at M, then
( ABP) PM

( ABQ) QM

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

EXAMPLES: ROUTH’S THEOREM
1. Let P be an interior point of triangle ABC, the rays AP, BP and CP meet Named after Edward John Routh, Routh’s Theorem determines the AREA
the sides BC, CA and AB at points D, E and F respectively. OF THE TRIANGLE FORMED BY THE INTERSECTION OF THE CEVIANS of
a triangle.

PD PE PF
What is the value of   ?
AD BE CF

Solution: AV CU BW
From the figure, if x;  y and  z then the area of RST is
VC UB WA
PD PE PF ( PBC) ( APC) ( ABP)
     found by the formula:
AD BE CF ( ABC) ( ABC) ( ABC)
PD PE PF ( PBC)  ( APC)  ( ABP) ( ABC) xyz  12
    ( RST )  ABC
AD BE CF ( ABC) ( ABC) xy  x  1 yz  y  1zx  z  1
PD PE PF
  1 Suppose that x = y = z = n, then the formula above gives
AD BE CF

(n3  1)2 (n  1)2

2. In triangle ABC, E, F and G are points on AB, BC and CA respectively ( RST ) 
2 3
ABC   ( ABC)
such that AE:EB = BF:FC = CG:GA = 1:3. K, L and M are the intersection (n  n  1) (n2  n  1)
points of the lines AF and CE, BG and AF, CE and BG respectively.
Suppose the area of ABC is 1, find the area of KLM (the shaded region And the area of the triangle RST formed by connecting the division points
in the figure below). on each side is given by:

xyz  1
( RST )  ( ABC)
( x  1)( y  1)(z  1)

CEVA’S THEOREM

Let ABC be a triangle and D, E and F be points on the lines BC, CA and AB
Solution: respectively. If AD, BE and CF are concurrent (meet at point P), then
We first draw a line connecting C and L:
AF BD CE
   1
FB DC EA

The (+) sign emphasizes that directed segments were used here.

PROOF:

Let s = (ABL). By the formula we have:

(CAL) 3
  (CAL)  3s
( ABL) 1
( BCL ) 1 1
  ( BCL )  s
( ABL) 3 3 From the two cases above, we can apply the first theorem that we have
Therefore, we have introduced on this lecture
1 3 AF BD CE ( APC) ( ABP) ( PBC)
( ABL)  ( BCL)  (CAL)  s  s  3s  1  s   ( ABL)      1
3 13 FB DC EA ( PBC) ( APC) ( ABP)
It is also easy to follow that and the sign is obviously positive.
3
( ABL)  ( BCM )  (CAK )  MENELAUS’ THEOREM
13
Hence, Let ABC be a triangle and D, E and F be points on the lines BC, CA and AB
3 3 3 respectively. If D, E and F are collinear (on the same line), then
( KLM )  ( ABC)  ( ABL)  ( BCM )  (CAK )  1   
13 13 13
AF BD CE
( KLM ) 
4
.    1
13 FB DC EA

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

PROOF:

Let X and Y be two arbitrary (distinct) points on the line DEF. Then,
AF BD CE ( AXY ) ( BXY ) (CXY )
     1
FB DC EA ( BXY ) (CXY ) ( AXY )
and the sign here is negative since we are considering directed distances
here (the negative factor is FB).
Mathematically stated as:
EXAMPLES: e f g h

1. The diagonals AC and CE of the regular hexagon ABCDEF are divided EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE-POINT RELATION
by the inner points M and N respectively so that
AM CN Suppose a point P was placed inside (or outside) an equilateral triangle
 r ABC where d, e and f (where d  e  f ) denotes its distances from vertices
AC CE
Determine r if B, M and N are collinear. A, B and C respectively. Then the length of one side (s) of the equilateral
triangle may be found by solving the equation for s:
Solution:
Join BE which intersects AC at P on the figure below:

Applying Menelaus’ Theorem to triangle CPE and the line BMN,

CM PB EN
 
MP BE NC
1
s2  d 2  e2  f 2 2
 3d 2  e 2  f 2 s 2  3d 2 e 2  d 2 f 2  e 2 f 2 
And note that:
CM  AC  AM ; but AM  r  AC thus CM  1  r AC
 1 CASE 1: If the point is inside the triangle, then:
AC  CM  AC  1  r AC   r   AC
1 1
MP  s  maxd , e, f 
2 2  2
CM (1  r ) AC 2  2r CASE 2: If the point is outside the triangle, then:
 
MP (r  1 2) AC 2r  1 s  maxd , e, f 
1 1 PB 1
PB  AB cosABP  AB cos60  AB  BE  
2 4 BE 4 ADDITIONAL TRIANGLE RELATIONS
EN  CE  NC ; but NC  r  CE thus EN  1  r CE
RELATION 1
EN (1  r )CE 1  r
  a  b cosC  c cos B
NC r  CE r
b  c cos A  a cosC
So that,
c  a cos B  b cos A
CM PB EN 2  2r 1 1  r
  1    1
MP BE NC 2r  1 4 r EXAMPLE:
3 1. One side of a triangle has side length 4 with the angle opposite to it
3r 2  1  r 
3
be equal to 45 . Another side has length 24 with the angle
TRIANGLE-POINT RELATIONS
opposite be equal to 60  . Find the length of the third side.
There are several theorems discussing the relation when a point is placed
Solution:
inside (or outside) a triangle, one of this is the VIVIANI’S THEOREM.
If we let b  4 , B  45 , c  24 and C  60 , then using Relation 1:
VIVIANI’S THEOREM a  b cosC  c cos B  4 cos60  24 cos45
The theorem is named for Vincenzo Viviani (1622-1703), a pupil of Galileo 1  2
and Torricelli, who is also remembered for a reconstruction of a book on a  4   24  
2  2 
the conic sections of Apollonius and for finding a way of trisecting an  
angle through the use an equilateral hyperbola. Viviani’s Theorem states a  22 3
that:
“In an equilateral triangle, the sum of the distances from any interior point
to the sides is equal to the altitude of the triangle.”

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 RELATION 2 Solution:
If we let a  7 , b  8 and c  9 , then using Relation 4:
A s  bs  c 
sin
2

bc tan
B

s  a s  c 
ss  b
s  a s  c 
2
B
sin  a bc 789
2 ac But s    12 . Thus,
C

s  a s  b 2 2
sin
2 ab tan
B

12  712  9  5 3
2 1212  8 12  4
EXAMPLE:
B 5
1. Suppose we have a triangle of side lengths 7, 8 and 9 in which B is tan 
2 4
B
the angle opposite the side with length 8. Find sin .
2 RELATION 5
Solution:
If A, B and C are angles of a triangle, then:
If we let a  7 , b  8 and c  9 , then using Relation 2:

sin
B

s  a s  c  tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A  tan B  tan C
2 ac DERIVATION:

But s 
a bc 789
  12 . Thus, A  B  C  180
2 2 tanA  B  C   tan180  0
B
sin 
12  712  9  5 3 tan A  B   tan C
0
2 79 79 1  tan A  B  tan C

sin
B

105 tanA  B  tan C  0
2 21 tan A  tan B
 tan C  0
1  tan A tan B
RELATION 3
tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A  tan B  tan C
A s s  a  0
cos  1  tan A tan B
2 bc tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A  tan B  tan C
B s s  b 
cos 
2 ac POLYGONS
C s s  c  Naming Polygons
cos 
2 ab

EXAMPLE:
1. Suppose we have a triangle of side lengths 7, 8 and 9 in which B is
B
the angle opposite the side with length 8. Find cos .
2
Solution:
If we let a  7 , b  8 and c  9 , then using Relation 3:
B ss  b
cos 
2 ac
Naming a polygon by its number of sides requires that we know the
a bc 789
But s    12 . Thus, appropriate Greek prefixes along with some rules for their use.
2 2
1212  8
3 = tri
B 12  4
cos   4 = tetra
2 79 79 5 = penta
B 4 21 6 = hexa or sexa
cos  7 = hepta
2 21
8 = octa
9 = nona or ennea
RELATION 4 10 = deca

tan
A

s  bs  c   r 11 = undeca or hendeca
2 s s  a  sa 12 = dodeca
13 = triskaideca

tan
B

s  a s  c   r 14 = tetradeca
2 s s  b  sb 15 = pentadeca
16 = hexadeca
tan
C

s  a s  b  r 17 = heptadeca
2 s s  c  sc 18 = octadeca
19 = enneadeca
EXAMPLE: 20 = icosa
1. Suppose we have a triangle of side lengths 7, 8 and 9 in which B is For polygons with 3 through 20 sides, simply add "gon" to the prefixes at
B the left (although a trigon is more commonly called a triangle and a
the angle opposite the side with length 8. Find tan .
2 tetragon, a quadrilateral!).

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

For more than 20 sides, we "construct" the name by using so-called simple, but this risks confusion with the idea of a complex polygon as
combining prefixes: one which exists in the complex Hilbert plane consisting of two
complex dimensions.
Tens Digit Ones Digit
20 = icosi 1 = hena  Star polygon: a polygon which self-intersects in a regular way.
30 = triaconta 2 = di
3 = tri
Symmetry
40 = tetraconta
50 = pentaconta 4 = tetra  Equiangular: all its corner angles are equal.
60 = hexaconta 5 = penta  Cyclic: all corners lie on a single circle.
70 = heptaconta 6 = hexa  Isogonal or vertex-transitive: all corners lie within the same symmetry
80 = octaconta 7 = hepta orbit. The polygon is also cyclic and equiangular.
90 = enneaconta 8 = octa  Equilateral: all edges are of the same length. (A polygon with 5 or
9 = ennea more sides can be equilateral without being convex.) (Williams 1979,
HECTOGON – 100 sides pp. 31-32)
CHILIAGON – 1000 sides  Isotoxal or edge-transitive: all sides lie within the same symmetry
MYRIAGON – 10000 sides orbit. The polygon is also equilateral.
MEGAGON – 1000000 sides  Regular. A polygon is regular if it is both cyclic and equilateral. A non-
convex regular polygon is called a regular star polygon.
3-99 SIDES
For a polygon with n sides:
To "construct" a name, we start with the prefix for the tens digit, follow it 1. SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES
by "kai" (the Greek word for "and"), then follow it with the prefix for the
units digit, and finally add "gon." sum  n  2180

EXAMPLE: 2. SUM OF DEFLECTION (EXTERIOR) ANGLES

A 35-sided polygon is called a "triacontakaipentagon."
sum  360
30 and 5 gon
triaconta kai penta gon 3. NUMBER OF DIAGONALS
n nn  3
no. of diagonals     n 
100-999 SIDES  2 2

For numbers from 100 to 999, we need one more combining prefix and For a regular polygon:
another rule. 1. MEASURE OF EACH INTERIOR ANGLE
To "construct" the name, we start with the prefix for the hundreds digit
each int erior angle 
n  2180
taken from the "Ones Digit" table above, follow it by "hecta," then
proceed as before. n
2. MEASURE OF EACH DEFLECTION(EXTERIOR) ANGLE
EXAMPLE: 360
A 672-sided polygon is called a "hexahectaheptacontakaidigon." each deflection angle 
n
100 = hecta 3. PERIMETER (P)
600 70 and 2 gon
180
hexa + hecta heptaconta kai di gon P  nL  2na tan
n
where a is the radius of the inscribed circle (apothem).
DEFINITION OF A POLYGON 4. AREA OF A REGULAR POLYGON (A)
a. Given the measure of side (L) :
In geometry a polygon is traditionally a plane figure that is bounded by a
closed path or circuit, composed of a finite sequence of straight line 1 2 180
A nL cot
segments (i.e., by a closed polygonal chain). These segments are called its 4 n
edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the polygon's b. Given the radius(r) of inscribed circle (apothem):
vertices or corners. The interior of the polygon is sometimes called its body.
180
The word "polygon" derives from the Greek πολύς ("many") and γωνία A  nr 2 tan
n
(gōnia), meaning "knee" or "angle". Today a polygon is more usually c. Given the radius (R) of circumscribing circle:
understood in terms of sides.
1 2 360
Usually two edges meeting at a corner are required to form an angle that A nR sin
is not straight (180°); otherwise, the line segments will be considered parts 2 n
of a single edge. EXAMPLE:
1. How many diagonals are there in an icosagon?
Polygons may be characterized by their degree of convexity:
 Convex: any line drawn through the polygon (and not tangent to an Solution:
edge or corner) meets its boundary exactly twice. An icosagon is a polygon of 20 sides. Thus:
 Non-convex: a line may be found which meets its boundary more nn  3 2020  3
no. of diagonals  
than twice. 2 2
 Simple: the boundary of the polygon does not cross itself. All convex no. of diagonals  170
polygons are simple.
 Concave: Non-convex and simple. 2. A regular octagon is inscribed in a circle of radius 10. Find the area of
 Star-shaped: the whole interior is visible from a single point, without the octagon.
crossing any edge. The polygon must be simple, and may be convex Solution:
or concave. If the octagon is inscribed in the circle, then the circle is
 Self-intersecting: the boundary of the polygon crosses itself. Branko “circumscribing” the polygon. Thus the area is determined using
Grünbaum calls these coptic, though this term does not seem to be formula 4c. When n  8 and R  10 :
widely used. The term complex is sometimes used in contrast to

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

 360 1 360 5. For two points in polar coordinates let’s say P1r1,1  and P2 r2 , 2  ,
 8102 sin
1 2
A nR sin the distance between them is:
2 n 2 8
A  200 2 sq.units d  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos 2  1 
With slope of:
3. Find the perimeter of a regular dodecagon if the radius of its inscribed r sin  2  r1 sin 1
circle is 5. m 2
r2 cos 2  r1 cos1
Solution:
Since n  12 and a  5 , then the perimeter is: 6. For two lines, with slopes m1 and m2 , the angle between them is:
   m  m2 
P  2na tan
180
 2125 tan
180   tan 1  1 

n 12  1  m1m2 
P  240  120 3 units Note: For parallel lines, m1  m2 while for perpendicular lines,
1
4. Find the ratio of the area of the inscribed square and circumscribed m1   .
m2
square about a circle.
Solution: DIVISION/EXTENSION OF A LINE SEGMENT
From the problem, n  4 so that:
1 2 360 Let Px, y  be a point in the straight line through P1 x1, y1  and
nR sin
P2 x2 , y2  . If
Ainscribed 2 n P1P r1
  , the point P divides(or extends) the segment P1P2
Acircumscribed  PP2 r2
180
nr 2 tan
n in the ratio r1 : r2 , then:
But r  R , thus:
P1P x  x1 y  y1 r1
Ainscribed
1
4R 2 sin 90 1  
PP2 x2  x y2  y r2

 2 
Acircumscribed 4 R 2 tan 45 2
Consequently, the values of x and y may be found using the formulas:
r x r x r y r y
LINES AND LINE SEGMENTS x 2 1 1 2 ; y 2 1 1 2
r1  r2 r1  r2
Straight line is a line that does not change directions at any point. A line
Note: If P is an extension of the line segment P1P2 , then r2 is negative.
segment is a straight line of finite length drawn from two points in a plane
or space.
EXAMPLES:
On this handout, we will concentrate our discussion on two coordinate
systems: the Cartesian coordinate system and the Polar coordinate system. 1. Determine the coordinates of the point which is three-fifths of the way
from the point 2,5 to the point 3,5 .
For two points in a Cartesian plane say P1 x1, y1  and P2 x2 , y2  that were
connected to form the line segment P1P2 , we have the following Solution:
properties: Let Px, y  be the point we are looking for while P1x1, y1   2,5
and P2 x2 , y2   3,5 . Then:
1. LENGTH (d)
P1P 3
  r1  3 , r2  2
d x1  x2 2   y1  y2 2 PP2 2
2. SLOPE (m) So that;
m 2
y  y1 22  33
x  1
x2  x1 23
Note: A horizontal line has slope of zero while a vertical line has an 25  35
undefined slope. y 1
23
3. ANGLE OF INCLINATION   Thus, the point is at 1,1 .
- is the smallest positive angle from positive x-axis to the line.
  tan1 m 2. The line segment P1P2 is extended from P2 to point Px, y  such
4. MIDPOINT xm , ym  that the distance from P1 to P is
5
the distance from P2 to P .
4
x  x2 y  y2
xm  1 ; ym  1 Find the coordinates of P if P1 0,0 and P2 4,5 .
2 2
A point in Cartesian coordinates can be converted to its equivalent Solution:
polar coordinates. If point P has coordinates of x, y  , then in polar Let x be the distance from P2 to P . Then the distance from P1 to P

coordinates r,   :
5 1
is x such that the distance from P1 to P2 is x . Now,
4 4
r  x2  y2 5
x
P1P 5
 y  4   r1  5 , r2  4
  tan 1   PP2  x  4
x
So that;
Likewise, we can convert a polar coordinate to its equivalent
Cartesian coordinate: x
40  54  20
x  r cos ; y  r sin  54

y
40  55
 25
54
Thus, the point is at 20,25 .

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 8

 QUADRIC SURFACES ANALYSIS OF TRACE

These are three-dimensional analogs of conic sections.

The equation of a QUADRIC SURFACE in space is a second-degree

equation in three variables. The general form of the equation is

Ax2  By2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Gx  Hy  Iz  J  0

NOTE: The AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLOID corresponds to the variable
whose coefficient is NEGATIVE.
There are SIX basic types of quadric surfaces: ELLIPSOID, HYPERBOLOID
OF ONE SHEET, HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS, ELLIPTIC CONE,
QUADRIC SURFACE #3: HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS
ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID and HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID.

Take note that the intersection of a surface with a plane is called the TRACE
OF THE SURFACE in the plane. To visualize a surface in space, it is helpful
to determine its traces in some well-chosen planes. THE TRACES OF
QUADRIC SURFACES ARE CONICS.

QUADRIC SURFACE #1: ELLIPSOID

The standard equation for HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS is given by

z2 x2 y2
  1
2 2
The standard equation for an ELLIPSOID is given by c a b2

x2 y2 z2 ANALYSIS OF TRACE
  1
a2 b2 c2

ANALYSIS OF TRACE

NOTE: The AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLOID corresponds to the variable

whose coefficient is POSITIVE. There is NO TRACE in the coordinate plane
perpendicular to this axis.
NOTE: The surface is a SPHERE if a  b  c  0 .
QUADRIC SURFACE #4: ELLIPTIC CONE
QUADRIC SURFACE #2: HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET

The standard equation for an ELLIPTIC CONE is given by

The standard equation for a HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET is given by x2 y2 z2

  0
2 2
a b c2
x2 y2 z2
  1
2 2
a b c2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 9

ANALYSIS OF TRACE ANALYSIS OF TRACE

NOTE: The AXIS OF THE CONE corresponds to the variable whose NOTE: The AXIS OF THE PARABOLOID corresponds to the variable raised
coefficient is NEGATIVE. The traces in the coordinate planes parallel to this to the FIRST POWER.
axis are INTERSECTING LINES.
EXAMPLES:
QUADRIC SURFACE #5: ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID
1. Classify the surface given by its equation
4 x2  3 y 2  12 z 2  12  0

Solution:
ALWAYS begin by writing the equation in STANDARD FORM.
x2 y 2 z 2
4 x 2  3 y 2  12 z 2  12  0    1
3 4 1
Then, identify the TRACES on the xy, xz and yz-planes.
x2 y 2
xy-trace (z = 0):    1  HYPERBOLA
3 4
x2 z 2
xz-trace (y = 0):    1  NO TRACE !
3 1

The standard equation for an ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID is given by y2 z2

yz-trace (x = 0):   1  HYPERBOLA
4 1
x2 y2 Therefore, the surface is a HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS.
z 
a2 b2 2. Classify the surface given by its equation
x2  2 y 2  z 2  4 x  4 y  2z  3  0
ANALYSIS OF TRACE
Solution:
With these kinds of problems, the resort is by COMPLETING THE
SQUARE.
x2  2 y 2  z 2  4 x  4 y  2z  3  0

x  22   y  12  z  12

1
NOTE: The AXIS OF THE PARABOLOID corresponds to the variable raised 4 2 4
to the FIRST POWER.
From this equation, we can see that the quadric surface is an
QUADRIC SURFACE #6: HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID ELLIPSOID centered at (2,-1,1).

The standard equation for a HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID is given by

y2 x2
z 
2
b a2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 10

 4 COMBINATORICS

CONTENTS:

Counting Techniques
Probability Theory
Addition Rule
Multiplication Rule
Bayes’ Theorem
General Multiplication Principle
General Addition Principle
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

PREPARED BY:

Joselito Torculas
BSECE, Adamson University
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc.
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 COUNTING TECHNIQUES 3. Eight prize winners will be randomly selected from 25 people
attending a sales meeting. There will be a first, second, third, fourth,
a. FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth prize, each prize being of lesser value
than the one before it. In how many different ways can the prizes be
“If event A has m different outcomes and event B has n different awarded, assuming no one gets more than one prize?
outcomes, then there are mn different ways for events A and B to
occur.” Solution:
The number of ways in which these prizes can be awarded is precisely
b. PERMUTATIONS the number of permutations of 25 things taken 8 at a time,
A PERMUTATION is any ordering or arrangement of distinct objects 25! 25!
in a linear manner. 25 P8  
25  8! 17!

i. Permutations of n Things n at a Time: 25P8  43609104000

n Pn  n!
ii. Permutations of n Things r at a Time: 4. In how many ways can a committee of 4 people be chosen from a
group of 12?
n!
n Pr 
n  r ! Solution:
Choosing 4 people from a group of 12 is the same as choosing a subset
c. COMBINATIONS of size 4 from a set of 12 elements. So the number of ways to choose
A COMBINATION is an un-ordered collection of distinct elements, the committee is the number of combinations of 12 things taken 4 at
usually of a prescribed size and taken from a given set. a time:
12! 12!
i. Combinations of n Things r at a Time: 12 C 4  
12  4!4! 8!4!
n n!
n C r     12 C4  495
 
r n  r !r!
ii. Combinations with Repetition: 5. What is the coefficient of a 4 b 2 in the binomial expansion of a  b6 ?
 n  r  1 n  r  1!
n  r 1 C r     Solution:
 r  r! n  1!
6!
For example, if you have ten types of donuts (n) on a menu to coefficient  6 C4   15
4!2!
choose from and you want three donuts (k) there are
(10 + 3 − 1)! / 3!(10 − 1)! = 220 ways to choose.
6. How many different arrangements are there for the 11 letters in the
word MISSISSIPPI?
d. LABELING PROBLEM
In a LABELING PROBLEM, we count the number of ways to put labels Solution:
on distinct objects. If there are n distinct objects that are to be given This problem is a labeling problem if we think of the 11 positions for
a label with each object getting exactly one label and there are r1 the letters as 11 distinct objects to be labeled. There are 1 M-label, 4 S-
labels, 4 I-labels and 2 P-labels. So the number of ways to arrange the
labels of the first type, r2 labels of the second type, … , and rk labels
letters in MISSISSIPPI is:
of the kth type, where
11!
r1  r2  r3    rk  n # of arrangements   34650
1! 4! 4! 2!
Then, the number of ways to assign the labels to the objects is:

7. What is the coefficient of a 3b 2 c in the expansion of a  b  c 6 ?

n!
r1! r2 ! r3! rk !
Solution:
EXAMPLE: This is also an example of a labeling problem:
1. At Windy’s Hamburger Palace you can get a single, double, or triple 6!
coefficient   60
burger. You also have a choice of whether to include pickles, mustard, 3! 2!1!
ketchup, onions, tomatoes, lettuce, or cheese. How many different
hamburgers are available at Windy’s?
PROBABILITY THEORY
Solution:
There are 3 outcomes to the event of choosing the amount of meat. FUNDAMENTALS OF PROBABILITY
For each of the condiments, there are 2 outcomes: whether or not to
include it. So the number of different hamburgers is: PROBABILITY - it tells/measures the likeliness that an EVENT will occur. A
# of hamburgers  3  2  2  2  2  2  2  2 probability of 0 tells that an event “will not” happen while a probability
of 1 tells that an event “will” happen. No probability has a value greater
# of hamburgers  384
than 1.

2. How many different license plates are possible if each plate consists of THREE UNIVERSAL TRUTHS ABOUT PROBABILITIES
2 letters followed by a 4-digit number? Assume repetitions in the letters
or numbers are allowed and any of the 10 digits may be used in each Given that A is an event, A’ is any event other than A and S is the sample
plate of the 4-digit number. space (sum of events A and A’), then:
1. 0  PA  1
Solution:
Since there are 26 choices for each of the 2 letters and 10 choices for 2. PS   1
each of the numbers, by the Fundamental Counting Principle, the 3. PA'  1  PA
number of license plates is:
# of plates  26  26  10  10  10  10
# of plates  6760000

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

If there are “n” equally likely outcomes of an experiment, of which one is
called a success “s”, then the probability of a success is:

number of ways " A" can occur s

P( A)  
total number of outcomes possible n

EXAMPLE: Now, suppose we have this figure above, notice that A and B are still
intersecting but the main concern now is the possibility of events A “or” B
1. If you randomly pick a person off the street, what is the probability that “or” both happening. We call this UNION of event A and B or write A  B
he was born on June? (Assume that all people in that street were not with a probability of PA  B  .
born on a leap year).
SCENARIO #2: THE TWO CIRCLES DOES NOT INTERSECT
Solution:
Let A be the event that the person you pick off the street was born on
June. The probability that event A will happen is:

P A 
number of days in June 30

number of days in a year 365

P  A 
6
73 From the figure above, we can say that if we have two events A and B,
2. A car rental company has 18 compact cars and 12 midsize cars. If 4 there is no possibility of A and B happening at the same time, then we call
cars are selected at random, what is the probability of getting 2 cars of events A and B as MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE events.
each type?
Now, THINK ABOUT THIS:
Solution: “What is the probability of pulling an ACE “or” a TWO from a standard deck
Let A be the event that we get 2 cars of each type. It is also clear that of cards?”
there are a total of 18 + 12 = 30 cars available for our pick. The total
number of ways to pick 4 cars out of these 30 cars is found by using It is by common sense that the probability of this event will happen is
COMBINATIONS (there’s no particular arrangements happening): GREATER than the probability of just pulling an ACE or the probability of
 30  30! 30  29  28  27 just pulling a TWO on the deck. To INCREASE the probability, we must
n       5  29  7  27  27405 ways ADD probabilities together. But this is not just simple as adding individual
 4 26!4 ! 4  3  2 1
probabilities.
Now, for success (meaning, to pick 2 compact cars and 2 midsize cars):
18  18! 18  17 In general, the probability of event A “or” B happening is given by the
     9  17  153  ways to choose 2 compact cars ADDITION RULES OF PROBABILITY:
 2  16!2! 2 1
12  12!
  
12  11 P A  B  P A  PB   P A  B 
  6  11  66  ways to choose 2 midsize cars A or B or both A and B
 2  10!2! 2 1
Therefore, total ways for success is
If events A and B are MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE, then PA  B  0 .
18 12 
s      9  176  11  10098 ways of getting 2 cars of each type
 2  2  EXAMPLES:

1. You roll two dice. What is the probability that the sum is 3 or 4?
The probability of getting 2 cars of each type is then;
s 9  17 6  11 374 Solution:
P A    Let A be the event that the sum is 3 when two dice are rolled and B be
n 5  29  7  27 1015
the event that the sum is 4 when two dice are rolled. It is easy to see
that getting a sum of 3 and 4 at the same time is impossible. Therefore
ADDITION RULE
PA  B  0 . Using the Addition Rules of Probability:

ADDITION RULES OF PROBABILITY PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B

Consider two events A and B, by using Venn diagram, we visualizes the
P3 or 4 
2 3 5
interactions between these two events in several scenarios:  0 
36 36 36
SCENARIO #1: THE TWO CIRCLES INTERSECT 2. You roll two six-sided dice. What is the probability that the sum of the
dice is odd or divisible by 5?

Solution:
Let A be the event that the sum of dice is odd while B be the event that
the sum of the dice is divisible by 5. It can also be seen that it is possible
that these two events happen at the same time (sum of the dice is 5).
Therefore, for event A:
From the figure above, we can say that if event A has a probability P(A) of
P  A 
1
happening and event B has a probability P(B) of happening, then there  There are two possible results for sum, odd or even.
2
are times that events A “and” B can happen at the same time. We call this
For event B (sum of 5 or 10):
INTERSECTION between events A and B or write A  B with a probability
of PA  B  . PB   P5  P10  P5 and 10 
4 3
 0
36 36

PB  
7
36

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 Now, for the intersection of events A and B (sum of the dice is 5): 2. You draw a card from a 52-card deck. You then draw a 2nd card
without replacing the first. What is the probability of getting an ace on
P A  B  
4 1
 the first draw and a king on the second draw?
36 9
Thus, the probability that events A or B will happen is: Solution:
PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B Let A be the event of getting an ace on the first draw while B be the
event of getting a king on the second draw. It is easy to see that events
P A  B  
1 7 1 7
   A and B are DEPENDENT because after you draw the first card, you
2 36 9 12
will no longer replace this card and therefore the probability of the
PLEASE SOLVE: second draw is now affected because of the first draw. By the
A box has five white balls numbered 1-5 and five green balls numbered conditional probability:
1-5. You choose one ball. What is the probability that it is white or odd
numbered?
 
P A  B   P A  P B A 
4 4
 
4
52 51 663

MULTIPLICATION RULE 3. Find the probability of getting 8 heads in a row when tossing a coin.

Solution:
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY: THE “MULTIPLICATION RULE” There are 8 events here. Let A be the event of getting a head on the
From the last lecture, we have dealt with problems in probability that first toss, B be the event of getting a head on the second toss, and so
uses the “OR” connector and we have found out that we need to “ADD” on until H be the event of getting a head on the eighth toss of a coin.
probabilities in order to get the correct answer. In this lecture, we will We also see that these events are INDEPENDENT with each other and
tackle probabilities that uses the “AND” connector and later we will find by extending our formula on the conditional probability:
out that to arrive at the correct answer, we need to “MULTIPLY” P A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H 
probabilities.
 P( A)  P( B)  P(C )  P( D)  P( E )  P( F )  P(G)  P( H )
Basically, we will solve the probability of two or more events happening at
P A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
the same time.       
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
RECALL: P A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  
1
P A  B  P A  PB   P A  B  256
A or B or both A and B
4. Find the probability of getting three 3’s then a 4 or 5 in four rolls of a
die.
From the formula above, to find the probability of events A or B or both to
occur, we are just basically “ADDING” probabilities together because the Solution:
probability of an event A or B or both happening “should be higher” than Let A, B and C be the events of getting a 3 on the first, second and
the individual probabilities. third roll of a die respectively while D be the event of getting a 4 or 5
in the fourth roll of the die. We see that these events are
Now, THINK ABOUT THIS: INDEPENDENT and inside event D, there are also two MUTUALLY
“What is the probability of pulling an ACE “and” a TWO from a standard EXCLUSIVE events happening. Therefore applying our formula:
deck of cards?”
PA  B  C  D  P( A)  P( B)  P(C)  P( D)
By logic, it make sense that the probability that this will happen should be
1 1 1 1 1
P A  B  C  D  
1
“LOWER” than the individual probabilities because we are now making      
6 6 6  6 6  648
“restriction” on the events. Meaning to say, it is not enough for event A to
happen neither event B; “they must both happen at the same time”. 5. A couple plans to have 5 kids. What is the probability that there will be
Mathematically, we should MUTIPLY probabilities: at least one girl?

In general, the probability of events A “and” B happening at the same time Solution:
is defined by the CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY: This is a more complicated problem than the previous problems and
in fact we can’t directly apply our formula using a single equation. The
 
P  A  B   P A  P B A statement “at least” one girl can be rewritten as “1 or more” girls. If we
A and B define A be the event that the couple will have 1 or more girls. It is
“advisable” to define A’ to be the complement of event A; meaning to
 
wherein P B A is read as: “the probability of B given that A has occurred” say A’ is the event of getting “no girls” or “5 boys”. Therefore, applying
conditional probability on event A’:
If A and B are INDEPENDENT EVENTS, then P B A  PB   
P A' 
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
EXAMPLES: 2 2 2 2 2 32
And we can compute on the probability of A by realizing that
1. If you were born on June 23rd, what is the probability that two of your
P A  1  P A'  1 
1 31
friends have the same birthday as you? 
32 32
Solution:
Let A be the event that your 1st friend has birthday on June 23 while BAYES’ THEOREM
B be the event that your 2nd friend also has birthday on June 23. Now,
we see that events A and B are INDEPENDENT since event A does not This theorem “extends” our previous topic on conditional probability
affect event B. Therefore, by applying the formula for conditional wherein there are “multiple ways” to proceed from event A to event B. In
probability: order to visualize that, let’s start with this problem:

 
PA  B  PA  P B A  PA  PB “Three plants make cars. Plant B1 makes 60%, plant B2 makes 30% and
plant B3 makes 10%. Further, 95% of cars from plant B1 never fail, 80% of
P A  B  
1 1 1
 
365 365 133225

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

the cars from plant B2 never fail and 65% of cars from plant B3 never fail. If If B1, B2, B3, …, Bn are mutually exclusive events, then
I buy a car, what is the probability that it will be problem free?”

P Br A 
PBr   P A Br
  
n
 PBi   PA Bi 
Let B1, B2 and B3 be events that a purchased car comes from plant B1, B2
and B3 respectively. Now, considering the “distribution” of the cars built,
we can build this diagram below i 1

  B 0.6 of cars EXAMPLES:

 0.3 of cars

1
car   B2 1. There are three hotels in town. 20% of your family stays in hotel B1,
 0
.1 of cars
 B3
 50% stay at hotel B2 and 30% stay at hotel B3. Furthermore, plumbing

is faulty in 5% of the rooms in hotel B1, 4% of rooms in B2 and 8% of
Furthermore, considering the amount of error-free (never fail) cars built by
rooms in B3. What is the probability that a random family member has
each of the plants. Let’s denote event A as the event that a car produced
faulty plumbing?
is problem free.
 0 .6 of cars 0.95 Solution:
 B1  A

 0.3 of cars 0.80 Let A be the event that a random family member has faulty plumbing
car   B2  A
and B1, B2 and B3 are events that a family member stayed at hotels B1,
 0 .1 of cars
 B3  A
0.65

 B2 and B3 respectively. Using a tree diagram to further visualize:
Now, notice that the line from B1 to A simply states the probability of A  0
.2 0.05
 B1  A

 0.5
given that it comes from B1, P(A|B1), the line from B2 to A is the probability family member  
0.04
 B2  A
of A given that it comes from B2, P(A|B2), and the line from B3 to A is the  0
.3 0.08
  B3  A
probability of A given that it comes from B3, P(A|B3). 

Take note that what we are solving is the probability of A, P(A), but we are By the RULE OF ELIMINATION:
seeing multiple paths in order to get at A. In order to achieve the desired n
probability, we must consider all the paths in getting to A. P A  PBi  PA Bi   (0.2)(0.05)  (0.5)(0.04)  (0.3)(0.08)
i 1
PA      
all paths  PB1   P A B1  PB2   P A B2  PB3   P A B3   PA  0.054

This expression is called the RULE OF ELIMINATION. It states: 2. Janet, Tom, Georgia and Peter are doctors. Janet has 20% of patients,
Tom has 60%, Georgia has 15% and Peter has 5%. Janet is rude to 1 in
“If events B1, B2, B3, …, Bn are mutually exclusive events of 20 patients, Tom is rude to 1 in 10, Georgia is rude to 1 in 10 and Peter
which one must occur, then is rude to 1 in 20. If you are treated rudely, what is the probability that
n you went to see Tom?
P  A  PBi   PA Bi  Solution:
i 1
Let A be the event that you were treated rudely and event B 1, B2, B3
Getting back to our example, the desired probability will be: and B4 were events that you went to see Janet, Tom, Georgia and
Peter respectively. Using a tree diagram to visualize:
P A  0.6  0.95  0.30  0.80  0.1  0.65  0.875 
7
8  0
.20 B 1 20
 1  A
 0.60
From the problem given above, we have noticed that we are asked for the   B2 110 A

patients  0.15 1 10
probability of event A happening and considering all paths leading to A.   B3  A
But what if we are asked for a probability of event A happening  0
.05 B 1 20
 4  A

considering not all the paths (maybe path B3 only)?
Using Bayes’ Theorem:
BAYES’ THEOREM is what we need to solve these kinds of problems.

P B2 A   
PB2   P A B2 
Let’s consider the probability that a car was built by plant B3 given that it 4
is purchased and proved to be error-free, that is P(B3|A).  PBi   PA Bi 
i 1
By conditional probability:
 1 
P A  B3  (0.60) 

P A  B3   P A  P B3 A  
 P B3 A   P A   10 
 1   1   1   1 
TWO CRITICAL THINGS WERE NOTICED HERE: (0.2)   (0.6)   (0.15)   (0.05) 
 20   10   10   20 
1. P A have already been solved using the RULE OF ELIMINATION.
2. PA  B3  can also be written down as PB3  A  PB3   PA B3  . 
P B2 A   24
35

Therefore,
GENERAL MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE

P B3 A   
PB3   P A B3  
(0.1)(0.65)

13
n The primary technique of counting is to break a complex problem into a
PBi   PA Bi 
0.875 175
sequence of simpler problems. Additionally, one must understand how to
i 1 combine the answers to the simple problems to obtain the desired answer
to the complex problem. Before we introduce the General Multiplication
In general, the structure of our solution always boils down to this: Principle, let’s start with this example:
probabilit y of path we are int erested
P “A guest at a formal dinner has 4 entrée choices and 2 dessert choices. If
probabilit y along all paths
the guest’s dinner is entirely determined by these two choices, then how
Given this point, we now present BAYES’ THEOREM: many different dinner choices are there?”

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

Solution: We see that there are (1)(3) + (1)(2) + (1)(1) = 6 possible codes.
Consider the tree diagram below
3. How many octal (base-8) numbers are there of length n? Note that the
number is allowed to start with zeros.

Solution:
Since each of the n-digits can take any one of the 8 values (0 through
7), there are
8 8
   8  8n
 8 
n terms
octal numbers of length n.

4. How many 3-digit (base-10) numbers (with nonzero hundreds digit)

are divisible by 7?
As observed, each of the 4 branches connected to the root of the tree
(GUEST) splits off into 2 more branches (2 choices of dessert per entrée). Solution:
Therefore, there are 4x2=8 different ends representing the various Of the 3-digit numbers
possible pairings of an entrée choice with a dessert choice.
100, 101, …, 104, 105, 106, …, 111, 112, 113, …, 993, 994, 995, …, 999
This problem constitutes the idea of counting of a final outcome coming
the numbers
from set of outcomes. This principle applies not only for two individual
105,112, …, 994
outcomes but for any number of outcomes. We now present the General
are divisible by 7. That is, we need to count the multiples of 7:
Multiplication Principle.
105 = 7(15), 112 = 7(16), …, 994 = 7(142).
GENERAL MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE
Hence, there is a correspondence between the multiples of 7 and the
“Suppose that n≥2 and each outcome in a set A is uniquely characterized
numbers
by a sequence of outcomes, one from each of a sequence of sets A 1, A2,
15, 16, …, 142
A3, …, An. As an additional requirement, for each 2≤k≤n, the number |A k|
Therefore, the number of 3-digit positive integers (with nonzero
must not depend on any of the sets Ai for 1≤i≤k-1. Under these conditions,
hundreds digit) divisible by 7 equals the number of integers from 15
A can be counted as”
to 142, inclusive.
A  A1  A2  A3    An 142 – 15 + 1 = 128
3-digit multiples of 7.
EXAMPLES:
GENERAL ADDITION PRINCIPLE
1. If a home security code consists of a sequence of two distinct letters (A
to Z). If a thief could try only 5 possible codes every 30 minutes, how Besides the multiplication principle and its consequences, we need tools
long (in hours) would it take the thief to try all possible codes? to handle problems that naturally break into cases. For such problems, we
need to appropriately combine results obtained in those cases.
Solution:
The first letter can be any of the letters A to Z. Hence, there are 26 DISJOINT EVENTS – are events that do not have an intersection. Basically,
choices for the first letter. Once the first letter is chosen, there remain it means that there are no commonalities between the events defined.
only 25 letters from which to choose the second letter. By This is just the same as MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS. For two events
Multiplication Principle A and B:
total number of codes = 26(25) = 650
A B  0
At a rate of 5 codes for each 30 minutes (equivalent to 10 codes per
hour), it would take the thief 650/10 = 65 hours to try all possible Given that events are DISJOINT, we now introduce the GENERAL
codes. ADDITION PRINCIPLE:

TAKE NOTE: The choice for the second letter DOES DEPEND on the A1    An  A1  A2    An
choice of the first letter. However, the “number of choices” for the
second letter DOES NOT DEPEND on the choice of the first letter. This EXAMPLES:
is all that is required to apply the General Multiplication Principle.
1. How many possible license plates consisting of 6 digits (0 to 9) have
2. A 2-digit code is constructed using the digits 1, 2 and 3. If the second either all digits distinct or all digits the same?
digit is required to be at least as large as the first digit, then how many
such codes are possible?
Solution:
Solution: There are P(10,6) plates with all digits distinct and 10 with all digits the
There are certainly 3 choices for the first digit. However, the “number same. Certainly no one plate can have both of these properties
of choices” for the second digit DOES DEPEND on the first digit. For (DISJOINT). Hence, the total number of license plates under
example, if the first digit is 1, then there are 3 choices for the second consideration is
digit. Alternatively, if the first digit is a 2, then there are only 2 choices P(10,6) + 10 = 151210
for the second digit. Therefore, the General Multiplication DOES NOT
APPLY directly for this problem. 2. The lawyer for the prosecution in a certain court case wants the jury
of 12 to contain more women than men. If the jury pool contains 15
men and 9 women, then how many different possible juries would
satisfy this lawyer?

Solution:
To have more women than men on the jury, there must be one of the
following possibilities:
5 men and 7 women

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 4 men and 8 women and realizing that one of the witnesses might be mistaken, the police
3 men and 9 women want to consider both possibilities. How many license plate consisting
There are only 9 women; we cannot have 10 or more women on the of 6 digits (0 to 9) have exactly 2 ones or 3 nines?
jury. Since the listed possibilities are DISJOINT, we obtain
Solution:
15  9  15  9  15  9 
            120848 Our universe of consideration is the set of 6-digit license plates. Let A
 5  7   4  8   3  9  denote the set of plates with exactly 2 ones. Let B denote the set of
possible juries with more women than men. plates with exactly 3 nines. Hence, A  B is the set of plates with both
2 ones and 3 nines, and A  B is the set of plates with 2 ones or 3
3. A bag contains 8 red, 4 blue, 7 green and 5 yellow balls. A box is to be
nines. By the INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, there are
filled with 3 balls. How many ways are there to do this so that at least
two colors are used? Note that the 24 balls are considered  6  6  6  4 
A  B  A  B  A  B     94     93      8  113475
distinguishable.  
2  
3  2  3 
license plates satisfying the problem.
Solution:
Let A be the set of ways to fill the box with at least two colors are used.
The total number of ways (we will call this the UNIVERSAL SET, U)to fill
the box with 3 balls is
 8  4  7  5   24 
U        2024
 3  3
The number of monochromatic ways (the COMPLEMENT of set A) to
fill the box is
8  4  7   5
A              105
 3  3   3   3 
Hence, using the COMPLEMENT PRINCIPLE, there are
A  U  A  2024  105  1919
ways to fill the box using at least 2 colors.

INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

The General Addition Principle does not handle problems in which the
relevant sets are not disjoint. In those cases, some subtraction is needed.
Considering the Venn diagram below:

To combine sets A and B (that is, the UNION of A and B), it is noticed that
the INTERSECTION A  B is counted twice in the sum | A |  | B | and must
therefore be subtracted off. Thus, we now present the INCLUSION-
EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE.

Given finite sets A and B,

A B  A  B  A B

EXAMPLES:

1. A standard die is rolled a sequence of 5 times. In how many ways can

the sequence of numbers resulting be all even or all multiples of 3?

Solution:
Let A be the set of 5-number sequence of all even numbers while B be
the set of sequence resulting to multiples of 3. Since there are 3 even
values (2, 4 and 6), there are 35 ways to get all even numbers. Knowing
that there are 2 multiples of 3 (3 and 6), there are 2 5 ways to get all
multiples of 3. Only the value 6 is both even and a multiple of 3, so
there is 1 way to do both (namely, 66666). Therefore, using
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, there are
A  B  A  B  A  B  35  25  1  274
ways on doing what is required by the problem.

2. Two witnesses to a bank robbery had different memories of the license

plate on the getaway car. Both agreed that the plate consisted of 6
digits. However, one noticed that there were exactly 2 ones, and the
other noticed that there were exactly 3 nines on the plate. To be safe,

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

 5 NUMBER THEORY

CONTENTS:

Converting Repeating Decimals to Fraction

Number Bases
Euclidean Algorithm
Congruence
Basic Approach in Finding Remainders
Chinese Remainder Theorem
Tau, Sigma and Phi Functions
Euler’s Theorem
Calculating Calendar Dates
Polygonal Numbers
Sum of All Digits of All Integers from 1 to n

PREPARED BY:

Joselito Torculas
BSECE, Adamson University
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc.
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 NUMBER THEORY Solution:
From their base ten representation:
CONVERTING REPEATING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS  
83 B  8 2 O  8O  K  53 B  52 O  5O  K  7 3 B  7 2 O  7O  K
Consider the decimal string of the form: 44B 14O  K
and from the original equation we can see that 0  B, O, K  5 .
0.d1d 2d 3 d n r1r2 r3 rm If B  1 , then O  3 and K  2 .
In fact, this is the only solution that satisfies the equation above.
Where d1d 2d 3 d n is a finite-stringed decimal followed by an infinitely-
repeated decimal string, r1r2 r3 rm . EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM

We can convert this to an equivalent fraction by this simple rule: EUCLEDIAN ALGORITHM – a method for solving the greatest common
divisor (GCD) of two numbers.
d1d 2 d 3  d n r1r2 r3  rm   d1d 2 d 3  d n 
0.d1d 2 d 3  d n r1r2 r3  rm  PROCESS:
999... 000...
mdigitsn digits a) Given two numbers A and B, divide the larger number by the
smaller number and find the remainder ( r1 ).
EXAMPLES: b) Next, divide the smaller number by the obtained remainder ( r1 ) and
1. What is the equivalent fraction for the repeating decimal again, get the remainder ( r2 ).
0.65141414…?
c) Continue this process until the latest remainder ( rn ) exactly divides
Solution: the previous remainder rn 1 (latest divisor). This number will serve
6514  65 as the GCD of A and B.
0.65141414   0.6514 
9900
6449 EXAMPLE:
0.65141414 
9900 1. What is the gcd of 231 and 315 ?

Solution:
2. What ratio of integers is represented by 0.076923 ?
1 2 1 1
Solution: 231 315 84 231 63 84 21 63
76923  0 76923  231  168  63  63
0.076923  
999999 999999 84 21 0
63
Therefore, gcd231,315  21 .
1
0.076923 
13
2. What is the gcd of 71162 and 64515 ?
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
Solution:
Express the following into their simplest fraction representation:
1 1 1
1. 0.14344 64515 71162 6647 64515 4692 6647
2. 0.142857  64515  59823  4692
3. 3.14152 6647 4692 1955
2 2 2
NUMBER BASES 1955 4692 782 1955 391 782
 3910  1564  782
Usually, we write a number a1a2 a3 an in its base ten/decimal
782 391 0
representation. That is, if a i is a digit of a number string, then:
Therefore, gcd64515,71162  391 .
    
a1a2 a3 an  a1 10n 1  a2 10n  2  a3 10n  3    an 
where the number base is 10. CONGRUENCE
But sometimes, this is not the case. Actually we can write the number CONGRUENCE – can be viewed as a generalized form of equality, in the
above in another number base so that: sense that its behavior with respect to addition and multiplication is
a1a2a3 an b  a1bn 1  a2bn  2  a3bn  3    an reminiscent of ordinary equality. According to Carl Friedrich Gauss: “If a
number n measures the difference between two numbers a and b, then a
where:
and b are said to be congruent with respect to n; if not, incongruent”
b : number base
a1 , a 2 , a3 ,, a n  b Test for Congruence:
ai  0 ; i  1, 2, 3,, n Let n be a fixed positive integer. Two integers a and b are said to be
congruent modulo n symbolized by:

EXAMPLE: a  bmod n 
a. If n divides the difference a  b , that is, provided that a  b  kn for
1. Variables B, O and K represent digits in each number base. If B is not some integer k, or;
equal to O, O is not equal to K and K is not equal to B, determine the b. If a and b have the same non-negative remainder when divided by n.
base ten sum B  O  O  K such that the values will satisfy the given
equation below (Note: O is the letter O):
BOOK8  BOOK5  BOOK7

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 Elementary Properties of Congruence: CHINESE REMAINDER THEOREM
Let n  0 be fixed and a, b, c and d be arbitrary integers. Then the This technique is used to determine the least positive number that satisfies
following properties holds: a given set of congruences.

a. a  amod n  .  
If gcd mi , m j  1 for i  j , then the system:
b. If a  bmod n  , then b  amod n  . x  a1 modm1 
c. If a  bmod n  and b  cmod n  , then a  cmod n  . x  a 2 modm2 
d. If a  bmod n  and c  d mod n  , then a  c  b  d mod n and 
ac  bd mod n . x  a n modmn 
e. If a  bmod n  , then a  c  b  cmod n and ac  bcmod n  . is solvable and the solution is unique modulo m  m1m2 m3   mn
f. If a  bmod n  , then a k  b k mod n  for any positive integer k.
PROCESS:
 n
g. If ca  cbmod n and gcdc, n   d , then a  b mod  . a. Let M i 
m
for i  1, 2,, n.
 d mi
b. M i y  1modmi  has solution bi for i  1, 2,, n.
BASIC APPROACH IN FINDING REMAINDERS n

If a1  a2  a3   an is divided by b provided that a1 , a 2 , a 3 , … , a n

c. xo   ai M i bi is the unique solution of the system modulo m.
i 1
are positive integers, then:
EXAMPLE:
remainder  a1mod b a2 mod b a3mod b an mod bmod b
1. Find the smallest positive integer which leave remainders of 2, 3 and
2 when divided by 3, 5 and 7 respectively.
EXAMPLE:
Solution:
1. What is the remainder when the product of 31, 41 and 47 is divided The integer satisfies the following congruences:
by 11? x  2mod3
Solution: x  3mod5
remainder  31mod11  41mod11  47mod11mod11 x  2mod7 
remainder  9  8  3mod 11 Since the moduli m1  3 , m2  5 , m3  7 are pairwise relatively prime,
remainder  72 mod 11  3mod 11 the method of the Chinese Remainder Theorem is applicable.
remainder  6  3mod 11  18 mod 11 a. m  3  5  7  105
remainder  7 105
M1   35
3
2. What is the remainder when 8103 is divided by 13? M2 
105
 21
5
Solution: 105
M3   15
remainder  8103mod 13 7
 
remainder  64 51  8 mod 13
35 y1  1mod3
remainder  12 51  8mod 13
b. 2 y1  1mod3  b1  2
remainder  144 25  12  8mod 13 y1  2mod3
remainder  144 25  96mod 13 21 y 2  1mod5
remainder  125  5mod 13
 b2  1
y 2  1mod5
remainder  5 15 y 3  1mod7
 b3  1
y 3  1mod7
3. Since today is Sunday, August 17, 2008, what day of the week will it
n
be 2 2897 days from now? c. xo   ai M i bi modm
Solution: i 1
Since there are 7 days in a week, we only just have to find the xo  2  35  2  3  21  1  2  15  1mod105
remainder when 2 2897 is divided by 7. So: xo  233mod105
remainder  2 2897mod 7  xo  23mod105
 
remainder  8965  2 2 mod 7  Thus:
remainder  4 x  23  105k ; k  0,  1,  2,
Therefore 4 days after a Sunday is a THURSDAY. The smallest positive x occur when k is zero: x  23  answer

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 TAU, SIGMA AND PHI FUNCTIONS If p is a prime, a is a positive integer and gcd p, a   1 , then:

In number problems, particularly those that involve huge numbers along a p 1  1mod p 
with their prime factorizations, we are often encountered with questions Note that since p is prime, we can rewrite this congruence as:
such as “how many positive integer factors…”, “what is the sum of the
factors of…?” and “how many positive integers less than a number that a  p   1mod p  , because   p   p  1
does is relatively prime to that number?” The three functions below will But we can actually generalize this to a result where the modulus is not
solve these problems! necessarily a prime. This generalization is known as the “EULER’S
THEOREM”.
a. TAU   FUNCTION
EULER’S THEOREM:
This function determines the number of positive integer divisors
of a given integer n with prime factorization: If m is a positive integer and a is an integer with gcda, m  1 , then:

n  p1a1  p2 a 2  p3a 3   pk a k a m  1mod m

where p1, p2 , p3 ,, pk are distinct primes and a1, a2 , a3 ,, ak In addition, if a and b are positive integers and gcda, b  1 then:
are positive integers. So that a b  b a   1mod ab
 n  a1  1a2  1a3  1ak  1
EXAMPLE:
b. SIGMA (  ) FUNCTION
This function determines the sum of all possible positive integer 1. What will be the remainder when 2317  17 25 is divided by 20?
divisors of n with prime factorization defined above.
a1 1 Solution:
 1 p2a2 1  1 p3a3 1  1 p ak 1  1
 n   1
 
p
    k
p1  1 p2  1 p3  1 pk  1 remainder  2317  17 25 mod 20

remainder  3  17 mod 20

17 25
c. EULER’S PHI   FUNCTION
 1  1 
Also known as “totient function”, this function determines the Using Euler’s Theorem:  20  20  1  1    8
number of positive integers less than the integer n that is  2  5 
relatively prime to n, that is, their greatest common divisor is 1. So that:
 1  1   1  17mod 8  1 ; 25mod 8  1
 n   n  1  1      1  
 p1  p2  
 p 
k  Therefore:
 
remainder  31  171 mod 20
EXAMPLE: remainder  20mod 20

1. How many positive integer divisors do 12 5 have? remainder  0

Solution:
CALCULATING CALENDAR DATES
5
 
The prime factorization of 12 5 is: 125  2 2  3  210  35
This method will determine what day of the week does a certain date fall.
So that the number of positive integer divisors of 12 5 is given by the
TAKE NOTE: All divisions, except where noted otherwise are
 function. “integer divisions”, in which remainders are discarded.
 
 125  10  15  1  66 STEP 1: Solve for the values of A, Y and M by using the formulas:
5 14  month
2. What is the sum of all positive integer divisors of 12 ? A ; month  # of month, 1 for Jan, etc
12
Solution:
Y  year  A
The answer is given by the sigma function:
M  month  12 A  2
  221111  33611  2047  364
 125 
STEP 2: Plug the values of y and m into the formula below to
 125   745108
calculate the day (d).
 31M 
mod7
Y Y Y
d   day  Y    
 4 100 400 12 
3. How many positive integers less than 12 5 that are relatively prime to mod 7 means “modulo division”. That is, take the remainder instead
this number? of the quotient as your answer. For example, 20mod7  6 because
Solution: the remainder when 20 is divided by 7 is 6.
Using Euler’s Phi Function, we get:
The answer you get for d will correspond to a day of the week as:
   1  1
 125  125  1  1    125  
2  3
1 2
2 3
0 : Sunday
1 : Monday

 125   82944
2 : Tuesday
3 : Wednesday
4 : Thursday
5: Friday
EULER’S THEOREM 6: Saturday
Euler’s Theorem is a method of finding remainders by congruence using
EXAMPLE:
the “Euler’s Phi Function” denoted by  n  .
1. On what day of the week does June 23, 1982 have fallen?
According to FERMAT’S LITTLE THEOREM:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

 Solution: STEP3: Consider n except its last digit d 1 , that is,
STEP 1: June 23, 1982  6/23/1982
d m d m1d m2 d 4 d 3d 2 .
14  6
A 0 Do the operation below:
operation  d m d m1d m2  d 4 d 3d 2  d m d m1d m2  d 4 d 3 0
12
Y  1982  0  1982
 d m d m1d m2  d 4 00  d m d m1d m2  000 
M  6  12(0)  2  4
  d m d m1 0  000  d m 00  00045
STEP 2:
where “45” is a magic number for this operation.
 1982 1982 1982 31(4) 
d  23  1982     mod7 STEP 4: Lastly, add all the positive integers less than d 1 and if the
 4 100 400 12 
sum exceeds one digit, then carry over the exceeding digits
d  23  1982  495  19  4  10mod7 
onto the next place value (that is, d 2 ). Same as d 1 , add all
d  2495mod7   3
the positive integers less than d 2 and the carry over if
Therefore, June 23, 1982 falls on a WEDNESDAY.
there is any. If the sum again exceeds one digit, carry it over
to the next place value. Repeat the same procedure, until
POLYGONAL NUMBERS you reach d m . For example, n  143 .
POLYGONAL NUMBERS – these are numbers that can be arranged as a 1 4 3
regular polygon. Let us denote it as Pn . 1 1
2 2
GENERAL FORMULA:  3
If s is the number of sides in a polygon, the formula for the nth
s-gonal number is: 6 3  answer

Pn 
s  2n 2
 s  4n
* Finally, add all the results of STEP’s 1 to 4.
2
where:
EXAMPLE:
s : the number of sides of the polygonal number, s  3 .
n: the nth polygonal number, n  1 . 1. What is the sum of all the digits of all the integers from 1 to 2009?

EXAMPLE: Solution:
STEP 1: S (2009)  2  0  0  9  11 .
1. What is the 9th hexagonal number? STEP 2: sum of products  2009  009  09  18 .
Solution: STEP 3: 200  200  20045  27000 .
For the hexagonal number: s  6 . Substituting to the given formula STEP 4: 1  2  3  ...  8  00  000  1000  1036 .
above: Adding all the results, we have:
Pn 
6  2n 2  6  4n 2
 2n  n
S (1)  S (2)  S (3)  ...  S (2009)  11  18  27000  1036
2 S (1)  S (2)  S (3)  ...  S (2009)  28065
Since, we are looking for the 9 hexagonal number, then n  9 .
th

Therefore:
P9  292  9
P9  153

SUM OF ALL THE DIGITS OF ALL THE INTEGERS FROM 1 TO N

Suppose that we denote S(n) to be the sum of the digits of n where n is

the decimal m-stringed number d m d m1d m2 d 3d 2 d1 . Therefore the
expression:
S (1)  S (2)  S (3)  ...  S (n)
denotes the sum of all the digits of all the integers from 1 to n.

To evaluate this sum with the ease of too many calculations, I have
developed a “FOUR-STEP ALGORITHM” to facilitate in faster
computations.

Since n is the decimal m-string d m d m1d m2 d 3d 2 d1 , then:

STEP 1: Find S(n), that is:

S (n)  d m  d m1  d m2    d 3  d 2  d1
STEP 2: Multiply the leftmost digit of n with the rest of the digits from
its right. Then, multiply the second leftmost digit with the
rest of the digits from its right, and so on and so forth until
the second rightmost digit is multiplied to the rightmost
digit of n. Finally, add all the resulting products. For
example, if n  14344 :
sum of products  14344  4344  344  44

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

 6 CALCULUS

CONTENTS:

Taylor and Maclaurin’s Series

Weierstrass Substitution
Limits of Indeterminate Forms
Improper Integrals
The Definite Integral – Riemann Sum
Gamma Function
Gaussian Integral
Euler Integral

PREPARED BY:

Joselito Torculas
BSECE, Adamson University
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc.
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 CALCULUS f ( x)  x3  3x 2  7 x  5 f (1)  2
f ' ( x)  3x 2  6 x  7 f ' (1)  2
TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES
f " ( x)  6 x  6 f " (1)  12
Suppose f is any function that can be represented by a POWER SERIES: f ( x)  6 f (1)  6
 f (iv) ( x)  0 f (iv) (1)  0
f x    cn x  a n  c0  c1x  a   c2 x  a 2  c3 x  a 3   The next derivatives were all zero. Thus,
n 0
f ' 1
If we put x = a, all terms after the first one becomes 0 and we get x3  3x 2  7 x  5  f 1  x  1  f "1 x  12  f 1 x  13  
1! 2! 3!
f a   c0
Getting the first derivative of the function and evaluating again at a: x3  3 x 2  7 x  5  2 
2
x  1  12 x  12  6 x  13
1! 2! 3!
f a   c1
x3  3x2  7 x  5  x  13  6x  12  2x  1  2
Continuing this process indefinitely will give:
f ' ' a   2!c2  ; f a   3!c3  ; f iv   4!c4   PLEASE SOLVE:
In general, for the Power Series above, the coefficient c n is computed as Find the Maclaurin Series expansion for the following functions:
a. f x   cos x
f (n) a 
cn 
n! b. f x   e x
And gives the TAYLOR SERIES expansion of f at a (or about a or centered c. f x   tan1 x
at a) below:
f x   e  x
2
 d.
f (n) a 
f x    n!
x  a n
n 0 WEIERSTRASS SUBSTITUTION
f ' a 
 f a   x  a  f "a x  a2  f a  x  a 3   Devised by the German mathematician KARL WEIERSTRASS in converting
1! 2! 3!
any rational function of sin x and cos x into an ordinary rational function.
For the special case wherein a = 0, the Taylor Series becomes:
Draw a right triangle with legs of lengths 1 and t with t opposite the angle

f (n) 0 n f ' 0 f " 0 2 f 0 3
f x    n!
x  f 0 
1!
x
2!
x 
3!
x  x
2
x
so that t  tan in the interval   x   . By derivation:
2
n 0
which is called the MACLAURIN SERIES expansion for f. sin
x

t
; cos
x

1
2 2 2
TAYLOR SERIES expansion is well suited for expressing TRANSCENDENTAL 1 t 1 t2
functions in term of infinite Power Series. This will be exhibited by the It follows that
coming examples below:
2t 1 t2 2dt
sin x  ; cos x  ; dx 
2 2
EXAMPLES: 1 t 1 t 1 t2

1. Express sin x in terms of powers of x. EXAMPLE:

 3sin x  4 cos x .
Solution: dx
1. Find
Expressing in terms of powers of x means getting the Maclaurin Series
expansion (centered at 0). We arrange the computation in two
columns as follows: Solution:
f ( x)  sin x f (0)  0 Applying Weierstrass substitution to the problem we get:
f ' ( x)  cos x f ' (0)  1 2dt
1 t2
f " ( x)   sin x f " (0)  0
  
dx dt
f ( x)   cos x f (0)  1 3sin x  4 cos x

 2t   1  t 2 
3 4
2
32t   4 1  t 2  
2
 1  t   1  t 
(iv) (iv) 2
f ( x)  sin x f (0)  0
We see that the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, the Maclaurin
 2t 2  3t  2
dt
series for sin x is therefore: 
f ' 0 f "x  2 f x  3
sin x  f 0  x x  x  2 1 
 2t 1t  2    5  2t 1  5  t  2 dt
dt 1 1
1! 2! 3! 

x3 x5 x 7 x 2n1
sin x  x   
3! 5! 7!
   1n 2n  1! 
1

ln 2t  1  ln t  2  c  ln 
1 2t  1
c
n 0 5 5 t2

2. Express x3 + 3x2 – 7x + 5 in terms of powers of (x – 1). x

2 tan   1
2

dx 1
Solution:  ln c
3sin x  4 cos x 5 x
Even in these cases where our function is a polynomial, we can apply tan   2
2
the method of Taylor Series expansion. Since our expansion is in terms
of x – 1, this would mean that our series is centered at a = 1.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 LIMITS OF INDETERMINATE FORMS CASE 3: INDETERMINATE POWERS

0  Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit

LIMITS OF INDETERMINATE FORMS OTHER THAN AND
0  lim  f x g x 
We know that the limit of an evaluated function in the form above can be x a
found using L’HOSPITAL’S RULE. But there are other indeterminate forms 1. lim f x   0 and lim g x   0  type 00
which cannot be directly solved (on the first glance) by this method. The xa xa
following are such cases: 2. lim f x    and lim g x   0  type 0
xa xa
CASE 1: INDETERMINATE PRODUCTS
3. lim f x   1 and lim g x     type 1
xa xa
If lim f x   0 and lim g x    or   , then it is not clear what the
x a xa
Each of these cases can be treated BY WRITING THE FUNCTION AS
value of lim f x g x  , if any, will be. There is a “struggle” between f and EXPONENTIAL.
xa
g. If f wins, the answer will be 0; if g wins, the answer will be  or   .
 f xg x  e g xln f x
Or there may be a compromise where the answer is a finite nonzero
lim g x ln f x 
number. This kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0   . lim  f x g x   e x a
xa
We can deal with it BY WRITING THE PRODUCT AS QUOTIENT:
EXAMPLE:
f g
fg  or fg  1. Find lim x x .
1g 1 f
x 0
Solution:
This converts the limit into an indeterminate form of type 0 0 or   so
x
that we can now use L’Hospital’s Rule. Notice that this limit is indeterminate since 0  0 for any x greater
0
EXAMPLE: than 0 but x  1 for any x not equal to 0. Now, writing the function
as exponential:
1. Evaluate lim x ln x . lim x ln x 
x 0 lim x x  e x 0

 e0

x0
Solution:
lim x x  1
The first factor (x) approaches 0 while the second factor (ln x) x0
approaches  . Therefore the given limit is indeterminate. Now,
ln x 1x IMPROPER INTEGRALS
lim x ln x  lim  lim
x 0 x0 1 x x0  1 x 2
In defining a definite integral
lim x ln x  lim  x   0
x0 x0 b
a f xdx
CASE 2: INDETERMINATE DIFFERENCES we dealt with a function f defined on a finite interval [a,b] and we assumed
that f does not have an infinite discontinuity. IMPROPER INTEGRALS are
If lim f x    and lim g x    , then the limit integrals that have infinite interval (TYPE 1) or has an infinite discontinuity
x a x a
in [a,b] (TYPE 2).
lim  f x   g x 
xa
TYPE 1: INFINITE INTERVALS
is called an indeterminate form of type    . To find this limit, we TRY TO
CONVERT THE DIFFERENCE INTO A QUOTIENT (for instance, by using a Consider the infinite region S that lies under the curve y = 1/x 2, above the
common denominator, rationalization or factoring out a common factor) x-axis and to the right of the line x = 1. You might think that, since S is
so that we have an indeterminate form of type 0 0 or   . infinite in extent, its area must be infinite, but let’s take a closer look. The
area of the part of S that lies to the left of the line x = t is
EXAMPLE: t
t  1
At  

1 1
dx    1
1. Compute lim sec x  tan x  . 1 x2  x 1 t
x  2 
Notice that At   1 no matter how
Solution: large t is chosen. We also observe
By direct substitution, sec x   as well as tan x   . Therefore, the that
limit is indeterminate. Now,  1
lim At   lim 1    1
 1 sin x  t  t  t
lim sec x  tan x   lim   
x 2
x 2 
 cos x cos x The area of the shaded region approaches 1 as t   , so we say that the
1  sin x  cos x area of the infinite region S is equal to 1 and we write
 lim  lim 0  1
x 2 x  2  sin x t 1
1 
cos x dx  lim dx  1
2 t  1 x 2
x

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 t otherwise; the region is extended indefinitely in a vertical direction from a
f x dx exist for every number t  a ,then
 If
a to b.

If it happens that A(t) approaches a definite number A as t  b , then we
t
a f xdx  tlim
 a
f x dx
say that the area of the region S is A and we write it as:
b
 If
t f xdx exist for every number t  b ,then b
a f xdx  t limb a f xdx 
t

b b
 f xdx  t lim t f xdx This equation is applicable even when f is not a positive function, no matter
what type of discontinuity f has at b.
 a
 If both
a f xdx and  f xdx are convergent, then we define  If f is continuous on [a,b) and is discontinuous at b, then
b t
a f xdx  t limb a f xdx
 a 
f x dx  f x dx  f x dx
  a 

 If f is continuous on (a,b] and is discontinuous at a, then

NOTE: The improper integral is CONVERGENT if the corresponding b b
limit exists while DIVERGENT if the limit does not exist.
a f xdx  t lima t f xdx 

EXAMPLES: c
 If f has a discontinuous at c, where a  c  b , and both
a f x 
0
 xe dx .
x b
c f x are convergent, then
1. Evaluate: and

b c b
Solution:
Using the definition above: a f xdx  a f xdx  c f xdx
0 0 NOTE: The improper integral is CONVERGENT if the corresponding
 xe dx  t lim t
x
xex dx
limit exist while DIVERGENT if the limit does not exist.
Integrating by parts:
EXAMPLES:
0
t   
xex dx  xex t 
0
t
0
e x dx  tet  1  et
5
2
1
1. Find: dx .
Finally, x2
0
 xe dx  t lim t
x 0

xex dx  lim  tet  1  et
t 
 Solution:
The given integral is improper because the integrand is vertically
0
 xe dx  0  1  0  1 asymptotic at x = 2. Since the infinite discontinuity occurs at the left
x
endpoint of [2,5], the integral becomes:


5
2
1
dx  lim
t
5
 dx
 lim 2 x  2 t 5
 1  x2
1
2. Evaluate: dx . x2 x2 
x  2 t 2 

 lim 2 3  2 t  2 

Solution: t 2
It’s convenient to choose a = 0, so that 2 3
 0 
 1  x2 dx   1  x2 dx  0 1  x2 dx
1 1 1

0
dx
2. Evaluate: .
Evaluating these integrals: x x  1
 0 t
 1  x2 dx  t lim t 1  x2  tlim
 0 1  x 2
1 dx dx
Solution:
The graph of the integrand is shown below
   0
 lim tan1 x t  lim tan1 x 0
t  t 
t

 lim tan1 0  tan1 t  lim tan1 t  tan1 0

t  t 

      
 0        0   
  2    2 

TYPE 2: DISCONTINUOUS INTEGRANDS

This type of integral is sometimes called DOUBLY IMPROPER
INTEGRAL. To evaluate this integral, split it at a convenient point (say,
x = 1) and write:
 1 
0 0 1
dx dx dx
 
x x  1 x x  1 x x  1
1 t
t 
dx dx
 lim  lim
Suppose that f is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval t 0 
x x  1 t  1 x x  1
[a,b) but has a vertical asymptote at b. For TYPE 1 integrals, the region is
extended indefinitely in a horizontal direction. The figure above shows

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

  
1

 lim 2 tan1 x t  lim 2 tan1 x 1
t 0
t 

t From the results above, we can conclude that
7 15
 A
32 32
     
 2   0  2   2   
4 2 4 How to arrive on the true value of A? The answer will be obtained if we
increase the number of strips until infinity.
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

We begin by attempting to solve the “area problem”. Find the area of the
region S under the parabola y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 1. The figure below
shows the area we are talking of

From the figure above, the sum of the areas R n of n approximating

rectangles is computed as
2 2 2 2
11 12 13 1n
It is easy to solve for area of regions with straight sides; for example, in a Rn            
nn nn nn nn
rectangle, the area is defined as the product of the length and width
whereas for a triangle, the area is half the base times height. But it is not
easy to find the area of a region with curved sides, like the parabola above.

1
n3
1  2
2 2 
 32    n2 
1  nn  12n  1 

n3  6 


Recall, that in defining a tangent, we first approximated the slope of the

Rn 
n  12n  1  2n2  3n  1
tangent line by slopes of secant lines and then we took the limit of these 6n 2 6n 2
approximations. We will pursue a similar idea for areas. Taking the limit as n approaches infinity (this will be the area A of region
Going back to the problem, suppose we divide S into four strips S1, S2, S3 S):
and S4 by drawing vertical lines x = 1/4, x = 1/2, and x = 3/4 and then 2n2  3n  1
1
approximate each strip by a rectangle whose base is the same as the strip A  lim Rn  lim 
n 6n2
n 3
and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip as in the figure
It can also be shown that the lower approximating sums also approaches
below:
this value, that is
1
A  lim Ln 
n 3

Let’s apply this idea to the more general region S as shown below:

In other words, the heights of these rectangles are the values of the
function f(x) = x2 at the right endpoints of the subintervals [0,1/4],
[1/4,1/2], [1/2,3/4] and [3/4,1]. Each rectangle has width 1/4 and the
heights are (1/4)2, (1/2)2, (3/4)2 and 12. If we let R4 be the sum of the areas
of these approximating rectangles, we get We start by subdividing S into n strips S1, S2, S3, …, Sn of equal widths (this
is called a regular partition). The width of the interval [a,b] is b – a, so the
2 2 2
11 11 13
         12 
1 15 width of each of the n strips is
R4 
44 42 44 4 32 ba
x 
15 n
And we see that the area A of S is less than R4, so A  .
32 These strips divide the interval [a,b] into n subintervals
In a similar fashion, instead of using the right endpoints to define the [ x0 , x1], [ x1, x2 ], [ x2 , x3 ], , [ xn1, xn ]  where x0  a and xn  b
heights of the approximating rectangles, we can use the left endpoints of Instead of using left endpoints or right endpoints, we could take the height
the subintervals like the one below: of the ith rectangle to be the value of f at any number xi* in the ith
subinterval [xi-1,xi]. We call the numbers x1*, x2*, …, xn* the sample points.
This is illustrated below:

Letting L4 be the sum of the approximating rectangles, we get

2 2 2
1 2 11
L4  0     1  1   1  3   7
4 44 42 44 32 Therefore, the more general expression for the area S is
7
And we see also that the area A of S is greater than L 4, so A  .
32

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

 PLEASE SOLVE:
        
n
A  lim [ f x1* x  f x2* x    f xn* x]  lim f xi* x
n n n
i 1 i4
a. Evaluate: lim  n5
 f xi*   f xi* 
n n n 
ba ba i 1
A  lim  lim
n n n n n
i 1 i 1
 1  i n2
1 1
b. Evaluate: lim

 f xi* x
n n n
i 1
The sum is called the Riemann sum, after the German
i 1
mathematician Bernhard Riemann. GAMMA FUNCTION

And we define the DEFINITE INETGRAL from this concept: 

s 1  t

   
ba
n b ( s )  ( s  1)!  t e dt
lim f xi*  f x dx  0
n n a
i 1 Try to solve ( s  1) using Integration by Parts to get

To further simplify, if we choose the sample points xi* to be on the right ( s  1)  s( s)
ba Then, continuous solution by parts will yield
endpoints, then xi*  a  ix  a  i . So that,
n ( s  1)  s( s)  s( s  1)( s  1)  
n  ( s  1)  s! ( factorial function)
ba  ba  ba

b
i   f x dx  where x  a 
lim
n n
i 1
f a 
 n  a  n
i
GAUSS REPRESENTATION

EXAMPLES: The key to derivation is to represent

n
1. Evaluate:  t
e  t  lim 1  
n n   n
n
3 3i
lim 1 To get
n  n
i 1
 n
 t
( s )   t s 1 lim 1   dt
Solution: n    n 
0
n n
4 1 4 1
 
3 3i n
lim 1  lim 1 i n
s 1  t
n n n n n n ( s )  lim t 1   dt
i 1 i 1 n   n
0
n 4
2  Solve the integral by parts to get

4

3 3i 14
lim 1  x dx   x3 2  
n
i 1
n n 1 3 1 3 n n n
n
n 1
s 1  t ts  t n s
t  t
t 1   dt  1    1   dt
2. Evaluate: 0  n  s  n  0
s  n 
0
n n 1
 i
 4n tan 4n
n n
lim s 1  t n n s t
n t 1   dt   t 1  n  dt
i 1 0  n  sn 0  
n n n 2
Solution: s 1  t n n  1 n s 1  t
t 1   dt    t 1  n  dt
n
 i  4  0 tan0   4  0 i  n  sn ( s  1) n  

0 0
lim tan  lim  
n 4n 4n n n  n  n n n 3
i 1 s 1  t n n 1 n  2 n s2  t
t 1   dt     t 1  n  dt So on and so
  2)n 0
     
n  4 n sn ( s 1) n ( s
lim 

tan
i


tan xdx  ln sec x
 4
0

 ln 2  0
forth until…
n 4n 4n 0
i 1
n n n
s 1  t n n 1 n2 1 s  n 1
3. Evaluate: t 1   dt      t dt
0  n sn ( s  1)n ( s  2)n ( s  n  1)n 0
n  5 
lim  31  2i   6 2 n n
n!n s
s 1  t n! s  n n
n   n  n t 1   dt  n  ( s  i ) 1 
i 1    n nn i 0
n
0
 (s  i)
Solution: i 0

n  n 1
5 2 3 1
n   5 n
s 1  t ns n 
s
lim 31  n 
 2i 
 6  lim 31  3  1 i   6
 t 1   dt   1  
n  n n n   n   0  n s i 1 i 
i 1   i 1  
So that,

 
n  3
 5  x6 
31  2i   6 2 

3 1
lim 3x5  6 dx    6 x  352  ns n  s 
  n ( s)  lim   1   
  1
n n 1 2
i 1   n    s i 1 i 
 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 WEIERSTRASS REPRESENTATION  s 2  sin(s )
Since  1   , then
To derive, start with Gauss representation: i 1 i 2  s

 ns n  1 
s  ( s)  (1  s) 
( s )  lim   1    sin( s )
n    s i 1 i 
 
1 1
n  s  GAMMA OF 1/2
( s )  lim  e s ln n  1   
n  s i 1 i 
  Start with the relationship:
1 1 
n  s  ( s)  (1  s) 
( s )  lim  e 0 e s ln n  1    sin(s)
n  s i 1 i 
 
1
Set s  to get:
 n
s n s  2
 1  i   i  s ln n n  s  1 
( s )  lim  e i 1 i 1  1    1  1
   1   
 1
    
n  s i 1 i 
    
2 2  sin    2
 
The Euler-Mascheroni constant  is represented as: 2
GAUSSIAN INTEGRAL
 n
1 
  lim    ln n 

n   i 1 i  1
 Start with   :
So that, 2
 n
s   1
 1  i s n  s  1  1
    t 2 e  t dt
( s )  lim  e i 1  1    2 0
n  s i 1 i 
 
Let t  pu 2 ; dt  2 pudu ; p  0 . So that,
n
s
i n
s
1

1 
e  pu (2 pudu)  2 p  e  pu du
2 2
Since e i 1   e i , then    
i 1 2 0 pu 2 0
 s 1  
n  s 1
( s )  lim  e s  e i 1     pu2
1
   p e du  
n  s i 1  i  2 
 
Finally, 
 pu2 
e du 
s 1 
p
1  i s
( s )   e 1  
se s i 1  i
EULER INTEGRAL

RELATIONSHIP OF GAMMA FUNCTION TO SINE A powerful integration technique using the gamma function that
incorporates algebraic, exponential and trigonometric functions all under
Start with Gauss representation: one integral. To derive, start with the gamma function:
 ns n  1
s  
( s )  lim   1    ( s )  t
s 1  t
e dt
n    s i 1 i 
  0
Set s to –s
For any complex number p, let t  pu n ; dt  pnu n 1du :
 n  s n  s  1 

(  s )  lim   1    s ns1  pu n
n     s i 1 i  ( s )   np u e du
  0
Get their product: Using complex conjugates:
   
( s) ( s)
  u ns1e  pu du ;   u ns1e  pu du
n n
 s s n 
n n 1
( s )  (  s )  lim     np s
np s

n   s  s i 1  s  s   0 0
 1   1    Adding up:
  i  i  

( s) ( s)
  (u ns1e  pu  u ns1e  pu )du
n n
  
  np s
np s
0
1 n 1  1  1
( s )  (  s)(  s )  lim     ( s)  1 1   ns1  pu n
n    i 1    s i 1  2
 e  pu )du
n
s 2
1  s  1  s    u (e
 n p  s s 
  i 2    i 2 
p  0
 
Using the properties of complex numbers:
1  1
 p  a  bi ; p  p ei ; p s  p eis
s
( s)  (1  s) 
s i 1  2
1  s 
p  a  bi ; p  p e i ; p s  p e is
s
 2 
 i 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

   ns1   ( a  bi)u n 
( s )  1 1  ( s )
 e  ( a  bi)u  du cos(s )   u ns1e  au cos(bu n )du
n n
    u
s   is is  e  s
n p e e  0 np 0

eis  eis   uns1eau (eibu

 For sine, use the sine version and set
( s )
 e  ibu )du
n n n
1 1 
np
s
0 s ; a  0 ; b  1 ; n  2 ; p  1 ; tan     
2 0 2
If taking the sum:
1 1   2
   sin   sin u 2 du 
( s ) 2 2
cos(s )   u ns1e  au cos(bu n )du
n 4 0 4
s
np 0 For cosine, use the cosine version and set
If taking the difference: 1 1 
s ; a  0 ; b  1 ; n  2 ; p  1 ; tan     

2 0 2
( s )
sin( s )   u ns1e  au sin( bu n )du
n

s 1 1   2
np 0   cos   cos u 2 du 
2 2 4 0 4
Where:
b  
p  a  bi ; p  a 2  b2 ; tan    if a  0,   
a  2

Here are some applications:

SINC FUNCTION

Solve

sin u
 u
du
0
Solution:
Use the sine version of the Euler integral

( s )
sin( s )   u ns1e  au sin( bu n )du
n

s
np 0

1 
Set: s  0 ; a  0 ; b  1 ; n  1 ; p  1 ; tan    
0 2

 s  s 1
( s)  sin    u sin udu ; take s  0
 2  0
To further solve this, use the identity

( s)  (1  s) 
sin( s )

  s  s 1
 sin    u sin udu
sin( s )  (1  s)  2  0

 s 
sin   
s  2     u s 1 sin udu
 
sin( s )  (1  s )s 2 0
2
Take limit as s approaches 0:

sin u 
 du 
0
u 2

FRESNEL INTEGRALS

Show that
 
2 2
 sin u du   cos u 2 du 
0 0
4

Solution:
Use Euler Integral

( s )
sin( s )   u ns1e  au sin( bu n )du
n

s
np 0

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

 7 VECTOR ANALYSIS

CONTENTS:

The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System

Dot Product
Cross Product
Lines in Three-Dimensional Space
Planes in Three-Dimensional Space
Vector-Valued Functions
Tangent and Normal Vectors

PREPARED BY:

Joselito Torculas
BSECE, Adamson University
Product Engineer, Analog Devices Inc.
joselitotorculas@yahoo.com
Admin, Elite Math Circle
Admin, Math Enthusiast Quiz Group
 VECTOR ANALYSIS DISTANCE FORMULA IN THREE DIMENSIONS

THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

To locate a point in a plane, two numbers are necessary. We know
that any point in the plane can be represented as an ordered pair (a,b) of
real numbers, where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate. For
this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional. To locate a point in space,
three numbers are required. We represent any point in space by an
ordered triple (a,b,c) of real numbers.

The distance P1 P2 between the points P1 x1 , y1 , z1  and

P2 x 2 , y 2 , z 2  is determined by the formula

P1P2  x2  x12   y2  y12  z2  z12

VECTOR – used to indicate a quantity that has both magnitude and

The coordinate axes and coordinate planes direction. A vector is often represented by an arrow wherein the tail is
called the initial point and the tip (arrowhead) is called the terminal
Now, if P is any point in space, let a be the (directed) distance from the point.
yz-plane to P, let b be the distance from the xz-plane to P, and let c be the
distance from the xy-plane to P. We represent the point P by the ordered VECTOR ADDITION
triple (a,b,c) of real numbers called the coordinates of P. This was shown TRIANGLE LAW
in the figure below. If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is at the terminal
point of u, then the sum u + v is the vector from the initial point of u to
the terminal point of v

This point P(a,b,c) also determines a rectangular box as shown below. If

we drop a perpendicular from P to the xy-plane, we get a point Q with
coordinates (a,b,0) called the projection of P on the xy-plane. The same PARALLELOGRAM LAW
thing can be said on points R and Q on the figure. If u and v starts at the same point in space, then u + v lies along the
diagonal of the parallelogram with u and v as sides.

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple cv is the
 
The Cartesian product       x, y, z  x, y, z   is the set of all vector whose length is |c| times the length of v and whose direction is
the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0. If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv
3
ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted by  . We have given a = 0.
one-to-one correspondence between points P in space and ordered
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
triples (a,b,c) in  3 and this is called a three-dimensional rectangular For most purposes it’s best to introduce a coordinate system and
coordinate system. In two-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of treat vectors algebraically. If we place the initial point of a vector a at the
an equation involving x and y is a CURVE in 2 . In three-dimensional origin of a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system, then the
terminal point of a has coordinates of the form (a1,a2,a3) as shown below:
analytic geometry, an equation in x,y and z represents a SURFACE in  3
.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 These coordinates are called the components of a and we write Find the magnitude of the tensions T1 and T2 in both wires.

a  a1 , a 2 , a3  Solution:
We first express T1 and T2 in terms of their horizontal and vertical
components. From the figure in right:
we use the notation  a1 , a 2 , a3  in referring to a vector’s components so
as not to confuse it with the ordered triple (a 1.a2,a3) that refers to a point T1   T1 cos 50  i  T1 sin 50  j
in space.
T2  T2 cos 32  i  T2 sin 32  j
Now, given two points Ax1, y1, z1 and Bx2 , y2 , z2  in space, the vector

a with representation AB is
The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalances the weight w and
a   x 2  x1 , y 2  y1 , z 2  z1  so we must have
T1  T2  w  100 j
And the length (also called magnitude) of this vector |a| is equal to
 T1 cos50  T2 cos32 i  T1 sin 50  T2 sin 32 j  100 j
|a|  x2  x1  2
  y 2  y1   z 2  z1 
2 2
Equating components, we get

Another way of representing a vector a algebraically is by introducing  T1 cos 50   T2 cos 32   0  eq.1

these three unit vectors, namely
T1 sin 50   T2 sin 32   100  eq.2
i  1,0,0 ; j  0,1,0 ; k  0,0,1 Solving these two equations simultaneously we have:

The vectors i, j and k are called the standard basis vectors. They have 50 cos 32  100 50 sin 50 
T1  ; T2  
 
length 1 and points in the directions of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes. sin 18 sin 32 sin 18 tan 32 

a   x2  x1 , y 2  y1 , z 2  z1   x2  x1 i   y 2  y1  j  z 2  z1 k DOT PRODUCT

- Sometimes called SCALAR PRODUCT or INNER PRODUCT. It is a

UNIT VECTOR - is a vector whose length is 1. In general, if a  0 , then the
product of two vectors in which the value is a scalar. When interpreted
unit vector u that has the
geometrically, it defines the angle between two vector when
same direction as a is
positioned from a common point.
It tells that the direction cosines
a a i  a2 j  a3k
u  1 of a are the components of the Given two nonzero vectors a  a1, a2 , a3 and b  b1, b2 , b3 ;
a
a12  a22  a32 unit vector in the direction of a
a  b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
EXAMPLES:
a  b  a b cos
1. Find the radius of the sphere with equation
x2  y 2  z 2  4 x  6 y  2 z  6  0 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT
If a, b and c are vectors in space and c is a scalar, then:
Solution:
2
A sphere is the set of all points in space whose distance from a fixed 1. a  a  a
center (C) is r. By completing the square 2. a  b  b  a
x2  4x  4 y2  6 y  9 z2  2z 1  6  4  9 1 3. a  b  c  a  b  a  c
x  2  y  3  z  1
2 2 2
8 4. ca  b  ca  b  a  cb
So the radius (r) is equal to
r2 8  r  2 2 APPLICATION #1 : ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

QUESTION:
2. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector
Find the angle between the two vectors
2i – j – 2k
a = 2i + 2j – k
Solution: b = 5i – 4j + 2k
The given vector has length
Solution:
|2i – j – 2k|  22   12   22  3 By applying the definition of the dot product, we have:
So the required unit vector u is cos 
a b

25  24  12
 2  
 2  22   12  52   42  22 
2i  j  2k 2 1 2 ab
u  i j k
3 3 3 3   
0
3. A 100-lb weight hangs from two wires as shown below cos 
9 5

  90

CONCLUSION: Two vectors are perpendicular iff a  b  0 .

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 APPLICATION #2 : DIRECTION ANGLES & DIRECTION COSINES APPLICATION #3 : SCALAR & VECTOR PROJECTIONS

DIRECTION ANGLES: are the angles  ,  , and  in the interval 0,2  SCALAR PROJECTION
that the nonzero vector a makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes
respectively.

If S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ, then
the SCALAR PROJECTION of b onto a (also called component of b along
a) is defined to be the signed magnitude of the vector projection PS.
DIRECTION COSINES: are the cosines of the direction angles of the vector
a. a b
compab 
a
Using the basic definition of the dot product:
a  i a1 VECTOR PROJECTION
cos  
ai a
a  j a2
cos   
a j a
a  k a3
cos  
ak a
We can deduce from the three equations above that the components of
vector a can be expressed as:
If S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ, then
a  a1, a2 , a3   a cos , a cos  , a cos 
the VECTOR PROJECTION of b onto a (you can think of it as a shadow of
a  a cos , cos  , cos  b) is defined as the “vector” equivalent of the scalar projection of b onto a.

a  a b  a
 u  cos , cos  , cos     compab  a
a projab  
 a a a
 

Furthermore: Notice that the vector projection is the scalar projection times the unit
2 2 2 vector in the direction of a.
a  a  a 
cos2   cos2   cos2    1    2    3 
a  a   a  QUESTION:
     
A force is given by a vector
2
a 2  a22  a32 a F = 3i + 4j + 5k N
cos2   cos2   cos2   1 
2 2 and moves a particle from the point P(2,1,0) to the point Q(4,6,2). Find
a a
the work done.(Take note: distance traveled is in meters).
cos2   cos2   cos2   1
Solution:
QUESTION:
Find the angle that the vector
a  2i  5 j  3k
makes with the z-axis.

Solution: If the force moves the object from P to Q, then the displacement vector
To find the direction angle, we always start on finding the unit vector in
the directon of the given vector. is D = PQ . The work done by this force is defined to be the product of
the component of the force (SCALAR PROJECTION of F) along D and
a 2i  5 j  3k
u  the distance moved
a
 2  32
22   5 
W  compD F  D  F cos D 
2 10 2 W  F D cos  F  D
u i j k
3 2 6 2
The angle that the given vector makes with the z-axis is determined by The displacement vector is
the z-component of the unit vector above.
D  PQ   (4  2), (6  1), (2  0)   2,5,2
2
cos     45 Therefore, the work done will be:
2 W  F  D  3,4,5  2,5,2
TIP: Always start with finding the unit vector equivalent of a given vector W  32  45  52  36 J
when finding direction angles.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

 CROSS PRODUCT Solution:
From the figure in left, we can see
- sometimes called VECTOR PRODUCT. It is a product of two vectors that the sides of the quadrilateral
which yields a vector. When interpreted geometrically, it defines the correspond to the following four
area of the parallelogram determined by two vectors. vectors:

Given two vectors a  a1, a2 , a3 and b  b1, b2 , b3 : AB = -3i + 4j + k

AD = 0i – 2j + 6k
CD = 3i – 4j – k
i j k
CB = 0i + 2j – 6k
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3 So AB is parallel to CD and AD is
parallel to CB, and you can
a  b  a b sin 
conclude that the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram with AB and AD as
PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT adjacent sides.
If a and b are vectors in space, then:
1. The cross product a  b is defined only when a and b are three- Thus, finding the CROSS PRODUCT between vectors AB and AD:
dimensional vectors, meaning to say, the cross product does not i j k
apply to two-dimensional vectors. AB  AD   3 4 1  26i  18 j  6k
2. The vector a  b is ORTHOGONAL (PERPENDICULAR) to both a 0 2 6
and b.
Therefore, the area will be the magnitude of this vector:
3. The direction of a  b is given by the “right-hand rule”. If the
fingers of your right hand curl in the direction of rotation from a to AB  AD  262  182  62
b, then your thumb points in the direction of a  b .
AB  AD  2 259 s.u.

APPLICATION #2 : FINDING THE VOLUME OF A PARALLELEPIPED

PARALLELEPIPED – a polyhedron, all of whose faces are parallelogram.

4. Two nonzero vector a and b are PARALLEL iff a  b  0 .

THEOREMS ON THE CROSS PRODUCT

If a, b and c are vectors in space and c is a scalar, then:
1. a  b  b  a The geometric significance of the SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT (also called
2. ca b  ca  b  a  cb TRIPLE SCALAR PRODUCT) can be seen by considering the figure above.
The area (A) of the base (a parallelogram) is
3. a  b  c  a  b  a  c
A  bc
4. a  b c  a  c  b  c
If  is the angle between a and b x c, then the height (h) of the
5. a  b  c  a  b  c  SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
parallelepiped is
6. a  b  c  a  cb  a  bc  VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT h  a cos
Thus the volume of the parallelepiped is
APPLICATION #1 : FINDING THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM
V  Ah  b  c a cos  a  b  c 

a1 a2 a3
V  a  b  c   b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

QUESTION:
The geometric interpretation of the CROSS PRODUCT can be seen by
Find the volume of the parallelepiped having the vectors
looking at the figure above. If a and b are represented by the directed line
u = 3i – 5j + k
segments with the same initial point, then they determine a parallelogram
v = 2j – 2k
with base a , altitude b sin  , and area w = 3i + j + k
as its adjacent edges.
 
A  base height   a b sin   a  b
Solution:
QUESTION:
Find the area of the parallelogram having vertices at A(5,2,0), B(2,6,1),
C(2,4,7) and D(5,0,6).

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

 By using the Scalar Triple Product:
V  u  v  w

3 5 1
2 2 0 2
  5  1
0 2
V  0 2 2 3
1 1 3 1 3 1
3 1 1

V  34  56  16  36 c.u.

APPLICATION #3 : TORQUE
Let v  a, b, c be a vector parallel to L, P(x,y,z) be an arbitrary point on L,
TORQUE – measures the tendency to rotate about an origin. It is also the r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P (that is, they have
moment M of a force F about a point P. The figure below illustrates this representations OP0 and OP). From this illustration, we can express the
definition: equation of line L in three forms: VECTOR FORM, PARAMETRIC FORM and
SYMMETRIC FORM.

FORM #1: VECTOR EQUATION

From the figure above, if a is vector from P0 to P, then the TRIANGLE LAW
of vector addition gives:
r = r0 + a
But since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t such that a = tv.
Thus, the vector equation (r) for L is

If the point of application of the force is at Q, the moment of F about P is

r  ro  tv
given by
M = PQ x F r   xo , yo , zo   t a, b, c
r  xo  at i   yo  bt  j  zo  ctk
wherein the magnitude of the moment (torque) M measures the tendency
of the position vector PQ to rotate counterclockwise (using the right-hand
wherein the components a, b and c are called the DIRECTION NUMBERS
rule) about an axis directed along the vector M.
of line L.
QUESTION:
EXAMPLE:
A vertical force of 50 pounds is applied to the end of a one-foot lever
that is attached to an axle at point P, as shown below. Find the moment 1. Find a vector equation for the line that passes through the point (5,1,3)
 and is parallel to the vector i + 4j – 2k.
of this force about the point P when   60 .
Solution:

Solution:
If you represent the 50-pound force as Here ro  5,1,3  5i  j  3k and v  i  4 j  2k . The vector equation
F  50k is:
and the lever as r  ro  tv  5i  j  3k   t i  4 j  2k 
  1

PQ  cos 60 j  sin 60 k  j 
2 2
3
k    r  5  t i  1  4t  j  3  2t k

The moment (torque) of F about P is given by FORM #2: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

i j k
1 3
M  PQ  F  0  25i
2 2
0 0  50

The magnitude of this moment is

M  25 ft  lb

LINES IN THREE_DIMENSIONAL SPACE From the figure above, we can see that as the parameter t varies, the line
is traced out by the tip of the vector r. Positive values of t correspond to
A line in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the points on L that lie on one side of P0, whereas negative values of t
direction (slope) are given. Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space is correspond to points that lie on the other side of P 0. If the vector v that
determined when we know a point P0(x0,y0,z0) on L and the direction of L
gives direction of the line L is written in component form as v  a, b, c ,
(conveniently described by a vector).
then we have tv  at , bt , ct . Also, if r   x, y, z and ro   xo , yo , zo  , the
vector equation in the previous discussion will become:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 r  ro  tv   x, y, z   xo  at, yo  bt , zo  ct  11 1 
Thus, the line AB will intersect the xy-plane at point  , ,0  .
4 4 
Two vectors are equal if and only if corresponding components are equal.
Therefore the PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS of the line L through the point SKEW LINES - are lines that do not intersect and are not parallel (and
P0(x0,y0,z0) and parallel to the vector v  a, b, c are given as: therefore do not lie in the same plane).

Given two lines L1 and L2 in PARAMETRIC FORM:

x  xo  at ; y  yo  bt ; z  zo  ct
L1 : x  x1  a1t ; y  y1  b1t ; z  z1  c1t
EXAMPLE: L2 : x  x2  a2s ; y  y2  b2s ; z  z2  c2s
These two lines are parallel if and only if the proportion below was
1. Find the parametric equations of the line that passes through the satisfied:
points A(2,4,-3) and B(3,-1,1).
a1 b c
 1  1
Solution: a2 b2 c2
We are not explicitly given a vector (v) parallel to the line, but since this
is parallel to the line AB: Not satisfying the proportion above will mean that the lines are not parallel
v  3  2,1  4,1  3  1,5,4 and it will also follow that these lines have no intersection.

The direction numbers are a = 1, b = -5 and c = 4. Using the point EXAMPLE:

A(2,4,-3), the parametric equations representing line AB will be
1. Show that the lines with parametric equations
x  2  t ; y  4  5t ; z  3  4t
L1 : x  1  t ; y  2  3t ; z  4t
FORM #3: SYMMETRIC EQUATIONS L2 : x  2s ; y  3 s ; z  3  4s

Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate the parameter t from are skew.
FORM #2. If none of a, b, or c is 0, we can solve each of these equations Solution:
for t, and then equate the results to obtain The lines are not parallel since the corresponding direction numbers
a1, b1, c1  1,3,1 ; a2 , b2 , c2   2,1,4
x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
  are not proportional. If L1 and L2 had a point of intersection, there
a b c
would be values of t and s such that
If you are given two points P0(x0,y0,z0) and P1(x1,y1,z1), then the direction 1  t  2s ;  2  3t  3  s ; 4  t  3  4s
numbers v  a, b, c will then be: But if we solve the first two equations, we get t = 11/5 and s = 8/5, and
these values do not satisfy the third equation. Therefore, there are no
a  x1  x0 ; b  y1  y0 ; c  z1  z0
values of t and s that satisfy the three equations (L 1 and L2 do not
Therefore, the symmetric equation above can also be expressed (in terms intersect). Hence L1 and L2 are SKEW LINES.
of two points) as
PLANES IN THREE_DIMENSIONAL SPACE
x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
 
x1  x0 y1  y0 z1  z0 RECALL: A LINE is determined by a POINT and a VECTOR v that is parallel
to this line. Now, what do we need to determine a PLANE in space?
EXAMPLE:
A PLANE in space is determined by a POINT P(x1,y1,z1) in the plane and a
1. A line was drawn passing through the points A(2,4,-3) and B(3,-1,1). VECTOR n  a, b, c that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to this plane. This
At what point will this line intersect the xy-plane?
orthogonal vector n is called NORMAL VECTOR. Now let’s look at the
Solution: figure below:
From the previous example, we have solved the direction numbers
v  a, b, c  1,5,4 and the parametric equations representing line
AB which is (x = 2 + t , y = 4 – 5t , z = -3 + 4t). Finding the equivalent
SYMMETRIC FORM of this line (we just solve for t):
x2
x  2t  t 
1
4 y
y  4  5t  t 
5
z 3
z  3  4t  t 
4
Equating these three, we now have the symmetric equations for line
If we have a point P(x1,y1,z1) in the plane having a nonzero normal vector
AB
n  a, b, c , then if this plane consist of all points Q(x,y,z) for which PQ is
x2 4 y z 3
  orthogonal to n, by using DOT PRODUCT we can write the following:
1 5 4
When we say that a line passes through the xy-plane, this is just the n  PQ  0  VECTOR FORM
same as the point wherein z = 0. Therefore: a, b, c   x  x1, y  y1, z  z1  0
x2 4 y 03 3
  
1 5 4 4 STANDARD FORM OF A PLANE IN SPACE
Solving for values of x and y we have: ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0
x2 3 11 4 y 3 1
  x ;   y
1 4 4 5 4 4

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

 APPLICATION #3: ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES
and by regrouping terms, we obtain it’s GENERAL FORM:

GENERAL FORM OF A PLANE IN SPACE

ax  by  cx  d  0

APPLICATION #1: FINDING AN EQUATION OF A PLANE

QUESTION #1:
Find an equation of the plane through the point (2,4,-1) that is
perpendicular to vector 2i + 3j + 4k. Two distinct planes in space are either PARALLEL or INTERSECT in a LINE.
If they intersect, you can determine the angle (0     2) between them
Solution: from the angle between their normal vectors as shown above. We know
The vector 2i + 3j + 4k is simply the normal vector to the plane. Thus the that this angle can be computed using the DOT PRODUCT.
direction numbers are: a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4. Using the standard form of
a plane in space: n1  n2
cos 
ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0 n1 n2

2x  2  3 y  4  4z  1  0 Consequently, two planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 are
2x  3 y  4z  0 PERPENDICULAR: If n1  n2  0 .
PARALLEL: if n1 is a scalar multiple of n2.
QUESTION #2:
Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points P(1,3,2), QUESTION:
Q(3,-1,6) and R(5,2,0). Find the angle between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x – 2y + 3z = 1.

Solution: Solution:
The vectors a and b corresponding to PQ and PR are: The normal vectors of these planes are:
a  3  1,1  3,6  2 b  5  1,2  3,0  2 n1  1,1,1 ; n2  1,2,3
a   2,4,4 b   4,1,2 Therefore, the angle between these vectors is:
Since both a and b lie in the plane, their CROSS PRODUCT is orthogonal n1  n2 1(1)  1(2)  1(3) 2 42
cos    
to the plane and can be taken as the NORMAL VECTOR. Thus  2 2 2  2 2
 1  1  1  1   2  3 
n1 n2 2 42 21
i j k   
n  ab  2  4 4  12i  20 j  14k  42 
1  2   cos1 
4  21 
 
And the equation of the plane is
12x  1  20 y  3  14z  2  0 LINE OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN TWO INTERSECTING PLANES
We can find the line of intersection (L) of two intersecting planes by first
6x  10 y  7 z  50
finding a point on L. For instance, we can set z = 0 and then solve for x
TIP: If you want, you may familiarize yourself with this formula to find the and y from the equations of the two planes. Then, observe that since L
equation of the plane given three points P(x1,y1,z1), Q(x2,y2,z2) and lies in both planes, it is PERPENDICULAR to both of the normal vectors.
R(x3,y3,z3): The vector v parallel to L can now be solved by using CROSS PRODUCT
between the normal vectors:
y2  y1 z2  z1 x x z z x x y2  y1 v  a, b, c  n1  n2
x  x1  2 1 2 1  y  y1  2 1 z  z1  0
y3  y1 z3  z1 x3  x1 z3  z1 x3  x1 y3  y1
QUESTION:
Using the same example above, find the equation of the line of
APPLICATION #2: INTERSECTION BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE intersection (in parametric form) between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x
– 2y + 3z = 1.
QUESTION:
Find the point at which the line with parametric equations x = 2 + 3t, y Solution:
= -4t, z = 5 + t intersects the plane 4x + 5y – 2z = 18. If we set z = 0, then this gives the equations x + y = 1 and x – 2y = 1 whose
solution is x = 1 and y = 0. So that, the point (1,0,0) lies on the line of
Solution:
intersection L. Next, we find the CROSS PRODUCT of the normal vectors
We just substitute the expressions for x, y and z from the parametric
to these planes. The purpose is to obtain the direction numbers a, b and
equations into the equation of the plane and then solve for t:
c:
42  3t   54t   25  t   18  t  2
i j k
Therefore, the point of intersection occurs when the parameter value is t
v  n1  n2  1 1 1  5i  2 j  3k   a, b, c  5,2,3
= -2.
1 2 3
x  2  3(2)  4 ; y  4(2)  8 ; z  5  (2)  3
The point of intersection is at (-4,8,3). So that, our parametric equations will be:
x  x1  at  1  5t ; y  y1  bt  2t ; z  z1  ct  3t
TIP: Always use the PARAMETRIC FORM for the line when solving these
kinds of problems.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

 APPLICATION #4: DISTANCE BETWEEN A POINT AND A PLANE In the figure above, D is the distance between point Q and the given line.
Then D = |PQ|sin  where  is the angle between the direction vector u
and PQ. Using CROSS PRODUCT:
PQ  u
PQ  u  PQ u sin   PQ sin  
u
Therefore, the distance between a point Q and a given line is given by:

PQ  u
D
From the figure above, you can see that the distance D from Q(x1,y1,z1) to u
the plane is equal to the absolute value of the SCALAR PROJECTION of PQ
QUESTION:
onto the normal vector n  a, b, c
Find the distance between the point Q(3,-1,4) and the line given by the
PQ  n parametric equations x = -2 + 3t, y = -2t and z = 1 + 4t.
D  compn PQ  PQ cos 
n Solution:
The DIRECTION VECTOR u is easily found out by using the DIRECTION
ax1  x0   b y1  y0   cz1  z0 
 NUMBERS of the line. Thus,
a 2  b2  c 2 u  3,2,4
ax1  by1  cz1   ax0  by0  cz0  Then find a point P in the line. As a tip, just let t = 0, so that the point P is
 at P(-2,0,1). Thus,
a 2  b2  c 2
PQ  3   2,1  0,4  1  5,1,3
Since P(x0,y0,z0) lies in the plane, its coordinates satisfy the equation of the
plane and so we have And now, we can solve for their cross product:

ax0  by0  cz0  d  0  ax0  by0  cz0  d i j k

PQ  u  5  1 3  2i  11 j  7k   2,11,7
Therefore:
3 2 4
ax1  by1  cz1  d
D Finally, we solve for the distance D:
a 2  b2  c 2
PQ  u 22   112   7 2 174
QUESTION: D    6
3   2  4
u 2 2 2 29
Find the distance between the point Q(1,5,-4) and the plane given by 3x
– y + 2z = 6.
VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS
Solution:
Using our formula for the distance between a point and a plane A PLANE CURVE was defined as the set of ordered pairs (f(t),g(t)) together
ax1  by1  cz1  d 3(1)  1(5)  2(4)  6 with defining parametric equations
D 
x  f (t ) and y  g (t )
a 2  b2  c 2 32   12  22
where f ang g are continuous functions of t on an interval I.
16
8 14
D  Extending to three-dimensional space, a SPACE CURVE C is the set of all
14 7
ordered triples (f(t),g(t),h(t)) together with their defining parametric
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL PLANES equations
To find the distance between two planes, CHOOSE A POINT IN THE FIRST x  f (t ) , y  g (t ) and z  h(t )
PLANE, then find its distance from the second plane. where f, g and h are continuous functions of t on an interval I.

QUESTION: Notice that f, g and h are REAL NUMBERS for each specific real value of t.
Find the distance between the planes: Now, a new function, called a VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTION r(t) will be
3x – y + 2z – 6 = 0 and 6x – 2y + 4z + 4 = 0 introduced to “map” these real numbers to vectors. Vector-valued
functions are just vectors with components f(t), g(t) and h(t) so that
Solution:
Find a point on the first plane (3x – y + 2z – 6 = 0). To make things easier,
we set y = 0 and z = 0. It follows that x = 2. So that point in the first plane
is (2,0,0). Then we find its distance from the second plane (6x – 2y + 4z
+ 4 = 0):
6(2)  2(0)  4(0)  4 8 4 14 r (t )  f (t )i  g (t ) j
D  
6   2  4
2 2 2 14 7

APPLICATION #5: DISTANCE BETWEEN A POINT AND A LINE

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 8

 2. Sketch the space curve represented by the vector-valued function
r (t )  (4 cost )i  (4 sin t ) j  tk , 0  t  4

Solution:
From the first two parametric equations x = 4cos(t) and y = 4sin(t), we
r (t )  f (t )i  g (t ) j  h(t )k can obtain x2 + y2 = 16. This means that THE CURVE LIES ON A RIGHT
CIRCULAR CYLINDER of radius 4, centered about the z-axis. To locate
the curve on this cylinder, you can use the third parametric equation z
= t. As t increases from 0 to 4pi, the point (x,y,z) “spirals” up to the
cylinder to produce a HELIX. The trace is shown below:

Vector-valued functions serve dual roles in the representation of curves.

By letting the parameter t represents time, you can use vector-valued
function to represent “motion” along a curve. Or in the more general case,
you can use a vector-valued function to “trace the graph” of a curve. In
either case, the terminal point of the position vector r(t) coincides with a
given point in plane or space.

APPLICATION #1: DOMAIN OF A VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTION

Unless stated otherwise, without added restriction, the DOMAIN of a

vector-valued function r is considered to be the INTERSECTION OF THE
DOMAINS of the component functions f, g and h.
3. Sketch the space curve C represented by the intersection of the
EXAMPLE:
semiellipsoid
1. Find the domain of the vector-valued function x2 y2 z 2
  1 ; z  0
r (t )  (ln t )i  1  t j  tk 12 24 4
2
and the parabolic cylinder y = x . Then find a vector-valued function to
Solution: represent the graph.
Getting the domain of the component functions
Solution:
f (t )  ln t ; g (t )  1  t ; h(t )  t
The intersection of the two surfaces is shown below.
We have:
f (t )  ln t  DOMAIN : 0, 

g (t )  1  t  DOMAIN :  ,1
h(t )  t  DOMAIN : , 
Therefore, their intersection will be the DOMAIN of the function r(t)
DOMAIN  0,   ,1  ,   (0,1]

APPLICATION #2: SKETCHING PLANE AND SPACE CURVES

To find a vector-valued function that represents this trace, a “natural
EXAMPLES:
way” is to let x = t. From this choice, we can use the given equation y
1. Sketch the plane curve represented by the vector-valued function = x2 to obtain y = t2. Then it follows that
r (t )  (2 cost )i  (3sin t ) j , 0  t  2 z2 x2 y 2 t 2 t 4 24  2t 2  t 4
 1   1  
Solution: 4 12 24 12 24 24
From the position vector r(t), we can write the parametric equations x
= 2cost and y = -3sint. Solving for cos(t) and sin(t) and using the identity z2

 
6  t2 4  t2   z
6  t 2 4  t 2 
sin2t + cos2t = 1 produces the rectangular equation 4 24 6
2 2 The resulting vector-valued function is
x y
4

9
1
r (t )  (t )i  (t 2 ) j 
6  t 2 4  t 2 k ; 2t  2
The graph of this equation is an ELLIPSE and the trace is shown below. 6
Notice that the curve has a CLOCKWISE orientation, that is, as t Note that the k-component of r(t) implies 2  t  2 . From the points
increases from 0 to 2pi, the position vector r(t) moves clockwise, and
(-2,4,0) and (2,4,0) shown on the graph above, we can see that the
its terminal point traces the ellipse.
curve is traced as t increases from -2 to 2.

APPLICATION #3: OPERATIONS ON VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

Consider two vector-valued functions of t below:

r1  f1i  g1 j  h1k
r2  f 2i  g 2 j  h2k
The following operations apply:

a. ADDITION & SUBTRACTION

r1  r2   f1  f 2 i  g1  g2  j  h1  h2 k

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 9

b. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION 3. For the vector-valued functions given by
cr1  c f1i  g1 j  h1k   cf1i  cg1 j  ch1k 1
r (t )  i  j  (ln t )k
r1 f i  g1 j  h1k f g h t
 1  1i 1 j 1k
c c c c c u(t )  t 2i  2t j  k
c. LIMIT
     
Find
d
r (t )  u(t ) .
lim r t    lim f t i   lim g t  j   lim ht  k dt
t a t a  t a  t a 
Solution:
provided that ALL limits exists.
Taking the first derivatives:
d. DIFFERENTIATION 1 1
r(t )    k and u(t )  2t i  2 j
d d d d 2 t
t
1. r1  f1i  g1 j  h1k
dt dt dt dt Then,

2.
d
cr1  c d r1 d
r (t )  u(t )  r (t )  u(t )  r(t )  u(t )
dt dt dt

3.
d
r1  r2   d r1  d r2  1     1  1 
  (2t )  (1)(2)  t 2     (1) 
dt dt dt
   t 
2
t    t 
4.
d
r1r2   r1 d r2    d r1 r2 1 1
dt  dt   dt   2  2 1  3
t t
5.
d
r1  r2   r1  d r2   d r1   r2 4. Evaluate the integral
dt dt  dt 
1 3 
0  j  et k dt
1
ti 
6.
d
r1  r2   r1  d r2   d r1   r2 t 1 
dt dt  dt 
Solution:
7.
d
r1  r2    d r1  r2  d r2 1 3  1   1 1   1 
 dt  dt 
0  
j  et k dt   3 t dt i  

dt  j   et dt k

dt 1
ti 
e. INTEGRATION t 1   0   0 t  1   0 

 rt dt   f (t)dt i   g (t)dt  j   h(t )dt k  
1
1. 3 
  1
  t 4 3  i  ln t  1 j   et 0 k
1
0
 0
 F (t )  c1i  G(t )  c2  j  H (t )  c3 k
4

 1
 F (t )i  G(t ) j  H (t )k   c1i  c2 j  c3k 
3
 i  (ln 2) j  1  k
4  e
b  b   b   b 
2.
a rt dt  a f (t)dt i  a g (t)dt  j  a h(t)dt k 5. Find the antiderivative of
1
r(t )  (cos2t )i  (2 sin t ) j  k
EXAMPLES: 1 t2
that satisfies the initial condition
1. Find the limit
r (0)  3i  2 j  k
 
j  e t k 
sin t
lim  et i 
t 0  t  Solution:
 
r (t )  r(t )dt   cos 2tdt i   2 sin tdt  j  
   
1
Solution: dt k
Just take the limit of each term:      1  t 2 

     sin t    1 
j  et k    lim et i   lim  j   lim et k   sin 2t  c1 i  2 cost  c2  j  arctant  c3 k
sin t
lim  et i 
t 0  t   t 0   t 0 t   t 0  2 
  Letting t = 0 and using the fact that r (0)  3i  2 j  k , we have
j  e t k   i  j  k
sin t
lim  et i 
t 0  t  r (0)  (0  c1)i  (2  c2 ) j  (0  c3 )k  3i  (2) j  k

2. For a vector-valued function given by Equating corresponding components produces

r (t )  (cost )i  (sin t ) j  2tk c1  3 ; 2  c2  2 ; c3  1
Find r(t )  r(t ) . So that the antiderivative that satisfies the given initial condition is
1 
Solution: r (t )   sin 2t  3 i  2 cost  4 j  arctant  1k
2 
Taking the first and second derivatives:
r(t )  ( sin t )i  (cost ) j  2k APPLICATION #4: POSTION, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION
r(t )  ( cost )i  ( sin t ) j  0k
If x and y are twice-differentiable functions of t, and the position function
Therefore r is a vector-valued function given by r(t) = x(t)I + y(t)j + z(t)k, then the
i j k velocity vector, acceleration vector and speed at time t are as follows:
r (t )  r (t )   sin t cost 2  (2 sin t )i  (2 cost ) j  k
 cost  sin t 0 Velocity : vt   r(t )  x(t )i  y(t ) j  z(t )k
Acceleration : at   r(t )  x(t )i  y(t ) j  z(t )k

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 10

 r t  i  2t j
vt   r(t )  x(t )2  y(t )2  z(t )2 T t   
r t 
Speed :
1  4t 2

EXAMPLES: When t = 1, the unit tangent vector is

i2j
T 1  i  2 j 
5
1. Find the speed of a particle that moves along the plane curve C 
5 5
described by
t t The graphical representation of this unit tangent vector is shown
r (t )  2 sin i  2 cos j meters below:
2 2
at any time t in seconds.

Solution:
The velocity vector is
t t
v(t )  r(t )  cos i  sin j
2 2
Then, the speed at any time is
t t m
v(t )  r(t )  cos2  sin 2  1
2 2 s

2. The path of an object moving along the space curve C is given by As seen, the DIRECTION of the unit tangent vector depends on the
orientation of the curve.
r (t )  t i  t 3 j  3tk meters ; t  0
Find the velocity and acceleration vectors when t = 1 sec. 2. Find a set of parametric equations for the tangent line to the helix
given by
r t   2 cost i  2 sin t j  t k
Solution:
The vector and acceleration vectors are as follows:
 
v(t )  r(t )  i  3t 2 j  3k m s at the point  2 , 2 ,  .
 4
a(t )  r(t )  6t j m s 2
Therefore, at t = 1 second: Solution:
2 We can use the concept of finding the unit tangent vector to find the
v(1)  i  3(1) j  3k m s  i  3 j  3k m s tangent line to this helix.
a(1)  6(1) j m s 2  6 j m s 2 rt   2 sin t i  2 cost j  k
T t    2 sin t i  2 cost j  k 
5
 
rt 
 2 sin t   2 cost 
2 2
1
5
TANGENT AND NORMAL VECTORS
  
In the previous lecture, we learned that to find the velocity vector of At the point  2 , 2 ,  , t  and the unit tangent vector is
 4 4
motion, we need to get the first derivative of the position vector
representing the motion. In addition, this velocity vector also points in the
direction of motion. With these observations, the following definition will
 
T  
4
5 
5 
 2
2
2
i  2
2
2 
j  k 
 5
5
 2i  2 j  k 

be introduced which applies to any SMOOTH CURVE, not just to those for
which the parameter represents time. Recall, that in order to find the equation of a line in space, we need the
direction numbers a, b and c as well as the point in the line. From the
But first let’s define what a SMOOTH CURVE is. unit tangent vector, the components of i, j and k will serve as the
direction numbers. Take note that we will not include the magnitude
As a simple definition, a curve traced by a vector-valued function r(t) is
|r’(t)| in considering the direction numbers. Therefore,
smooth if dr/dt is CONTINUOUS and NOT EQUAL TO ZERO on an interval.
a, b, c    2 , 2 ,1
Therefore, “smoothness” is sufficient to guarantee that a curve has a UNIT Using our given point, the equation of the tangent line to the helix in
TANGENT VECTOR. parametric form is given by (using s as the parameter)
x  x1  as  2  2 s
UNIT TANGENT VECTOR
y  y1  bs  2  2 s
Let C be a smooth curve represented by r on an open interval I. The unit

tangent vector T(t) at t is defined as z  z1  cs  s
4
r t 
T t   , where r t   0 This tangent line is shown below:
r t 

EXAMPLES:

1. Find the unit tangent vector to the curve given by

r t   t i  t 2 j
when t = 1.

Solution:
The derivative of r(t) is
rt   i  2t j
So that the unit tangent vector is

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 11

 2. Find the principal unit normal vector for the helix given by
r t   2 cost i  2 sin t j  t k

Solution:
In this previous example, we can see that there are INFINITELY many
From the previous example, we have already solved that the unit
vectors that are orthogonal to the unit tangent vector T(t). One of these is
tangent vector is
the vector T’(t). By NORMALIZING the vector T’(t), we will obtain a special
vector called the PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECTOR. rt   2 sin t i  2 cost j  k
T t    2 sin t i  2 cost j  k 
5
 
rt 
 2 sin t   2 cost 
2 2
1
5
PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECTOR

Let C be a smooth curve represented by r(t) on an open interval I. If T’(t)

≠ 0, then the PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECTOR at t is defined as So that

T t    2 cost i  2 sin t j  ; T t  

5 2
T t 
N t   5
T t 
5
Therefore, the principal unit normal vector is
EXAMPLES:
T t 
5
 2 cost i  2 sin t j 
1. Find the principal unit normal vector to the curve N t    5   cost i  sin t j
T t  2
r t   3t i  2t 2 j 5
at t = 1. Note that this vector is horizontal and points toward the z-axis as
shown below
Solution:
First we need to find the unit tangent normal vector T(t).
r t  3i  4t j
T t   3i  4t j 
1
 
r t 
3  4t 
2 2
9  16t 2
Then, we now proceed on finding the principal unit normal vector by
first, differentiating T(t).

T t   4 j   3i  4t j 
1 16t
9  16t 2
9  16t 232

T t    4t i  3 j 
12
9  16t 2 3 2
122 9  16t 2 
T t  
12

9  16t  9  16t 2
23

Therefore, the principal unit vector is

12
 4t i  3 j 
N t  
T t 


9  16t 2
32
 
1
 4t i  3 j 
T t  12
9  16t 2
9  16t 2
At t = 1:

N 1   4i  3 j 
1
5
The graph is shown below:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 12

 SOLUTION:

1. The average of five consecutive even numbers A, B, C, D and E is 52.

What is the product of B and E?

Solution:
Let A = n, B = n + 2, C = n + 4, D = n + 6 and E = n + 8. Then, their
PROBLEMS: average is
n  (n  2)  (n  4)  (n  6)  (n  8)
1. The average of five consecutive even numbers A, B, C, D and E is 52.  52
5
What is the product of B and E?
5n  20
 52  n  48
2. When you divide x4 – ax3 – 2x2 – 3x + b by x – 1, the remainder is 2. 5
When you divide it by x + 2, the remainder is -1. Find a. So that B = 50 and E = 56. Their product is (50)(56) = 2800.
3. Five different books (A, B, C, D and E) are to be arranged on a shelf. 2. When you divide x4 – ax3 – 2x2 – 3x + b by x – 1, the remainder is 2.
Books C and D are to be arranged first and second starting from the When you divide it by x + 2, the remainder is -1. Find a.
right of the shelf. The number of different orders in which books A, B
and E may be arranged is what? Solution:
Using Remainder Theorem @ first statement:
o
4. Find the complement of the supplement of 120 . 2 = 14 – a(13) – 2(12) – 3(1) + b
-a + b = 6  eq.1
cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
5. Simplify:  Using Remainder Theorem @ second statement:
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B
-1 = (-2)4 – a(-2)3 – 2(-2)2 – 3(-2) + b
6. When a metallic ball bearing is placed inside a cylindrical container 8a + b = -15  eq.2
of radius 2 cm, the height of the water inside the container increases Solving these two equations simultaneously we got
by 0.6 cm. Find the radius of the ball bearing. a = -7/3 ; b = 11/3

7. A hut has a parabolic cross-section whose height is 30 m and whose 3. Five different books (A, B, C, D and E) are to be arranged on a shelf.
base is 60 m wide. If a ceiling 40 m wide is to be placed inside the Books C and D are to be arranged first and second starting from the
hut, how high will it be above the base? right of the shelf. The number of different orders in which books A, B
and E may be arranged is what?
8. Compute the length of latus rectum of the parabola
Solution:
y 2  8x  6 y  25  0 Since C and D were already arranged, only books A, B and E will be
arranged on the remaining three shelves. By Counting Principle, the
9. A satellite orbits around the Earth in an elliptical path of eccentricity number of arrangements is:
0.6 and semi-minor axis of length 12000 miles. If the center of the no. of arrangements = (3)(2)(1) = 6
Earth is at one of the foci, find the maximum altitude of the satellite.
4. Find the complement of the supplement of 120o.
10. A 1800-gallon tank of water drains from the bottom in 30 minutes.
Solution:
According to Torricelli’s Law, the volume of water remaining in the
We first find for the supplement of 120o:
tank after t minutes is
supplement = 180o – 120o = 60o
2
 t  Then we get the complement:
V  18001   ; 0  t  30
 30  complement = 90o – 60o = 30o
How fast is the water draining from the tank after 20 minutes? Therefore, the answer is 30o.

11. A man wishes to use 60 feet of fencing to enclose a rectangular cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
5. Simplify: 
garden. Determine the maximum possible area of his garden? sin A  sin B cos A  cos B

12. Given the function y = x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 5. Determine the coordinates Solution:

of the point of inflection.
cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
 
 
cos2 A  cos2 B  sin 2 A  sin 2 B 
3 sin A  sin B cos A  cos B sin A  sin Bcos A  cos B
x 1
13. Solve:
 x  1 dx cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
 
 
sin 2 A  cos2 A  sin 2 B  cos2 B 
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B sin A  sin Bcos A  cos B

cos A  cos B sin A  sin B 1 1
02 sin  cos7  d  
4
14. Find:
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B sin A  sin B cos A  cos B 
cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
15. Compute the y-coordinate of the centroid of the area bounded by  0
the curve x2 = 16y, the line x = 12 and the x-axis. sin A  sin B cos A  cos B

6. When a metallic ball bearing is placed inside a cylindrical container

of radius 2 cm, the height of the water inside the container increases
by 0.6 cm. Find the radius of the ball bearing.

Solution:
Water rise forms a cylinder with radius of 2 cm and height 0.6 cm. Its
volume is equal to
V = (pi)(2)2(0.6) = 2.4pi cm3
This is also equal to the volume of the ball bearing (which is spherical
in shape)

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

 Vsphere = (4/3)(pi)r3 = 2.4pi Then
3
225 2L + 2W = 60
r cm. L + W = 30
5
W = 30 – L  eq.1
7. A hut has a parabolic cross-section whose height is 30 m and whose Area is to be maximized, thus
base is 60 m wide. If a ceiling 40 m wide is to be placed inside the A = LW
hut, how high will it be above the base? A = L(30 – L) = 30L – L2
dA
Solution: Amax = = 30 – 2L
dL
By the squared property of a parabola:
30 – 2L = 0
2
B H L = 15 ft
  
 
b h It follows that W = 30 – L = 15 ft
Thus,
2
 60  30 Amax = LW = 15(15) = 225 ft2
  
 40  h
12. Given the function y = x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 5. Determine the coordinates
40 of the point of inflection.
h m.
3
Solution:
8. Compute the length of latus rectum of the parabola The point of inflection is found when y” = 0. Thus,
y’ = 3x2 – 6x + 4
y 2  8x  6 y  25  0 y” = 6x – 6 = 0
x=1
Solution: It follows that y = (1)3 – 3(1)2 + 4(1) + 5 = 7
Converting to standard form: So the point of inflection is situated at (1,7).
 y  32  8x  2
x3  1
Therefore, the length of latus rectum (4a) is:
4a  8  8 units
13. Solve:
 x  1 dx
Solution:
x  1x2  x  1dx
9. A satellite orbits around the Earth in an elliptical path of eccentricity
x3  1
 x  1 dx  
0.6 and semi-minor axis of length 12000 miles. If the center of the
Earth is at one of the foci, find the maximum altitude of the satellite. x 1

Solution:
Given that b = 12000 and for an ellipse:  x  1 dx   x
x 13
2 
 x  1 dx

c  a2  b2  a2  120002 x3  1
 x  1 dx  3 x
1 3 1 2
 x  xc
The eccentricity for a conic is given by: 2

c a 2  120002 
e   0.6
02 sin  cos7  d
4
a a 14. Find:
a = 15000 it follows that c = 9000
And the maximum altitude of the satellite is equal to Solution:
a + c = 15000 + 9000 = 24000 mi Using Wallis’ Formula:

31642  16
10. A 1800-gallon tank of water drains from the bottom in 30 minutes.
02 sin  cos7 d 
4
According to Torricelli’s Law, the volume of water remaining in the 1197 531 1155
tank after t minutes is
15. Compute the y-coordinate of the centroid of the area bounded by
2
 t  the curve x2 = 16y, the line x = 12 and the x-axis.
V  18001   ; 0  t  30
 30 
Solution:
How fast is the water draining from the tank after 20 minutes?
xc = x
Solution: yc = (yu + yl)/2
dV  t  1   t 
 2(1800)1      1201  
dt  30  30   30 
After t = 20 mins:
dV  20  gal (xc,yc)
 1201    40
dt  30  min
Thus, water is draining from the tank at 40 gal/min.

11. A man wishes to use 60 feet of fencing to enclose a rectangular

First, solve for the area bounded by these curves:
garden. Determine the maximum possible area of his garden?
12 x 2
Solution:
Let:
A
16 0
dx  36 s.u.

Then solve for the y-coordinate of the centroid (in this case, y) using
L : length of the garden
the formula:
W : width of the garden
Amax : maximum area of the garden

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 x2
Ay 
x
1
yc dA

 x2 
  2
12 
16  x dx  

27
36 y    y
0 2  16  10
  
 
 
PROBLEMS

1. Given the sum of the first 100 integers

1  3  5   197  199  10000
Now, find the sum of the first 100 even integers, which is:
2  4  6   198  200

2. A 100-kg salt solution originally 4% by weight NaCl in water is

evaporated until the concentration is 5% by weight NaCl. How much
water in the original solution was evaporated?

3. If the numerator and denominator of a certain fraction are increased

by 1, the resulting fraction equals 2/3. However, if the numerator and
denominator are decreased by 1, the resulting fraction equals 1/2.
Find the original fraction.

4. Through the Mentoring in the City Program sponsored by Marian

College, children have turned a vacant downtown lot into a
monument for peace. This community project brought together in
hopes of showing children how to develop positive, nonviolent ways
of dealing with conflict. A landscape architect used the children’s
drawing and ideas to design a triangular-shaped peace garden. Two
sides of the property, formed by Dingdong Avenue and Karylle
Avenue, measure 182 ft and 230 ft respectively, and together form a
30o angle. What is the area of this property?

sin   cos tan

5. Simplify the expression:
cos

6. Find the area of a trapezoid whose median is 12 cm and whose

altitude is 4 cm.

7. Seven regular hexagons, each with 6-cm sides are arranged so that
they share the same sides and the centers of the six hexagons are
equidistant from the seventh central hexagon. Determine the ratio of
the total area of the hexagons to the total outer perimeter enclosing
the hexagons.

8. Find the equation of the straight line through point (3,2), and is
parallel to line y = 3x – 2.

9. Find two points on the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0 which are at a distance 2

from the line 3x + 4y – 6 = 0.

10. Determine the equation of the tangent line to the curve x2

+ 3y2 – x + 2y = 0 at the origin.

11. A man is riding his car at the rate of 30 km/hr toward the foot of the
pole 10 m high. At what rate is he approaching the top when he is
40 m from the foot of the pole? (Answer should be in km/hr).

if y  52 x 1 .
dy
12. Find
dx

3
x2
13. Integrate: xdx

14. Given is the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve x 2 = 8y,
the line y = 2 and the y-axis. Compute the moment of inertia about
the y-axis.

15. A hole of radius 2 is drilled through the axis of a sphere of radius 3.

Compute the volume of the remaining solid.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

SOLUTION Solution:
 sin  
1. Given the sum of the first 100 integers sin   cos  
sin   cos tan  cos   2 sin 
1  3  5   197  199  10000 
cos cos cos
Now, find the sum of the first 100 even integers, which is: sin   cos tan
2  4  6   198  200  2 tan
cos

Solution: 6. Find the area of a trapezoid whose median is 12 cm and whose

2 + 4 + 6 + … + 198 + 200 altitude is 4 cm.
= (1+1) + (3+1) + (5+1) + … + (197+1) + (199+1)
= (1 + 3 + 5 + … + 197 + 199) + 100 Solution:
= 10000 + 100 The formula for the area of a trapezoid given its median is:
= 10100 A = (height)(median)
A = 4(12) = 48 cm2
2. A 100-kg salt solution originally 4% by weight NaCl in water is
evaporated until the concentration is 5% by weight NaCl. How much 7. Seven regular hexagons, each with 6-cm sides are arranged so that
water in the original solution was evaporated? they share the same sides and the centers of the six hexagons are
equidistant from the seventh central hexagon. Determine the ratio of
Solution: the total area of the hexagons to the total outer perimeter enclosing
the hexagons.

Solution:
1 180 
total area of the hexagons = 7  662 cot   378 3 cm2
From the illustration above we see that the amount of NaCl before  4 6 

and after evaporation is
total outer perimeter = 6[6(6 – 3)] = 108 cm.
0.04(100) – 0(x) = 0.05(100 – x)
x = 20 kg (amount of water evaporated) Thus, the required ratio will be:
3. If the numerator and denominator of a certain fraction are increased 378 3 7 3
ratio =  cm.
by 1, the resulting fraction equals 2/3. However, if the numerator and 108 2
denominator are decreased by 1, the resulting fraction equals 1/2.
Find the original fraction. 8. Find the equation of the straight line through point (3,2), and is
parallel to line y = 3x – 2.
Solution:
Let Solution:
n : numerator of the original fraction The slope of the line we are looking for has slope m = 3 as based on
d : denominator of the original fraction the given equation y = 3x – 2. Now, using point-slope form of a line:
From the first statement: y – y1 = m(x – x1)
(n + 1)/(d + 1) = 2/3 y – 2 = 3(x – 3)
3n – 2d = -1  eq.1 y = 3x – 7
From the second statement: 9. Find two points on the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0 which are at a distance 2
(n – 1)/(d – 1) = ½ from the line 3x + 4y – 6 = 0.
2n – d = 1  eq.2
Solving these two equations simultaneously we got Solution:
n=3,d=5 Let the point be (x1,y1). The distance from the line 3x + 4y – 6 = 0 will
Thus, the original fraction is 3/5. be
3x1  4 y1  6
4. Through the Mentoring in the City Program sponsored by Marian  2  eq.1
College, children have turned a vacant downtown lot into a 32  42
monument for peace. This community project brought together in But (x1,y1) is a point on the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0. Therefore,
hopes of showing children how to develop positive, nonviolent ways 2x1 + 3y1 + 4 = 0
of dealing with conflict. A landscape architect used the children’s 4  2 x1
drawing and ideas to design a triangular-shaped peace garden. Two y1   eq.2
3
sides of the property, formed by Dingdong Avenue and Karylle When the point is above the line from eq.1:
Avenue, measure 182 ft and 230 ft respectively, and together form a
30o angle. What is the area of this property?  4  2 x1 
3x1  4 6
 3  2
Solution: 5
Since we do not know a height of the triangle, we use the area x1 = 64 it follows that y1 = -44
formula: When the point is below the line from eq.1
1  4  2 x1 
K bc sin A 3x1  4 6
2  3   2
5
K
1
182230sin 30o  10465 ft 2
2 x1 = 4 it follows that y1 = -4

sin   cos tan Thus, the points are (64,-44) and (4,-4)
5. Simplify the expression:
cos

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

10. Determine the equation of the tangent line to the curve 14. Given is the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve x 2 = 8y,
x2 + 3y2 – x + 2y = 0 the line y = 2 and the y-axis. Compute the moment of inertia about
at the origin. the y-axis.

Solution: Solution:
The slope of the tangent line is equal to y’ at (0,0). Thus, deriving The moment of inertia about the y-axis (ALWAYS USE VERTICAL
with respect to x we have: ELEMENT) is given by:
2x + 6yy’ – 1 + 2y’ = 0 x2 2
At the origin (0,0): Iy 
x
1
x dA ; A  ydx
2(0) + 6(0)y’ – 1 + 2y’ = 0
y’ = m = ½ Thus,
Thus the equation of the tangent line by point-slope form: 4  x 2 
0 x2  2 
256
y – 0 = (1/2)(x – 0) Iy  dx 
 8  15
x – 2y = 0  

11. A man is riding his car at the rate of 30 km/hr toward the foot of the 15. A hole of radius 2 is drilled through the axis of a sphere of radius 3.
pole 10 m high. At what rate is he approaching the top when he is Compute the volume of the remaining solid.
40 m from the foot of the pole? (Answer should be in km/hr).
Solution:
Solution:
Let:
x : distance of the man from the foot of the pole
z : distance of the man from the top of the pole
By Pythagorean Theorem:
102 + x2 = z2
Using the concept of time-rates, getting the derivative of the
equation with respect to time t:
dx dz
2x  2z The sphere is generated by rotating the upper half of the circle x2
dt dt
+ y2 = 9 about the x-axis. Using Shell Method with radius y and length
When x = 40 m , z  100  402  10 17 m . Thus, 2x:

2(40) 30  2 10 17   dzdt V  2

3 3
2 2xydy  2 2 2 y 9  y 2 dy

dz 120 17 km 20 5
 V  c.u.
dt 17 hr 3
The man in the car is approaching the top of the pole at a rate of
120 17 km
17 hr

if y  52 x 1 .
dy
12. Find
dx

Solution:
Recall:

 au ln a 
dy du
y  au 
dx dx
So that,

 52 x 1ln 52  52 x 1ln 25

dy
dx

3
x2
13. Integrate: xdx

Solution:
Recall:
au
 au du 
ln a
c

Thus, from the problem:

3x 2 xdx
3 
x2 1 2
 xdx 
2
 2
1  3x 

2
3x  xdx  c
2  ln 3 
 
2
3x

2
3x  xdx  c
2 ln 3

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

 SOLUTION

1. Evaluate:
0.555  0.666

Solution:
5 6
0.555...  ; 0.666... 
PROBLEMS 9 9
Therefore,
1. Evaluate: 0.555  0.666 
5 6 11
 
0.555  0.666 9 9 9

2. The sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of their children’s ages. 2. The sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of their children’s ages.
Five years ago, the sum of the parents’ ages is four times the sum of Five years ago, the sum of the parents’ ages is four times the sum of
their children’s ages. In 15 years, the sum of the parents’ ages will be their children’s ages. In 15 years, the sum of the parents’ ages will be
equal to the sum of their children’s ages. How many children are equal to the sum of their children’s ages. How many children are
there in the family? there in the family?

3. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 11. If the digits are Solution:
reversed, the resulting number is seven more than twice the original Let
number. What is the original number? n : number of children
A : average age of children at present (“is”)
4. A pole tilts toward the sun at an angle 15 o from the vertical casts a A – 5 : average age of children 5 yrs ago (“was”)
shadow 9 meters long. If the angle of elevation from the tip of the A + 15 : average age of children in 15 yrs (“will be”)
shadow to the top of the pole is 30o, how tall is the pole? Sum of ages:
5. The sides of a triangular field which contains an area of 2400 cm2 are
in continued proportion of 3:5:7. Find the smallest side of the triangle.

6. A closed conical vessel has diameter of 3 m across the top and a Consider the time elapsed from “was” to “is” for parents:
height of 5 m. It contains water at a depth of 2 m. If the vessel is 2nA – 4n(A – 5) = 10
inverted, how deep is the water inside? -nA + 10n = 5  eq.1
Consider the time elapsed (“is” to “will be”):
7. A regular triangular pyramid has an altitude of 9 m and a volume of
n(A + 15) – 2nA = 30
3 3 m3. What is the base edge in meters? -nA + 15n = 30  eq.2
Subtracting these two equations we got n = 5.
8. The difference of the distances of a moving point from (1,0) and (-
1,0) is 1. Find the equation of its locus. 3. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 11. If the digits are
reversed, the resulting number is seven more than twice the original
9. The coordinates of the two vertices of a triangle are (6,-1) and (-3,7). number. What is the original number?
Find the coordinates of the third vertex so that the centroid of the
triangle will be at the origin. Solution:
Let:
10. A balloon is rising vertically over a point A on the ground at the rate x : tens digit of the original number
of 15 ft/sec. A point B on the ground is level with and 30 ft from A. y : ones digit of the original number
When the balloon is 40 ft from A, at what rate is its distance from B 10x + y : the original number
changing? 10y + x : the number when digits are reversed
By the first statement:
11. Boyle’s Law states that when a gas is compressed at constant x + y = 11  eq.1
temperature, the product of its pressure and volume remains
And by the second statement:
constant. If the pressure of a gas is 80 lb/in2 when the volume is 40 10y + x = 2(10x + y) + 7  eq.2
in3, find the rate of change of pressure with respect to volume when
Solving for the two equations simultaneously we got:
the volume is 20 in3. x=3 ; y=8
The original number is 10x + y = 38.
12. Differentiate: y  arcsin4 x 2
4. A pole tilts toward the sun at an angle 15o from the vertical casts a
13. Determine the area of the region bounded by the parabola y shadow 9 meters long. If the angle of elevation from the tip of the
= 9 − x2 and the line x + y = 7. shadow to the top of the pole is 30o, how tall is the pole?

cos3 x Solution:
14. Integrate:  1  sin x
dx . Let x be the height (length) of the pole. By Sine Law:
x 9

15. Find the length of the curve given its parametric equations sin 30 
sin 45
x  t  3 and y  2t from t = 0 to t = 1.
9 2
x m.
2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

5. The sides of a triangular field which contains an area of 2400 cm2 are 8. The difference of the distances of a moving point from (1,0) and (-
in continued proportion of 3:5:7. Find the smallest side of the triangle. 1,0) is 1. Find the equation of its locus.

Solution: Solution:
Let 3x, 5x and 7x be the sides of the triangle so that their continued This is the basic definition of a hyperbola. Let P(x,y) be a point on the
proportion is 3:5:7. Using Heron’s Formula for finding the area of a locus. Then, by distance formula:
triangle given its three sides:
abc x  12  y 2  x  12  y 2 1
A  ss  a s  bs  c  ; s 
2 Simplifying, we get:
a  b  c 3x  5x  7 x 15 x
s   12 x 2  4 y 2  3
2 2 2
Thus, 9. The coordinates of the two vertices of a triangle are (6,-1) and (-3,7).
15x  15x  15x  15x  Find the coordinates of the third vertex so that the centroid of the
2400    3x   5 x   7x 
2  2  2  2  triangle will be at the origin.

15 x  9 x  5 x  x  15 3 2 Solution:
2400       x The centroid of a triangle given the coordinates of its vertices is found
2  2  2  2  4
by:
8 4 2700 x  x  x3 y  y2  y3
x cm x  xave  1 2 ; y  yave  1
3 3 3
So the smallest side of the triangle is 3x = 8 4 2700 cm Thus,
6  3  x3
6. A closed conical vessel has diameter of 3 m across the top and a 0  x3  3
3
height of 5 m. It contains water at a depth of 2 m. If the vessel is
inverted, how deep is the water inside? 1  7  y3
0  y3  6
3
Solution: The coordinates of the third vertex is at (-3,-7).

10. A balloon is rising vertically over a point A on the ground at the rate
of 15 ft/sec. A point B on the ground is level with and 30 ft from A.
When the balloon is 40 ft from A, at what rate is its distance from B
changing?

Solution:
Let:
By ratio and proportion: y : the distance of the balloon from the ground at any instant
ra 1.5 3 z : the distance of the balloon from point B
  ra  m By Pythagorean Theorem:
2 5 5
302 + y2 = z2
rb 1.5 3
  rb  h Getting the derivative of the equation with respect to time t:
h 5 10
dy dz
Thus: 2y  2z
dt dt
V A  VT  VB
When the balloon is 40 ft from the ground: z  302  402  50 ft
2 2 2
 3  3  3 
  2    5   h  h Thus:
3 5 3 2 3  10 
dz dz ft
2(40)(15)  2(50)   12
h  3 117 m dt dt sec
The depth of the water in the inverted cone is 11. Boyle’s Law states that when a gas is compressed at constant
5 – h = 5  3 117 m temperature, the product of its pressure and volume remains
constant. If the pressure of a gas is 80 lb/in2 when the volume is 40
7. A regular triangular pyramid has an altitude of 9 m and a volume of in3, find the rate of change of pressure with respect to volume when
3 3 m3. What is the base edge in meters? the volume is 20 in3.
Solution:
Solution: From the first statement: PV  k
1 When P = 80 psi and V = 40 in3, our k has a value of k = (80)(40) =
The volume of the pyramid is given by the formula: V  Abaseh
3 3200
Since the base is a regular triangle (equilateral triangle), then our k 3200
formula will become: So that, P  
V V
1  3 2  dP 3200
V  s h  where s is the base edge Differentiating P with respect to V, we have: 
3  4 
 dV V2
Thus,
dP 3200 lb in 2
When V = 20 in3 :   8
1  3 2  202 in 3
s 9  s  2 m
dV
3 3 
3  4 


Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

12. Differentiate: y  arcsin4 x 2

Solution:

RECALL:
d
arcsinu   du dx
dx
1  u2
Therefore, by Chain Rule: EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
 
  8 arcsin4 x
 2arcsin4 x 
dy 4 1. What is the product of the smallest prime factor of the number of
dx  1  16 x 2  
  1  16 x 2 words in this problem times the largest prime factor of the number of
words in this problem?
13. Determine the area of the region bounded by the parabola y
2. In the diagram below, the distance between any two adjacent dots in
= 9 − x2 and the line x + y = 7.
a row or a column is one unit. What is the area of the shaded region?
Solution:
The graphs are shown below:

First, find the points of intersection: 3. Suppose that a and x are two positive real numbers for which
9 – x2 = 7 – x  x = -1 and x = 2 log a x  log x a  3
The points of intersection are at (-1,8) and (2,5). Now, for the area:
What is the value of
A
x
x2

1
 y2  y1dx  
2
1
9  x  7  xdx
2
log a x2  log x a2


2 4. For how many integers x in the set
x 2 x3   8  1 1 9
A  2 x      4  2      2     s.u. {1,2,3, … , 99, 100}
 2 3
 1  3  2 3 2
is x3 – x2 the square of an integer?

5. Given a drawer with 8 white gloves, 12 black gloves and 6 gray gloves,
cos3 x
14. Integrate:
1  sin x 
dx . find the number of gloves you need to pull out to ensure you have a
pair of matching gloves. Assume that each glove has a matching pair.
Solution: 6. Bill has made a bet with Tom. Bill will flip a fair coin 20 times; if all 20
3
 2   2
cos x 1  sin x  come up heads, Bill wins a million dollars. The first 19 coins come up
 1  sin x dx   
cos x cos x cos x
dx  dx heads. What is the probability that Bill will win?
1  sin x 1  sin x
7. Find the exact value of
cos3 x
  cos x  sin x cos xdx  sin x  sin x  c
1 2
dx 
1  sin x 2 sin 15  cos15

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

15. Find the length of the curve given its parametric equations
x  t  3 and y  2t from t = 0 to t = 1. 1. Compute the exact value of the finite sum below
1(2) + 2(3) + 3(4) + … + 98(99) + 99(100)
Solution:
The length (S) of a curve given in parametric form is found by 2. Evaluate:

b  dx  2 2 10 x 2
 dy 

lim
S      dt
a  dt   dt 
 
x 0 sin 2 3x

Thus, from the problem: 3. I attach my pet snake, Earl, to one corner of my barn with a leash. This
barn is square, with sides of length 10, and the leash has a length of
5 t 10  5 units
1
S
0 12  22 dt  twenty, which wraps around the barn. I would like to make sure that I
am being humane to Earl, and would therefore like to know that area
of my lawn he can traverse while on the leash. What is this area?

4. Simplify the expression:

sin 4 x  4 cos2 x  cos4 x  4 sin 2 x

cos x  sin x

5. A standard six-sided die is weighted so that the probability of throwing

a 1 is twice the probability of throwing a 2. Also, the probability of

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 8

 throwing any particular number greater than 2 is equal to the 3. Suppose that a and x are two positive real numbers for which
probability of throwing a 2. The die is to be thrown twice. Let P be the log a x  log x a  3
probability that the sum of the numbers thrown will be 4. What is 49P?
What is the value of
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds) log a x2  log x a2
1. Evaluate: Solution:
 Squaring the equation log a x  log x a  3 and taking into account that


2 dx
 1  sin x  cos x log a x  log x a  1
3
We get log a x   log x a   7
2 2
2. Consider a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, inside which is
inscribed a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, and so on, with 4. For how many integers x in the set
the outermost square having side length 1. Find the difference {1,2,3, … , 99, 100}
between the sum of the areas of the squares and the sum of the areas is x3 – x2 the square of an integer?
of the circles.
Solution:
Take note:
x3  x 2  x2 x  1

It is easy to see that the factor x2 is always a perfect square for all x in
the given set. In order for the whole expression to be a perfect square,
the factor x – 1 should also be a perfect square. From the set, it is easy
to notice that we have a total of 10 values of x that satisfies the
problem, these are:
x = 1 , 2 , 5 , 10 , 17 , 26 , 37 , 50 , 65 , 82

3. A knight begins on the lower-left square of a standard chessboard. 5. Given a drawer with 8 white gloves, 12 black gloves and 6 gray gloves,
How many squares could the knight end up at after exactly 2011 legal find the number of gloves you need to pull out to ensure you have a
knight’s moves? (A knight’s move is 2 squares either horizontally or pair of matching gloves. Assume that each glove has a matching pair.
vertically, followed by 1 square in a direction perpendicular to the first.)
Solution:
We have three different colors, but each glove must have a matching
pair of gloves. Thus, there are 8/2 = 4 white lefthanded gloves, 12/2 =
SOLUTION
6 black lefthanded gloves, and 6/2 = 3 gray lefthanded gloves. We
have 4 + 6 + 3 = 13. But pulling out one more glove ensures a pair
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
since all the remaining gloves are righthanded. Thus, we need 14
1. What is the product of the smallest prime factor of the number of gloves to make sure we have a matching pair.
words in this problem times the largest prime factor of the number of
6. Bill has made a bet with Tom. Bill will flip a fair coin 20 times; if all 20
words in this problem?
come up heads, Bill wins a million dollars. The first 19 coins come up
Solution: heads. What is the probability that Bill will win?
There are a total of 30 words in this problem, wherein
Solution:
30 = 2(3)(5)
The first 19 flips are irrelevant. The probability that the last flip will be
So that, 2 is the smallest prime factor while 5 is the largest prime factor.
heads is still 1/2.
The required product is:
7. Find the exact value of
product = 2(5) = 10
sin 15  cos15
2. In the diagram below, the distance between any two adjacent dots in
a row or a column is one unit. What is the area of the shaded region? Solution:
Let x be the value of the sum, squaring x will yield:


x 2  sin 15  cos15 2  sin 2 15  2sin15 cos15  cos2 15
3
x 2  1  sin 30 
2
6
x  sin 15  cos15 
2

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

Solution:
1. Compute the exact value of the finite sum below
Connecting the four corners of the diagram we get a rectangle with
1(2) + 2(3) + 3(4) + … + 98(99) + 99(100)
area of 12. The rectangle is the union of the shaded region and four
triangles that have areas 3/2 s.u, 3/2 s.u, 3/2, s.u and 1 s.u respectively. Solution:
Thus the area of the shaded region is equal to The sum can be expressed in sigma notation as

 nn  1   n2  n

99 99
area of shaded region = 12 – (3/2 + 3/2 + 3/2 + 1)
1  2  2  3  3  4    98  99  99  100 
area of shaded region = 13/2 s.u.
n 1 n 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 9

 Thus, Solution:
Let P1 be the probability of throwing a 1, P2 be the probability of
 n2  n   n2   n 
99100199 99100
99 99 99
 throwing a 2 and so on. From the problem:
6 2 P1 = 2P2 and P2 = P3 = P4 = P5 = P6
n 1 n 1 n 1
From these, we can deduce that

 n2  n  333300
99
P1 = 2/7 ; P2 = P3 = P4 = P5 = P6 = 1/7
n 1
To get a 4 from two throws, we have these possible combinations:
(throw1,throw2) = (1,3),(2,2),(3,1)
With a total probability P of:
2. Evaluate:
P = (2/7)(1/7) + (1/7)(1/7) + (1/7)(2/7) = 5/49
10 x 2 So that,
lim
x 0 sin 2 3x   49P = 49(5/49) = 5

Solution:
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
By L’Hôpital’s Rule:
10 x 2 20 x 20 x
1. Evaluate:
lim  lim  lim
x0 6 sin 3x cos3x  x0 3 sin 6 x 

x0 sin 2
3x 

2 dx
20  1  sin x  cos x
 lim
x0 18 cos 6 x   3

10 Solution:
 Using Weierstrass substitution:
9
 2dt

  
3. I attach my pet snake, Earl, to one corner of my barn with a leash. This 2 dx
1
1 t2
1
dt
barn is square, with sides of length 10, and the leash has a length of  
 1  sin x  cos x 3 2t 1 t2 3 t2  t
twenty, which wraps around the barn. I would like to make sure that I 3 3 1  3
1 t2 1 t2
am being humane to Earl, and would therefore like to know that area

of my lawn he can traverse while on the leash. What is this area?  3 3
 
1
dx 1 1 
dt  ln  
2
  
Solution:  1  sin x  cos x 3  t t  1   2 3 
3 3
 
We see that since this is at the corner of the barn, the snake is free to
travel in a three quarter arc around this point such that it does not 2. Consider a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, inside which is
intersect the barn. On the corners, we notice that the leash will bend, inscribed a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, and so on, with
and basically act as a shorter leash fixed at the other two corners. Thus, the outermost square having side length 1. Find the difference
there is a leash of length 10 for each of two quarter circles, which sum between the sum of the areas of the squares and the sum of the areas
to half of an arc: of the circles.
A
3
202  1 102  350 sq. units
4 2

4. Simplify the expression:

sin 4 x  4 cos2 x  cos4 x  4 sin 2 x

cos x  sin x

Solution:

sin 4 x  4 cos2 x  cos4 x  4 sin 2 x

cos x  sin x

1  cos x  4 cos x  1  sin x  4 sin

Solution:
2 2 2 2 2 2
x The ratio of the area of each circle and the square immediately

cos x  sin x 
circumscribing it is . The total areas of the squares is
4 2 4 2 4
cos x  2 cos x  1  sin x  2 sin x  1
 1 1
cos x  sin x 1    2
2 4


cos x  1  sin
2 2 2

x 1
2

cos2 x  sin 2 x   
So the difference in area is then 2  2   2  .
cos x  sin x cos x  sin x  
4 2
 cos x  sin x
3. A knight begins on the lower-left square of a standard chessboard.
5. A standard six-sided die is weighted so that the probability of throwing How many squares could the knight end up at after exactly 2011 legal
a 1 is twice the probability of throwing a 2. Also, the probability of knight’s moves? (A knight’s move is 2 squares either horizontally or
throwing any particular number greater than 2 is equal to the vertically, followed by 1 square in a direction perpendicular to the first.)
probability of throwing a 2. The die is to be thrown twice. Let P be the Solution:
probability that the sum of the numbers thrown will be 4. What is 49P? The knight goes from a black square to a white square on every move,
or vice versa, so after 2011 moves he must be on a square whose color
is opposite of what he started on. So he can only land on half the
squares after 2011 moves. Note that he can access any of the 32
squares (there are no other parity issues) because any single jump can

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 10

 also be accomplished in 3 jumps, so with 2011 jumps, he can land on
any of the squares of the right color.

Answer is 32.

EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)

1. Evaluate

3 2 2  32 2

2. A parallelogram is given with a base of length 2x + 15, and a height of

10 – x. Find x such that the area is maximized.

3. Tanks has a pile of 5 blue cards and 5 red cards. Every morning, he
takes a card and throws it down a well. What is the probability that the
first card he throws down and the last card he throws down are the
same color?

4. In a parallelogram, the measure of one angle is four times that of

another angle. Find the measure of the larger angle.

5. If

f x  
x
x 1
What is f  f  f  f 2011 ?

6. King Midas spent (100/x)% of his gold deposit yesterday. He is set to

earn gold today. What percentage of the amount of gold King Midas
currently has would he need to earn today to end up with as much
gold as he started?

7. Find the exact value of

 3 5 7
   
6 63  3! 65  5! 67  7!

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

1. Find the domain of the function below

x2  2x
 x  
x 1

2. Compute:
1
0 tan
1
x dx

3. Lily and Sarah are playing a game. They each choose a real number at
random between -1 and 1. They then add the squares of their numbers
together. If the result is greater than or equal to 1, Lily wins, and if the
result is less than 1, Sarah wins. What is the probability that Sarah
wins?

4. Given the equations below

tan x  tan y  4
cot x  cot y  5
Compute tanx  y  .

5. Find the vector projection of b = i + j + 2k onto a = -2i + 3j + k.

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Let S be the sum of all the real coefficients of the expansion
1  ix 2011
What is log 2 S ?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 11

2. What is the remainder when Solution:
100101102103104105106107108 x x  1
f  f x  
x

is divided by 999? x x  1  1 2x  1
3. To what value will the sum Going further, we see that

f  f  f  f x  
x
 9n2  3n  2
1
4x  1
n 1
f  f  f  f 2011 
2011 2011

converges? 42011  1 8045

6. King Midas spent (100/x)% of his gold deposit yesterday. He is set to

SOLUTION earn gold today. What percentage of the amount of gold King Midas
currently has would he need to earn today to end up with as much
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) gold as he started?
1. Evaluate Solution:
After yesterday, the fraction of the initial gold remaining is
3 2 2  32 2
1 x 1
 1
Solution: x x
By Abu-Kamil method (where a is greater than or equal to b) Therefore, in order to reach the original amount of gold, we must
multiply by x/(x – 1) wherein
a  b  2 ab  a  b
x 1
 1
Going back to the problem: x 1 x 1
3 2 2  32 2  2  1  2 2 1  2  1  2 2 1 Thus, the gold must be increased by
100
percent.
x 1
3 2 2  32 2   2  1   2  1  7. Find the exact value of
3 2 2  32 2  2  3 5 7
   
3 5
6 6  3! 6  5! 67  7!
2. A parallelogram is given with a base of length 2x + 15, and a height of
10 – x. Find x such that the area is maximized. Solution:
Solution: Being familiar with the Maclaurin’s series expansion for sin x:
The area in terms of x is x3 x5 x 7
A = (2x + 15)(10 – x) = -2x2 + 5x + 150 sin x  x 
  
3! 5! 7!
To maximize this area, we get A’ and then equate to zero: Therefore, the problem just simplifies as
A’ = -4x + 5 = 0
Clearly, the value of x that will maximize the area of the parallelogram  3 5 7  1
      sin 
3 5
is 6 6  3! 6  5! 67  7! 6 2
x = 5/4

3. Tanks has a pile of 5 blue cards and 5 red cards. Every morning, he AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
takes a card and throws it down a well. What is the probability that the 1. Find the domain of the function below
first card he throws down and the last card he throws down are the
same color? x2  2x
 x  
x 1
Solution:
Once he has thrown the first card down the well, there are 9 Solution:
remaining cards, and only 4 have the same color as the card that was Let
thrown down. Therefore, the probability that the last card he throws
f x  x2  2x
down has the same color is 4/9.  x   
g x 
x 1
4. In a parallelogram, the measure of one angle is four times that of
Wherein the domains for f(x) and g(x) are
another angle. Find the measure of the larger angle.
f x : ,0  2, 
Solution:
g x : 1, 
The two different angles in a parallelogram sum to 180o. If x is the
smaller angle, we have
x + 4x = 180o and the intersection of these domains will be the domain of the
x = 36o original function
And the larger angle is DOMAIN of  x  : 2, 
4x = 144o
2. Compute:
5. If 1
0 tan
1
x dx
f x  
x
x 1
What is f  f  f  f 2011 ?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 12

 Solution:
Integrating by parts: 2. What is the remainder when
100101102103104105106107108
1
0 tan
1
xdx  x tan x   xxdx 1
1 1
0
1
0 2
is divided by 999?

Solution:
 
1
 1  Note that for any positive integer N, 1000N and N have the same
  0   ln x 2  1 
4 2 0 remainder when divided by 999. Now,
100101102103104105106107108
 ln 2
= 1000(100101102103104105106107) + 108
 
4 2 has the same remainder as 100101102103104105106107 + 108
3. Lily and Sarah are playing a game. They each choose a real number at when divided by 999. Proceeding in the same way, we obtain that
random between -1 and 1. They then add the squares of their numbers 100101102103104105106107108 has remainder
together. If the result is greater than or equal to 1, Lily wins, and if the 100 + 101 + 102 + … + 108 = 936
result is less than 1, Sarah wins. What is the probability that Sarah when divided by 999.
wins? 3. To what value will the sum
Solution: 
 9n2  3n  2
1
If we let x denote Lily’s choice of number and y denote Sarah’s, then
all possible outcomes are represented by the square with vertices (- n 1
1,-1), (-1,1), (1,-1), and (1,1). Sarah wins if converges?
x2  y 2  1 Solution:
which is the area inside the unit circle. Since this has an area of π and  
1  
 9n2  3n  2    3  3n  2  3n  1 
1 1 1
the entire square has an area of 4, the probability that Sarah wins is
π/4. n 1 n 1

4. Given the equations below  
 3n  2  3n  1 
1 1 1

tan x  tan y  4 3
n 1
cot x  cot y  5
1  1 1   1 1   1 1   1
Compute tanx  y  .               
3  1 4   4 7   7 10   3
Solution:
We have
tan x  tan y
cot x  cot x 
tan x tan y
4
So that, tan x tan y  . Thus, by the tan sum formula,
5
tan x  tan y
tanx  y  
4
  20
1  tan x tan y 1  4
5

5. Find the vector projection of b = i + j + 2k onto a = -2i + 3j + k.

Solution:

 a  b  a   21  31  12   2i  3 j  k

projab    
 a a  
    22  32  12   22  32  12
projab 
3
 2i  3 j  k 
14
3 9 3
projab   i  j k
7 14 14

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Let S be the sum of all the real coefficients of the expansion
1  ix 2011
What is log 2 S ?

Solution:
The sum of all the coefficients is when x = 1 which yields (1 + i)2011 and
the sum of the real coefficients is the real part of this, which is

S
1  i 2011 1  i 2011  21006
2
Thus,
log 2 S  1006

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 13

 4. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1,4,6), Q(-2,5,-1) and R(1,-
1,1).

5. Calculate:
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x
x0

EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. If tan  5 , find the exact value of 1. Let

62 f x   x4  ax3  bx2  cx  d
be a polynomial whose roots are all negative integers. If
cot  cos2 
a  b  c  d  2009
2. There is a class of 40 girls. There are 18 girls who like to play chess, and find d.
23 who like to play soccer. Several of them like biking. The number of
girls who like to play both chess and soccer is 9. There are 7 girls who 2. Evaluate:
like chess and biking, and 12 who like soccer and biking. There are 4 2 4 6 8
girls who like all three activities. In addition, we know that every one    
3 32 33 34
of the 40 girls likes at least one of these activities. How many girls like
biking?
3. Simplify:
3. Given the Piecewise-defined function below:
2 cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i
 1  x ; 1  x  0

f x    x 2 ; 0  x  2
 1 ; 2  x  3 SOLUTION

3 EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
f x dx .
Find
0
1. If tan  5 , find the exact value of
4. If a, b and c are digits for which 62
7a2  48b  c73 cot  cos2 
What is a + b + c?
Solution:
5. An isosceles triangle, ABC has a base of length 24 and two sides of Since tan  5 , it follows that (when you construct a right triangle
length 13. What other base measure can an isosceles triangle DEF
with legs 5 and 1 where  is the angle opposite to the leg with length
have, if DEF has equal sides of length 13 and has the same area as
5)
triangle ABC?
5 26 26
6. Simplify sin   ; cos 
26 26
i0  i1  i 2    i 2011 Thus,

wherein i   1 . 62 62
  260
cot  cos2  1  26 
2
7. Evaluate 
5  26 
2011 20122012  201320132013  2013  20112011 201220122012

2. There is a class of 40 girls. There are 18 girls who like to play chess, and
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds) 23 who like to play soccer. Several of them like biking. The number of
girls who like to play both chess and soccer is 9. There are 7 girls who
1. If
like chess and biking, and 12 who like soccer and biking. There are 4
x 3  5 x 2  3x  10 4 girls who like all three activities. In addition, we know that every one
 of the 40 girls likes at least one of these activities. How many girls like
2x 3  x 2  6x  3 5
biking?
then what is the value of
Solution:
x 3  6x 2  9x  7 Let
3x 3  4 x 2  3x  13 n : total number of girls in class (in this case, 40)
C : number of girls who plays chess
2. There are two triangles ABC with angle A equal to 60o, AB = 8 and BC S : number of girls who plays soccer
= 7 as shown (but not to scale). The smaller possibility for AC is 3. What B : number of girls who likes biking
is the other possibility for AC? We know from a 3-circle Venn Diagram, given that all are included in
the subsets defined by C, S and B:
n  C  S  B  C  S   C  B  S  B  C  S  B
So that, from the problem:
40  18  23  B  9  7  12  4
B  23

3. Given the Piecewise-defined function below:

 1  x ; 1  x  0

f x    x 2 ; 0  x  2
3. In a lot of 20 tires, 3 are defective. If you pick 4 tires at random, what is  1 ; 2  x  3

the probability that you will get 1 defective tire?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 14

 3 These two terms are just equal, therefore:
f x dx .
Find
0 2011 20122012  201320132013  2013  20112011 201220122012  0

Solution: AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

Considering the limits x = 0  x = 3:
3 2 3 1. If
f x dx 
0 0 x 2dx 
  1dx
2 x 3  5 x 2  3x  10

4

 x3 
2 2x 3  x 2  6x  3 5
 x32 
3
0 f xdx  3 
5
then what is the value of
3
0 x 3  6x 2  9x  7
3x 3  4 x 2  3x  13
4. If a, b and c are digits for which
7a2  48b  c73 Solution:
What is a + b + c? Let:
a c x3  5x 2  3x  10 4
Solution:   
For the units digits (we need to borrow 1 from the tens digit a):
b d 2 x3  x 2  6 x  3 5
(2 + 10) – b = 3  b = 9 Notice that,
Now for the tens digits (we also need to borrow 1 from the hundreds
digit 7):

x3  6x2  9x  7  2x3  x2  6x  3  x3  5x2  3x  10 
 ba  d c
(a – 1 + 10) – 8 = 7  a = 6
And lastly, for the hundreds digits:  54 1
(7 – 1) – 4 = c  c = 2 And,
Thus, 
3x3  4x2  3x  13  2x3  x2  6x  3  x3  5x2  3x  10 
a + b + c = 6 + 9 + 2 = 17  ba  d c
5. An isosceles triangle, ABC has a base of length 24 and two sides of  54  9
length 13. What other base measure can another isosceles triangle Therefore,
have, if it has equal sides of length 13 and has the same area as original
x3  6 x 2  9 x  7 d c 1
triangle?  
3 2
3x  4 x  3x  13 d c 9
Solution:
2. There are two triangles ABC with angle A equal to 60o, AB = 8 and BC
= 7 as shown (but not to scale). The smaller possibility for AC is 3. What
is the other possibility for AC?

The figure above shows two isosceles triangles having same side
lengths of 13 and same area. Notice that we can interchange the
heights and base for triangle ADC. Therefore, if the original base has
length 24, then the base of the new triangle having the same area as Solution:
the original triangle has base of length 10. Draw a perpendicular from B to side AC. Notice that it will bisect CC,
lets call this point D. Then, using angle A:
6. Simplify
AD AD
i0  i1  i 2    i 2011 cos A   cos60 
AB 8
wherein i   1 . AD  AC  CD  4
CD  4  3  1
Solution: Thus,
Take note of the fact between the sum of the first four powers of i:
AC = 3 + 2(CD) = 5
i  i 2  i3  i 4  0
3. In a lot of 20 tires, 3 are defective. If you pick 4 tires at random, what is
Thus, the problem just reduces to
the probability that you will get 1 defective tire?
i0  i1  i 2    i 2011  i0  i 2009  i 2010  i 2011
Solution:
 i 0  i  i 2  i3  0 Let A be the event that you will get 1 defective tire. The total number
of ways to pick 4 tires out of 20 is solved by using combinations:
7. Evaluate
 20  20  19  18  17
2011 20122012  201320132013  2013  20112011 201220122012 n      5  19  3  17  4845 total ways
4 4  3  2 1
Solution: For success, we need to pick 1 defective tire out of three and then pick
Take note the factors of these two terms: 3 tires out of the remaining 17 non-defective tires. Since these events
2011 20122012  201320132013  2011 201210001  2013100010001 are independent with each other, we multiply the number of ways:
2013  20112011 201220122012  2013  201110001  2012100010001  3 17 
s      3 
17  16  15
 3  17  8  5  2040 ways
 1  3  3  2 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 15

 Therefore, the probability that event A will happen is:  1 2
2 4 6 8 3   4 8 12 
3  17  8  5       2          
P A  
s 8
 3 32 33 34  3 32
33
 3
2
34
36

n 5  19  3  17 19
2 4 6 8  1 2 3  1 2 3 
4. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1,4,6), Q(-2,5,-1) and R(1,-       2      4    
1,1). 3 32 33 34  3 32
33
  9 9 2
93


Solution:  n 
n 
 
2 4 6 8
Let PQ and PR be the adjacent sides of the parallelogram. The area of       2 4
3 32
33
34  n n
the triangle with vertices at P, Q and R is half the area of the  n 1 3 n 1 9 
parallelogram with sides PQ and PR. PQ and PR are represented in 2 4 6 8  3 9  3
vectors as:       2  4 
3 32 33 34  3  1 9  12  8
2
PQ = (-2 – 1)I + (5 – 4)j + (-1 – 6)k = -3i + j – 7k
PR = (1 – 1)I + (-1 – 4)j + (1 – 6)k = 0i – 5j – 5k
3. Simplify:
Using CROSS PRODUCT, the area of the triangle is therefore:
2 cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i
i j k
A  PQ  PR    3 1  7
1 1
Solution:
2 2
0 5 5
2 cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i  1  cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i
1 5 82
A  40i  15 j  15k 
 1  cosln4036081i  i sin ln4036081i
s.u.
2 2

 1  ei ln4036081
2
5. Calculate:
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x  1
1

4036082
x0 4036081 4036081

Solution:
The limit is indeterminate of form 1 . Thus, writing the function as
exponential:
lim cot x ln1sin 4 x 
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x  e x 0


x0
 ln1sin 4 x  
lim  
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x  e x 0 
 tan x   e4
x 0

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Let
f x   x4  ax3  bx2  cx  d
be a polynomial whose roots are all negative integers. If
a  b  c  d  2009
find d.

Solution:
Call the roots –x1, -x2, -x3 and –x4. Then f(x) must factor as
f x  x 4  ax3  bx 2  cx  d  x  x1 x  x2 x  x3 x  x4 
If we evaluate f at x = 1, we get
1  x11  x2 1  x3 1  x4   a  b  c  d  1  2009  1  2010
1  x11  x2 1  x3 1  x4   2  3  5  67
d is the product of the four roots, so that
d  12466  528

2. Evaluate:
2 4 6 8
   
3 32 33 34

Solution:
2 4 6 8 1 2 3 4 
      2     
3 32 33 34  3 32
33
34


Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 16

 2. Evaluate:
4 6 8
2    
2! 3! 4!

3. A line was drawn through (0,4,3) and (-1,2,5). On what point will this
line intersect the xz-plane?

EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) SOLUTION

1. Suppose that EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)

x  0.1230
1. Suppose that
is written in the form a/b where a and b are positive integers and this
fraction is in reduced form. What is a + b? x  0.1230
is written in the form a/b where a and b are positive integers and this
2. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16. fraction is in reduced form. What is a + b?
The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability Solution:
that it will get at least one of the two awards? To represent a non-terminating decimal with repeating digits as a ratio
3. Evaluate: of two integers, we use the following technique
        
ln tan1  ln tan 2  ln tan 3    ln tan 88  ln tan 89  7
So that a = 203 and b = 1650. Their sum is 1853.
4. Compute
2. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16.
1 1 1 The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability
that it will get at least one of the two awards?
5. What is the area of the regular hexagon with perimeter 60?
Solution:
6. What is the coefficient of x7 in the polynomial expansion of Let A be the event where the school won an award for its design while

1  2x  x  24 B be the event they will won an award for low cost. The statement “it
will get at least one of the two awards” is the same as saying as “getting
one of these awards or both”. The probability that the school will win
7. If
an award for its design or an award for low cost or both is found by
f x   x  14 x  23 x  32 the Additive Rules of Probability:
find f’’’(1) + f”(2) + f’(3). PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B
PA  B  0.16  0.24  0.11  0.29
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
1. If 3. Evaluate:

f x   1 
1         
ln tan1  ln tan 2  ln tan 3    ln tan 88  ln tan 89 
1 x
Find the value of Solution:
The sum is just the same as
f  f  f 3
where there are 2011 f’s in the composition. 
ln tan1  tan 2  tan 3   tan 88  tan 89 
 sin 1  sin 2  sin 3    sin 88  sin 89 
   
2. For what real values of p is the integral  ln    ln 1  0
 1  cos1  cos 2  cos3    cos88  cos89 
 
1 p
x
dx
4. Compute
convergent?

3. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16. 1 1 1
The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability Solution:
that it will only get one award?
Let x  1  1  1   . Thus,
4. Find the radius of a circle inscribed in a triangle with side lengths 4, 5
x  1 x  x2  x  1  0
and 6.
Only positive root is allowed, thus
5. How many integers between 1 and 1000 has exactly 27 positive
1 5
divisors? x
2
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds) 5. What is the area of the regular hexagon with perimeter 60?
1. Simplify: Solution:
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x This regular hexagon has side length 10. Using the formula for the
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x area of a regular n-gon with side length L:
180 1 180
 6102 cot
1 2
A nL cot
4 n 4 6
A  150 3 s.u.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 17

6. What is the coefficient of x7 in the polynomial expansion of 3. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16.


. 1  2x  x 24
 The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability
that it will only get one award?
Solution:

1  2x  x2 4  x  12 4  x  18 Solution:

Let A be the event where the school won an award for its design while
The term involving x7 is found by using Binomial Theorem: B be the event they will won an award for low cost. The probability
that the school will win an award for its design or an award for low
x7 term 
8!
x7 11  8x7
7!1! cost or both is found by the Additive Rules of Probability:
Coefficient of this term is 8. PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B
7. If PA  B  0.16  0.24  0.11  0.29
f x   x  1 x  2 x  3
4 3 2 But we don’t want the school to win BOTH awards. Therefore we
deduct 0.11 on the probability:
find f’’’(1) + f”(2) + f’(3).
P = 0.29 – 0.11 = 0.18
Solution:
4. Find the radius of a circle inscribed in a triangle with side lengths 4, 5
A polynomial p(x) has a multiple root at x = a if and only if x – a divides
and 6.
both p and p’. Continuing inductively, the nth derivative p(n) has a
multiple root b if and only if x – b divides p(n) and p(n+1). Since f(x) has 1 Solution:
as root with multiplicity 4, x – 1 must divide each of f, f’, f”, f’’’. Hence First, use Heron’s Formula to find the area. The semiperimeter is s
f’’’(1) = 0. Similarly, x – 2 divides each of f, f’, f” so f”(2) = 0 and x – 3 = 15/2, so the area is
divides each of f, f’, meaning f’(3) = 0. Hence the desired sum is 0.
15 7 5 3 15 7
A    
2 2 2 2 4
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds) Now, the area is equal to the inradius times the semiperimeter, so
15 7
1. If A
r  4  7
f x   1 
1 s 15 2
1 x 2
Find the value of
f  f  f 3 5. How many integers between 1 and 1000 has exactly 27 positive
divisors?
where there are 2011 f’s in the composition.
Solution:
Solution:
Suppose n has 27 divisors. If the factorization of n is
We can rewrite f(x) as
p1e1  p2e2    pk ek
f x   1 
1 x

1 x x 1 with p1, p2, …, pk distinct primes, then n has (e1 + 1)(e2 + 1)…(ek + 1)
So that, divisors. There are three possibilities
3 (i) k = 1 and e1 = 26. The least number of this type is 226 > 1000.
(ii) k = 2 and e1 = 8, e2 = 2. Least number of this type is 2832 > 1000.
f 3  f  f 3 
 3 ; f  f  f 3 
3 2 3
; (iii) k = 3 and e1 = e2 = e3 = 2. Least number is 223252 = 900 < 1000.
2 3 2
1 There is only 1 solution to this problem.
2
This pattern goes forever. It follows that on the 2011’th
composition:
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
f  f  f 3 
3
2 1. Simplify:
2. For what real values of p is the integral 1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 1

1 p
x
dx Solution:

convergent?
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 2
Solution: 1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1  sin 2 x 2  cos 2 2 x
Solving the improper integral:
1  2 sin 2 x  sin 2 2 x  2 cos 2 x1  sin 2 x   cos2 2 x
t 
 1 t 1  x  p 1  1  2 sin 2 x  sin 2 2 x  cos2 2 x
1 x p
dx  lim
t  1 x p 
dx  lim  
t    p  1  2  2 sin 2 x  2 cos 2 x1  sin 2 x 
1 
2 sin 2 x  2 sin 2 2 x
 1  1  1 
21  sin 2 x 1  cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x
1 xp
dx  lim 
t   1  p

t
p 1
 1
 
2 sin 2 x1  sin 2 x 

sin 2 x
In order for this limit to exist, the exponent of t, which is p – 1 should
be nonnegative. Thus 1  2 cos2 x  1 cos x
   cot x
p–1>0 2 sin x cos x sin x
p>1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 18

2. Evaluate:
4 6 8
2    
2! 3! 4!

Solution:
In sigma notation:

2 
4

6

8
  

  1n
 2n


  
 2n
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
2! 3! 4! n! n!
n 1 n 1
1. Find the length of segment AE in the rectangle below
Notice that this resembles the structure of the Maclaurin Series
expansion for ex. Thus,

e x 
2


 x  2n
 e 
2


   2n

n! n!
n 0 n 0

e 
2        
20  2n
 1 

   2n

0! n! n!
n 1 n 1 2. Jason, Jamie, Sarah, Jill and Scott arrive at a party randomly at different

2 
 4

 6

 8
  


   2n
 1  e
2
times. What is the probability that Jason arrives first and Scott arrives
last?
2! 3! 4! n!
n 1 3. If x satisfies the equation
3. A line was drawn through (0,4,3) and (-1,2,5). On what point will this sin 10  sin 40
tan x 
line intersect the xz-plane? cos10  cos 40
o o
Solution: and x is between 0 and 90 , then x is equal to what?
If we set P0 as the point (0,4,3), the direction numbers will be: a = -1, b 4. What is the last digit of the sum
= -2, c = 2. The equation of the line in terms of parametric equation will 1! + 2! + 3! + … + 2010! + 2011!
then be
x  0  t  t  x sin 3  x 2  sin 9
5. Evaluate: lim .
4 y x 0 x
y  4  2t  t
2
6. Given that log (3) is approximately equal to 0.477, how many digits do
z 3
z  3  2t  t 3100 have when expanded in base 10?
2
The equation of the line in symmetric form is 7. Evaluate
4 y z 3 1 1 1 1
x    
2 2 2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24
This line will only intersect the xz-plane when y = 0. Thus,
40 AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
x  x  2
2
1. A contest among n > 2 players is held over a period of 4 days. On each
z 3 40
  z7 day each player receives a score of 1, 2, 3, …, n points with no two
2 2 players getting the same score on a given day. At the end of the
Therefore, the intersection of this line and the xz-plane is at (-2,0,7). contest it is discovered that every player received the same total of 26
points. How many players have participated?

2. What is the remainder when 1020 is divided by 1001?

3. Find the minimum value of the function

f x  
sin x cos x tan x cot x
  
2 2 2
1  cos x 1  sin x sec x  1 csc2 x  1
as x varies over all numbers in the largest possible domain of f.

4. Find the value of

a2  a4  a6    a96  a98
if a1, a2, a3,… is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 1
and
a1  a2  a3    a97  a98  137

5. Evaluate:

1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9
n 
lim           
n n  n     
n n n 
 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 19

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds) 4. What is the last digit of the sume
1! + 2! + 3! + … + 2010! + 2011!
1. How many zeros are there at the end of
 200  Solution:
 
 124  Notice that 5!, 6!, 7!, and so on until 2011! all have units digit of 0.
Therefore, we only have to find the last digit of 1! + 2! + 3! + 4!. It has
2. Find the reflection of the point (11,16,22) across the plane units digit of 3.
3x + 4y + 5z = 7
sin 3  x 2  sin 9
3. Suppose triangle ABC is equilateral. From the figure below: 5. Evaluate: lim .
x 0 x

Solution:
Applying L’Hospital’s Rule:
sin 3  x 2  sin 9 23  x cos3  x 2
lim  lim  6 cos9
x0 x x0 1

6. Given that log (3) is approximately equal to 0.477, how many digits do
BD 1 CE 1 AF 1 3100 have when expanded in base 10?
 ;  ; 
BC 3 CA 3 AB 3
Solution:
Then the area of the shaded portion is what?
In general, the number of digits (in base ten) of a number n is obtained
using the formula
SOLUTION
no. of digits  log(n)  1
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) Therefore:
1. Find the length of segment AE in the rectangle below  
no. of digits of 3100  log 3100  1  100(0.477)  1

no. of digits of 3 100

 47.7  1  48

7. Evaluate
1 1 1 1
  
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24

Solution: Solution:
By the “British Flag Theorem”: Rationalizing the denominators of each of the terms in the sum:
AE2  EC2  BE2  ED2 1

1

1

1
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24
AE 2  52  42  82
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24
AE  55    
2 1 32 43 25  24
2. Jason, Jamie, Sarah, Jill and Scott arrive at a party randomly at different  25  1  4
times. What is the probability that Jason arrives first and Scott arrives
last?
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
Solution:
Let A be the event that Jason arrives first at the party while B be the 1. A contest among n > 2 players is held over a period of 4 days. On each
event that Scott arrives last. By Conditional Probability (realizing that day each player receives a score of 1, 2, 3, …, n points with no two
events A and B are DEPENDENT events): players getting the same score on a given day. At the end of the
 
P A  B   PA  P B A   
1 1
5 4 20
1 contest it is discovered that every player received the same total of 26
points. How many players have participated?

3. If x satisfies the equation Solution:

  The sum S of all the scores given to all the players on a single day is
sin 10  sin 40
tan x  n(n  1)
cos10  cos 40 S
2
and x is between 0o and 90o, then x is equal to what?
So in 4 days, this will total as 4S = 2n(n+1). Each of the n players
Solution: received 26 points at the end of the 4-day contest, therefore
4S  26n  2n(n  1)  26n
sin 10  sin 40 sin( 25  15 )  sin( 25  15 )
tan x  
cos10  cos 40 cos(25  15 )  cos(25  15 ) n  12 players

sin 25 cos15 2. What is the remainder when 1020 is divided by 1001?
tan x   tan 25  x  25
 
cos 25 cos15 Solution:
Using modulo division:
1020 mod1001  102  1018 mod1001

 100  10006 mod1001

 100   16 mod1001

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 20

  100 mod1001 124  124  124 
For 124!: no. of trailing zeros         28
Therefore, the remainder is 100.  5   52   53 

 76   76   76 
3. Find the minimum value of the function For 76!: no. of trailing zeros             18
 5   52   53 
f x  
sin x cos x tan x cot x
    200 
1  cos x 2
1  sin x sec x  1 2
csc2 x  1 2 Therefore, the number of trailing zeros in   is 49 – (28 + 18) = 3
as x varies over all numbers in the largest possible domain of f.
 124 

Solution: 2. Find the reflection of the point (11,16,22) across the plane 3x
If we let x be –x, then + 4y + 5z = 7.
sin(  x) cos( x) tan( x) cot( x)
f  x      Solution:
2
1  cos ( x) 2
1  sin ( x) 2
sec ( x)  1 2
csc ( x)  1 The normal to the plane is in the direction 3,4,5 and so the line going
through the point perpendicular to the plane is given by the
 sin x  tan x  cot x
f  x  
cos x
   parametric equations
1  cos2 x 1  sin 2 x sec2 x  1 csc2 x  1 11  3t,16  4t,22  5t 
f  x   
sin x cos x tan x cot x The line going through this point intersects the plane at
    2  f min
sin x cos x tan x cot x 3x  4 y  5z  7  3(11  3t )  4(16  4t )  5(22  5t )  7
4. Find the value of t4

a2  a4  a6    a96  a98 Hence, the reflection of the point occurs at t  8 , since the original
point is at t  0 .
if a1, a2, a3,… is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 1
and 11  3t,16  4t,22  5t   11  24,16  32,22  40
a1  a2  a3    a97  a98  137 11  3t,16  4t,22  5t   13,16,18
Solution: 3. Suppose triangle ABC is equilateral. From the figure below:
a1  a2  a3    a97  a98  137
a2  1  a2  a4  1    a98  1  a98  137
2a2  a4  a6    a96  a98  49  137
a2  a4  a6    a96  a98  93

5. Evaluate:

1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9 BD 1 CE 1 AF 1
n   ;  ; 
lim            BC 3 CA 3 AB 3
n n  n   n n n 
  Then the area of the shaded portion is what?
Solution: Solution:
Since:
1  1   2   3  n 
9 9 9 9 n 9
i

1
lim                lim   BD 1 CE 1 AF 1
n n  n  n n  n   n n i 1  n   ;  ; 
 BC 3 CA 3 AB 3
We can say that
1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9 n 9
lim
n
             lim 1  0 
0 
1 0 
 i DC EA FB
n n  n   n n n  n n  n  x 2 ; y 2 ; z 2
  i 1 BD CE AF
Using Routh’s Theorem (where x = y = z = n = 2):
1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9
n 1
lim

          
n n  n   n n n 

0 
  x9dx  1
10 area shaded 
n  12 ( ABC) 
(2  1)2
(1) 
1
2 2
n  n 1 2  2 1 7

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. How many zeros are there at the end of
 200 
 
 124 

Solution:
 200  200!
  
 124  124! 76!
The number of trailing zeros (end zeros) in n! is found by the series of
floor functions below:
n  n   n 
no. of trailing zeros           
 5   52   53 

 200   200   200 

For 200!: no. of trailing zeros         49
 5   52   53 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 21

 SOLUTION

EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)

1. Simplify
2011 2
i2  i 2011 i 2011

Solution:
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) Working mod 4 on the exponents of i:
1. Simplify i2
2011 2
 i 2011 i 2011  i 2
2011
mod 4  i 2011mod 4  i 20112 mod 4
2011 2 2011 2
i2  i 2011 i 2011 i2  i 2011 i 2011  i 0  i3  i1  1

2. For a vector-valued function given by 2. For a vector-valued function given by

r (t )  (cost )i  (sin t ) j  2tk r (t )  (cost )i  (sin t ) j  2tk
Find r(t )  r(t ) . Find r(t )  r(t ) .

3. Evaluate Solution:
2 Taking the first and second derivatives:
  13 
2 tan   r(t )  ( sin t )i  (cost ) j  2k
  4 
r(t )  ( cost )i  ( sin t ) j  0k
4. What is the greatest common divisor of 650 and 702? Therefore
r(t )  r(t )  ( sin t )( cost )  (cost )( sin t )  (2)(0)  0
5. Find the slope of the line connecting the intersections of 3x + 2y = 5
and x2 + y2 = 8. 3. Evaluate
6. Classify the quadric surface 2
  13 
2 2 2 tan  
x  2 z  6 x  y  10  0   4 

7. A byte is a binary number consisting of 8 digits. How many bytes have Solution:
at least two zeros? 2 2
  13   2 
2tan    2  1
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)   4   2 
 
1. There are 4 postal delivery people in your area, John, Tom, Jeff and 4. What is the greatest common divisor of 650 and 702?
Pat. John delivers 20% of packages but loses 1 out of 200. Tom delivers
60% of packages but loses 1 out of 100. Jeff delivers 15% of packages Solution:
but loses 1 out of 50. Pat delivers 5% but loses 1 in 200. If your package Using Euclidean Algorithm to solve for the GCD:
was lost, what is the probability that John lost it? 702 52 650 26 52
 1   12    20
650 650 52 52 26
2. Find the smallest positive integer that has exactly 15 positive divisors.
26 is the last divisor that yields a remainder of 0. Therefore 26 is the
3. Evaluate: GCD of 650 and 702.

 2 3 4 5. Find the slope of the line connecting the intersections of 3x + 2y = 5

sin sin sin sin and x2 + y2 = 8.
9 9 9 9

4. Obtain the general solution of Solution:

The points of intersection of 3x + 2y = 5 and x2 + y2 = 8 both belong to
d2y dy the line 3x + 2y = 5 and its slope is -3/2.
8  15 y  0
dx 2 dx
6. Classify the quadric surface
5. How many positive integers n have the property that the measures (in x2  2 z 2  6 x  y  10  0
degrees) of the interior angles of a regular n-gon are integers?
Solution:
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
By completing the square, we rewrite the equation as
1. Differentiate y  1  x  32  2 z 2
d 2011  x
e sin x  cos x   And we see that this is an equation of an ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID.
 
2011  
dx  21005 7. A byte is a binary number consisting of 8 digits. How many bytes have
at least two zeros?
2. An object starts from rest at the point P(1,2,0) and moves with an
acceleration of Solution:
2 There are 28 = 256 binary sequence of length 8. Of them, 1 has no
a(t )  j  2k m s
zeros (11111111) and 8 have one zero. Therefore, there are 256
Find the location of the object after t = 2 seconds. – (1 + 8) = 247 sequences with at least 2 zeros.

3. Evaluate:

4cos4 36  5cos2 36  12

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 22
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds) 5. How many positive integers n have the property that the measures (in
degrees) of the interior angles of a regular n-gon are integers?
1. There are 4 postal delivery people in your area, John, Tom, Jeff and
Pat. John delivers 20% of packages but loses 1 out of 200. Tom delivers Solution:
60% of packages but loses 1 out of 100. Jeff delivers 15% of packages First, we should realize that an interior angle of a regular n-gon has
but loses 1 out of 50. Pat delivers 5% but loses 1 in 200. If your package measure in between 0o and 180o. The formula for finding the interior
was lost, what is the probability that John lost it? angle of a regular n-gon is given by

Solution: 180 (n  2) 360

int erior angle   180 
Let A be the event that your package was lost and event B1, B2, B3 and n n
B4 be the event that John, Tom, Jeff and Pat delivers and lost your Clearly, we see that in order for this value to be an integer, the term
package respectively. Using a tree diagram to visualize: 360
 0
.20 B 1 200 should be an integer. Therefore, using TAU FUNCTION to find
 1  A n
 0.60
  2 1
B 100 A
 all integer divisors of 360 = 23(32)(5):
package  0.15 1 50
  3  A
B  360  3  12  11  1  24
 0
.05 B 1 200
 4  A And carefully excluding n = 2 and n = 360 to the solution will give a

total of 22 possible values for n.
Using Bayes’ Theorem:


P B1 A  
PB1   P A B1 
4
 PBi   PA Bi 
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
i 1 1. Differentiate
 1 
(0.2)  d 2011  e x sin x  cos x  
 200   
 dx 2011  21005 
 1   1   1   1 
(0.2)   (0.6)   (0.15)   (0.05) 
 200   100   50   200 
Solution:

P B1 A  4
149
x x
Notice the derivatives for e cos x and e sin x repeats for a certain
pattern.
2. Find the smallest positive integer that has exactly 15 positive divisors.
y  e x cos x y  e x sin x
Solution: y '  e x cos x  sin x  y '  e x cos x  sin x 
For any integer n with prime factorization x
y"  2e sin x y"  2e x cos x
n  p1a1  p2a2  p3a3   pi ai y  2e cos x  sin x  y  2e x cos x  sin x 
x

The number of divisors of n (by virtue of the TAU FUNCTION) is  

a1  1a2  1a3  1  ai  1 Using a formula for the nth derivative of y:
From the problem, 15 = 3(5) = (2 + 1)(4 + 1). Since 2 and 3 are the two yn   4n 4 yn mod 4
smallest primes, we only have to check which of these two is smaller
22  34 or 24  32
d 2011  e x sin x  cos x  

2011  1005

 2
1  d 2011 x
1005

 dx 2011
e sin x  
d 2011 x
2011
 
e cos x 

 
4 2
dx  2 dx
It is easy to see that 2  3  144 is the smaller of the two.
  3 3 
3. Evaluate 
1  42011 4  d e x sin x  d e x cos x 
1005   dx3 3 
 2 3 4
2   dx 
sin sin sin sin

Solution:
9 9 9 9

21004
21005
2e cos x  sin x  2e cos x  sin x  2e cos x
x x x

Using the formula (with n = 9)

n 2 9 2 2. An object starts from rest at the point P(1,2,0) and moves with an
 k   k 
 
n 9 3 acceleration of
sin    sin   
k 1
 n   2 n1 k 1
 9   2 91 16
a(t )  j  2k m s 2
Find the location of the object after t = 2 seconds.
4. Obtain the general solution of
d2y dy Solution:
8  15 y  0 From the description of the object’s motion, we can deduce the
2 dx
dx
following initial conditions. Because the object starts from rest, we
Solution: have:
The differential equation is linear and homogeneous. Using an v(0)  0
auxiliary equation Moreover, because the object starts at the point (x,y,z) = (1,2,0), we
m2  8m  15  0 have
Solving for the roots, we get r(0)  x(0)i  y(0) j  z(0)k  i  2 j  0k
m  3 ; m  5 To find the position vector, we should integrate twice, each time using
one of the initial conditions to solve for the constant of integration. The
Since all roots are real, the general solution will be
velocity vector is then
y  c1e3x  c2e5x

v(t )  a(t )dt 
  j  2k dt  t j  2tk  c

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 23

 where c = c1i + c2j + c3k. Letting t = 0 and applying the initial condition
v(0) = 0, we get
v(0)  c1i  c2 j  c3k  0  c1  c2  c3  0
So the velocity at any time t is
v(t )  t j  2tk m s
Integrating once more produces
t2 1. Express

r (t )  v(t )dt 
 t j  2tk dt 
2
j  t 2k  c
0.142857
Where c = c4i + c5j + c6k. Letting t = 0 and applying the initial condition into its simplest fraction representation.
r(0) = I + 2j, we have
2. Let
r (0)  c4i  c5 j  c6k  i  2 j  c4  1 ; c5  2 ; c6  0
m  1111111 (2004 1' s)
So that the position vector is
and
 t2  n  1111111
r (t )  i    2  j  t 2k (666 1' s)
 2 
  Find gcdm, n .
The location of the object after t = 2 seconds is
3. If a, b and c are the roots of
r (2)  i  4 j  4k  (1,4,4)
x3  9 x2  11x  1  0

3. Evaluate: and suppose that s  a  b  c . Find the value of s 4  18s 2  8s .

4cos4 36  5cos2 36  12 4. If

log 2  a ; log 3  b ; log 7  c
Solution: Find the value of
Realizing that
 
cos5x  16 cos5 x  20 cos3 x  5 cos x  (cos x) 16 cos4 x  20 cos2 x  5 log100 7
45
16
cos5x
16 cos4 x  20 cos2 x  5 
cos x 5. In the xy-plane, the solution set to
cos5x 24 10 120
16 cos4 x  20 cos2 x  4  1  
cos x y x xy
1  cos5x  splits up naturally into four regions, only one of which is bounded. Find
4 cos4 x  5 cos2 x  1    1 the area of that bounded region.
4  cos x 
1 5 6. Alice, Bob and Charlie go to the park on January 1, 2011. Alice returns
Since we know that cos36  , then at x = 36o: on January 7, 13, …, every sixth day. Bob returns every fourth day and
4
Charlie returns every fifteenth day. When is the first day after January
  1, 2011 when all three go to the park?
 cos180  1   1 

4 cos4 36  5 cos2 36  1  
1
 1    1 7. Compute:
4  cos36  4 1 5
   
 4 
2 23 2 4 25 2 
5
4 cos4 36  5 cos2 36  1  
4 8. Evaluate:
Therefore, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1         

4 cos4 36  5cos2 36  12   

2 2 3 4 6 8 9 12 16 18
5  5

 4  16 9. Evaluate:
1 1 1 1
 1  3  1  9  1  27  1  81
           
 2  4 8  16 

10. How many odd numbers are there in the 2011th row of the Pascal’s
Triangle? Take note that in a Pascal’s Triangle, the topmost row (row
with 1 entry) is called row zero.

11. Expand
2011
 
 2  2 i
 2 2 
 

12. Compute
log35i 4  7i 

13. Evaluate
i i

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 24

14. Given the digits 0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, how many 5-digit numbers will
33. If
be formed if the resulting numbers are even, less than 70000 and
without repetition of digits? x2  2x  1
f x  
x2  4x  7
15. What is the coefficient of a 4b3c 2d in the expansion of
then f 11 is equal to what?
a  b  c  2d 10
34. Given that
16. My birthday is June 23, 1982 and that is a Wednesday. On what day x  3sin   sin 3 ; y  cos3  3cos
2011
will it be 13 days from that date?
Evaluate x 2 3  y 2 3 .
17. How many Pythagorean triplets can you form if the measure of one
leg is equal to 36? 35. Find the determinant of the matrix below:

18. What is the remainder when  1 2 3 

 
2009 2010 2011 A  5 0 4
2008  2009  2010
  1 4 3 
is divided by 25?

19. How many positive integers less than 2011 are relatively prime to 36. The integer n is the smallest positive multiple of 15 such that every digit
2011? n
of n is either 8 or 0. Compute for .
15
20. Solve for all possible real values of x:
 2x  1    37. A small square is constructed inside a square of area 1 by dividing each
arctan   arctan 2 x  1   
 3   3  4 side of the unit square into n equal parts and then connecting the
   
vertices to the division points closest to the opposite vertices. Find the
21. If value of n if the area of the small square is exactly 1 1985 .

x tan 39
x  tan 219  tan115 
 
cot  65
then what is the value of arctanx ? Answer should be between 0 to
2pi.

22. If A, B and C are angles of a triangle and

tan A  tan B  tan C  5.67
Find the value of tan Atan Btan C  .

23. Five real numbers are chosen and put in order from smallest to largest. 38. What is the largest possible distance between two points on the
The average of all five is 14. The average of the three middle numbers sphere of radius 19 with center (-2,-10,5) and the other on the sphere
is only 13. What is the average of the largest and smallest numbers? of radius 87 with center (12,8,-16)?

24. Find the smallest counting number which leaves a remainder of 5 39. Compute:
when divided by 7, a remainder of 8 when divided by 11 and a (104  324)(224  324)(344  324)(464  324)(584  324)
remainder of 2 when divided by 13.
(44  324)(164  324)(284  324)(404  324)(524  324)
25. What is the largest negative integer value that y can take in the
40. Find the smallest positive integer whose cube ends in 888.
equation
1001x  572 y  286 41. Evaluate:
if x and y can only take integer values as solution?
52  6 43 3 2  52  6 43 3 2
26. Find the polynomial equation y = f(x) of least degree that satisfies the
42. Evaluate:
 5
points 1,0,  0,  and  5,5 . 100
 
 logi 100!
6 1

27. Assume that b and c are integers greater than 1. In base b, c 2 is written
i 1
2
as 10. Then b when written in base c is what? 43. Find the 46th digit after the decimal point in the decimal expansion of
1
28. What is the sum of all the digits of all integers from 1 to 2011? 2011

29. Evaluate: 44. When the product

1  2  3  n
x  5x  102x2  3x3  6x  16 x  9x  43x  18
2
lim
n 32
n is expanded, how many of the coefficients are odd?
st nd
30. The sum of the 21 square number and 22 square number is equal 45. A cylindrical can is 6 inches tall and its base is 4 inches in diameter. A
to the nth pentagonal number. Find n. bug crawls from a point P on the upper rim of the can once around
the can to a point Q which is 4 inches directly below P. Then the bug
31. Express tan15x in terms of powers of tan x .
crawls from Q once around the can to a point R on the bottom rim of
32. Find the vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function the can directly below P (so the distance from Q to R is 2 inches). What
is the length of the shortest path in inches that the bug could have
 x 5 
y  2010  2011cot   made from P to R?
2 3 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 25

46. Suppose we draw 100 horizontal lines and 100 vertical lines in the
plane. How many “pieces” of the plane are formed by cutting along all
of these lines? (Note: Some of the pieces will have infinite area).

47. There are four cowboys in a saloon. At midnight, each cowboy

randomly chooses one of the other three cowboys and shoots him.
What is the probability that exactly two cowboys are shot?

48. Find
 n k
1 
lim 
n   n en 

 k 1 

49. Consider the points A(-5,-1), B(-1,0), C(1,2) and D(1,3). Let P be a point
and
d  PA2  PB2  PC 2  PD2
so that d is the sum of the squares of the distances from P to each of
A, B, C and D. What is the least possible value for d?

50. At what time after 3 o’clock will the hands of the clock be bisected by
the second hand for the first time?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 26