9.

1 Motivation
9.2 Sinusoids’ features
9.3 Phasors
9.4 Phasor relationships for circuit elements
9.5 Impedance and admittance
9.6 Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain
9.7 Impedance combinations

1
 vs(t) = 10V

How can we apply what we have learned before to

determine i(t) and v(t)? 2
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the
sine or cosine function.
• A general expression for the sinusoid,
v(t )  Vm sin(t   )

where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
Ф = the phase
3
A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for
all t and for all integers n.

2
T

1
f  Hz   2f
T

• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be

compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase
4
difference is not zero, they are out of phase.
Example 1

Given a sinusoid, 5 sin( 4  t  60 o ), calculate its

amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and
frequency.

Solution:

Amplitude = 5, phase = –60o, angular frequency

= 4 rad/s, Period = 0.5 s, frequency = 2 Hz.
5
 Example 2

Find the phase angle between i1  4 sin( 377 t  25 o )

and i  5 cos(377t  40 o ), does i1 lead or lag i2?
2

Solution:

Since sin(ωt+90o) = cos ωt

i2  5 sin(377t  40 o  90 o )  5 sin(377t  50 o )
i1  4 sin(377t  25o )  4 sin(377t  180 o  25o )  4 sin(377t  205 o )
therefore, i1 leads i2 155o. 6
• A phasor is a complex
number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a
sinusoid.

• It can be represented in one

of the following three forms:

a. Rectangular z  x  jy  r (cos   j sin  )

b. Polar z  r 
z  re j r x2  y2
c. Exponential
where y
  tan 1
x
7
Example 3
• Evaluate the following complex numbers:

a. [(5  j2)( 1  j4)  5 60 o ]

b. 10  j5  340o
 10 30o
 3  j4

Solution:
a. –15.5 + j13.67
b. 8.293 + j2.2

8
Mathematic operation of complex number:
1. Addition z1  z 2  ( x1  x2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )

2. Subtraction z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  j ( y1  y2 )

3. Multiplication z1 z2  r1r2  1  2
z1 r1
 1  2
4. Division z 2 r2
1 1
5. Reciprocal   
z r

6. Square root z  r  2

7. Complex conjugate z   x  jy  r     re  j

8. Euler’s identity e  j  cos   j sin  9

• Transform a sinusoid to and from the time
domain to the phasor domain:

v (t )  Vm cos(t   ) V  Vm 
(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal

concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids.
• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our
proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in
the form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by
subtracting from the phase.
10
Example 4
Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:
i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A
v = –4sin(30t + 50o) V

Solution:
a. I  6  40 A
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V  4140 V 11
Example 5:
Transform the sinusoids corresponding to
phasors:
a. V   1030 V
b. I  j(5  j12) A

Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(t + 210o) V
5
b) Since I  12  j5  12 2  5 2  tan 1 ( )  13 22.62 
12
i(t) = 13cos(t + 22.62o) A
12
The differences between v(t) and V:
• v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain
representation
V is the frequency or phasor-domain
representation.
• v(t) is time dependent, V is not.
• v(t) is always real with no complex term, V is
generally complex.

Note: Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is

constant; when it is applied to two or more sinusoid
signals only if they have the same frequency.
13
Relationship between differential, integral operation
in phasor listed as follow:

v (t ) V  V
dv
dt j V

V
 vdt j
14
Example 6
Use phasor approach, determine the current i(t)
in a circuit described by the integro-differential
equation.

di
4i  8 idt  3  50 cos( 2t  75)
dt

Answer: i(t) = 4.642cos(2t + 143.2o) A

15
• In-class exercise for Unit 6a, we can derive the differential
equations for the following circuit in order to solve for vo(t)
in phase domain Vo.

d 2 vo 5 dv0 400 o
2
  20v0   sin( 4t  15 )
dt 3 dt 3
• However, the derivation may sometimes be very tedious.
Is there any quicker and more systematic methods to do it?
16
 The answer is YES!
Instead of first deriving the differential equation
and then transforming it into phasor to solve
for Vo, we can transform all the RLC
components into phasor first, then apply the
KCL laws and other theorems to set up a
phasor equation involving Vo directly.

17
Resistor: Inductor: Capacitor:

18
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v  Ri V  RI

L vL
di
V  jLI
dt
C dv V 
I
iC
dt jC

19
• The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor
voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms Ω.
V
Z   R  jX
I
where R = Re, Z is the resistance and X = Im, Z is the
reactance. Positive X is for L and negative X is for C.

• The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance,

measured in siemens (S).
1 I
Y  
Z V 20
Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
ZR Y
R
L 1
Z  jL Y
jL
C Z 
1
Y  j C
j C

21
   0; Z  0

Z  jL
  ; Z  

  0; Z  
1
Z
jC   ; Z  0

22
After we know how to convert RLC components
from time to phasor domain, we can transform
a time domain circuit into a phasor/frequency
domain circuit.
Hence, we can apply the KCL laws and other
theorems to directly set up phasor equations
involving our target variable(s) for solving.

23
24
• Both KVL and KCL are hold in the phasor
domain or more commonly called frequency
domain.

• Moreover, the variables to be handled are

phasors, which are complex numbers.

• All the mathematical operations involved are

now in complex domain.
26
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency
domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques
(nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition,
etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time
domain.

Time to Freq Solve Freq to Time

variables in Freq

27
28
32
33
34
11.1 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.3 Effective or RMS Value
11.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.5 Complex Power
11.6 Conservation of AC Power
11.7 Power Factor Correction
11.8 Power Measurement

35
 • The instantaneously power, p(t)
p(t )  v(t ) i (t )  Vm I m cos ( t   v ) cos ( t   i )
1 1
 Vm I m cos ( v   i )  Vm I m cos (2 t   v   i )
2 2
Constant power Sinusoidal power at 2t

p(t) > 0: power is absorbed by the circuit; p(t) < 0: power is absorbed by the source.
36
• The average power, P, is the average of the instantaneous
power over one period.
1 T 1
P   p(t ) dt  Vm I m cos ( v   i )
T 0 2
1. P is not time dependent.
2. When θv = θi , it is a purely
resistive load case.
3. When θv– θi = ±90o, it is a
purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit
absorbs no average power.

37
38
 The total power dissipated by R is given by:

1 T R T 2
 i Rdt   i dt  I rms
2 2
P R
T 0 T 0

T
1
Hence, Ieff is equal to: I eff 
T 0
i 2 dt  I rms

The rms value is a constant itself which

depending on the shape of the function i(t).

The effective of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the

same average power to a resistor as the periodic current. 39
 The rms value of a sinusoid i(t) = Imcos(t)
is given by:
2 Im
I rms 
2

The average power can be written in terms of

the rms values:

1
I eff  Vm I m cos (θ v  θ i )  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )
2

Note: If you express amplitude of a phasor source(s) in rms, then all the
answer as a result of this phasor source(s) must also be in rms value.
40
• Apparent Power, S, is the product of the r.m.s. values of
voltage and current.
• It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from
the average or real power which is measured in watts.

P  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  S cos (θ v  θ i )

Apparent Power, S Power Factor, pf

• Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between

the voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle
of the load impedance.
41
Purely resistive θv– θi = 0, Pf = 1 P/S = 1, all power are
load (R) consumed
Purely reactive θv– θi = ±90o, pf P = 0, no real power
load (L or C) =0 consumption
Resistive and θv– θi > 0 • Lagging - inductive
reactive load θv– θi < 0 load
(R and L/C) • Leading - capacitive
load

P  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  S cos (θ v  θ i ) 42

43
Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current:

V  Vm θ v I  I m θ i

1 
V I  Vrms I rms  θ v  θ i
2

44
 1
S  V I  Vrms I rms  θ v  θ i
2
 S  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

P: is the average power in watts delivered to a load and it is

the only useful power.
Q: is the reactive power exchange between the source and
the reactive part of the load. It is measured in VAR.
• Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
• Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf). 45
  S  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

Apparent Power, S = |S| = Vrms*Irms = P 2  Q 2

Real power, P = Re(S) = S cos(θv – θi)
Reactive Power, Q = Im(S) = S sin(θv – θi)
Power factor, pf = P/S = cos(θv – θi)

46
  S  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

Power Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Factor 47

48
49
 Power factor correction is the process of increasing the
power factor without altering the voltage or current to
the original load.

Power factor correction is necessary for economic reason. 50

 Qc = Q1 – Q2
= P (tan θ1 - tan θ2)
= ωCV2rms

Q1 = S1 sin θ1 Qc P (tan θ1  tan θ 2 )

C  
= P tan θ1 2
ωVrms 2
ω Vrms

P = S1 cos θ1 Q2 = P tan θ2
51