University of Thi-Qar

College of Engineering
Biomedical Engineering Department

Second Grade, BME

Assist. Prof. Dr. Hussein Nasser Wazeer

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 COURSE OUTLINE
CH1: Sinusoids and Phasors
Review to the previous studied topics
CH2: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Review to the previous studied topics
CH3: AC Power Analysis
Review to the previous studied topics
CH4: Three Phase Systems
Star-Delta Connections, Phasor Diagrams, Power in Three Phase Systems.
CH5: Magnetically Coupled Circuits
Mutual Inductance, Energy Analysis, Linear and Ideal transformers.
CH6: Variable Frequency Networks
Performance, Response Analysis, Resonance Circuits, Filters
CH7: Introduction to Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform, Transform Pairs and Properties, Inverse Laplace Transform
CH8: Applications of Laplace Transform
Circuit elements, Circuits analysis in s domain
CH9: Two-Ports Networks
Admittance, Impedance, Hybrid, and Transmission Parameters, Conversions
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Text Book: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 6th ed,
By Charles K. Alexander and
Matthew N. O. Sadiku
Google Classroom Code: x7zuxno
Grading: 15 Quizzes
+ 05 Attendance
+ 20 Mid-Term Exam = 40
+ 60 Final Exam = 100
Rules: No Exams Postponement, No Exams Repetition, Keep Exam Docs,
Pay Attention to Attendance, Keep Silent, Do Your Best, Avoid
Cheating.
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 Sinusoids and Phasors

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 SINUSOIDS
Consider the sinusoidal voltage: v(t) = Vm sin ωt
where Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency (radians/s)
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid
A sketch of Vm sin ωt: (a) as a function of ωt,
(b) as a function of t.
T is called the period of the sinusoid where
T = 2π / ω (s/cycle)
f = 1 / T where f is the cyclic frequency
(cycles/s) or Hz (Hertz), thus
ω = 2π f

A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT ), for all t and for all integers n
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General expression for the sinusoid:
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + ϕ)
where ϕ = is the phase (radians)
Let us examine the two sinusoids
v1(t) = Vm sin ωt and v2(t) = Vm sin (ωt + ϕ)
v2 leads v1 by ϕ or v1 lags v2 by ϕ
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or
cosine form (cosine through this course)
sin(ωt ± 180°) = −sin ωt
cos(ωt ± 180°) = −cos ωt
sin(ωt ± 90°) = ± cos ωt
cos(ωt ± 90°) = ∓ sin ωt
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 PHASORS

A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid

A complex number z can be written as

z = x + jy Rectangular form
z =r∠ϕ Polar form
z =r𝑒 𝑗ϕ Exponential form
z = r𝑒 𝑗ϕ = r∠ϕ = x + jy = r (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ)

Given a sinusoid v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + ϕ),

v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + ϕ) ⇔ V = Vm ∠ ϕ or Vm𝑒 𝑗ϕ

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 PHASORS (INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION)

𝑑v(t)
⇔ jωV
𝑑𝑡

‫ ׬‬v(t)𝑑𝑡 ⇔ jωV

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 PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Resistor: v = iR = R Im cos(ωt + ϕ) → V = R 𝐼𝑚∠ϕ → V = RI

𝑑i
Inductor: v=𝐿 =−ωLIm sin(ωt + ϕ) → V=ωLIm∠ϕ + 90 → V=jωLI
𝑑𝑡
𝑑v
Capacitor: i=𝐶 =−ωCVm sin(ωt + ϕ) → I=ωCVm∠ϕ + 90 → I=jωCV → V=I / jωC
𝑑𝑡

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 IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I,
measured in ohms (Ω).

The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).

Z = V / I = R ± jX = ∣Z∣ ∠ θ Y = 1 / Z = I / V = G ± jB
R: Resistance G: Conductance
X: Reactance (Inductive or capacitive) B: Susceptance
Z: Impedance Y: Admittance

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 NODAL ANALYSIS
The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

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 MESH ANALYSIS
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) forms the basis of mesh analysis

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 Matlab
Z=[(8-j*2) j*2 -8 0;
0 1 0 0;
-8 -j*5 (8-j*4) (6+j*5);
0 0 -1 1];
V=[10 -3 0 4]';
I=inv(Z)*V
Vo=-2*j*(I(1)-I(2))

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 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Important if the circuit has sources operating at different frequencies.

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 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
Involves transforming a voltage source in series with an impedance to a current source in
parallel with an impedance, or vice versa

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 THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Thevenin: a linear circuit is replaced by a voltage source in series with an impedance.
Norton: a linear circuit is replaced by a current source in parallel with an impedance.

Considering source transformation, the two equivalent circuits are related as

If the circuit has sources operating at different frequencies, the Thevenin or Norton
equivalent circuit must be determined at each frequency.
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Rth: Set all voltage sources to zero (SC) as well as current source to infinity (OC)

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Vth: Is the voltage between a and b nodes (Vab)

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To obtain Zth, we remove the independent source. Due to the presence of the dependent
source, we connect a 3-A current source (3 is an arbitrary value).

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 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of time (the rate at which
an element absorbs energy)

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The
average power is more convenient to measure.

The average power, in watts, is the average of the instantaneous power over one period

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In sinusoidal excitation, the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit are

→
Time independent Time dependent

In phasor form, v(t) = Vm∠θv and i(t) = Im∠θi then

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 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER

For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh.

The maximum average power transfer theorem for the sinusoidal steady state required
that RL = RTh and XL = −XTh which gives us the maximum average power as

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 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE

The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic current. The effective value of a periodic signal is its
root mean square (rms) value

For any periodic function x(t) in general, the rms value is given by

For v(t) = Vm cos ωt and i(t) = Im cos ωt → Vrms=Vm / 2 and Irms=Im / 2

The average power can be written in terms of the rms values as

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 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR

The apparent power S (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.

The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is
also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

θv – θi is the power factor angle

Leading power factor means that current leads voltage, which implies a capacitive load.
Lagging power factor means that current lags voltage, implying an inductive load
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 COMPLEX POWER
Complex power S (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex
conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex quantity, its real part is real power P
and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.

P is the average or real power and it depends on the load’s resistance R

Q is called the reactive or imaginary power and it depends on the load’s reactance X

1. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).

2. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
3. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).

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 POWER TRIANGLE

The complex, real, and reactive powers of the

sources equal the respective sums of the complex,
real, and reactive powers of the individual loads.

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 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current to the
original load (without altering the load’s real power) is known as power factor correction.
Since most loads are inductive, a load’s power factor is corrected by adding a capacitor in
parallel with the load

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 BALANCED THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of phase with each other by 120°.

Voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency ω and are out of phase with each
other by 120°

Van, Vbn, and Vcn: Phase voltages

Vab, Vbc, and Vca: Line voltages
n: Neutral line

Y-connected source Δ-connected source

Note: voltage and current in this chapter are in rms values unless otherwise stated.

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 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SEQUENCES

Positive sequence: Van leads Vbn, which in turn leads Vcn

(counterclockwise rotor rotation)

Negative sequence: Van leads Vcn, which in turn leads Vbn

(clockwise rotor rotation)

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 BALANCED LOAD

A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase

Balanced wye-connected load

Balanced delta-connected load

a wye-connected load can be transformed into a delta-connected load, or vice versa

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 BALANCED Y-Y CONNECTION
A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected source and a
balanced Y-connected load.

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase

voltages (or line-to neutral voltages) are

ZY is the total load impedance per phase (sum of

the source impedance Zs, line impedance Zℓ, and
load impedance ZL)

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The line-to-line voltages or simply line voltages are

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The line currents are

The line currents add up to zero

The line current is the current in each line

The phase current is the current in each phase of the source or load
In the Y-Y system, the line current is the same as the phase current
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 BALANCED Y-Δ CONNECTION
A balanced Y-Δ system consists of a balanced Y-connected source feeding a balanced Δ-
connected load

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase

and line voltages are

same magnitude, out of phase by 120°

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line currents are obtained from the phase currents by applying KCL at nodes A, B, and C

The line currents lag the corresponding phase currents by 30°

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 BALANCED Δ -Δ CONNECTION
A balanced Δ-Δ system is one in which both the balanced source and balanced load are Δ-
connected

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase

voltages are

same magnitude, out of phase by 120°

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 BALANCED Δ -Y CONNECTION
A balanced Δ-Y system consists of a balanced Δ-connected source feeding a balanced Y-
connected load

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase

voltages of Δ-connected source are

The other line currents Ib and Ic can be obtained as Ib = Ia ∠−120°, Ic = Ia ∠+120°.

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 SUMMARY OF PHASE AND LINE VOLTAGES/CURRENTS FOR
BALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Y-Y Δ-Δ

Y-Δ Δ -Y
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 POWER IN A BALANCED SYSTEM
The instantaneous power absorbed by the load for Y-connected load with inductive phase
impedance with phase angle θ (ZY = Z∠θ) and phase voltages and currents

→
Total instantaneous power in a balanced three-phase system is constant
It does not change with time as the instantaneous power of each phase does
This result is true whether the load is Y- or Δ- connected
This is important reason for using a three-phase system to generate and distribute power
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Vp, Ip, VL, and IL are all rms values and θ is the angle of the load impedance or the
angle between the phase voltage and the phase current.

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 SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
For one coil with N turns and current i, a magnetic flux ϕ is produced around it.
A voltage v induced in the coil that proportional to N and dϕ/dt (Faraday’s law)
The flux ϕ is produced by current i so that any
change in ϕ is caused by a change in i

→ →
Where L is commonly called Self-inductance
For two coils with N1 and N2 turns and i1 and i2=0 currents, magnetic fluxes ϕ1 from the
first coil has two components

ϕ12 component links both coils

ϕ11 component links only coil 1
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The two coils are said to be magnetically coupled, therefore

L1 is the Self-inductance of coil 1

M21 is the Mutual-inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1
If i1 = 0 and i2 ≠ 0, magnetic fluxes ϕ2 from the second coil has two components

ϕ21 component links both coils

ϕ22 component links only coil 2

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Similarly

L2 is the Self-inductance of coil 2

M12 is the Mutual-inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2
In all cases and through this course

Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a neighboring
inductor, measured in henrys (H).

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 DOT CONVENTION
If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual voltage in
the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.

Dot convention for coupled coils in series

Series-aiding

Series-opposing

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 CIRCUITS INVOLVING MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Example 1: Mesh analysis

Example 2: Mesh analysis

Easier analysis model →

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 ENERGY IN A COUPLED CIRCUIT AND COUPLING COEFFICIENT
The instantaneous energy w stored in the circuit is

The positive sign is selected for the mutual term if both currents
enter or leave the dotted terminals of the coils; the negative sign
is selected otherwise.
The upper limit for the mutual inductance M

The coupling coefficient k is a measure of the magnetic coupling between two coils; 0 ≤ k ≤ 1.

where 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 or equivalently 0 ≤ M ≤ 𝐿1 𝐿2

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 LINEAR TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is generally a four-terminal device comprising two (or more) magnetically coupled
coils. A linear transformer may also be regarded as one whose flux is proportional to the currents
in its windings.
Primary winding: The coil connected to the source
Secondary winding: The coil connected to the load
Linear transformer: Coils are wound on a magnetically linear material (its magnetic
permeability is constant include air, plastic, Bakelite, and wood) used in radio and TV sets.
Applying KVL to the two meshes and express I2 in terms of I1 and substitute yield

ZR is called the reflected impedance

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 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR LINEAR TRANSFORMER
Can be replaced by an equivalent T or Π circuit that would have no mutual inductance
Voltage-Current relationships give the matrix equation

T Equivalent

Π Equivalent

Also note that changing the locations of the dots can cause M to become −M
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 IDEAL TRANSFORMERS

An ideal transformer is a unity-coupled, lossless transformer in which the primary and secondary
coils have infinite self-inductances.

A transformer is said to be ideal if it has the following properties:

1. Coils have very large reactances (L1, L2, M → ∞).
2. Coupling coefficient is equal to unity (k = 1).
3. Primary and secondary coils are lossless (R1 = R2 = 0).

n = 𝐿2 /𝐿1 and is called the turns ratio. As L1, L2, M → ∞, then n remains the same

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 →
n is, again, the turns ratio or transformation ratio
For the reason of power conservation (Pin = Pout)

V1,V2, I1, and I2 are phasors (Usually rms values)

A step-down transformer is one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage (n < 1)

A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary voltage (n > 1)

1. If V1 and V2 are both +ve or both -ve at the dotted terminals use +n, otherwise, use −n.
2. If I1 and I2 both enter into or both leave the dotted terminals, use −n , otherwise, use +n.

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 REFLECTED IMPEDANCE

The input impedance is also called the reflected

impedance, inasmuch as it appears as if the load
impedance is reflected to the primary side.

Reflecting secondary to primary: Divide the

secondary impedance by n2, divide the secondary
voltage by n, and multiply the secondary current by n.

Reflecting primary to secondary: Multiply the primary

impedance by n2, multiply the primary voltage by n,
and divide the primary current by n.

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 FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND TRANSFER FUNCTION

The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its behavior with change in signal
frequency. It may also be considered as the variation of the gain and phase with frequency.

Useful in communications and control systems by incorporating Filters.

Filters: block out signals with unwanted frequencies and pass signals of the desired
frequencies (used in radio, TV, and telephone systems to separate one broadcast frequency
from another).

The transfer function H(ω) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a phasor output Y(ω)
(an element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(ω) (source voltage or current).

In fact, the frequency response of a circuit is the plot of the circuit’s transfer function H(ω)
versus ω, with ω varying from ω = 0 to ω = ∞.

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 FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND TRANSFER FUNCTION

Input X(ω) and Output Y(ω) can

be either voltage or current, thus

→ Voltage gain

→ Current gain

→ Transfer impedance

→ Transfer admittance

A zero, as a root of the numerator polynomial, is a value that results in a zero value of the function.
A pole, as a root of the denominator polynomial, is a value for which the function is infinite.

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 RESONANCE CIRCUITS - SERIES RESONANCE
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive reactances are
equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely resistive impedance.

Resonant circuits are useful for constructing filters, as their transfer functions can be
highly frequency selective. (Used in many applications such as selecting the desired
stations in radio and TV receivers)

→ Resonance frequency

At resonance: Impedance is purely resistive, I and V are in phase (PF=1), and the
magnitude of H(ω) = Z(ω) is minimum.

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 RESONANCE CIRCUITS - SERIES RESONANCE

→ Average dissipated power

→ Highest dissipated power

At ω = ω1, ω2, the dissipated power is half its maximum value, thus

→ Half-Power Frequencies →

→ ωo is the geometric mean of ω1 and ω2

→ The Bandwidth
ω1 and ω2 are not symmetrical around the ωo. It is often a reasonable approximation.

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 RESONANCE CIRCUITS - SERIES RESONANCE

The “sharpness” of the resonance in a resonant circuit is

measured quantitatively by the quality factor Q.

A resonant circuit is designed to operate at or near its resonant

frequency. For high-Q circuits (Q ≥ 10) we can approximate

High-Q circuits are used often in communications networks

Resonant circuit is characterized by five related parameters: the
two half-power frequencies ω1 and ω2, the resonant frequency ωo,
the bandwidth B, and the quality factor Q.
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 RESONANCE CIRCUITS - PARALLEL RESONANCE

→ For high-Q circuits (Q ≥ 10)

In series and parallel resonance, LC combination acts like s.c. and o.c., respectively
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SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF RESONANT RLC CIRCUITS

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 PASSIVE FILTERS
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate
others. A filter is a passive filter if it consists of only passive elements R, L, and C.
(a) Low-pass filter passes low frequencies and
stops high frequencies
(b) High-pass filter passes high frequencies and
rejects low frequencies
(c) Band-pass filter passes frequencies within a
frequency band and blocks or attenuates
frequencies outside the band
(d) Band-stop filter passes frequencies outside a ωc is the cutoff frequency for LPF and HPF ωo
frequency band and blocks or attenuates is the center frequency BPF and BSF
frequencies within the band

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 LOW-PASS FILTER
A low-pass filter is designed to pass only frequencies from dc up to the cutoff frequency ωc.

A low-pass filter can also be formed when the output of an RL

circuit is taken off the resistor.

At ωc : H drops to 70.71% of its maximum value and the

power dissipated in a circuit is half of its maximum value

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 HIGH-PASS FILTER
A high-pass filter is designed to pass all frequencies above its cutoff frequency ωc

A high-pass filter can also be formed when the output of an RL

circuit is taken off the inductor

At ωc : H drops to 70.71% of its maximum value and the

power dissipated in a circuit is half of its maximum value

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 BAND-PASS FILTER
A band-pass filter is designed to pass all frequencies within a band of frequencies, ω1 < ω < ω2

ω1 and ω2, B, and Q are determined by considering the filter

circuit as a series RLC resonant circuit

Band-pass filter can also be formed by cascading

a low-pass filter with ω2 = ωc with a high-pass
filter with ω1 = ωc
At ω1 and ω2 : H drops to 70.71% of its maximum
value and the power dissipated in a circuit is half
of its maximum value

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 BAND-STOP FILTER
A band-stop filter is designed to stop all frequencies within a band of frequencies, ω1 < ω < ω2

ωo is called the frequency of rejection, while the

corresponding bandwidth (B = ω2 − ω1) is known
as the bandwidth of rejection
ω1 and ω2, B, and Q are determined by considering
the filter circuit as a series RLC resonant circuit
Band-pass filter can also be formed by cascading
a low-pass filter with ω2 = ωc with a high-pass
filter with ω1 = ωc
At ω1 and ω2 : H drops to 70.71% of its maximum
value and the power dissipated in a circuit is half
of its maximum value
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 DEFINITION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
The Laplace transform is an integral transformation of a function f (t) from the time domain into
the complex frequency domain, giving F(s).

Significance over phasor analysis:

It can be applied to a wider variety of inputs (Not only the sinusoidal input)
It provides an easy way to solve circuit problems involving initial conditions
It provides a total response of the circuit comprising both the natural and forced responses
Given a function f (t), its Laplace transform, denoted by F(s) or ℒ [f (t)], is defined by

where s is a complex frequency variable given by

The functions f (t) and F(s) are regarded as a Laplace transform pair
The functions f (t) is the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) or f (t) = ℒ -1[ F(s)]
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 PROPERTIES OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

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 LAPLACE TRANSFORM PAIRS*

*Defined for t ≥ 0; f (t) = 0, for t < 0.

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 THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Suppose F(s) has the general form of
Roots of N(s) = 0 are called the zeros of F(s).
Roots of D(s) = 0 are called the poles of F(s).
Assuming that the degree of N(s) is less than the degree of D(s), otherwise, we must first
apply long division so that F(s) = N(s) ∕ D(s) = Q(s) + R(s) ∕ D(s), where the degree of R(s),
the remainder of the long division, is less than the degree of D(s).
Steps to Find the Inverse Laplace Transform:
1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using partial fraction expansion.
2. Find the inverse of each term by matching entries in Laplace transform pairs table.

Simple Poles:

where s = −p1, −p2, … , −pn are the simple poles, and pi ≠ pj for all i ≠ j (poles are distinct).

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 THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Using partial fraction expansion to decompose F(s)

The expansion coefficients k1, k2, … , kn are known as the residues of F(s), where

Repeated Poles:

where F1(s) is the remaining part of F(s) that does not have a pole at s = −p and

→
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 THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Complex Poles:

where F1(s) is the remaining part of F(s) that does not have this pair of complex poles

Complex roots of polynomials with real coefficients must occur in conjugate pairs

Completing the square by letting

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Applications of Laplace Transform

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 CIRCUIT ELEMENT MODELS IN S-DOMAIN
Employing the Laplace transform to analyze circuits is usually involves three steps
1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain.
2. Solve the circuit using any circuit analysis technique which we are familiar with.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution to obtain the solution in the time domain.
If we assume zero initial conditions for the inductor and the capacitor

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If we assume non-zero initial conditions for the inductor and the capacitor

Using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis providing a complete (transient and
steady-state) solution.
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 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
The transfer function H(s) is the ratio of the output response Y(s) to the input excitation X(s),
assuming all initial conditions are zero.

(dimensionless) (Ω)

(Ω)
(dimensionless)

If we know the input X(s) and the transfer function H(s), we can find the output Y(s) as

When the input is the unit impulse function, x(t) = δ(t), so that X(s) = 1. For this case,
where
h(t) is the unit impulse response (the time-domain response of the network to a unit impulse)
H(s) is the Laplace transform of the unit impulse response of the network.
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 TWO-PORT NETWORKS
A two-port network is an electrical network with two separate ports for input and output

A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as a port

One port network Two port network

Useful in communications, control systems, power systems, and electronics

The various terms that relate I1, I2, V1, and V2 are called parameters
Parameters of a two-port network enables us to treat it as a “black box” when embedded
within a larger network
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 IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS
Impedance and admittance parameters are useful in design and analysis of impedance-
matching networks, power distribution networks, and synthesis of filters.

where the z terms are simply called z parameters, and have units of Ω

If z11 = z22, the two-port network is said to be symmetrical

If z12 = z21, the two-port network is said to be reciprocal
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 ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS

where the y terms are simply called y parameters, and have units of Ʊ

If y11 = y22, the two-port network is said to be symmetrical

If y12 = y21, the two-port network is said to be reciprocal

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 HYBRID PARAMETERS
Very useful for describing electronic devices such as transistors, it is much easier to
measure experimentally the h parameters of such devices than to measure their z or y
parameters. Useful also for ideal transformers.

where h terms are simply called h parameters for hybrid parameters

If h11h22 − h21h12 = 1, the two-port network is said to be symmetrical

If h12 = −h21, the two-port network is said to be reciprocal

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 TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS
Transmission (or ABCD) parameters relates the variables
at the input port to those at the output port. They are
useful in the analysis of transmission lines.

When cascading two-ports (output to input), it is most logical to think of I2 as leaving the
two-port. (customary in the power industry)

If A = D, the two-port network is said to be symmetrical

If AD − BC = 1, the two-port network is said to be reciprocal

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 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR Z, Y, AND H PARAMETERS

z parameters y parameters h parameters

T-equivalent for reciprocal case Π-equivalent for reciprocal case General equivalent circuit

General equivalent circuit General equivalent circuit

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 CONVERSION OF TWO-PORT PARAMETERS

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 INTERCONNECTION OF NETWORKS
The two-port networks may be regarded as building blocks that can be interconnected to
form a complex network. The interconnection can be in series, in parallel, or in cascade.
Series connection (input currents are the same and their voltages add)
For network Na For network Nb

z parameters for the overall network are the sum of the z parameters for individual networks.

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 INTERCONNECTION OF NETWORKS

Parallel connection (input voltages are the same and their currents add)

For network Na For network Nb

y parameters for the overall network are the sum of the z parameters for individual networks.

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 INTERCONNECTION OF NETWORKS
Cascade connection (when the output of one is the input of the other)
For networks Na and Nb

→ →

The transmission parameters for the overall network are the product of the transmission
parameters for the individual transmission parameters

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