COLEGIO VILLA RICA

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

__________________________________________

LAB MANUAL
SCIENCE 3
CHEMISTRY
__________________________________________

RINO JOHANNES VINCENTI HAGN

LAURA BELMONT ARRONIZ

NAME OF STUDENT: ___________________________

LEVEL : SECONDARY

GROUP : 3 A / B / C

SCHOOL YEAR : 2018 – 2019

Science 3 (Chemistry) Lab Manual.doc

Updated July 7, 2011

1
Lab Calender
INDEX 3
Rules and Regulations in the Laboratory 4
Precautions in the Laboratory 5
Safety in the Laboratory 6
General Precautions 7
Chemistry Lab Equipment 8
Periodic Table 9

Practice
0 Rules & Safety Measures in the laboratory ------map of lab 10
1 Properties of materials – density 12
2 Physical and chemical phenomena 14
3 Homogeneous mixtures: tooth paste 16
4 Decantation 18
5 Filtration 20
6 Evaporation 22
7 Crystallization 23
8 Sublimation 25
9 Paper Chromatography 27

10 Elements - Identification and Classification 28

11 Compounds 30
12 Conductors of electrical current 32
13 Electrolytic and non electrolytic substances 34
14 Electrolysis - Water & Copper Chloride 36
15 Concentration : % Volume & % Mass 39
16 Concentration : Molarity 41

17 Acids and bases – Identification 44

18 pH Scales - Red cabbage indicator 46
19 Oxidation – REDOX 50
20 Oxidation – Fireworks 52

21 Hydrocarbons : Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes 54

22 Organic and Inorganic Compounds - Differences 58
23 Polymers - Synthetic Rubber Ball 60
24 Alcohols - Making gel hand sanitizer 61
25 Acetone - Effect of a Solvent on a Polymer (polystyrene) 62
26 Carbohydrates - Gum drops 64
27 Proteins – Denaturalization 66
28 Proteins - Making Fresh Cheese 68
29 Lipids - Polar & Non-Polar Solvents 70

Bibliography 71
Periodic Table 71

2
 CHEMISTRY LABS SCHEDULE A B C
TEACHER: RINO VINCENTI HAGN TUES FRI WED

PRACTICE# DATE DATE DATE

0 Rules & Safety Measures in the laboratory ------map of lab
1 Properties of materials – density
2 Physical and chemical phenomena
3 Homogeneous mixtures: tooth paste
4 Decantation
5 Filtration
6 Evaporation
7 Crystallization
8 Sublimation
9 Paper Chromatography

10 Elements - Identification and Classification

11 Compounds
12 Conductors of electrical current
13 Electrolytic and non electrolytic substances
14 Electrolysis - Water & Copper Chloride
15 Concentration : % Volume & % Mass
16 Concentration : Molarity

17 Acids and bases - Identification

18 pH Scales - Red cabbage indicator
19 Oxidation – REDOX
20 Oxidation – Fireworks

21 Hydrocarbons : Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes

22 Organic and Inorganic Compounds - Differences
23 Polymers - Synthetic Rubber Ball
24 Alcohols - Making gel hand sanitizer
25 Acetone - Effect of a Solvent on a Polymer (polystyrene)
26 Carbohydrates - Gum drops
27 Proteins - Denaturalization
28 Proteins - Making Fresh Cheese
29 Lipids - Polar & Non-Polar Solvents

3
RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR ENTERING THE LABORATORY

1. Students must bring their lab coat and their lab manual in order to have access to the laboratory.
Students will not be allowed to do their labs without it and will be restricted to a detention area to
do supplementary exercises.

2. No food or drinks are allowed.

3. The student must behave maturely and take seriously the lab practices and procedures.

4. Students are responsible for completing their pre-lab activity before doing the lab.

5. If a student breaks any lab instrument, they are responsible for paying for its replacement.

6. Students must meticulously follow the teacher’s instructions in the use and handling of the
reactive material in the lab.

7. Students must make sure that the gas for the burners is completely turned off when completing
their practice.

8. Students must leave their area clean and in order.

9. No student shall remain in the laboratory without a teacher’s permission.

10. Students that behave in an immature and reckless manner will receive a discipline report and run
the risk of being expelled from the laboratory for the duration of a month and lose all
corresponding practices and credits for their work.

11. At the end of lab, students will wait for their classmates and go back to the class room as a group.

EVALUATING LAB PRACTICES

1. Lab practices are each worth 10 evidence points.

2. The criteria for evaluating each lab practice will be:

a) Completion of pre-labs – 2.5 evidence points

b) Bringing lab coat and the lab manual to lab – 2.5 evidence points

c) Completion of the lab practices and answering lab questions - 5 evidence points

4
PRECAUTIONS IN THE LABORATORY

A chemistry laboratory is a potentially dangerous area, where it is necessary to take precautions in

order to avoid accidents.

The following are the most important precautions you need to take:

• Ask the professor to clarify any doubts you may have

• Keep the professor informed about anything that may occur

• Before beginning any lab practice make sure you know and understand every process

• Never run in the laboratory

• Remain silent when the professor is speaking and concentrate on your work

• Make certain all substances and apparatus are far from the edge of the table

• Never drink any liquids through a pipette

• Keep all flammable substances far from the Bunsen burners and any hot areas
• Never distil any substances directly over a Bunsen burner

• Never hold any test tubes or beakers close to you when a reaction is taking place

• Always mix substances slowly and in small amounts

• If any substance should come into contact with your skin by accident, immediately wash the
affected area with an abundant amount of water and tell your teacher

• Always leave your work area clean and dry

ELIMINATING WASTE PRODUCTS

• Throw out any solid waste in the garbage

• Pour any liquid waste in the sink while letting the water run

• Never throw solid wastes in the sink; only water or watery solutions that are NOT toxic nor
corrosive, are disposed of in the sink

• Neutralize acids or bases before disposing them;

o always ask for help if you are not sure how to do this

5
 SAFETY IN THE CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

Working in the laboratory can be truly beneficial and interesting.

Manipulating different chemical agents can be risky if not handled in the right way.

It is absolutely necessary to respect the following norms for your own safety.

CONDITIONS FOR WORKING IN THE LABORATORY:

*Always keep your area clean and in order. A dirty and disorderly laboratory can be dangerous.

PROHIBITED
• Eating, drinking, chewing gum or tasting substances (unless specified by the teacher.)

• Use of cosmetics or makeup.

• Running around or playing in the laboratory.

PERSONAL PROTECTION:
• Always keep your lab coat completely buttoned. It is important that it be made of 100% cotton.

• Try not to use any clothing that will obstruct or cling on to something.

• Do not use any jewelry.

• Tie back your hair if it is long.

• Do not use contact lenses. Some corrosive gases can damage your lens and your eye. If for
some reason, you cannot use regular glasses, always use security glasses.

• Immediately use abundant running water to wash any part of the skin that has come in contact
with any substances.

• EXCEPT for ACIDS – Use paper towels to absorb excess acid on skin – do not rinse with water

• Use safety glasses when indicated by your teacher.

• Wash your hands thoroughly before and after doing each experiment.

SAFETY EQUIPMENT:
*Know the whereabouts of the:
a) fire extinguisher
b) the emergency shower
c) the eye washer
d) the first aid kit
e) the emergency exit
f) the school’s clinic

• Learn how to use the fire extinguisher and the emergency shower.

6
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS:
• Only work in the lab when your teacher is present and follow all instructions exactly as they are
given to you.

• Do not improvise, nor use any other materials that are not indicated, nor modify the amounts
prescribed for each experiment.

• Notify the teacher if any accident should occur; especially if the injuries are cuts or burns.

• Use only substances that are properly labeled.

• Do not use any chemical agent until told to do so.

• Do not try carrying several materials all at the same time or pick up any bottles by the cover.

• Always be careful when working with substances; even though certain substances may be familiar
to you they can pose a danger during an experiment.

SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS:
• When working with Bunsen burners, never place any part of your body directly above the flame,
and always turn them off when not in use.

• Use clamps or gloves when handling hot material. Remember that glass looks the same whether
it is hot or cold; always tell your classmates when something is hot.

• When heating the contents of a test tube move it continuously above the flame. Never direct the
mouth of a test tube towards your face or that of another person.

• Heat liquids in test tubes near the centre not the bottom; otherwise the steam produced
can project liquids towards the outside.

• When you need to smell a certain substance follow these steps:

- hold the test tube or beaker at a distance
- open it
- ventilate a small amount towards your nose as the aroma escapes using your hand
- never directly sniff a container.

• Take special precautions with concentrated acids or concentrated bases and other corrosive
chemical agents.

• Be careful when transferring substances to other containers. In case any liquid splashes onto you
warn your teacher immediately in order to cleanse the area.

• Never add water to a concentrated acid. If you need to dilute an acid, add small amounts of
concentrated acid to the water, as you stir it constantly.

• When using a flammable liquid, like alcohol, or other volatile substance, make sure all Bunsen
burners are completely turned off and move away from any possible sources of ignition.

• When using any electrical equipment make sure the cords are in good condition.

7
8
 LAB #0

Lab safety rules and procedures

PRE-LAB INVESTIGATION

Prepare 10 posters of LAB SAFETY.

SIZE : Minimum – 1 sheet of letter size paper

FORMAT :
Colourful, dynamic pictures
Drawn, printed or pasted pictures.
Include written safety rules in BIG LETTERS.
Keep it neat.

Use the rules given to you by your teacher in class and read your lab manual from page 4 to page 8
for more ideas.

GRADING :
Neatness
Colorful & Dynamic
Creativity and Effort

THE BEST POSTERS WILL BE POSTED IN THE LAB FOR ALL STUDENTS TO SEE

INTRODUCTION:

The safety of students is a principal consideration of every instructor at College Villa Rica. The goal of
the laboratory safety program is to develop positive attitudes regarding safety among all faculty
members and students. Training students for their future work as safety-conscious individuals is a
primary goal of this teaching practice.
In order to help prevent accidents, the Chemistry teacher and staff of the laboratory will provide safety
orientations and training to all laboratory students. The previous general safety rules will apply to all
chemistry laboratory courses. If more information is needed, ask the instructor and she will provide
you of the information.
Any person not complying with the rules of safety in any of the laboratories may be asked to
leave the laboratory and may be dismissed from the course. It is the obligation of each and
every student to maintain a safe laboratory practice.

OBJECTIVE:
To understand the importance of the rules and safety measures in the laboratory of Chemistry. To
know the way in which the work will develop on it.

MATERIAL:
Decision flow chart

9
PROCEDURE:

1- Your teacher will explain how you are going to work in this lab and who is going to be on your
team

2- Listen to your teacher about the safety procedures in case of a problem.

3- Pay attention to the material that you have to use and know their names

4- Ask your teacher about the words that you don’t know or you didn’t understand in the pre-lab
investigation.

5- Draw a map of the lab where the safety equipment is located.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

What do you do if you need to measure a small volume of a poisonous liquid?

a) Pipette it by mouth
b) Pipette it using a bulb

If somebody spills a substance on your table, what is the procedure to clean it?
a) Throw water on it
b) Wipe it up with a paper towel
c) Wipe it up with the sleeve of your lab coat

What should you do in case of fire on your table?

a) Call the teacher
b) Get the fire extinguisher yourself
c) Throw water on it

What should you do if you spill acid on yourself?

d) Wash with abundant water
e) Dry the excess acid with a paper towel
f) Throw water on it

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________

10
11
 LAB # 1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
(DENSITY)
PRE-LAB INVESTIGATION:
Do PRE-LAB #1 in Moodle.
WRITE YOUR RESULTS FOR DENSITY in THE LAST COLUMN IN the table on page 13

MATERIALS TO BRING TO LAB:

• 1 L of milk for the whole class
• Calculator
_______________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION:
“Everything that exists can be measured”

QUANTITATIVE properties of substances are the properties that can be measured like mass, volume, density,
temperature, concentration, solubility, viscosity, etc.

In this practice you will learn how to measure those properties and use the correct units to express your results.

OBJECTIVE:
To know the importance of measuring the properties of substances

MATERIAL:
Bunsen burner
Stand
Beakers
Balance
Thermometer
Graduated cylinder
Calculator

CHEMICALS USED:
Ice
Tap water
Corn oil
Motor oil
Alcohol
Milk
Sugar
Sand
Salt

12
 PROCEDURE:

1- Put the thermometer in the beaker with ice. Let the thermometer touch the ice. Take the temperature and write
the result in the table.

2- Pour 50 ml of tap water in a beaker.

Put the beaker on the stand and turn on the Bunsen burner.
When the water boils introduce the thermometer and write the boiling point in the table.
Turn off the Bunsen burner.

3- In a third beaker pour 50 ml of tap water and take the temperature.

4- Measure the temperature of each substance and write them in the table.

5- Use the balance to measure the mass of each substance, but remember that your result includes the mass of the
beaker so you must subtract the mass of the beaker.

50 ml beaker =
100 ml beaker =
250 ml beaker =

6- Measure the volume of each substance, with the graduated cylinder.

MATERIAL TEMP MASS MASS MASS VOLUME DENSITY DENSITY

(°C) of substance of beaker of substance (ml) (g/ml) (g/ml)
+ beaker (g) (g) (Calculated) (from Moodle)
(g)
Ice
Boiling
water
Tap water
Corn oil
Motor oil
Alcohol
Milk
Sugar
Sand
Salt

What is the formula for DENSITY ?

DENSITY = M________
V
If you increase the mass in a container and measure the volume, does density change? Y / N

Why? ____________________________________________________________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________

13
 LAB #2
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PHENOMENON
PRE-LAB INVESTIGATION
Do pre-lab #2 in moodle

INTRODUCTION
Every day, at every moment everything is changing. Every change in matter, energy or space-time is called phenomena.

There are two types of phenomena:

A physical phenomenon is a change in the shape or appearance of matter.

This type of phenomena can be reversible.

A chemical phenomenon is a change in the structure of matter, it is a definitive change; it is known as chemical reaction
too; as example, combustion of a cigarette where tobacco is converted in carbon dioxide and heat.

We know if a chemical phenomenon occurred comparing the properties of the results with the original substances

OBJECTIVE: Notice the difference between physical and chemical phenomena

MATERIAL
a sheet of paper
3 test tubes
a wire mesh pad
a test tube rack
a tripod
a 250 ml beaker
a lighter
a porcelain crucible
a pipette of 5 ml
a Bunsen burner

CHEMICALS USED
a candle
3 ml of vinegar (acetic acid) -
100 ml of water
a small piece of zinc
2 ml hydrochloric acid (HCl)
1 g sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

PROCEDURE
TEST #1. Take half a sheet of paper and rip it in small pieces.

TEST #2. Take the other half of the sheet of paper and put it on the wire mesh pad. Turn on the Bunsen burner.
Observe what happens. Be Careful!

TEST #3. Put the porcelain crucible on the wire mesh pad. Put the candle in the crucible. Turn on the Bunsen burner and
heat the crucible until the candle becomes liquid. Let it cool and observe.

TEST #4. Put the test tube with 2 ml of hydrochloric acid in the test tube rack. Add the zinc to the acid. Observe the
reaction until the zinc disappears. CAUTION, for this reaction the test tube has to be in the test tube rack.

TEST #5. Put a beaker with 100 ml of water on the wire mesh pad. Heat the water until it boils; turn off the burner.
Observe what is happening.

TEST #6. Put sodium bicarbonate in a test tube and add 3 ml of vinegar. Observe the change in the substances.

14
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Write the type of phenomena in each test. (PHYSICAL or CHEMICAL)

TEST OBSERVATIONS Type of phenomena

1
2
3

Was there a permanent change in the water or the candle when they were heated? Y / N

Why? ________________________________________________________________________________________

At the end of the experiment with zinc, could you recover it? Y / N

Why?_________________________________________________________________________________________

Circle the right answer.

1) When something burns, it experiences a

A) Chemical change
B) Physical change
C) Natural change
D) Artificial change

2) An example of a physical phenomenon is:

A) To cut paper
B) Burn paper
C) Add vinegar to the sodium bicarbonate
D) Add hydrochloric acid to the zinc

Name the chemicals and balance the equations

____ C + _____ O2 → _____ CO2

_____________ _____________ _____________

____ Zn + _____ HCl → _____ ZnCl2 + _____ H2

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

____CH3COOH + ______NaHCO3 → _____ CH3COONa + _____ H2O + _____CO2

_____________ _____________ ___________ _____________ _____________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ______________________

15
 LAB # 3
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES: TOOTH PASTE
INTRODUCTION
A mixture is when two or more different substances (elements and compounds) are mixed together but not combined
chemically so that each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and makeup

The physical properties of a mixture, such as its melting point, may differ from those of the components.

The molecules of two or more different substances are mixed in the form of solutions, suspensions, and colloids.

Mixtures can usually be separated into its original components by mechanical means. Mixtures are either homogeneous
or heterogeneous.

A homogenous mixture is a solution in which all the components are distributed in a uniform way so that you can’t
notice the particles in it.

OBJECTIVE: Identify a homogeneous mixture

MATERIAL:
➢ Weighing balance
➢ mortar and pestle
➢ watch glass
➢ metal spatula

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ 250 ml distilled water
➢ 50 ml ethyl alcohol (ethanol) – for disinfecting
➢ 60 gr. Calcium carbonate
➢ 40 gr. glycerin
➢ 10 gr. talcum powder (pure)
➢ 2 gr. of mint essence
➢ color

PROCEDURE:
1. WASH your hands with soap. Put paper towels on the desk and lay instruments on it.

2. Disinfect work area with ethyl alcohol and paper towels.

3. Disinfect the mortar and pestle with paper towels wet with alcohol.

4. Pour in one ingredient at a time in the mortar. Dry ingredients first.

5. Pour in the calcium carbonate. Crush any lumps with the pestle until everything is a fine powder.

6. Add talcum powder. Make sure there are no lumps.

7. Mix in glycerin until the mixture has a creamy consistency. (It takes some time and effort).

8. Add distilled water a little at a time until a creamy consistency is obtained. DO NOT ADD ALL THE WATER.

9. Mix in the essence and the color.

10. TASTE the tooth paste. DO NOT EAT IT. You can get sick from eating too much too paste.

11. WASH the mortar and pestle when finished.

16
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Can you distinguish the components when the mixture is done? Y/N

WHY ? ____________________________________________________________________________

Classify whether the qualities belong to a HOMOGENOUS (HM) or HETEROGENOUS (HT) mixture?

____ One colour

____ Many colours

____ One phase

____ More than one phase

____ Not visibly separable

____ Visibly separable

Write 5 examples of homogenous mixtures besides toothpaste.

1) __________________

2) __________________

3) __________________

4) __________________

5) __________________

Write your conclusions about toothpaste and homogenous mixtures.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

17
 LAB # 4
DECANTATION
INTRODUCTION

Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures, carefully pouring a solution from a container, leaving the
precipitate (sediments) in the bottom of the container.

Usually a small amount of solution is left in the container, and care must be taken to prevent small amounts of precipitate
from flowing with the solution out of the container.

It's generally used to separate a liquid from an insoluble solid, e.g. in red wine, where the wine is decanted from the
potassium bitartrate crystals.

Another example is the extraction of olive oil. A mixed liquid is pressed from the olives. The oil is then separated from the
water.

OBJECTIVE: Identify decantation as a method to separate mixtures that contain sediments.

MATERIAL:
➢ 4 x 250 ml beakers
➢ glass stirring rod

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ water
➢ a tablespoon of sand or gravel
➢ vegetable oil

PROCEDURE #1 :

1. Take the beaker with sand and fill it up to the half way point with water.

2. Mix the water and the sand with the stirring rod.

3. Let it rest until all the sediments have settled to the bottom.

4. Place the glass stirring rod on the lip of the beaker.

5. Carefully pour the water in another beaker to separate it from the sand.

6. Press down with the glass stirring rod on the sand to prevent any from flowing out with the water.

PROCEDURE #2 : OIL & WATER

1. Fill a beaker with half water and half oil.

2. Slowly pour the oil into the other beaker to separate it from the oil.

18
 COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

What STATES (solid, liquid, gas) is decantation useful for separating?

1) _______________________AND____________________________

2) _______________________AND____________________________

List some decantations used at home when you prepare food :

1) ______________________

2) ______________________

3) ______________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

19
 LAB #5 :FILTRATION
INTRODUCTION

Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid can pass, but the solids (or at least part of the solids) in the fluid
are retained.

It has to be emphasized that separation is NOT complete, and it will depend on the pore size and the thickness of the
medium as well as the mechanisms that occur during filtration.

In this practice we are going to use filter paper, in the shape of a cone in the glass funnel, to filter the solid and to permit
the passage of the liquid.

OBJECTIVE: Identify filtration as a method to separate mixtures

MATERIAL:
➢ 2 beakers
➢ 1 glass funnel
➢ round filter paper
➢ 1 glass stirring rod
➢ stand with clamp

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ water
➢ carbon powder

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the circular filter paper and fold it in half and then in half again so it finishes in the form of a triangle.

2. Open the triangle so it is in the shape of a cone.

3. Put the cone shaped filter paper in the glass funnel.

4. Wet the folded filter paper with water to make it work faster.

5. Place the tip of the glass funnel with filter paper in a beaker.

6. In a second beaker mix the carbon powder and water

7. Pour the mixture into the funnel with filter paper.

8. Let the water pass through the filter paper into the beaker.

9. You can support the funnel over the beaker by letting the funnel rest on the open clamp connected to the stand.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
a) At the end of the experiment the carbon powder is in the ____________________________

b) The water is in the ____________________

c) The appearance of the water is ____________________

d) How does a coffee machine at home prepare coffee?_________________________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

20
 LAB # 6
EVAPORATION
PRE-LAB INVESTIGATION
Do PRE-LAB #6 in Moodle.

INTRODUCTION

Evaporation is the process by which molecules in a liquid state (e.g. water) spontaneously become gaseous (e.g. water
vapor). It is the opposite of condensation. Generally, evaporation can be seen by the gradual disappearance of a liquid
when exposed to a significant volume of gas. In this way the liquid can be separated from a solid material.

OBJECTIVE: Identify evaporation as a method to separate mixtures

MATERIAL:
➢ porcelain crucible
➢ crucible tongs
➢ 250 ml beaker
➢ Bunsen burner
➢ wire mesh pad
➢ stand with ring
➢ plastic spoon

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ 125 ml water
➢ 1 spoon of table salt

PROCEDURE:

1. Pour 125 ml of water in a beaker.

2. Put a spoon of salt in the beaker with water and stir until completely dissolved.

3. Pour the mixture in the porcelain crucible until the crucible is 1/4 full. (if you put too much it will take too long)

4. Heat the crucible with the Bunsen burner until the water boils and evaporates completely.

5. Remove the hot crucible with crucible tongs.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

What is the appearance of the solid at the end of the experiment? ___________________________

What happened to the water? ____________________________

21
 LAB# 7 : CRYSTALLIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of solid crystals from a uniform solution or melt, or more
rarely directly from a gas. Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid separation technique, in which mass transfer of a
solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs.

WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION or OCCLUSIVE WATER

- water that is in the middle of the structure of a compound like a part of a network.

HYDRATE
a substance that contains occlusive water.

OBJECTIVE:
Identify crystallization as method to separate mixtures

MATERIAL:
➢ 250 ml beaker
➢ Bunsen burner
➢ Wire mesh pad
➢ stand with ring
➢ watch glass
➢ glass stirring rod

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ water
➢ sodium chloride (table salt)

PROCEDURE:
1) Pour 125 ml of water and a spoon of sodium chloride in a beaker

2) Put the beaker on the mesh pad and heat it softly.

3) While constantly stirring with the glass rod add more salt.

4) Don’t stop adding salt until the stirring rod becomes white (it means that the crystals are forming.)

5) Pour a very SMALL amount of the solution in the watch glass and let it evaporate.
(It takes many hours for the water to evaporate – ask the lab technician to see a sample already evaporated.)

IF YOU POUR A LARGE AMOUNT OF HOT WATER ON THE WATCH GLASS IT

WILL BREAK !!!!!!
6) Observe if CRYSTALS or a POWDER are formed

22
SLOW EVAPORATION = BIG crystals because they are hydrated

FAST EVAPORATION = POWDER because there was no “water of crystallization”.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

Was the end product a POWDER or were they CRYSTALS ? WHY ?

The end product was / were ___________________ because the evaporation was _____________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________

23
 LAB # 8
SUBLIMATION
INTRODUCTION

Sublimation of an element or compound is a transition from the solid to gas phase with no intermediate liquid stage.

Sublimation is a phase transition that occurs at temperatures and pressures below the TRIPLE POINT.
At normal pressures, most chemical compounds and elements possess three different states at different temperatures.

In these cases the transition from the solid to the gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state.

SOLID → LIQUID →GAS

However, for some elements or substances at some pressures the material may pass directly from a solid into the
gaseous state.

SOLID → GAS
This can occur if the atmospheric pressure exerted on the substance is too low to stop the molecules from escaping from
the solid state.

EXAMPLES

Carbon dioxide sublimes at atmospheric pressure—a block of solid CO2 (dry ice) at room temperature and at
atmospheric pressure will turn into gas without becoming a liquid.

Iodine produces fumes on gentle heating. In contrast to CO2, though, it is possible to obtain liquid iodine at atmospheric
pressure by controlling the temperature at just above the iodine's melting point.

Snow and ice sublime more slowly at below-freezing temperatures. This phenomenon, used in freeze drying, allows a
wet cloth to be hung outdoors in freezing weather and retrieved later in a dry state .

Naphthalene, a common ingredient in mothballs, also sublimes easily.

OBJECTIVE: Identify sublimation as a method to separate mixtures

MATERIAL:
➢ porcelain crucible
➢ crucible tongs
➢ 250 ml beaker
➢ Bunsen burner
➢ wire mesh pad
➢ universal support with ring

EXPERIMENT #1
CHEMICALS USED:
➢ naphthalene (moth balls)
➢ carbon powder
➢ ice cubes

24
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare in a beaker a mixture of carbon powder and naphthalene

2. Cover the beaker with the porcelain crucible that contains the ice

3. Heat the beaker softy until the naphthalene evaporates and with the low temperature of the crucible it forms crystals
of naphthalene

4. With crucible tongs take the crucible and pour the water from the ice into the SINK.
➢ IF YOU POUR THE WATER INTO THE BEAKER IT WILL BREAK !!!!!
5. Turn the crucible upside down on the desk and observe the crystals.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EXPERIMENT #2
CHEMICALS USED:
➢ iodine powder
➢ sand
➢ ice cubes

PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare in a beaker a mixture of sand and iodine powder

2. Cover the beaker with the porcelain crucible that contains the ice

3. Heat the beaker softy until the iodine evaporates and with the low temperature of the crucible it forms crystals of
iodine.

4. With crucible tongs take the crucible and pour the water from the ice into the SINK.
➢ IF YOU POUR THE WATER INTO THE BEAKER IT WILL BREAK !!!!!
5. Turn the crucible upside down on the desk and observe the crystals.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
What happens in sublimation ?
We go directly from _______________ to _________________ while going skipping the ______________ state

What state was skipped in the transformation of iodine and naphthalene? ____________________________

What two things are needed for sublimation to occur ? (read the introduction)
1) LOW __________________
2) LOW __________________

What did the ICE cubes in the crucible change that permitted sublimation?

IMPURITY TO SEPARATE FROM COLOR OF GAS COLOR OF CRYSTALS

IODINE
NAPTHALENE

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ______________________

25
 LAB # 9
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION

Chromatography are laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures and the precise identification of the
components

Paper chromatography is an analytical chemistry technique for separating and identifying mixtures that are coloured,
especially pigments.

OBJECTIVE: Apply the chromatography as a method to separate a mixture of substances of different colors.

MATERIAL:
➢ 3 x 250 ml beakers
➢ filter paper (rectangle of 2 x 7 cm)
➢ 3 water soluble markers of different colors

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ Water
➢ Acetone
➢ Alcohol

PROCEDURE:
1. Take a marker and mark a point in the center of the rectangle of filter paper.

2. With a different marker repeat the same step in the same point.

3. Repeat the step with the third marker in the same point.

4. Fold one of the ends of the paper and introduce it into one of the solvents.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
What colors do you observe?

_____________________________________

What method did we use to separate them?

______________________________________

Which solvents were used ?

1) _____________
2) _____________
3) _____________

What kind of ink were the markers ?

If they can dissolve in ___________, than they are _______________ soluble markers.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________________

26
 LAB #10
ELEMENTS : IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
To classify the elements of a group it’s necessary to know the characteristics of the elements.

To classify the chemical elements it’s necessary to know their physical and chemical properties too.

In this practice you will observe the color, hardness, malleability, ductility, reaction with an acid and with a solution.
According to your results you will classify them as metals or non-metals.

OBJECTIVE:
Student will classify elements as metals and non-metals and recognize some properties from the periodic table.

MATERIAL:
Test tube Rack
12 Test tubes
Graduated cylinder of 50 ml
Pipette

CHEMICALS USED:
Magnesium strips
Aluminum pieces
Copper pieces
Carbon
Sulfur
Iodine Crystals

5 ml of Hydrochloric acid (for each test tube)

5ml of 10% solution of copper chloride (for each test tube)

Water

PROCEDURE
1) Observe the color of each substance. Write their appearance in the table.

2) Test each one for MALLEABILITY (if it breaks or flattens out easily ) and BRITTLENESS (does it break into little
pieces).

3) Add half of each substance in the pair of test tubes marked with the same elements.

4) Measure 5 ml of water using the 50 ml graduated cylinder and pour it into each test tube.

5) Measure 5ml of 10% copper chloride solution using the 50ml graduated cylinder and pour it into each test tube in
ONE ROW of samples.

6) Measure 5 ml of hydrochloric acid using the pipette and pour it into each test tube in the SECOND ROW of
samples.

7) Observe and write your results

8) DO NOT dispose of the waste. Leave test tubes to lab technicians to dispose of.

27
28
MATCH these characterisitics with the type of element
1 ) all are brittle if solids M Metal
2) all are poor conductors N Non-Metal
3) all are solids at room temperature except one
4) all can be made into flat sheets
5) all conduct electricity and heat
6) all have a dull appearance
7) all shiny
8) Bromine is the only liquid in this group
9) Mercury is the only liquid in this group
10 ) Most react with acids

Write the results of your experiment

ELEMENT SYMBOL COLOR GROUP METAL APPEARANCE MALLEABLE REACTION REACTION

# or (shiny OR OR WITH HCl WITH
NON- dull) BRITTLE ACID COPPER
METAL (Y or N) CHLORIDE
Iodine
Magnesium
Carbon
Aluminum
Sulfur
Copper

1) Complete the reactions with COPPER CHLORIDE

Mg + CuCl2 →

Al + CuCl2 →

Cu + CuCl2 →

2) Why didn’t the copper react with the copper chloride ?

There was no reaction because there is already ___________ in copper chloride.

3) Complete the reaction with HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Mg + HCl → _______________ + H2

Al + HCl → _______________ + H2

Cu + HCl + H202 → _______________ + H2

29
4) Rank the following elements in order of MOST (1) electronegative to LEAST (4) electronegative.

Carbon
Chlorine
Iodine
Sulfur

MOST ELECTRONEGATIVE
1)
2)
3)
4)
LEAST ELECTRONEGATIVE

4) Why was there no reaction between these elements and the HCl or the CuCl2 ?

There was no reaction because __________ is more ____________________ than these other
elements.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _____________________

30
 LAB # 11
COMPOUNDS
INTRODUCTION

In nature we can find a lot of substances; some of them are mixtures and others are compounds like table salt or sugar.

Compound is a substance made of two or more elements chemically joined. In this way, elements loss their original
properties to develop new properties as compound.

Characteristics of compounds:

• They are made of elements.

• A compound and its elements have different physical and chemical properties.

• Elements that form a compound can’t be separated by physical methods.

• To form a specific compound the elements always maintain the same proportion.

OBJECTIVE: To form a compound and investigate its properties.

MATERIAL
2 watch glasses
1 test tube tongs
1 metal spatula
1 Bunsen burner
1 test tube
1 magnet

CHEMICALS USED
1.5 g sulfur
3 ml carbon disulfide (CAUTION : very flammable)
3g iron filings
3 ml hydrochloric acid (CAUTION : corrosive)

PROCEDURE

1. Test the iron in watch glass to see if it is magnetic. Test the sulfur in the watch glass to see if it is magnetic

2. Mix them in one watch glass with the spatula. Test it to see if it is magnetic.

Fe + S →
3. Put the mixture in the test tube. Hold the test tube with the test tube tongs, turn on the Bunsen burner and heat the
mixture until it becomes red. Observe what happens.

Heat iron sulfide

Fe + S → FeS
4. Put the magnet close to the new compound to see if it is attracted.
31
CAUTION: Carbon disulfide is VERY flammable.
➢ Turn off the Bunsen burner
➢ COOL the test tube before adding the carbon disulfide (it can ignite if the product is TOO HOT = 90oC)

5. Add the carbon disulfide and observe if the sulfur dissolves in it.

FeS + CS2 → FeS + CS2

carbon disulfide

6. Dispose of the carbon disulfide liquid in the WASTE BEAKER.

7. Rinse out the test tube TWICE with the water.

8. Be careful NOT to throw away the compound.

9. Add hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the compound.

FeS + HCl → FeCl2 + H2S

Iron Chloride Hydrogen sulfide
(Hydrosulfuric acid)
(flammable & toxic)
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1) Complete and balance all the equations above and below

2) Complete the chart.

IRON IRON
IRON +
SULFUR IRON SULFIDE CHLORIDE
SULFUR
(FeS) (FeCl2)
COLOUR
(E) Element
(C) Compound
(M) Mixture
MAGNETIC ( Y / N )
SMELL
Rx with HCl
Rx with carbon disulfide

3) What kind of reaction is this ? ________________________

Heat iron sulfide

Fe + S → FeS

http://www.maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mgs/education/lessons/act16.htm

* 0.00047 ppm is the recognition threshold, the concentration at which 50% of humans can detect the characteristic
odor of hydrogen sulfide,[12] normally described as resembling "a rotten egg".
* Less than 10 ppm has an exposure limit of 8 hours per day.
* 10–20 ppm is the borderline concentration for eye irritation.
* 50–100 ppm leads to eye damage.

32
 * At 100–150 ppm the olfactory nerve is paralyzed after a few inhalations, and the sense of smell disappears, often
together with awareness of danger.[13][14]
* 320–530 ppm leads to pulmonary edema with the possibility of death.
* 530–1000 ppm causes strong stimulation of the central nervous system and rapid breathing, leading to loss of
breathing.
* 800 ppm is the lethal concentration for 50% of humans for 5 minutes exposure (LC50).
* Concentrations over 1000 ppm cause immediate collapse with loss of breathing, even after inhalation of a single
breath.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammability_limit

Choose the right answer

1- The property of a compound is 2- In iron (II) sulfide, iron and sulfur

A) Elements are joined physically A) lose their properties

B) Elements are not joined B) keep their properties
C) Elements are mixed C) don’t loss anything
D) Elements are joined chemically D) are joined physically

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _________________________

Maybe use kerosene instead of carbon disulfide

Test the reaction with reactants and solvents too

33
 LAB # 12
CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT

INTRODUCTION
Electrolysis is the ion separation (chemical decomposition) produced by the passage of the electrical current through a
fused electrolyte (in the solid state they do not lead the electricity) or in watery solution.

The terminals of wires or electrodes connected to a generator are the vehicles through which the electrical current enters
and leaves the electrolytic solution.

To maintain the electrical current a closed circuit is necessary. There must be a source of current, electrodes and an
electrolyte to form a cyclical path so that the charge can return to its starting point.

The elements that take part in electrolysis are called:

ELECTROLYTE. Generally solution of acids bases or salts.

ELECTRODES: Terminals or ends of wires

CATHODE positive (+)
ANODE negative (-).

IONS: Particles attracted by the electrodes

CATIONS (positive) are attracted by the cathode (with negative load)
ANIONS (negative) are attracted by the anode (with positive charge)

OBJECTIVE
Construct conductors of electrical current

MATERIAL
An electrical circuit with a light bulb connected to two 30 cm wires
a pencil lead (graphite)
a piece of rubber or plastic
a 6” nail (approximately)
an oxidized copper coin
a sheet of aluminum or another metal
a piece of cloth
15 ml of vinegar
Sticky tape

34
PROCEDURE
1) Check that the circuit is in good condition

2) Touch the end of the wires to the ends of each of these objects and see if the light bulb turns on. Explain the reason.

DID THE LIGHT

CONNECT WIRES TO TURN ON ? REASON
Pencil lead
Piece of plastic or
rubber
Nail
Aluminum sheet +
cloth wet with vinegar
+ oxidized coin

3) Wet the piece of fabric with vinegar (acetic acid), put it between the aluminum sheet and the oxidized coin.
Touch the end of one of the wires to the coin and the other end to the metal plate.

Then, we can say that you have constructed to a battery or cell,

which consists of two ELECTRODES,
the positive is called ________________ and
the negative is called ___________________,
the positive one has IONS called __________________ and
the negative has IONS called__________,
this works in a watery SOLUTION with IONS called an _____________________,
which was ___________________ in our experiment.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _____________________

35
 LAB # 13
ELECTROLYTIC AND NON-ELECTROLYTIC CHEMICALS

INTRODUCTION

Pure water does not conduct electricity; however, after adding certain amount of some salts, it becomes a conductor. This
phenomenon of the conduction of electrical current through solutions had been known for one hundred years without a
concrete answer. Nevertheless, it was Swedish chemistry Svante Arrhenius who investigated the phenomenon
postulating the theory of the electrolytic dissociation.

The Arrhenius theory of electrolytic dissociation maintains that chemical compounds in solution are divided in
ions of opposite electrical charge.

Arrhenius discovered that some compounds like salt, when dissolved in water, conduct electrical current and called them
electrolytes. Nevertheless, other compounds like sugar, when dissolved in water do not conduct electrical current and
called these non-electrolytes.

Arrhenius also maintained in his theory that as a compound had a greater capacity to be diluted, the degree of
dissociation also increased; this affirmation was partially certain, because it is not verified in all electrolytes.

Like many great scientists, the ideas of Arrhenius were misunderstood in his time.

OBJECTIVE:
Discover the differences between electrolytic substances and non electrolytic ones and to observe how in some
electrolytes the conduction capacity depends on the concentration of solute in the solution.

MATERIAL
1.5 m copper wire
30 x 30 cm wooden base with a 75 watt bulb
250 ml beaker
Watch glass
Glass stirring rod

CHEMICALS USED
Salt
Sugar
Copper chloride
Sodium bicarbonate

ELECTRODE: metallic pieces located at the end of the wires coming from a battery

36
PROCEDURE
1) Assemble the circuit as illustrated.

2) Place a little salt on the watch glass

3) Place the electrodes in the salt, without touching them.

Does the light turn on? Y / N

4) Pour 50 ml of water in the beaker and place the electrodes in the water without touching them.
Does the light turn on? Y / N

5) Add two pinches of salt in the water and stir it without removing the electrodes?
Does the light turn on? Y / N

6) Add little by little more salt in the water stirring constantly. Do not allow the electrodes to touch. What
happens to the light bulb? ________________________

7) Conduct the same experiment with each of the substances.

In the table place a check mark (√ ) if the light turned or an X if it didn’t and indicate with a √ if the
substance is an electrolyte or not.

SUBSTANCES LIGHT TURNED ON ELECTROLYTE NON-ELECTROLYTE

Salt
Sodium bicarbonate
Copper chloride
Sugar

CONCLUSION

1. - Can salt be classified as electrolytic or non-electrolytic substance? Why ?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. - Which of the substances were electrolytic?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

3. – What physical characteristic did the substances have in common may indicate if it was electrolytic or not?
______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. – How do you know if a substance is electrolytic or non-electrolytic?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

5. – How is an electrolytic and a non-electrolytic solution different?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

6. - What relationship exists between the amount of salt that you added and the electrical conductivity of the solution?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

7. - Define with your own words what an electrolyte is.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________________

37
 LAB # 14
ELECTROLYSIS : WATER & COPPER CHLORIDE

Introduction:
The decomposition of a compound into simpler substances by means of an electric current is called electrolysis.
During the electrolysis of water, electricity is passed through water, which then separates into its elemental components of
oxygen and hydrogen.

Since pure water does not conduct electricity well enough to allow electrolysis to occur a reasonable rate, a catalyst is
needed to speed up the reaction. In this experiment, sodium carbonate in solution will be used to increase the rate of the
reaction. The sodium carbonate ionizes in water, much like NaCl, making the solution an electrolyte.

Materials:
1 L beaker
2 test tubes
2 rubber stoppers
bicarbonate solution ( NaHCO3)
or
copper chloride solution (CuCl2)
voltage adapter for cell phone (3 V- 4V ) or higher (laptop – 20 V, etc)
lighter

Procedure:
1) Cut the end off the voltage adapter and GENTLY strip the wire ends to expose at least about 3 cm of copper.

2) Fill the beaker with the solution until about the half point.

3) Fill both test tubes with the solution to the very top with solution.

4) Bend the tips of the wires and put them to the very bottom and cap them with rubber stoppers, so that there is no air
trapped inside the test tubes.

5) Turn them over into the beaker so that the stoppered end is below the level of the liquid.

6) Use a spatula to remove the stoppers allowing them to fall to the bottom of the beaker.
Leave the stoppers on the bottom. They will be needed to recap the test tubes after the electrolysis.

7) Plug the voltage adapter in.

8) Observe the apparatus and answer some of the lab questions until one of the tubes completely fills with gas.

9) Unplug the voltage adapter.

10) Use the spatula to position the stoppers so that a test tube can be lowered onto them.

11) Without losing any gas, lower the test tubes onto the stoppers.

12) Remove the stoppered test tubes and place them right side up in a test tube rack or small beaker.

13) Testing the gas: Working with your partner, test the smaller quantity of gas with a lighter.

14) CAUTION: Point the opening of the test tube away from yourself, your partner, and everyone else when conducting
this test.

15) Test the larger quantity of gas by placing a lighter to the opening immediately after removing the stopper.

16) Reason: If you do not do this immediately, the gas will escape and no reaction will be visible.

38
PRACTICE
1 ) Balanced the equation for the electrolysis of water.

_____H2O → _____ H2 + ____ O2

2 ) Identify and compare the volumes of gases obtained from the two leads.

OXIDATION RATIO COLOR OF ELECTRODE

NUMBER PRODUCED SOLUTION PRODUCED BY
GAS
RED(+) or BLACK
(-)

H2
O2
3 ) Balance the equation for the reaction of the test tube that turns BLUE.

_____O2 + Cu → _____ CuO

4 ) What are the two ions that the sodium bicarbonate forms ?

_____NaHCO3 → _____ Na+ + _____ HCO3-

5 ) Balance the equation for electrolysis of copper (II) chloride.

_____CuCl2 → _____ Cu + ____ Cl2

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

39
 LAB # 15
CONCENTRATION : % VOLUME & % Mass

MATERIALS TO BRING TO LAB : 1 L of TAMPICO

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------

INTRODUCTION:
To express the percentage of volume (% volume) of a solution, we measure the amount of solute and solvent in
the same units of volume, per example: liters (L) or milliliters (ml). The total volume of the mixture will be the addition
of the volume of solute plus the volume of the solvent. This last result will represent 100% of the solution.

Volume of the solution = Volume of solute + volume of solvent

% volume = Volume of solute x 100

Volume of the solution

MATERIAL:
➢ Volumetric flask of 100 ml
➢ Beaker
➢ Pipette of 10 ml

CHEMICALS USED:
➢ TAMPICO
➢ WATER

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure, with a pipette, 5 ml of tampico and pour it in the volumetric flask.

2. Use the beaker with water and fill the volumetric flask until the 100ml mark

3. Cover the volumetric flask and slowly swirl it to mix. This solution is 5% volume of orange juice because

Percentage in volume = 5 ml of tampico x 100 = 0.05 x 100 = 5%

100 ml of solution

40
Percentage in volume = ml of tampico x 100 = x 100 = ________%
100 ml of solution

Percentage in volume = ml of tampico x 100 = x 100 = ________%

100 ml of solution

Percentage in volume = ml of tampico x 100 = x 100 = ________%

100 ml of solution

Percentage in volume = ml of tampico x 100 = x 100 = ________%

100 ml of solution

Percentage in volume = ml of tampico x 100 = x 100 = ________%

100 ml of solution

Percentage in volume = ml of tampico x 100 = x 100 = ________%

100 ml of solution

LABEL THE CONCENTRATIONS & DRAW THE COLOUR OF THE SOLUTIONS

________% ________% ________% ________% ________% ________%

41
PRACTICE
A. Pharmaceutical product

A solution called RIOPAN is used for gastritis or acidity. The label states that each 250 ml of solution contains
8 ml of magaldrate and 1ml of dimeticone and more than 8 tablespoons SHOULD NOT be taken per day.

1. What is the % volume in this solution?

% volume of Magaldrate = ml of________ x 100 = _______ x 100 = ______ %

250 ml of solution

% volume of Dimeticone = ml of________ x 100 = _______ x 100 = ______ %

250 ml of solution

2. What would happen if the factory switched the concentrations of the medicine by accident?
(8 ml of dimeticone and 1ml of magaldrate) _________________________________________________

3. Would this change affect the appearance of the medicine? It would look____________________________

4. Would the medicine have the same effectiveness? Y / N

5. Could this change make you sick? Y / N

B. Beverage
Preparing “TANG” from powder requires: One envelope per 2 L of water.

1. If you prepared it using just 1 L of water :

How would it LOOK ? ___________________________________
How would it TASTE ? ___________________________________

2. If you prepared it using 4 L of water :

How would it LOOK ? ___________________________________
How would it TASTE ? ___________________________________

C. Food
The recipe to prepare 1 kg of cake is: 250 g of sugar, 250 g of eggs and 500 g of flour.

1. What is the % mass of sugar in the cake?

% mass of sugar = g of________ x 100 = _______ x 100 = ______ %

g of mix

2. What would be the result if you add 750 g of floor instead of 500 g?

% mass of sugar = g of________ x 100 = _______ x 100 = ______ %

g of mix
CONCLUSION

When would you use %volume and when would you use %mass ?

% volume is used for measuring __________________

% mass is used for measuring __________________

The control of the concentration of ingredients is very important to maintain quality control of products.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

42
 LAB # 16
CONCENTRATIONS & MOLARITY
INTRODUCTION
The concentration of the solution depends on the relation between solute and solvent. Thus it is possible to speak of
diluted and concentrated solutions. First, the amount of solute is small in comparison with the amount of solvent. In
chemistry, it is necessary to know to the amounts of solute and solvent that take part in the solution. For this several
methods exist, one of them is molarity.

When preparing molar solutions it is necessary to calculate the molar mass of the elements or compounds that are
equivalent to the atomic mass of elements and to the molecular mass of the compounds, and is expressed in atomic mass
units (u), equal to grams per mol.

# of moles of solute = (the molecular mass of a compound) x (the number of grams used in the solution)

Molarity concentration of the solution = # of moles of solute

Volume of solvent (L)

OBJECTIVE
Identify the different types of solutions, and to prepare concentration solutions to certain molarities.

MATERIAL
5 x 250ml beakers
A dropper with phenolphthalein (pH indicator)
A metal spatula
1 porcelain crucible
Stand
Bunsen burner
1 glass stirring rod

CHEMICALS USED
5g calcium oxide ( CaO)
250 g sodium chloride (NaCl)
500 ml water

CONCENTRATION TYPE OF SOLUTION

LOW
HIGH
MAXIMUM
(no more can be dissolved)
MORE THAN NORMAL MAXIMUM
(more dissolved because heated)

43
PROCEDURE
1) Number the beakers 1 to 4

2) Pour 100 ml of water in each beaker

3) In beakers 1, 2, 3, and 4 deposit 2, 10, 20 and 25 grams of NaCl, respectively and stir it.

4) Write down observations in CHART for :

WATER - (clear, a little cloudy, cloudy, very cloudy)
SOLUTE - (all dissolved, a little undissolved, a lot undissolved)

5) Write down what type of solution each is.

6) In beaker 4, stir and warm it up on the Bunsen burner. Don’t stop stirring.

7) When you observe that all the salt has dissolved, add more and stir, continue warming it up and stirring. You must
add sodium chloride until you see that it can no longer dissolve anymore.

TEST g of
NaCl
OBSERVATIONS TYPE OF SOLUTION
TUBE
Water :
1 2 Solute :
Water :
2 10 Solute :
Water :
3 20 Solute :
BEFORE HEATING
Water :
Solute :
4 25 AFTER HEATING
Water :
Solute :

8) Now, cover Beaker #4 with the crucible and warm it up until almost all the water evaporates.

9) Let the crucible cool and turn it over; observe the substance deposited on the base.

a) What compound is it? __________________________________________________________________

Then we have used _____________________________________ to separate salt from water.

b) What is it deposited on the inside walls of the beaker ? __________

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10) In the Beaker #1, deposit the calcium oxide using the spatula. Write in the chart the observation.

a. Did a compound form ? Y / N

b. Balance the chemical reaction : _____ CaO + ____ H20 → ____ Ca(OH)2

c. The PRODUCT is called:__________________________

11) Add of 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein to Beaker #1. If it changes to a pink color it is a hydroxide.

44
 TEST COLOR AFTER
g of CaO OBSERVATION
TUBE INDICATOR
Water :
1 5 Solute :

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TABLE:

Name of the element Chemical Symbol Molecular mass of the element
Oxygen
Calcium
Sodium
Chlorine
IMPORTANT

45
m = mass of the substance in grams
v = volume of the solvent in liters
n = number of moles of solute
M = molar mass of the substance in g/mol).

EXAMPLE
BEAKER #3 → 10 g of NaCl in 100 ml of water, calculate its molarity :

Data Formula Operations Result

m = 10g n=m/M n= 10 g / 58.5g/mol = 0.17 mol
V = 100 ml = 0.1 L

M of NaCl =
Molarity =
22.9 + 35.5 × 1 g/mol = Molarity = n / V = 1.7 M
0.17mol / 0.1 L
58.5 g/mol

BEAKER #4 → 20 g of NaCl in 100 ml of water, calculate its molarity :

Data Formula Operations Result

m = 20g n=m/M n= g/ /mol = mol
V = 100 ml = 0.1 L

M of NaCl =
Molarity =
22.9 + 35.5 × 1 g/mol = Molarity = n / V mol / L
= M

58.5 g/mol

What is the molarity of acetic acid in commercial vinegar?

• You can consult the vinegar bottle in your school laboratory

• Formula of acetic acid: CH3COOH

Data Formula Operations Result

m = 10g n=m/M n= g/ /mol = mol
V = 100 ml = 0.1 L

M of CH3COOH = Molarity =
+ × 1 g/mol =
Molarity = n / V = M
mol / L
g/mol

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _______________________

46
 LAB # 17
IDENTIFICATION OF AN ACID AND A BASE
INTRODUCTION
The relationship between acids and bases has been used by man for a long time. Farmers added lime to soil that used to
be forest in order to diminish the acidity of the soil. The arid desert, on the other hand, is very basic and to diminish its
basicity farmers would resort to the acidification process.

The acidity and the basicity of substances in watery solutions are not only of interest for chemical investigations, but of
extreme importance in the manufacture of paper, sugar refinement, sanitation engineering and industry in general. The
amount of hydrogen ions (pH) or concentration of these in the solutions that are used must be controlled to maintain the
quality of products, the growth of the plants, etc.

RED CABBAGE JUICE

Acids and bases have the property of modifying the color of certain substances. This is the case with the juice of the red
cabbage. This liquid has a blue-violet color, but when it comes in contact with acidic substances it becomes red, while in
contact with basic substances it becomes green and even yellow. We can use the juice of the red cabbage to measure
the pH of various substances.

Figure 7 - Add water enough to

Figure 6 - Cut the cabbage
cover Figure 8 - Pour the juice
Figure 5 - Red cabbage. into
the slices and boil for half an in a low container.
slices and put them in a pot.
hour.

Buy a red cabbage and cut it in little slices (figure 6). Put them in a pot and pour enough water to cover them (figure 7).

Boil for half an hour, then turn off the heat and let the temperature come down. Pour the blue-violet liquid you have
obtained into a large, low container (figure 8). The boiled cabbage slices are edible and you can use them in a recipe.

Pour one centimeter of the red cabbage juice indicator liquid into a transparent glass. Add water up to half of the glass.

Now, pour vinegar into the glass and observe the color changes of the liquid. Repeat the experiment by adding, this time,
a little baking soda instead of the vinegar. Also in this case, you will see color changes

47
OBJECTIVE: Identification of an acid or a base.

MATERIALS
Dropper with indicator solution derived from purple cabbage
1 teaspoon or glass mixing rod
1 beaker
5 test tubes
Glass stirring rod

CHEMICALS USED
50 ml of colorless vinegar
2 g detergent
1 lemon sliced in half
20 g milk of magnesia or antacid particles (crush the tablets)
10 ml of milk
100 ml of water

PROCEDURE
Observe the characteristic of the following ingredients:
vinegar, detergent, lemon juice, the milk of magnesia particles and the milk.

Complete your chart regarding the taste, feel, color, and colour change after adding indicator.

1) Taste A LITTLE of each ingredient (EXCEPT the detergent). Write your findings in the chart.

2) Pour water in a beaker, add the milk of magnesia, and stir perfectly.

3) Feel each of the 5 ingredients. Write your findings in the chart.

4) Label the test tubes, from 1 to 5. Add water up to one fourth of its volume.

5) Add a little bit of each ingredient in its assigned test tube.

FLAVOUR FEEL COLOUR COLOUR ACID
(before) CHANGE
Sour Slippery (with indicator) or
TUBE INGREDIENT Sweet Or
Bitter Watery BLUE BASE
Salty Or
RED
1 VINEGAR
2 DETERGENT
3 LEMON JUICE
MILK OF
4
MAGNESIA
5 MILK
6) Stir everything perfectly using the glass stirring rod.

7) Write the initial color of each substance in your chart.

8) Take the dropper and put a few drops of the indicator solution in each test tube until you observe a change in the color
of the substance. Did the solutions change color in any of the test tubes?
Write your findings in the chart.

9) Is the substance acidic or basic?

10) GENERALIZE.
What color did the acids change to? _____________
What color did the bases change to? _____________
TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

48
 LAB #18
pH SCALE
PRE-LAB INVESTIGATION

Do prelab #18 in moodle

Preparing red cabbage pH papers.

Cut some porous white paper or card sheets into rectangles and soak them in the juice so they will absorb it (figure 10).
After about half an hour, remove the cards and put them away to dry (figure 11). To do it quicker, you can also dry them
with a hairdryer. Cut the cards in strips (figure 12). Put away the red cabbage cards which are not used immediately: they
will last some months. If you store them in a closed envelope to reduce their oxidization, they will last longer. Put the
remaining juice in a bottle. After a few days, this juice goes bad and you have to throw it away. To keep it longer, store it
in a refrigerator.

Figure 10 - Soaking cards Figure 11 - Drying the cards. Figure 12 - Cutting the strips.
with red cabbage juice.

Figure 13 - Red cabbage paper Figure 14 - Red cabbage card in a

in solution of lemon juice. saturated solution of baking soda.

49
 DETERMINE THE pH OF SOME SUBSTANCES

We will measure the pH of some common substances. We will do this with litmus paper and with the pH meter (if
available). We will use also the red cabbage paper we prepared.

In the following table, write the values of pH you determine for each substance, using litmus paper and the pH meter. By
means of colored pencils, draw the corresponding color of the red cabbage paper.

EQUIPMENT
Red cabbage water indicator
a roll litmus paper
red cabbage paper strips
20 disposable plastic containers
1 glass stirring rod
Pencil crayons

TABLE 1 - MEASURING THE pH OF SOME SUBSTANCES

TUBE pH COLOR STRONG or WEAK
SUBSTANCES (litmus paper) (red cabbage paper) ACID or BASE
baking soda (saturated solution)

Chlorine
Detergent
Easy off
lemon juice
Milk
Muriatic acid
Shampoo
Soap
soda water
Sprite
tap water
Vinegar

Windex (ammonia)

At the end of the measurements, compare the values supplied by the litmus paper and cabbage paper.

Observe the corresponding colors of the red cabbage paper.

Highlight the two most acidic and two most basic substances.

50
 THE COLOR SCALE OF RED CABBAGE
How to determine the color scale of red cabbage papers (figure 15). The procedure consists in preparing solutions with
whole number of pH and in taking pictures with a digital camera of the pH papers after they have been immersed in the
solutions. With an image editing software, it will be easy to determine the color you have obtained. To do this experiment,
it is necessary to obtain a pH meter.

EQUIPMENT
Roll litmus paper
Strips red cabbage paper
20 beakers or glass pots
1 glass or plastic rods
1 digital camera or scanner
1 computer with Excel or other electronic spreadsheet and an image editing program.

MATERIALS
tap water
unripe lemon
white wine vinegar
ammonia (20% sol. about) in closed bottle.
baking soda

By means of the pH 7 buffer solution and a screwdriver, set up the pH meter.

Prepare a watery solution with pH = 2. For this purpose, use an unripe lemon (vinegar is not acidic enough). Dilute it with
water until you obtain the right value of pH. Take out the pH meter and rinse it well with tap water.

Immerse a red cabbage paper strip in the pH = 2 solution, remove it and after a minute take a picture. Unlike the litmus
paper, the red cabbage paper gets its color with a little delay.

Prepare a watery solution with pH = 3. For this purpose, you can use the same lemon juice or white vinegar. Dilute them
with water until obtaining the right value of acidity. Rinse the pH meter.

Immerse a red cabbage paper strip in the pH = 3 solution, remove it and after a minute take a picture.

Continue in this way with the pH 4, 5, 6, 7 solutions.

As pH = 7 solution, you can use the buffer solution you used to set the pH meter, or even tap water provided you adjust its
acidity by means of vinegar or baking soda, to obtain the right pH value.

By using diluted ammonia, prepare solutions with pH equal to 8, 9, 10 and 11 and continue to take pictures of the red
cabbage strips immersed on them. When you are using ammonia, keep in open air or in an airy room. Also, the ventilating
hood of the kitchen could help you to avoid the irritating vapors of ammonia. Close the bottle immediately after you have
drawn the necessary amount of ammonia. Do not try to do solutions with pH lower than 2 or higher than 11 because they
are dangerous.

With an adjusted pH meter, check the pH of the solutions. Before passing from one solution to another, rinse the electrode
of the instrument well with tap water. Once in a while, check the correct functioning of the instrument by means of the
buffer solution.

Take the different pictures in the same conditions of light. To avoid problems due to a low color temperature (i.e.: the light
of a lamp with filament) or due to discontinuities in the spectrum (certain fluorescent lamps), you should do these pictures
under sunlight. Try to avoid reflections.

Another way to record the color of the papers consists in using a scanner. In this case, remember to well clean the glass
of the scanner before you put the papers on it. In our case, we noticed our scanner did not have the same color fidelity as
the digital camera.

51
 With image editing software, open a picture at a time and, with the dropper tool of the software, determine the color of the
part of each paper which has been immersed in the solution. Express this color with the values of its three RGB
components (Red, Green, Blue). They are three numbers which go from 0 to 255 each. Make a copy of figure 15 and give
another name to it. With the image editing program, replace its colors with those which you have obtained. For this
purpose, you will have to modify the palette of colors.

Very likely, you will obtain a color scale with rather irregular steps. To reduce this irregularity, for each paper it is
necessary to do different measurements of the color to determine the mean value. Some programs allow you also to
obtain the mean color of a 5x5 pixels square instead of checking a single pixel.

Unfortunately, the color scale you have obtained is valid for papers produced which are fresh; in fact, with the passing of
time, these papers will fade and they will have a different color scale. If you want, at intervals of a month, you can
determine the color scale of the paper in order to describe its changes by reference to the fresh one.

Determine the color scale of the Litmus paper. Compare it with the scale printed on its packet.

Why determine the color scale of the Litmus papers, since it is printed on its packet? We made it and we obtained a color
scale quite different by reference to that of the packet. Perhaps, this is due to the fact that we bought it some years ago.

Why determine the color scale of the red cabbage papers, given that one is shown in figure 15? First of all because this is
an interesting exercise, then because very likely your cabbage is of a different species or variety than ours.

Prepare pH papers with other vegetable substances. In summer, you can use the red mulberries and the berries of the
elder. Determine the color scale of papers prepared with these substances and try to assess their stability.

Now, you have determined their color scale, utilize these papers to measure the pH of substances like those of the
preceding experiment.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ______________________

52
 LAB #19
OXIDATION - REDOX
INTRODUCTION

Oxidation state :A measure of the degree of oxidation of an atom in a substance.

RULES:

(l) Free element (uncombined element) - the oxidation state = ZERO

(2) A simple (monatomic) ion - the oxidation state = the net charge on the ion
(3) Hydrogen = 1, Oxygen = -2 when they are present in most compounds.
(4) Neutral molecule - the sum of oxidation states of all atoms = ZERO
(5) Ions - the sum of the oxidation states of the constituent atoms = the net charge on the ion.

REDOX(reduction/oxidation)describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number changed.
These reactions involve the formal transfer of electrons

OXIDATION : the increase in oxidation state of an atom = loss of electrons LEO

REDUCTION : a decrease in oxidation state of an atom = gain in electrons GER

OBJECTIVE:

Identify the reaction of glycerin and potassium permanganate

MATERIAL

Dropper
Ceramic Plate
Asbestos wire mesh

CHEMICALS USED

1 g potassium permanganate (strong oxidizing agent)

A few drops of glycerin (easily oxidized substance)

53
PROCEDURE
1) Pour the potassium permanganate in the ceramic plate and put the plate on the wire mesh on the table.

2) Add 2 drops of glycerin to the plate. Wait a moment and observe what happen. **BE CAREFUL !**

3) What is the effect of the potassium permanganate on the glycerin? OXIDIZER / REDUCER

4) What caused the flame to be produced? ____________________________________________________

5) Do all heat reactions produce flame? Y/N Why or why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

6) Is the reaction EXOTHERMIC / ENDOTHERMIC ? Why or why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

7) Write the oxidation number of manganese in each compound.

MnO2 KMnO4 K2MnO4 MnCl2 Mn2O3

O K K Cl Cl
Mn O O Mn Mn
Mn Mn

8) Write the OXIDATION NUMBERS of Mn.

RANK the compounds from LOWEST to HIGHEST (1-5) oxidation number.

OXIDATION NUMBER RANK

1) MnO2 Mn = ___________ ___
2) KMnO4 Mn = ___________ ___
3) K2MnO4 Mn = ___________ ___
4) MnCl2 Mn = ___________ ___
5) Mn2O3 Mn = ___________ ___

9) Balance the equation.

14 KMnO4 + _____ C3H5(OH)3 → 7 K2CO3 + 7 Mn2O3 + ______CO2 + 16 H2O

(glycerin)

10) W rite the oxidation number of Mn in the reactants and the products.
Is the Mn in the reaction OXIDIZED or REDUCED ?

KMnO4 Mn = ___________
Mn2O3 Mn = ___________

REACTION = __________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ______________________

54
 LAB # 20
OXIDATION : FIREWORKS
INTRODUCTION

Of the alkaline metals, sodium is the most abundant in the earth´s crust and the ocean;
potassium is next in importance. Both elements are essential for life. In contrast, lithium
is not abundant and is not essential for life.

One characteristic of these elements is, due to its reactivity, they are not found in
the nature in metal form, but are combined with oxygen or forming salts.

If a solution of these salts is introduced to a flame, a series of phenomena take place

such as the evaporation of the solvent; a fraction of the solid salts is transformed into gas
and part of the gas gives origin to atom formation. Due to the temperature of the flame,
the atoms get energy, passing to unstable excited states. This excess of energy returns to
the environment in the form of luminous energy. As a result of it, we observe that the
flame acquires diverse colors: the sodium salts create a yellow color, potassium; a
purple light, and lithium, a red flame.

In addition to alkaline metals, some alkali earth metals display color when they are put in
a flame. The calcium produces an orange color, strontium is red, and the barium salts
give green color. In spite of not being from alkali or alkali earth metals, the copper and
the thallium display a green flame.

When we watch fireworks, what we are seeing is the loss of the excess of energy which
the metal atoms had acquired.

The observation of the color of the flame allows the identification of the metal atoms in
solution. The color (that is, the frequency of the emitted light), is characteristic of each
element, which gives us qualitative data on the chemical composition of a sample. If a
mixture of different metal salts produced color in the flame, it is impossible to identify the
individual metals just by looking at the flame. Nevertheless, the produced light can be
separated to its components. If you have a spectroscope, you can use it to observe the
spectrum of these elements.

In this experiment our objective is to see the color of the flame produced by the
combustion of methanol in the presence of different salts. Due to the toxicity of methanol and to the fact that we are
working with fire, this experiment will only be demonstrated by the lab technician. We will work in a dark environment to
better appreciate the color of the flames.

OBJECTIVE
To identify the colors given by the combustion of different metals.

MATERIAL
Beaker marker
Safety glasses
Metal spatula
6 beakers of 150 ml or 250 ml
Lighter

CHEMICALS USED
Methanol
Sodium chloride
Copper chloride or barium chloride
Lithium chloride or strontium chloride

55
COMMENTARIES
Be careful with the use of methanol, due to its toxicity and flammability. As the combustion of methanol is strongly
exothermic, the energy released in this process facilitates the seeing of the colors emitted by metallic atoms. Ethanol does
not give as good results. It is suggested to have a watch glass close by to place it on the beaker to put out the fire.

If you do not wish to use methanol, it is possible to work with a Bunsen burner. In this case, use a metallic spatula to
introduce a small amount of the salts in the flame. In some cases a better result is obtained if the salts are wet with a
drop of hydrochloric acid. In general, metals chlorides are more volatile than other salts. Consider that the acid attacks the
spatula. Carefully wash the spatula with distilled water between the tests for different salts. Do not substitute with glass
rods because sodium is one of the components of glass. All glass rods heated up in a flame will produce a yellow-orange
color.

PROCEDURE
1) Label each beaker with the name of the metallic salts.

2) Place a small amount of each one of the salts in the corresponding

beakers. Place the beakers on a flat surface.

3) Add approximately 10 ml of methanol to each beaker

4) Use safety glasses.

5) Light each beaker of methanol and metal.

6) Observe the colors produced in the flame. Describe your observations. It is advisable to gently stir the beaker,
moving it on the table.

7) Once the flame has extinguished, let them cool. The solids can be used again. Keep them in covered containers.

8) Wash your hands when the experiment has finished.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

1) Complete the following table

FORMULA OF NAME OF SALT COLOR OF THE ELEMENT RESPONSIBLE FOR THE

SALT FLAME COLOR OF THE FLAME

2) Explain why the sodium chloride (NaCl) and the sodium nitrate (NaNO 3) produce the same color in the flame:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

3) Explain why the sodium chloride (NaCl) and the lithium chloride (LiCl) produce different colors in the flame:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _______________________

56
 LAB # 21
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Introduction:
Does chemistry affect the things you do everyday? The answer is YES! Perhaps you wear clothes made of synthetic
fibers, or natural fibers that have been dyed. The pan you use to cook dinner may have a non-stick surface. Or perhaps
you use polish remover or hair spray. Each of these actions involves chemistry.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: is the one that study all the substances containing carbon.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY: largely concerns substances without carbon.

Almost all organic compounds (3 millions) have been synthesized nowadays. The name of “CARBON CHEMISTRY“ is
given because of the great amount that exists of this element in the organic compounds, but this is not the only element
present you can also find hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

There are some important characteristics that make organic and inorganic compounds so different from one another.
These characteristics are: composition, bonds, molecular state of matter, isomerism, solubility, electric conductivity,
boiling and fusion point, stability, reaction velocity and structure. If you know these properties, you can easily identify an
organic and/or inorganic compound.

Objective:
Students will start the study of organic and inorganic compounds in order to establish the difference between them.

PART 1: MELTING POINTS

Material:
Universal supports
Iron ring with an asbestos mesh pad
Bunsen Burner
2 porcelain crucibles

Substances:
1 g of solid paraffin wax
1 g of sodium chloride

Procedure:

1) Place 1 g of paraffin wax in one crucible

2) Place 1 g of sodium chloride in the other crucible.
3) Accommodate both crucibles on the mesh pad and heat them simultaneously.

Questions:
Complete the table by checking if the substance has a LOW or HIGH melting point.

MELTING POINT
LOW HIGH
Paraffin wax
SUBSTANCE
Sodium Chloride

3. CONCLUSION
ORANIC compounds have a ____________ melting point.
INORANIC compounds have a ____________ melting point.
57
PART 2 : SOLUBILITY
Material:
4 test tubes
10 ml pipette

Substances:
0.5 g of benzoic acid
0.5 g of sodium chloride
10 ml of benzene
Water

Procedure:
1) Put 0.5 g of benzoic acid in a test tube and 0.5 g of sodium chloride in another tube.

2) Add 5 ml of WATER to each one. Shake by tapping gently on side of test tube.

3) Put 0.5 g of benzoic acid in a test tube and 0.5 g of sodium chloride in another tube.

4) Add 5 ml of BENZENE to each one. Shake by tapping gently on side of test tube.

Questions:

1.) Complete the table and write (YES or NO) if the SOLUTE dissolved in the SOLVENT.

SOLUTE
Sodium Chloride Benzoic Acid
Water
SOLVENT
Benzene

2.) Classify if the following are ORGANIC or INORGANIC

ORGANIC INORGANIC
Water
SOLVENT
Benzene
Sodium Chloride
SOLUTE
Benzoic Acid

3. CONCLUSION
ORANIC solutes dissolve in ____________ solvents
ORANIC solutes DON’T dissolve in ____________ solvents

INORANIC solutes dissolve in ____________ solvents

INORANIC solutes DON’T dissolve in ____________ solvents

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________

58
 LAB # 22
ALKANES, ALKENES AND ALKYNES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of organic chemistry is to study the great variety of carbon compounds: hydrocarbons, alcohol,
aldehydes, amines, etc., as well as its composition, properties, forms of obtaining, transformation and its main
uses.

In 1828 organic chemistry began to take its first steps. A new era in this science arose with the discoveries of
the German chemistry Friedrich Wöhler, that performed the first synthesis of organic compounds in history.
Urea, an organic substance, was made synthetically from inorganic substances.

Years later, in 1858, Friedrich August Kekulé proposed that carbon joins in long chains when organic
compounds are formed and works with a valence of four (it can form four bonds with other atoms), which he
represented graphically.

Alkanes or paraffins
They are called hydrocarbons because they only contain hydrogen and carbon, and are saturated because they
have a single bond between carbon atoms (C-C); they are classified as straight chain alkanes and branched.

Alkenes or olefins
They are hydrocarbons that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms (C=C). Its nomenclature
(name) is very similar to the one of the alkanes, but their name finishes in “ene” or “ilene”. In addition, the
position is indicated with a number that occupies the double bond in the longest chain.

Alkynes or acetylenes
They are hydrocarbons that contain in their structure at least one triple bond between carbon atoms (C≡C). Its
nomenclature is similar to the one of the alkenes, except because its completion changes “yne”. Sometimes
name are given using the acetylene root, that is simplest of these hydrocarbons.

OBJETIVE
To apply some simple methods of obtaining alkanes, alkenes and alkynes and to identify some of their
properties.

MATERIAL
• 2 test tubes numbered 1 and 2
• Glass tube bent at approximately 70º with an end in the form of dropper
• Glass tube in the form of “S”
• Universal support with test tube holder
• Bunsen burner
• 2 rubber corks with a hole in the middle
• Hydropneumatic barrel
• Matches
• Dropper Bottle
• Latex hose

CHEMICALS USED (BE CAREFUL WITH REACTANTS !!!)

• Sawdust
• 6 ml of ethyl alcohol
• 2 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid (precaution: corrosive substance)
• Calcium carbide
• Water
59
OBTAINING AN ALKANE

1. - Add a cm of sawdust in the test tube # 1.

2. - Place the cork, the connection and the barrel with test tube number 2, full of water. Put the tube upside
down, as observed in the illustration.

3. – Light the burner and apply the flame to the base of tube 1 for 30 seconds.

4. – Put your hand in the water of the barrel. Cover test tube 2 with your thumb. Turn the test tube upside so that
the gas doesn’t escape.

5. – Take test tube and put a match to the opening.

Cellulose → CH4 + H20

What is the name of the gas obtained ? _______________________

Draw the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the gas produced.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
What is the name of the fuel commonly used that is made up of this gas ?
______________________________________________________________________________________________

What natural process produces this gas ?

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Was the gas produced flammable ? Y / N

60
OBTAINING AN ALKENE

1.- In a test tube, pour 6 ml of ethyl alcohol (flammable) and 2 ml of sulfuric acid (corrosive).

2. – Connect the glass with the hosing. Place and collects the gas in another tube submerged in
hydropneumatic barrel as indicated in the figure. If water displacement by the gas is not observed, heat it
up slightly.

3. - Take test tube and put a match to the opening.

H2SO4
CH3CH2OH ------------> CH3-CH3 + H20
What is the name of the gas obtained ? ________________

Draw the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the gas produced.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Why is the sulfuric acid used in the reaction not USED UP ?

It reacts like a ____________________________________________________

What does this gas do to fruit ?

It causes fruit to __________________

Was the gas produced flammable ? Y / N

61
OBTAINING AN ALKYNE

1.- Put a small stone of calcium carbide in the test tube

2.- Add 4 or 5 drops of water (CAREFUL: the gas produced is very flammable).

3.- Quickly, put the stopper with the glass bottle and carefully put a lit match nearby.

___ CaC + ___ H20 → ___ C2H2 + ___ CaO + ____H2

What is the name of the hydrocarbon gas obtained ? ___________________

Draw the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the gas produced.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

What color was the flame ? ______________

What chemical element is part of the black smoke which comes from the flame?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

We use this gas to fuse 2 metals together in a process called __________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _______________________

62
 LAB # 23
MAKING A BOUNCING POLYMER BALL
INTRODUCTION

Balls have been toys practically forever, but the bouncing ball is a more recent innovation. Bouncing balls were originally
made of natural rubber, though now bouncing balls can be made of plastics and other polymers or even treated leather.
You can use chemistry to make your own bouncing ball.

The bouncing ball in this activity is made from a polymer. Polymers are molecules made up of repeating chemical units.
White school glue contains the polymer polyvinyl acetate (PVA), which cross-links to itself when reacted with borax.

BORAX
Borax, also known as sodium borate, is an important boron compound, a mineral, and a salt of boric acid. It is usually a
white powder consisting of soft colorless crystals that dissolve easily in water.

Borax has a wide variety of uses. It is a component of many detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes. It is also used to
make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as a fire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound for fiberglass, as an insecticide, as
a texturing agent in cooking.

OBJECTIVE

Making a bouncing polymer ball

MATERIALS

• 2 beakers
• Glass stirring stick
• Stand
• Bunsen burner
• Iron ring
• Metal asbsestos pad
• Clamp

CHEMICALS USED

• 24 g borax
• 50 ml hot water
• 100 ml of white school glue (polyethenol based)

PROCEDURE
1) In a beaker, put 24 g of borax and add 50 ml of hot water and stir until it dissolves.

2) Add 100 ml of white glue into the mix and stir again until the borax and glue make a homogenous mixture.

3) Make a ball with the mixture.

4) Let the ball dry

63
QUESTIONS

1) What is the principal element in Borax (Na2B4O7)?

2) What would happen if warm water is used instead of hot water to dissolve the borax ?

3) Draw the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of ETHENOL.

4) Draw the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of POLYETHENOL.

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ____________________

64
 LAB # 24
MAKING GEL HAND SANITIZER
PRE-LAB INVESTIGATION

Do PRE-LAB in Moodle

INTRODUCTION

The Centers for Disease Control says the most important way to prevent the transmission of dangerous diseases is to
frequently wash your hands with soap and water. If soap and water are not available it is recommended to use a hand
sanitizer that contains at least 60 percent alcohol. Alcohol rubs kill many different kinds of bacteria, including antibiotic
resistant bacteria and TB bacteria. Alcohol rubs inactivate many different kinds of viruses, including the flu virus and the
common cold virus. Alcohol rubs also kill fungi.

A controlled study of 200 workers showed that placing hand sanitizer dispensers in an office and educating workers about
their use resulted in a 21% reduction in absenteeism. Controlled studies showed an even greater reduction in
absenteeism (51%) in elementary schools and college dormitories (43%).

OBJECTIVE: Make gel hand sanitizer

MATERIAL
Metal strainer with fine mesh
Plastic mixing bowl
Electric mixer
2 Beakers of 500 ml
1 L bottle to dispense gel

CHEMICALS USED (make 1 L of gel)

500 ml of distilled water
½ teaspoon of CARBOPOL (thickening agent)
500 ml ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
1/4 teaspoon of pure glycerin (humectant)
½ teaspoon of triethanoamine

PROCEDURE
1) Pour the distilled water into the mixing bowl.

2) Put the metal strainer on top of the bowl

3) Put the carbopol in the strainer

4) Break up any lumps of carbopol so that only fine powder passes through

5) Using the electric mixer, mix the water with the carbopol until there are no clumps left

6) Add the glycerin while still mixing

7) Add the triethanoamine while still mixing

8) Add color and fragrance (OPTIONAL)

9) Pour into dispensing bottle

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

65
 LAB # 25
ACETONE : STUDYING THE EFFECT OF A SOLVENT ON
A POLYMER (POLYSTYRENE)
INTRODUCTION
In the process of separation and refinement of petroleum, substances are obtained that are used by the chemical industry
as solvents. The most common solvents include alcohols, ketones and esters.

The capacity of a substance to dissolve another one, or to dissolve in another material, depends on its chemical structure.
Non-polar or weakly polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents or that are slightly polar; the very polar compounds
dissolve in very polar solvents. The similar dissolves similar, that is to say, a substance always dissolves a similar one.

Some derivatives from petroleum are used commonly to dissolve, to dilute or to disperse other mixtures, like paintings,
varnishes, oils, lacquers, waxes, fats, paraffin, inks, etc. Among the most well known are thinner, turpentine, mineral
spirits, white gasoline, alcohol and acetone, all of them very volatile and inflammable.

Acetone is used as a solvent of fats, oils, waxes, rubbers, plastics, lacquers and varnishes. It is also used in the
manufacture of some explosives, photographic films, removers of paints and varnishes; the drying and hardening of
textiles; the extraction of some vegetable and animals products, and as a raw material in the synthesis of a great variety
of organic chemistry products.

OBJECTIVE
Study the effect of a solvent such as acetone on a polystyrene polymer

MATERIAL
1 deep plastic or glass plate
6 polystyrene (Styrofoam) cups
1 jar with lid

CHEMICALS USED
Industrial acetone (nail polish remover is not strong enough)

FOR SAFETY: acetone is very volatile and flammable. Do the experiment in a well ventilated
place far from any spark or fire.

PROCEDURE

1. - Put in the plate, acetone to a height of two cm. Put the polystyrene cups in the acetone, one by one, and observe
what happens. Remove the polymer from the plate with your fingers and compress it to remove the excess solvent.
Recover the solvent in a closed bottle.

2. - Mold the polymer that you obtained in the form of a boat, ball, bucket or any other figure. Allow the acetone to
evaporate completely and observe the flexibility and the hardness of the material when it dries.

66
QUESTIONS

1) The IUPAC name for ACETONE is 2-PROPANONE. Draw the structural formula.

__________________________________________________________________________________

2) What is the functional group of ACETONE? ________________________________________

3) What is acetone commonly used for ?

a) N____________ p____________ remover
b) P____________ thinner
c) S____________

4) In Mexico, polystyrene foam is called UNICEL.

What is it commonly called in North America ? S____________________________

5) This is the formula for STYRENE. Draw the structural formula for POLYSTYRENE.

____________________________________

6) What is polystyrene foam commonly used for ?

a) I____________ like in c_________ cups or for H____________ material

b) P____________ material

7) Did the acetone DISSOLVE or MELT the polystyrene foam? ______________________

8) What was released when the polystyrene changed form? __________________

9) Was the change PHYSICAL or CHEMICAL ? __________________

10) What is polystyrene (NOT foam form) used for ? __________________

11) Complete the physical properties of polystyrene BEFORE and AFTER acetone.

PHYSICAL PROPERTES POLYSTYRENE FOAM POLYSTYRENE

SHAPE
VOLUME
MASS
FLEXIBILITY

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _______________________

67
 LAB # 26
CARBOHYDRATES : GUM DROPS
INTRODUCTION

Glucose, starch and cellulose belong to a very ample compound group called carbon hydrates or carbohydrates, since its
general formula can be written like Cn(H2O)m. This name has persisted although in reality it is not water molecules
together with carbon atoms, as the name seems to suggest.

Carbohydrates can be in simple units like glucose, whose molecular formula is C 6H10O6. These simple units are
commonly called monosaccharides and, in addition to the glucose, there are other important ones in nature, like fructose
and ribose. Disaccharides are the combination of two simple sugars. For example, sugar cane (sucrose) = glucose +
fructose and the sugar contained in milk (lactose) = glucose + galactose.

Among the most popular candies are the colorful sugary gumdrops. Chemistry plays a very important role in the
production of this candy. Jellification is a very complex process of curing in where some molecules interact with each
other forming long chains. Water, salts and other substances of low molecular weight like sucrose are caught in the chain
in between molecules.

OBJECTIVE

To prepare gumdrops by using a very important fuel for man: sugar.

MATERIAL

3 beakers
3 mixing rods
Beaker with boiling water
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Wire mesh with asbestos pad
Scale
Thermometer
Wax paper

INGREDIENTS

Sucrose (table sugar)

Glucose (corn syrup)
Glycerin (glycerol)
Artificial flavoring
Food coloring
Grenadine
Water
Citric acid

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PROCEDURE

Beaker # 1:
Put 30 g of corn syrup (glucose) and 4.7 g of glycerin; mix thoroughly.

Beaker # 2:
Add 36 g sucrose and add a small amount of water. Warm it up in the beaker until it is liquefied.

Pour the contents of beaker #2 into beaker 1 and heat it up directly over the fire until the mixture reaches a temperature
of 110ºC. Be careful to not heat up to more than 110ºC.

Add a few drops of artificial flavoring & food coloring and 0.3 g of citric acid in liquid form.

Beaker #3:

Put in 7 g of grenadine (1 packet) dissolved into 24 ml of boiling water.

Take beaker #2 from the flame. Add the contents of beaker #3. Mix.

On the wax paper, make a ‘bed’ of sugar and drop small portions of the mixture on the sugar.

Sprinkle sugar over the gumdrops and wait for them to cool off.

QUESTIONS

What carbohydrates did you use? What was their function?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

What would happen to the mixture if it were heated to more than 110ºC?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

What function does each one of the components have in the process?

COMPONENT FUNCTIONS
CITRIC ACID

GLYCERIN

GRENADINE

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : ________________________

69
 LAB # 27
PROTEINS : DENATURALIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Proteins are large organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide
bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues.

Proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in every process within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that
catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins are also necessary in animals' diets, since animals
cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process of
digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism.

OBJECTIVE: Identify physical characteristics of proteins

MATERIAL
Test tube rack
Test tubes of 1.5 cm x 10 cm
50 ml graduated cylinder
100 ml Beaker
Filter paper
Bunsen burner
Thermometer from 0 to 100 o C
Lighter

CHEMICALS USED
Albumen (egg white protein)
5 ml concentrated nitric acid

PROCEDURE
1) Pour 10 ml of egg white in a beaker and 40 ml of water

2) Stir the mixture and then filter it with the filter paper

3) Pour 2 ml of the filtered product in a test tube and add 4 drops of nitric acid

4) Heat it gently and let it cool.

5) What were the changes in the mixture? Draw the things that you observed
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

6) In a beaker, add 3 ml of the filtered product with 50 ml of water. Measure the temperature and write it down.

Temperature: ___________

7) Heat the mixture and observe the effect of heat on the egg white. Write your observations.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

8) When the filtered product looks like cooked egg white, take the temperature again. The protein has denatured.

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COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Write the value of the temperature and your observations

OBSERVATIONS
Initial
Temperature o C

Mixture being
heated

Final
Temperature o C

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _________________________

71
 LAB # 28
MAKING QUESO FRESCO
INTRODUCTION

Cheese is a nutritional product that is obtained from the coagulated milk and is characterized by the
process of fermentation through which it passes and the texture and flavor it obtains during this
process. In the case of fresh cheese, it is one of easiest to elaborate from home, the most difficult
part is obtaining the fresh milk.

Objective

To make fresh cheese recognizing in its elaboration soluble and insoluble molecules in water of milk

Ingredients

800 ml of whole milk (Santa Clara brand – all others brands will give BAD results)
0.1 ml of liquid renin (obtained in veterinary pharmacy)
10 ml of distilled water (free of chlorine)
The juice of ½ lemon
Salt

Material

1 large strainer
1 L beaker
1 wood spatula
Bunsen Burner
Universal support and tripod
1 ml pipette
Thermometer
50 ml beaker
25 cm x 25 cm square of manta de cielo
Tupper container with cover

PROCEDURE

To avoid contaminating our product, it is very important to WASH OUR HANDS before doing the
practice.

Estimated time of preparation: 40min

Estimated time when ready for consumption: 4hrs (depending on air humidity)

FOR UNPASTEURIZED MILK

Boil 1 L of milk in the beaker at 70 C for 30 minutes to assure pasteurization. Once

pasteurized, let it cool to 36-40oC.

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FOR PASTEURIZED MILK

IMPORTANT:
The milk at all times should be between 36-40oC
1) Measure 0.1 ml of rennin with the pipette and add it to the 10 ml of distilled water in the beaker.
When the milk has reached the correct temperature turn off the Bunsen burner and place the
beaker on the table. Add the lemon juice and the rennin solution to the water and stir vigorously
until it is a homogenous mixture.

2) Mixing lemon with milk causes it to curdle and coagulate forming some zones thicker than others. It
is therefore important to stir the milk when it is mixed with the lemon or the rennin.

3) When it is well mixed let it rest for 30-40 minutes. Prepare the tools to strain it while waiting.

4) In order to strain the milk, a 25 cm square of manta de cielo is needed to cover and tie the cheese.

5) Place the fabric upon the strainer and pour the mix in it. Add salt, spices or chile pepper. Once the
curd is poured, tightly tie the four ends of the cloth in a knot and hang the cheese to drain.

6) The cheese must be hung to drain any excess liquid inside the cheese which could spoil it. It is
recommended to put a pot below the cheese to catch any liquid that drips down.

7) The cheese must be hung for 3 hours. During these three hours the cheese should be wrung
carefully from time to time so that it loses all the excess liquid.

8) The cheese is now ready. But if desired, it can be put in a mold in the refrigerator for a few hours to
improve the appearance of the cheese.

Recommendations of consumption and conservation

• Because it is a fresh cheese, it should be stored in the fridge. It is natural that it continue
producing whey; this can be thrown out at the time of consumption.
• The fresh cheese can be eaten by itself, with honey, herbs, dried fruits, etc.

Questionnaire

Why it is so important that the milk not exceed 40oC when the rennin is added?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

What is the purpose of the lemon juice? What other liquid could it be replaced with?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _________________________

73
 LAB # 29
LIPIDS – POLAR & NON-POLAR SOLVENTS
INTRODUCTION

Lipids are broadly defined as any fat-soluble (lipophilic), naturally-occurring molecule, such as fats, oils, waxes,
cholesterol, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids,
and others. The main biological functions of lipids include energy storage, acting as structural components of cell
membranes.

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides and
should not be confused with the term fatty acid.

OBJECTIVE: To observe the solubility of lipids in different substances

MATERIAL:
Test tube rack
16 test tubes 1.5 cm x 10 cm
5 ml pipette

CHEMICALS USED
Alcohol
Hexane
Chloroform

1 spoon of glycerin
Lard
Butter
Corn oil

PROCEDURE
A) Make a set of test tubes labeled from 1 - 4 in the test tube rack.

B) Put a bit of lard in each one

C) In test tube #1 add 5 ml of water

In test tube #2 add 5 ml of alcohol
In test tube #3 add 5 ml of hexane
In test tube #4 add 5 ml of chloroform

D) Repeat steps A, B and C with butter, the corn oil and glycerin in the other sets of test tubes.

74
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1) SOLUTES & SOLVENTS

Put an ( V ) if the solute dissolves in the solvent.
Put an ( X ) if the solute doesn’t dissolve in the solvent.

SOLVENT
WATER ALCOHOL HEXANE CHLOROFORM
Animal lard
Butter
SOLUTE Corn oil
Glycerin

2) SUMMMARY : Write the solvents that dissolves the solute

Animal lard
Butter
Corn oil
Glycerin

3) CLASSIFICATION
Put an ( V ) if the solute or solution is POLAR or NON-POLAR.(Remember like dissolves like)

POLAR NON-POLAR
Water
Alcohol
Hexane
Chloroform
Animal lard
Butter
Corn oil
Glycerin

4) APPLY THE KNOWLEDGE

a) Membrane cells are made of lipids, what would occur if lipids were water
soluble?

b) What do we have on our skin that prevents it from drying out.

c) If we pour alcohol on our skin, the alcohol doesn’t dissolve the cells . Why?

TEACHER’S SIGNATURE : _______________________

75
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Álvarez Arellano, Daniel, Alquimia 2, México, Grupo Editorial Norma Educativa, 2005

Cortés Juárez, Alejandro, Química Creativa 3, México, Fernández Editores, 2005

Romo, H. Héctor, Delgado, Víctor V., Química 3, Cuaderno de trabajo, Ediciones Castillo, 2004

León, Rodríguez, Cuevas, Mata, Descubre el Mundo de la Química 2, México, Prentice-Hall, 1996

Gómez Ortiz, Sosa Fernández, Química Sustancia, 3er. Grado Secundaria, México, Ediciones SM, 2004

Ramírez Regalado, Salazar Galván, Química 2, 3er. Grado Secundaria, México, Editorial Patria, 2003

Jara Reyes, Bascuñan Blaset, Acércate a la Química 2, México, Editorial Larousse, 2005

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