Renewable Energy Systems EE8703

EE8703 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

L T P C
3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
To impart knowledge on the following Topics
 Awareness about renewable Energy Sources and technologies.
 Adequate inputs on a variety of issues in harnessing renewable Energy.
 Recognize current and possible future role of renewable energy sources.
UNIT I RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE) SOURCES 9
Environmental consequences of fossil fuel use, Importance of renewable
sources of energy, Sustainable Design and development, Types of RE sources,
Limitations of RE sources, Present Indian and international energy scenario of
conventional and RE sources.
UNIT II WIND ENERGY 9
Power in the Wind – Types of Wind Power Plants(WPPs)–Components of WPPs-
Working of WPPs- Siting of WPPs-Grid integration issues of WPPs.
UNIT III SOLAR PV AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 9
Solar Radiation, Radiation Measurement, Solar Thermal Power Plant, Central
Receiver Power Plants, Solar Ponds.- Thermal Energy storage system with
PCM- Solar Photovoltaic systems : Basic Principle of SPV conversion – Types of
PV Systems- Types of Solar Cells, Photovoltaic cell concepts: Cell, module,
array ,PV Module I-V Characteristics, Efficiency & Quality of the Cell, series
and parallel connections, maximum power point tracking, Applications.
UNIT IV BIOMASS ENERGY 9
Introduction-Bio mass resources –Energy from Bio mass: conversion processes-
Biomass Cogeneration-Environmental Benefits. Geothermal Energy: Basics,
Direct Use, Geothermal Electricity. Mini/micro hydro power: Classification of
hydropower schemes, Classification of water turbine, Turbine theory, Essential
components of hydroelectric system.
UNIT V OTHER ENERGY SOURCES 9
Tidal Energy: Energy from the tides, Barrage and Non Barrage Tidal power
systems. Wave Energy: Energy from waves, wave power devices. Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (OTEC)- Hydrogen Production and Storage- Fuel cell :
Principle of working- various types - construction and applications. Energy
Storage System- Hybrid Energy Systems.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

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OUTCOMES:
 Ability to create awareness about renewable Energy Sources and
technologies.
 Ability to get adequate inputs on a variety of issues in harnessing
renewable Energy.
 Ability to recognize current and possible future role of renewable energy
sources.
 Ability to explain the various renewable energy resources and
technologies and their
 applications.
 Ability to understand basics about biomass energy.
 Ability to acquire knowledge about solar energy.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Joshua Earnest, Tore Wizeliu, „Wind Power Plants and Project
Development‟, PHI Learning Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 2011.
2. D.P.Kothari, K.C Singal, Rakesh Ranjan “Renewable Energy Sources and
Emerging Technologies”, PHI Learning Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 2013.
3. Scott Grinnell, “Renewable Energy & Sustainable Design”, CENGAGE
Learning, USA, 2016.
REFERENCES
1. A.K.Mukerjee and Nivedita Thakur,” Photovoltaic Systems: Analysis and
Design”, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, 2011
2. Richard A. Dunlap,” Sustainable Energy” Cengage Learning India Private
Limited, Delhi, 2015.
3. Chetan Singh Solanki, “ Solar Photovoltaics : Fundamentals,
Technologies and Applications”, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi,
2011
4. Bradley A. Striebig,Adebayo A.Ogundipe and Maria Papadakis,”
Engineering Applications in Sustainable Design and Development”,
Cengage Learning India Private Limited, Delhi, 2016.
5. Godfrey Boyle, “Renewable energy”, Open University, Oxford University
Press in association with the Open University, 2004.
6. Shobh Nath Singh, „Non-conventional Energy resources‟ Pearson
Education, 2015.

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UNIT III SOLAR PV AND THERMAL SYSTEMS

Solar Radiation, Radiation Measurement, Solar Thermal Power Plant, Central

Receiver Power Plants, Solar Ponds.- Thermal Energy storage system with
PCM- Solar Photovoltaic systems : Basic Principle of SPV conversion – Types of
PV Systems- Types of Solar Cells, Photovoltaic cell concepts: Cell, module,
array ,PV Module I-V Characteristics, Efficiency & Quality of the Cell, series
and parallel connections, maximum power point tracking, Applications.

Solar Radiation
Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations
The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates
away from the surface of the sun, though the wavelengths remain unchanged.
Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is known as
Extraterrestrial Radiation, Iext. The extraterrestrial radiation deviates from solar
constant value due to two reasons. The first is the variation in the radiation
emitted by the sun itself. The variation due to this reason is less than ±1.5 per
cent with different periodicities. The second is the variation of earth–sun
distance arising from earth’s slightly elliptic path. The variation due to this
reason is ±3 per cent and is given by:

where, n is the day of the year starting from January 1.

The extraterrestrial radiation, being outside the atmosphere, is not

affected by changes in atmospheric conditions. While passing through the
atmosphere it is subjected to mechanisms of atmospheric absorption and
scattering depending on atmospheric conditions, depleting its intensity. A
fraction of scattered radiation is reflected back to space while remaining is
directed downwards. Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing
through the earth‟s atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation. The
terrestrial radiation expressed as energy per unit time per unit area (i.e. W/m2)
is known as Solar Irradiation. The term Solar Insolation (incident solar
radiation) is defined as solar radiation energy received on a given surface area
in a given time (in J/m2 or kWh/m2). The positions of extraterrestrial and
terrestrial regions are indicated in figure.

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Depletion of Solar Radiation

The earth‟s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents,
suspended dust and other minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These
are air molecules, ozone, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
water vapour, dust, and water droplets. Therefore, solar radiation is depleted
during its passage through the atmosphere. Different molecules do different
things as explained below:

1. Absorption
Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different molecules. The
absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules, thus
raising their temperatures:
 Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-
rays and extreme ultraviolet radiations.

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 Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range (l

< 0.38 μm).
 Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the
infrared radiation in the range (l > 2.3 μm) and deplete to some extent
the near infrared radiation below this range.
 Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant
energy irrespective of wavelength.

2. Scattering
Scattering by dust particles, and air molecules (or gaseous particles of
different sizes) involves redistribution of incident energy. A part of scattered
radiation is lost (reflected back) to space while remaining is directed
downwards to the earth’s surface from different directions as diffuse radiation.
It is the scattered sunlight that makes the sky blue. Without atmosphere and
its ability to scatter sunlight, the sky would appear black, as it does on the
moon.
In cloudy atmosphere, (i) a major part of the incoming solar radiation is
reflected back into the atmosphere by the clouds, (ii) another part is absorbed
by the clouds and (iii) the rest is transmitted downwards to the earth surface
as diffuse radiation.

The energy is reflected back to the space by (i) reflection from clouds,
plus (ii) scattering by the atmospheric gases and dust particles, plus (iii) the
reflection from the earth‟s surface is called the albedo of earth-atmosphere
system and has a value of about 30 per cent of the incoming solar radiation for
the earth as a whole. Thus on the surface of earth we have two components of
solar radiation: (i) direct or beam radiation, unchanged in direction and (ii)
diffuse radiation, the direction of which is changed by scattering and reflection.
Total radiation at any location on the surface of earth is the sum of beam
radiation and diffuse radiation, what is known as global radiation. These terms
may be properly defined as follows:

Beam radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at

the earth surface without change of direction, i.e., in line with sun is called
beam or direct radiation.

Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and molecules is

known as diffuse radiation. It does not have a unique direction.

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Global radiation: The sum of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as total
or global radiation.
Even on clear days, there will be some diffuse radiation depending upon
the amount of dust particles, ozone and water vapour present in the
atmosphere. On overcast days when the sun is not visible, all the radiation
reaching the ground will be diffuse radiation. In general, the intensity of diffuse
radiation coming from various directions in the sky is not uniform. The diffuse
radiation is therefore said to be anisotropic in nature. However, in many
situations (like heavy cloud cover), the intensity from all directions tends to be
reasonably uniform and it thus becomes isotropic in nature.

The radiation thus available on earth’s surface is less than that is

received outside the earth‟s atmosphere and this reduction in intensity
depends on the atmospheric conditions (amount of dust particles, water
vapour, ozone content, cloudiness, etc.) and the distance travelled by beam
radiation through atmosphere before it reaches a location on earth‟s surface.
The later factor in turn depends on solar altitude. The path length of solar
beam through the atmosphere is accounted for in the term ‘Air Mass’, which is
defined as the ratio of the path length through the atmosphere, which the solar
beam actually traverses up to the ground to the vertical path length (which is
minimum) through the atmosphere. Thus at sea level the air mass is unity
when the sun is at the ‘zenith‟ (highest position), i.e., when inclination angle α
is 90°.

Mathematically:

The abbreviation AM0 refers to zero (no) atmosphere, AM1 refers to m = 1

(i.e., sun overhead, Ɵz= 0), AM2 refers to m = 2 (Ɵz = 60°); and so on.

From the below figure, the air mass may be written as:

Where α is inclination angle and Ɵz is zenith angle

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Solar constant
It is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time on a unit
surface area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of solar radiation at
the top of earth’s atmosphere when earth is at its mean distance from the sun.
The value of solar constant is taken as 1367W/m2.
The extraterrestrial radiation can be determined by suing solar constant
as follows:

( )
Where
Iext is the extraterrestrial radiation,
Isc is the solar constant (1367W/m2),
Rav is the mean distance between the sun and the earth
R is the actual sun-earth distance
It can also be given as
[ ( )]

Where n is the number of days from 1st January

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Solar Radiation Geometry

(a) Latitude (Angle of Latitude), (λ)
The latitude of a location on earth‟s surface is the angle made by radial
line, joining the given location to the centre of the earth, with its projection on
the equator plane. The latitude is positive for northern hemisphere and
negative for southern hemisphere.

(b) Declination, (δ)

It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from the plane of
earth’s equator. It is positive when measured above equatorial plane in the
northern hemisphere. The declination d can be approximately determined from
the equation:
[ ]
Where n is day of the year counted from 1st January.

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(c) Hour Angle, (ω)

The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which the earth
must turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line with sun‟s rays.
In other words, at any moment, it is the angular displacement of the sun
towards east or west of local meridian (due to rotation of the earth on its axis).
The earth completes one rotation in 24 hours. Therefore, one hour corresponds
to 15° of rotation. At solar noon, as sunrays are in line with local meridian,
hour angle is zero. It is +ve in the forenoon and –ve in the afternoon. Thus at
06:00 hrs it is +90° and at 18:00 hrs it is –90° as shown in figure below. We
adopt the convention of measuring it from noon based on LAT, being +ve in the
morning and –ve in the afternoon.
It can be calculated as:

(d) Inclination Angle (Altitude), (α)

The angle between sun‟s ray and its projection on horizontal surface is
known as inclination angle.

(e) Zenith Angle, (Ɵz)

It is the angle between sun‟s ray and perpendicular (normal) to the
horizontal plane.

(f) Solar Azimuth Angle (γs)

It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and the
projection of sun‟s ray on the horizontal plane. It is taken as +ve when
measured from south towards west.

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(g) Slope (Tilt Angle), (β)

It is the angle between inclined plane surface, under consideration and
the horizontal. It is taken to be +ve for the surface sloping towards south.

(h) Surface Azimuth Angle, (γ)

It is the angle in horizontal plane, between the line due south (OS) and
the horizontal projection of normal to the inclined plane surface (OQ). It is
taken as +ve when measured from south towards west.

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Measurement of Solar Radiation

Solar radiation data are measured mainly by the following instruments:
(i) Pyranometer:
A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a
horizontal surface but can also be used on an inclined surface. When shaded
from beam radiation by using a shading ring, it measures diffuse radiation
only.

(ii) Pyrheliometer:
An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long and narrow
tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence.

(iii) Sunshine recorder:

Sunshine recorder measures the sunshine hours in a day.

1. Pyranometer
A precision pyranometer is designed to respond to radiation of all
wavelengths and hence measures accurately the total power in the incident
spectrum. It contains a thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular,
blackened, hot junctions, exposed to the sun and cold junctions are completely
shaded. The temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions is the
function of radiation falling on the sensitive surface. The sensing element is
covered by two concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it from wind
and rain. This also reduces the convection currents. A radiation shield
surrounding the outer dome and coplanar with the sensing element, prevents
direct solar radiation from heating the base of the instrument. The instrument
has a voltage output of approximately 9 μV/W/m2 and has an output
impedance of 650 W. A precision spectral pyranometer (model: PSP) of Eppley
laboratory is shown in figure below.
The pyranometer, when provided with a shadow band (or occulting disc)
to prevent beam radiation from reaching the sensing element, measures the
diffuse radiation only. Such an arrangement of shadow bandstand (model:
SBS) is shown below. Many inexpensive instruments are also available for
measuring light intensity, including instruments based on cadmium sulphide
photocells and silicon photodiodes. These instruments give good indication of
relative intensity but their spectral response is not linear and thus cannot be
accurately calibrated.

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2. Pyrheliometer
The normal incidence pyranometer uses a long collimator tube to collect
beam radiation whose field of view is limited to a solid angle of 5.5° (generally)
by appropriate diaphragms inside the tube. The inside of the tube is blackened
to absorb any radiation incident at angles outside the collection solid angle. At
the base of the tube a wire wound thermopile having a sensitivity of
approximately 8 mV/W/m2 and an output impedance of approximately 200 W
is provided. The tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate absorption of beam
radiation within the tube by water vapour. A tracker is needed if continuous
readings are desired.

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3. Sunshine Recorder
This instrument measures the duration in hours, of bright sunshine
during the course of the day. It essentially consists of glass sphere (about 10
cm in diameter) mounted on its axis parallel to that of earth, within a spherical
section (bowl). The bowl and glass sphere is arranged in such a way that sun‟s
rays are focused sharply at a spot on a card held in a groove in the bowl. The
card is prepared from special paper bearing a time scale. As the sun moves, the
focused bright sunshine burns a path along this paper. The length of the trace
thus obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of the bright
sunshine. Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical
segment to take care of the different seasons of the year.

Solar Thermal Power Plant

Solar thermal power plant comprises power plants which first convert
solar radiation into heat. The resulting thermal energy is subsequently
transformed into mechanical energy by a thermal engine, and then converted
into electricity.
For thermodynamic reasons high temperatures are required to achieve
the utmost efficiency. Such high temperatures are reached by increasing the
energy flux density of the solar radiation incident on a collector.
According to the type of solar radiation concentration, solar thermal
power plants are subdivided into:
 Concentrating (point and line focusing systems)
 Non-concentrating systems

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The former Classification can be further made according to:

 type of receiver of the solar radiation
 the heat transfer media and the heat storage system
 additional firing based on fossil fuel energy

Concentrating systems concepts:

 Solar tower power plants (i.e. central receiver systems) as point focusing
power plants
 Dish/Stirling systems as point focusing power plants
 Parabolic trough and Fresnel trough power plants as line focusing power
plants.
Concentrating collectors can reach temperature levels similar to that of
existing fossil-fuel fired thermal power stations (e.g. power plants fired with
coal or natural gas).

Non-concentrating systems concepts:

 Solar updraft tower power plants
 Solar pond power plants

Solar Thermal Power Plant

Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants that utilize
energy from the Sun to heat a fluid to a high temperature. This fluid then
transfers its heat to water, which then becomes superheated steam. This steam
is then used to turn turbines in a power plant, and this mechanical energy is
converted into electricity by a generator. This type of generation is essentially
the same as electricity generation that uses fossil fuels, but instead heats

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steam using sunlight instead of combustion of fossil fuels. These systems use
solar collectors to concentrate the Sun's rays on one point to achieve
appropriately high temperatures.
There are two types of systems to collect solar radiation and store it:
passive systems and active systems. Solar thermal power plants are considered
active systems. These plants are designed to operate using only solar energy,
but most plants can use fossil fuel combustion to supplement output when
needed.
Some of the drawbacks include the large amount of land necessary for
these plants to operate efficiently.
As well, the water demand of these plants can also be seen as an issue,
as the production of enough steam requires large volumes of water. A final
potential impact of the use of large focusing mirrors is the harmful effect these
plants have on birds.
Birds that fly in the way of the focused rays of Sun can be incinerated.
Some reports of bird deaths at power plants such as these amount the deaths
to about one bird every two minutes.

Facts about Solar Thermal Energy

 Solar thermal energy has been used in various ways for millennia,
ranging from simple fire starting with a pocket mirror to solar
architecture to capture heat in buildings.
 48% of the sun's energy is in the infrared spectrum, invisible to the
human eye, as heat.
 Solar thermal collectors can employ (absorb) nearly the entire solar
spectrum
 The sun is the most abundant and reliable source of energy
 Financially, solar thermal energy conversion systems have reached grid-
parity in many locations

Currently, we (humans) use an abundance of fossil fuels for much of our

heat needs. While in the long run our society will switch to the source of all of
those fossil fuels (the sun), the reality is that most of you have probably not
experienced the direct impact of a solar thermal energy conversion system on
your life. The truth is that we can do everything that we currently do in our
society with solar energy. Much of the burden can be carried by solar thermal
solutions.

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One terrific modern day example of a solar thermal energy system is the
Drake Landing Solar Community in Alberta, Canada, where 95% of the the
community's heating needs are supplied by on-site solar thermal collection and
a connected seasonal thermal energy storage system. Our society uses a lot of
heat. We need to keep working to make solar thermal energy solutions make
sense and work well in more places whenever possible.

Process of solar thermal power generation:

 Concentrating solar radiation by means of a collector system
 Increasing radiation flux density (i.e. concentrating of the solar radiation
onto a receiver)
 Absorption of the solar radiation (i.e. conversion of the radiation energy
into thermal energy (i.e. heat) inside the receiver)
 Transfer of thermal energy to an energy conversion unit
 Conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy using a thermal
engine (e.g. steam turbine)
 Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy using a generator.

Solar Tower Power Station

Main principles and components:
 Central receiver systems in the tower
 Mirrors tracking the course of the sun in two axes (Heliostats)
 Heliostats reflect the direct solar radiation onto a receiver, centrally
positioned on a tower.
 In the receiver, radiation energy is converted into heat and transferred to
a heat transfer medium (e.g. air, liquid salt, water/steam).
 This heat drives a conventional thermal engine.
 To ensure constant parameters and a constant flow of the working
medium also at times of varying solar radiation, either a heat storage can
be incorporated into the system or additional firing using e.g. fossil fuels
(like natural gas) or renewable energy (like biofuels) can be used.

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Solar Tower Power Station

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Heliostats
Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a two-axis tracking
system which ensures that the incident sunlight is reflected towards a certain
target point throughout the day.
Heliostats commonly concentrate sunlight by means of a curved surface
or an appropriate orientation of partial areas, so that radiation flux density is
increased.
Heliostats consist of
 the reflector surface (e.g. mirrors, mirror facets, other sunlight-reflecting
surfaces)
 a sun-tracking system provided with drive motors
 foundations and control electronics. The individual heliostat‟s
orientation is commonly calculated on the basis of:
 the current position of the sun
 the spatial position of the heliostats
 the target point.
The target value is communicated electronically to the respective drive
motors via a communication line. This information is updated every few
seconds. The concentrator surface size of currently available heliostats varies
between 20 and 150 m2 ; to date, the largest heliostat surface amounts to 200
m².

Faceted glass/metal heliostat metal membrane heliostat

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The heliostat field accounts for about half the cost of the solar
components of such a power plant. This is why tremendous efforts have been
made to develop heliostats of good optical quality, high reliability, long
technical life and low specific costs. Due to economic considerations there is a
tendency to manufacture heliostats with surfaces ranging between 100 m2 and
200 m2 and possibly beyond. However, there are also approaches to
manufacture smaller heliostats to reduce costs by efficient mass-production.

Controller:
Heliostats are usually centrally controlled and centrally supplied with
electrical energy. As an alternative, autonomous heliostats have been developed
which are controlled locally. There, the energy required for the control
processor and the drives is provided by photovoltaic cells mounted parallel to
the reflector surface.

Heliostat fields
The layout of a heliostat field is determined by technical and economic
optimization:
 Heliostats located closest to the tower present the lowest shading,
 Heliostats placed north on the northern hemisphere (or south on the
southern hemisphere) show the lowest cosine losses.
 Heliostats placed far off the tower, by contrast, require highly precise
tracking and, depending on the geographic location, have to be placed
farer from the neighboring heliostats.
 The cost of the land, the tracking and the orientation precision thus
determine the economic size of the field.

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 Cosine losses: representing the difference between the amount of energy

falling on a surface pointing at the sun, and a surface parallel to the
surface of the earth.
Tower
 The height of the tower, on which the receiver is mounted, is also
determined by technical and economic optimization.
 Higher towers are generally more favorable, since bigger and denser
heliostat fields presenting lower shading losses may be applied.
 However, this advantage is counteracted by the high requirements in
terms of tracking precision placed on the individual heliostats, tower and
piping costs as well as pumping and heat losses.
 Common towers have a height of 80 to 100 m.
 Lattice as well as concrete towers are applied.

Receiver
Receivers of solar tower power stations serve to transform the radiation
energy, diverted and concentrated by the heliostat field, into technical useful
energy. Nowadays, common radiation flux densities vary between 600 and
1,000 kW/m2.

Receiver‟s classification according to:

 the applied heat transfer medium (e.g. air, molten salt, water/steam,
liquid metal)
 the receiver geometry (e.g. even, cavity, cylindrical or cone-shaped
receivers)

According to heat transfer medium:

 Water/steam receiver
 Salt receiver
 Open volumetric air receiver
 Closed (pressurized) air receivers

Water/steam receiver
Similar to conventional steam processes, water is vaporized and partly
superheated in such a heat exchanger (i.e. tube receiver). Since superheating is
prone to unfavorable heat transmission, and due to the fact that start-up
operation or part-load operation require complicated controls, this approach is
currently not developed further.

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Salt receiver
The difficulties of heat transmission with a vertical tube receiver,
exemplarily shown in the previous figure, can partly be avoided by an
additional heat transfer medium circuit. The heat transfer medium applied for
this secondary circuit should have a high heat capacity and good thermal
conduction properties. Molten salt consisting of sodium or potassium nitrate
(NaNO3 , KNO3 ) complies with these requirements.

Disadvantage of all such salt receiver:

 The salt must be kept liquid also during idle times when there is no solar
radiation. This requires to either heat the whole part of the installation
that is filled with salt (including, among other components, tanks, tubes,
valves) and thus increases the energy consumption of the plant itself, or
to completely flush the salt circuit.
 The highly corrosive gas phase of the used salts also has a detrimental
effect, since, for certain operations, undesired evaporation of small
amounts of salt due to local overheating cannot be entirely ruled out.

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Open volumetric air receiver

Such volumetric receivers are characterized by a high ratio of absorbing
surface to flow path of the absorbing heat transfer medium air.

Principle: Ambient air is sucked in by a blower and penetrates the radiated

absorber material. The air flow absorbs the heat, so that those absorber areas
facing the heliostat are cooled by the inflowing air.

Advantages:
 Air as heat transfer medium presents the advantages of being non-toxic,
noncorrosive, fire-proof, everywhere available and easy to handle

Disadvantages:
 low heat capacity requiring large heat transmission surfaces (generally
feasible with volumetric receivers).
 their lower thermal masses ensure a smooth start-up of the plant

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Closed (pressurized) air receivers

 Receivers of solar tower power plants may also be designed as closed
pressurized receivers.
 The aperture of such receivers is closed by a fused quartz window, so
that the working medium air may be heated under overpressure and
may, for instance, be directly transferred to the combustor of a gas
turbine.
 E.g: a group of closed air receivers of a heat capacity of up to 1,000 kW
has been tested at 15 bar.
 The obtained air outlet temperatures are slightly above 1,000 °C
 For commercial applications several module groups may be added.

Phoebus/TSA/Solair
 Phoebus/TSA/Solair is a power plant concept with an open volumetric
air receiver that provides hot air
 The hot air is subsequently passed through a steam generator providing
superheated steam that can be used to drive a turbine/generator unit
Figure.

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 A natural gas-fired duct burner placed in between the receiver and the
steam generator adds heat to the air if solar radiation is insufficient to
supply the desired steam quantity.
 The Phoebus plant can thus not only generate power in times of
sunshine but also during spells of bad weather and during the night;
power generation is thus not exclusively dependent on the available solar
radiation.
Solar Pond
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size, that
looks like a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as
a kind of a flat plate collector that absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in
the warm, lower layers of the pond. These ponds can be natural or man-made,
but generally speaking the solar ponds that are in operation today are artificial.

Solar Pond
Solar Pond Power Plants
 Solar ponds are power plants that utilize the effect of water stratification
as a basis for the collector.
 A basin filled with brine (i.e. a water/salt mixture) functions as collector
and heat storage.
 The water at the bottom of the solar pond serves as primary heat storage
from which heat is withdrawn.
 The deeper water layers and the bottom of the solar pond itself serve as
absorber for the impinging direct and diffuse solar radiation.
 Due to the distribution of the salt concentration within the basin, which
increases towards the bottom of the basin, natural convection and the
ensuing heat loss at the surface due to evaporation, convection and
radiation is minimized.

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 This is why heat of an approximate temperature between 80 and 90 °C

(approximate stagnation temperature 100 °C) can be extracted from the
bottom.
 Heat can then be used for power generation.

System components:
 Pond collector
 Heat Exchangers
 Thermal Engine

Pond collector
 Pond collectors are either natural or artificial lakes, ponds or basins that
act as a flat plate collector because of the different salt contents of water
layers due to stratification.
 The upper water layers of relatively low salt content are often provided
with plastic covers to inhibit waves.
 This upper mixing zone of such pond collectors usually is approximately
0.5 m thick.
 The adjacent transition zone has a thickness of 1 to 2 m, and the lower
storage zone is of 1.5 to 5 m thickness.
Mechanism:
 If deeper layers of a common pond or lake are heated by the sun, the
heated water rises up to the surface since warm water has a lower
density than cold water.
 The heat supplied by the sun is returned to the atmosphere at the water
surface.
 This is why, in most cases, the mean water temperature approximately
equals ambient temperature.
 In a solar pond, heat transmission to the atmosphere is prevented by the
salt dissolved in deeper layers, since, due to the salt, water density at the
bottom of the pond is that high, that the water cannot rise to the surface,
even if the sun heats up the water to temperatures that are close to the
boiling point.
 The salt concentration of the different layers must thus increase with
increasing depth.
 In a first phase, this ensures stable water stratification.
 The upper, almost salt-less layer only acts as transparent, heat-
insulating cover for the cooling, heat-storing deeper layers at the pond
bottom.

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Attentions:
 To ensure stable stratification of a solar pond, with increasing depth the
temperature increase must not exceed density increase (i.e. salt content).
 This is why all relevant parameters must be continuously monitored in
order to take appropriate measures (e.g. heat withdrawal, salt supply) in
due time.
 To achieve the utmost collector efficiency, a high portion of the solar
radiation must reach the absorption zone. Yet, this can only be achieved,
if the top layers are of sufficient transmission capability.
Monitoring:
 During the operation of a solar pond, the transmissivity, the salt content
and the temperature must be regularly monitored.
 The timely course of these parameters must be measured from the water
surface to the ground in order to determine the heat quantity that can be
withdrawn from the pond or to determine the measures to maintain the
respective required salt concentration and the water quality (prevention
of turbidity due to particulate matter, algae or bacteria).

Heat exchangers
 Basically, there are two methods to withdraw heat from a solar pond: The
working fluid of the thermal engine flows through tube bundle heat
exchangers installed within the storage zone of the solar pond, and is
thereby heated up.
 The hot brine can also be pumped from the storage zone by means of an
intake diffuser, subsequently be transmitted to the working fluid of the
thermal engine and eventually be re-supplied to greater depths of the
pond by another diffuser, once the brine has cooled down.
 The technical approach allows adjusting the position of the intake
diffuser to the depth of the highest temperature.
 Secondly, heat losses by the pond bottom are reduced, since the cooled
water is recycled to the pond near the bottom.

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Thermal Engine
 To convert solar thermal energy into mechanical and afterwards in
electrical energy, usually Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) processes are
applied.
 These are basically steam cycles which utilize a low-boiling, generally
organic, cycle fluid.
 Such processes permit to provide electrical energy also at low useful
temperature differences.

Plant Concepts
 Plant diagram of a solar pond power plant
 The water absorbs the incident direct and diffuse radiation, similar to the
absorber of a conventional solar collector, and is heated up.
 The technically adjusted salt concentration prevents natural convection
and the resulting heat loss at the surface due to evaporation, convection
and radiation.
 Water can thus be withdrawn from the storage zone at the bottom at an
approximate temperature of 80 – 90°C.
 This heat can subsequently be used for power generation by an ORC
process

Solar Pond Power Plant

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Working of Solar Pond

 The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function
effectively as a solar energy collector is a salt-concentration gradient of
the water.
 This gradient results in water that is heavily salinated collecting at the
bottom of the pond, with concentration decreasing towards the surface
resulting in cool, fresh water on top of the pond.
 This collection of salty water at the bottom of the lake is known as the
"storage zone", while the freshwater top layer is known as the "surface
zone".
 The overall pond is several meters deep, with the "storage zone" being
one or two meters thick.
 These ponds must be clear for them to operate properly, as sunlight
cannot penetrate to the bottom of the pond if the water is murky.
 When sunlight is incident on these ponds, most of the incoming sunlight
reaches the bottom and thus the "storage zone" heats up. However, this
newly heated water cannot rise and thus heat loss upwards is prevented.
 The salty water cannot rise because it is heavier than the fresh water
that is on top of the pond, and thus the upper layer prevents convection
currents from forming.
 Because of this, the top layer of the pond acts as a type of insulating
blanket, and the main heat loss process from the storage zone is
stopped.
 Without a loss of heat, the bottom of the pond is warmed to extremely
high temperatures - it can reach about 90°C.

The Concept of Solar pond

(a) Variation of density (b) Three zones in pond (c) Variation of temperature

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 If the pond is being used to generate electricity this temperature is high

enough to initiate and run an organic Rankine cycle engine.
 It is vital that the salt concentrations and cool temperature of the top
layer are maintained in order for these ponds to work.
 The surface zone is mixed and kept cool by winds and heat loss by
evaporation.
 This top zone must also be flushed continuously with fresh water to
ensure that there is no accumulation of salt in the top layer, since the
salt from the bottom layer diffuses through the saline gradient over time.
 Additionally, a solid salt or brine mixture must be added to the pond
frequently to make up for any upwards salt loses.

Advantages:
 One benefit of using these ponds is that they have an extremely large
thermal mass.
 Since these ponds can store heat energy very well, they can generate
electricity during the day when the Sun is shining as well as at night.

Solar pond electric power plant

Disadvantages:
 Despite being a source of energy, there are numerous thermodynamic
limitations as a result of the relatively low temperatures achieved in
these ponds.
 Because of this, the solar-to-electricity conversion is fairly inefficient -
generally less than 2%.
 As well, large amounts of fresh water are necessary to maintain the right
salt concentrations all through the pond.
 This is an issue in places where fresh water is hard to come by,
especially in desert environments.

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 These ponds also do not work well at high latitudes as the collection
surface is horizontal and cannot be tilted to collect more sunlight.

Applications:
 The heat from solar ponds can be used in a variety of different ways.
 They are ideal for use in heating and cooling buildings as they can
maintain a fairly stable temperature.
 These ponds can also be used to generate electricity either by driving a
thermo-electric device or some organic Rankine engine cycle - simply a
turbine powered by evaporating a fluid (in this case a fluid with a lower
boiling point).
 Finally, solar ponds can be used for desalination purposes as the low
cost of this thermal energy can be used to remove the salt from water for
drinking or irrigation purposes.

Thermal Energy Storage System with PCM

Latent Heat Storage (Storage in Phase Change Materials PCM)
In this class of storage, energy is stored by virtue of latent heat of change
of phase of the storage medium. Phase change materials have considerably
higher thermal energy storage densities as compared to sensible heat storage
materials and are able to absorb or release large quantities of energy at a
constant temperature. Therefore, these systems are more compact but more
expensive than sensible heat storage systems.
Various phase changes that can occur are:
 solid-solid (lattice change)
 solid-gas
 solid-liquid
 liquid-gas
Solid-gas and liquid-gas transformations are not employed in spite of large
latent heats as large changes in volume make the system complex and
impracticable. In solid-solid transition, heat is stored as the material is
transformed from one crystalline form to another. These transitions involve
small volume changes; however, most of them have small latent heats.
For phase-change storage media, salt hydrates called Glauber‟s salt
(Na2SO4,10H2O) are preferred. The solid-liquid transformations include
storage in salt hydrates. Certain inorganic salts, which are soluble in water and
form crystalline salt hydrates, are employed. Let an inorganic salt, which is
soluble in water represented by X(Y) n. The crystalline salt hydrate is
symbolized by X(Y) n. mH2O. On heating up to transition temperature, the

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hydrate crystals release water of crystallization and the solid remainder

(anhydrous salt) dissolves in the released water as following reaction takes
place:

(Solid ----> Liquid: Aqueous solution of anhydrous salt)

One problem with most salt hydrates is that the released water of
crystallization is not sufficient to dissolve all the solid phase present. Due to
density difference, the anhydrous salt settles down at the bottom of the
container. This incongruent melting makes the process irreversible since the
anhydrous salt at the bottom is unable to find water for recrystallization to the
original hydrate. The recrystallization of an incongruently melting salt can be
achieved either by (i) the use of suspension media or thickening agent or by (ii)
mechanical means (vibration, stirring, etc.)
Other potential phase change materials apart from salt hydrates are
paraffin‟s (e.g. C18 H38, etc., alkanes containing 14 to 40 C-atoms) and non-
paraffin organic materials (e.g. esters, fatty acids, alcohols and glycols), which
are suitable at certain situations.

Heat transfer properties of phase change storage materials

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Photovoltaic Effect
Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two dissimilar materials in close
contact produce an electrical charge when struck by light or any other radiant
energy. When light strikes crystals such as silicon or germanium (p-n junction)
in which electrons are usually not free to move from n-region to p-region due to
the potential barrier, the light provides the energy (e.m.f.) needed to free some
electrons from the bound condition depending on the absorption of solar
energy (Figure).

Generation of emf across junction to move the charge carriers

Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more
easily in one direction than in the other, giving one side of the junction a
negative charge, and this results in a negative voltage with respect to the other
side, as in the case of a battery in which one electrode has negative voltage
with respect to the other. The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide
voltage and current as long as light falls on the junction of two materials.

Basic Principal of SPV Conversion

Solar power is the production of electricity directly from sunlight. The
solar photovoltaic (PV) power is produced using photovoltaic effect so that
when sunlight strikes a solar voltaic cell, it releases electrons from the p-n
junction of the cell and pushes these electrons across a potential barrier or
electric field at the junction. These electrons then travel through an external
circuit to return to their usual state and in this process create electric power.

The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV

or solar cell converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of energy
packets called photons.

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These photons contain different amounts of energy that correspond to

different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell,
they may be reflected, absorbed or can pass through the p-n junction. The
absorbed photons in the p-n junction generate electricity.

Photon generating pairs of electron and hole to move electric current in the
external circuit
A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction with a large surface area. The n-
type material is kept thin to allow light to pass through it and strike the p-n
junction. The light travels in packets of energy called photons. The generation
of electric current takes place inside the depletion zone of the p-n junction.

The depletion zone as explained previously is the area around the p-n
junction where the electrons from the n-region diffuse into the holes of the p-
region. When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atoms in n-region of
silicon, it will dislodge an electron from any atom, thereby creating a free
electron and hole pair.

The free electron and hole pair has sufficient energy to jump out of the
depletion zone. If a wire is connected from the cathode at n-type silicon to an
anode of p-type silicon, electrons flow through the wire.

The electron is attracted to the positive charge of p-type material and

travels through the external load (bulb or resistance), thereby creating a flow of
electric current. The hole created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the
negative charge of the n-type material and travels to back electrical contact. As
the electron reaches the p-type silicon from the back electrical contact, it
combines with the hole, thereby restoring the electrical neutrality (Figure).

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Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array

Solar Cell
The solar cell consists of
i. p-type silicon material layer,
ii. n-type silicon material layer,
iii. front metallic grid and
iv. Opaque back metal contact as shown in Figure.

The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having thickness about

100�350 mm. A thin layer of n-type silicon having thickness of about 2 mm is
diffused on this bulk material, providing p-n junction. A metallic grid at top
with n-type material and an opaque back metal contact at the bottom of p-type
material are provided which also act as negative and positive terminals.

Solar Cell
A Single solar cell cannot be used as such as it has
1) A very small output
2) No protection against dust moisture , mechanical impacts and
atmospheric harsh condition

Construction of a solar cell

(a) Side view of the solar cell. (b) Top view of the solar cell

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Solar PV Module
Suitable voltage and adequate power can be obtained by suitably
interconnecting a number of solar cells. This assembly of solar cell is called
solar module. Solar cells are provided with transparent cover and these are
hermetically sealed for assembly into solar module.
It is necessary that all solar cells should match as closely as possible
with each other so that peak power of the module is the algebraic sum of the
peak power of individual solar cells. A typical module is shown in Figure.

Solar PV module with 36 solar cells

The construction of a solar PV panel

Solar PV panel consists of a number of solar PV modules connected in
series and parallel to obtain the power of desired voltage and current. When
modules are connected in series, it is desirable that each module should
produce maximum power at the same current. When solar PV modules are
connected in parallel, it is desirable that each module should produce
maximum power at the same voltage. A frame is used to mount several
modules to form a solar PV panel as shown in Figure.

A solar PV panel of four modules

In the panel, bypass diodes are installed across each module so that any
defective module can be bypassed by the output of remaining modules.

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The blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of
modules which enable the output of the remaining series strings should not be
absorbed by the failed string. A typical panel with the series and the parallel
connections is shown in Figure.

A typical panel with the series and the parallel connection

Solar PV Array
A PV array consists of a number of solar panels which are installed in an
array field. The solar panels may be installed as stationary facing the sun or
installed with some tracking mechanism. The installation should ensure that
no panel should cast shadow on any of the neighboring panels and those
panels can be easily maintained.

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Types of Solar Cell

The solar cells depending on the type of material used can be classified as
1) single crystal silicon solar cell,
2) polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell,
3) cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cell,
4) copper indium diselenide cell
5) gallium arsenide cell.
Single crystal silicon
It is produced from silicon dioxide which is reduced to silica with 1%
impurities. It is first purified to polycrystalline form and then further converted
into the single crystal state. The conversion process into single crystal state is
very expensive. The single crystal p-type silicon is obtained in the form of a
long cylindrical block (diameter of about 6-15 cm). The block is sawed using
diamond cutter to obtain a number of silicon slices or wafers having thickness
of about 300 μm. The p-type silicon wafers are then exposed to phosphorous
vapour (doping material) in a furnace so that phosphorous can diffuse into the
silicon wafer for a short depth, thereby forming n-silicon region over the p-
silicon bulk material. The efficiency of single crystal silicon is about 22%. It is
most efficient and robust.
It has two main drawbacks:
i. it needs high energy to produce and hence is costly and
ii. it requires high intensity of radiation to produce solar electricity

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Polycrystalline and amorphous silicon

The cells made of these materials are cost-effective but these have lower
efficiency compared to a single crystal silicon cell. The process to produce
polycrystalline silicon cells is similar to that of single crystal silicon except that
the costly step of converting polycrystalline state to the single crystal is not
required. The polycrystalline silicon is directly melted, doped with phosphorous
and cooked to the desired shape and size. This helps in economy of materials
and energy consumption for the production of cells.
Amorphous silicon cells are produced using thin film technology. These
cells are a cheaper alternative to single crystal or multicrystallinc cells. The
main drawbacks are that they have low efficiency (4-8%) and they degrade
easily when used in outdoor applications. These cells are useful for indoor
lights, pocket calculator, electronic watches and electronic instruments.

Cadmium sulphide cadmium telluride cells

These cells are also produced using thin film technology. The cells
require very less material. In thin film technology, the semiconductor (cadmium
telluride) is vapourised and its film (10 μm) is deposited on a thin layer (12 μm)
of cadmium sulphide. A barrier layer of copper sulphide is then deposited on
top of the CdS-CdTe cell. The cell consists of n-type CdS and p-type CdTe. The
cell has efficiency of 10% and it has no deterioration during outside
applications.

Copper indium diselenide

It is a thin film polycrystalline cell made from copper indium diselenide.
It has an efficiency of about 14%. Its properties remain stable. It has an easier
manufacturing process.

Gallium arsenide
The cell has thin film of n-type and p-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) grown
on a suitable substrate. The efficiency of the cell is about 20%, but it has high
cost of production. The cell has high performance in extraterrestrial
applications.

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Types of Solar PV System

The classification of solar PV systems is shown in Figure.

Classification of solar PV systems

Central Power Station System

This type of solar power station is similar to other conventional power
stations which are required to feed generated power into some national grid.
These types of solar power stations are designed to meet high peak daytime
load only and these have large generation capacity in megawatt (up to 6 MW).
Only few such power stations have been installed worldwide as the capital cost
of these plants is high.

Stand-Alone System
Solar PV power station is planned and located at the load centre. Its
complete electricity generation is meant to meet the electrical load of any
remote area, village or installation. Energy storage is essential to meet the
requirement during non-sunshine hours. A typical stand-alone solar PV system
is shown in Figure.

A schematic layout of a stand-alone solar PV system

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The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) senses the voltage and current
outputs from the solar array and then suitably adjusts the operating point to
obtain maximum power output from the solar array as possible from the
climatic conditions. The solar electric output in direct current is converted into
alternating current and it is fed into the load. The excess power is preferably
stored by charging the dumped in the electric heaters. When the sun radiation
is unavailable, the batteries supply the electricity through the converter.

Grid Interactive Solar PV System

In grid interactive solar PV system, the system first meets the
requirement of house, village or installation and then all excess power is fed to
an electric grid during sunshine hours (Figure).

Grid interactive solar PV system

This arrangement helps in preventing any dumping of electricity as
required in the stand-alone solar PV system. The second advantage of this
system is that during absence of insufficient sunshine, the supply of electricity
is maintained from the electric grid, thereby eliminating any need of battery.
This system is very popular in the United Kingdom, where two-way electric
meters provided to record (i) the electricity generated and supplied by rooftop
PV system of various houses to the electric grid system during non-peak
sunshine hours and (ii) electricity supplied to the houses from the electric grid
during non-sunshine hours. The difference of two is paid to consumers or vice
versa.

Small Consumer Systems

These systems are designed to meet the power requirement of low energy
devices which are generally used for indoor applications, such calculators,
watches and electric devices.

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Hybrid Solar PV System

The hybrid solar PV system is designed to provide electric power by some
other means besides solar electricity. It is difficult and uneconomical to provide
all of the power from only solar PV system. It may be more economical to meet
the power requirement by some other means, such as windmills, fuel cells and
diesel or petrol generators. The best hybrid solar PV system is the one in which
no amount of solar PV generated power is wasted.

Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System

Advantages are as follows:
(i) It directly converts solar energy to electric power without any use of
moving parts.
(ii) It is more reliable, durable and maintenance free.
(iii) It works without any noise.
(iv) It is non-polluting.
(v) It has long lifespan.
(vi) It can be located near the point of load and requires no distribution
system.

Disadvantages are as follows:

(i) It has high cost of installation.
(ii) It has low efficiency.
(iii) It requires a large area for installation to produce sufficient power.
(iv) Its output is intermittent, thereby requiring some means to store
energy to use during non-sunshine hours.

Solar Cell Characteristics

In case the p-n junction is forward biased, electrons from p-region start
moving towards the positive terminal of the battery, thereby reducing the
potential barrier at the junction (Figure). This facilitates the flow of current
through the p-n junction. In case the junction is reversed biased, the potential
barrier at the junction increases, which further reduces the possibility of any
flow of current through the junction. The Current Voltage (I vs V) characteristic
of a p-n junction is shown in Figure.

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The p-n junction forward biased.

Current Voltage characteristic of p-n junction when forward and backward

biased.

As the voltage (V) increases, the current (I) in the junction also increases.
However, there is a very small reverse saturation current (I0) instead of zero
current when reversed voltage is applied. The flow of current can be given by
diode current equation (Schottky equation)
[ ⁄ ]
Where, I0 is the reverse saturation current and VT is the voltage
equivalent of temperature and it is given by

Here, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature in kelvin and

q is the charge of an electron.
The current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction (solar cell) gets
modified due to photon or solar generated current (Isc) flowing through the p-n
junction as this (Isc) is added with the reverse leakage current (I0). The diode
current equation is now modified as
[ ⁄ ]

V= 0; that is junction is short circuited.

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⁄
[ ]

( )
Where, Vsc is the open circuit voltage

The above relation shows that when junction is radiated with suns ray
and it is short-circuited at its terminals, there is a finite current called short
circuit current (Isc) that flows through the external circuit made with the short
circuiting of the junction terminals. The magnitude of Isc depends upon solar
radiation. Figure shows current-voltage characteristics at different isolations
which include (i) dark, (ii) lesser amount of radiation, and (iii) larger amount of
radiation. Hence, p-n junction can be considered an energy source or e.m.f
having open circuit voltage as Voc and short circuit current as Isc.

Current voltage characteristics at different isolation levels

In case we use standard convention in which current flowing out from a

positive terminal of any energy source is always taken as positive and apply the
same convention on a solar cell, the current and voltage characteristic can be
redrawn with suitable modification as shown in Figure 3.36, and
mathematically the current voltage relationship can be written as follows:

⁄
[ ]

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Current voltage characteristics of solar cell and maximum power point (Pm)

Efficiency of Solar Cells

Energy conversion efficiency (h) is defined as the ratio of power output of
cell (in watts) at its maximum power point (PMAX) and the product of input
light power (E, in W/m2) and the surface area of the solar cell (S in m2) under
standard conditions
η= maximum output power/(irradiance × area) = PMAX/(E × S)
The performance of a photovoltaic device defines the prediction of the
power that the cell will produce. Current–voltage (I–V) relationships, which
measure the electrical characteristics of solar cell devices, are represented by I–
V curves. These I–V curves are obtained by exposing the cell to a constant level
of light while maintaining a constant cell temperature, varying the resistance of
the load, and measuring the current that is produced.
By varying the load resistance from zero (a short circuit) to infinity (an
open circuit), researchers can determine the highest efficiency as the point at
which the cell delivers maximum power. The power is the product of voltage
and current. Therefore, on the I–V curve, the maximum power point (PMAX)
occurs where the product of current and voltage is a maximum. No power is
produced at the short-circuit current with no voltage or at open-circuit voltage
with no current.
Therefore, the maximum power generated is expected to be somewhere
between these two points. Maximum power is generated at only one place on
the power curve, at about the „knee‟ of the curve. This point represents the
maximum efficiency of the solar device at converting sunlight into electricity.

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Fill Factor
Another term defining the overall behavior of a solar cell is the fill factor
(FF). It is a measure of squareness of the I–V characteristics of the solar cell
and is defined as
FF = Maximum output power/(open-circuit voltage × short-circuit current)
It is the available power at the maximum power point (PMAX) divided by the
product of open circuit voltage (VOC) and short-circuit current (ISC) as
FF = PMAX/(VOC × ISC) = (VMP × IMP)/(VOC × ISC)
where VMP and IMP are the voltage and current at the maximum power point.
The above equation can be redefined as,
FF = (h × S × E)/(VOC × ISC)

Factors Limiting the Efficiency of the Cell

1. Wavelength of solar spectrum: Cell response to only a portion of wavelength

available in the solar spectrum. Photon with wavelength >1.1 μm does not have
sufficient energy to create electron–hole pair in silicon cell.

2. Temperature: Normal operating temperature of silicon cells can reach 60°C

in peak sunlight and these temperature decreases the efficiency of the cells.
Therefore, it is important to provide heat sinks of the best quality available.
Gallium arsenide cells are capable of operating at high temperature where
focused energy can be used.

3. Mounting of the cells: It should be to a heat sink (usually an aluminium

plate) either heat conductive but electrically insulated. This will reduce
operating temperatures and make the cell more efficient. In case free water
source is available, heat sinks can be water cooled.

4. Arrangement and maintenance of solar cell: The negative side of the cells
usually faces the sun and has antireflection coatings. These coatings should be
protected from dust, bird dropping, by a clear plastic or glass cover.
Accumulated dust on the cover will reduce the output power by about 10%.

5. Position of the cell: The cell or panel should be positioned either facing south
in the north of equator or facing north in the south of equator for maximum
power output and fixed panel applications. The angle off the ground should be
equal to the latitude of the place for year around average or can be changed
monthly to face the sun at noon for more efficiency.

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Photovoltaic Panels (Series and Parallel Arrays)

As single solar cell has a working voltage and current of about 0.5 V and
50 mA, respectively, they are usually connected together in series (positive to
negative) to provide larger voltages. Parallel connection of several strings of
cells will give rise to higher current output compared with single series string of
cells.
Photovoltaic panels (as shown in Fig) are made in a wide range of sizes
for different purposes. They generally fall into one of three basic categories:
Low voltage or low power panels are made by connecting between 3 and
12 small segments of amorphous silicon photovoltaic with a total area of a few
square centimetres for voltages between 1.5 and 6 V and outputs of a few
milliwatts. Although each of these panels is very small, the total production is
large. They are used mainly in watches, clocks and calculators, cameras, and
devices for sensing light and dark, such as night lights.
Small panels of 1–10 W and 3–12 V, with areas from 100 cm2 to 1,000
cm2 are made by either cutting 100 cm2 single or polycrystalline cells into
pieces and joining them in series, or by using amorphous silicon panels. The
main uses are for radios, toys, small pumps, electric fences, and trickle
charging of batteries.
Large panels, ranging from 10 to 60 W, and generally either 6 or 12 V,
with areas of 1,000 cm2 to 5,000 cm2 are usually made by connecting from 10
to 36 full-sized cells in series. They are used either separately for small pumps
and caravan power (lights and refrigeration) or in arrays to provide power for
houses, communications, pumping, and remote area power supplies (RAPS).
If the load resistance is very low, the cell acts as if it is shortened at the
output of light falling on it. If the load resistance is very high, the cell acts as if
it is open-circuited and the voltage rises very rapidly to maximum voltage. The
current at a voltage is limited by the amount of sunlight and load resistance.
This characteristic is ideal for charging battery.
For charging, a 12 V battery by a 2 cm × 2 cm (0.3 V battery charging
voltage), silicon cells required = 12/0.3 = 40 cells in series string.
A number of optimal solar array designs are available. However, the
arrangement of series–parallel array has been most preferable, as it results in
optimal performance characteristic under many conditions including shading,
cell failure, non-uniform illumination, and unequal I–V characteristics.
A diode is placed in series with the positive terminal of battery as shown
in Figure. This will prevent reverse current flow (a small battery drain) when
the cells are not receiving sufficient light to chary battery.

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Number of Solar Cell Required in Series

Solar cells must be electrically connected in series to provide the bus
voltage (VB) to the space craft load or batteries and any voltage drops in the
blocking diodes (VD) and in the wiring (Vw).
The required number of cells (NS) in series is calculated as
NS = (VB + VD + Vw)/VMP
VMP = solar cell voltage at maximum power (or battery charging voltage)
under operating temperature and intensity. For silicon diode, VD = 0.7 V

Number of Solar Cell in Parallel Strings

Let NP be the number of parallel strings; IL is the load current; and IMP
is the current corresponding to maximum power point on I–V plot. Therefore,
NP = (the load current)/(current corresponding to maximum power point on I–V
plot.
NP = IL / IMP

Maximum Power Point Tracking

MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in
charge controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV
module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce
maximum power is called „maximum power point‟ (or peak power voltage).
Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar
cell temperature.

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A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC

converter that optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and
the battery bank or utility grid. To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage
DC output from solar panels (and a few wind generators) down to the lower
voltage needed to charge batteries.
Several algorithms were proposed to accomplish MPPT controller.
Published MPPT methods include:
(1) Perturb and Observe (PAO) ,
(2) Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT), and
(3) Constant Reference Voltage/Current.

1. Perturb and Observe (PAO):

Perturb-and-observe (P&O) method, also known as perturbation
method is a type of MPPT algorithm. The concept behind the “perturb and
observe” method is to modify the operating voltage or current of the
photovoltaic panel until you obtain maximum power from it. It is often referred
to as hill climbing method, because they depend on the fact that on the left
side of the MPP, the curve is rising (dP/dV > 0) while on the right side of the
MPP the curve is falling (dP/dV < 0). Perturb and observe is the most
commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation. Perturb and
observe method may result in top-level efficiency, provided that a proper
predictive and adaptive hill climbing strategy is adopted.

Algorithm:
The voltage to a cell is increased initially. If the output power increases,
the voltage is continually increased till the output power starts decreasing.
Once the output power starts decreasing, the voltage to the cell is decreased till
maximum power is reached. This process is continued till the MPP is attained.
This results in an oscillation of the output power around the MPP.

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Drawback:
One of the major drawbacks of the perturb and observe method is that
under steady state operation, the output power oscillates around the maximum
power point.
This algorithm can track wrongly under rapidly varying irradiation
conditions.

2. Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT):

Incremental conductance (INC) method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This
method utilizes the incremental conductance (dI/dV) of the photovoltaic array
to compute the sign of the change in power with respect to voltage (dP/dV). INC
method provides rapid MPP tracking even in rapidly changing irradiation
conditions with higher accuracy than the Perturb and observe method.
Algorithm:
The power-voltage curve's slope is null at the MPP, negative to the right
of the MPP and positive to the left of the MPP. INC computes the maximum
power point by comparison of the incremental conductance (ΔI/ΔV) to the
instantaneous conductance (I/V). When the incremental conductance is zero,
the output voltage is ascertained to be the MPP voltage and fixed at this voltage
until the MPP encounters a change due to the change in irradiation conditions.
Then the process above is repeated until a new maximum power point is
reached.

Advantage:
This technique has an advantage over the perturb and observe method
because it can stop and determine when the Maximum Power Point is reached
without having to oscillate around this value.
It can perform Maximum Power Point Tracking under rapidly varying
irradiation conditions with higher accuracy than the perturb and observe
method.

Drawback:
It can produce oscillations and can perform erratically under rapidly
changing atmospheric conditions.
The computational time is increased due to slowing down of the sampling
frequency resulting from the higher complexity of the algorithm compared to
the P&O method.

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3. Constant Reference Voltage/Current:

Constant voltage method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This method
makes use of the fact that the ratio of maximum power point voltage and the
open circuit voltage is 0.76. It is the simplest MPPT control method.

Algorithm:
The operating point of the PV array is kept near the MPP by regulating
the array voltage and matching it to a fixed reference voltage Vref. The Vref
value is set equal to the maximum power point voltage of the characteristic PV
module or to another calculated best fixed voltage. One of the approximations
of this method is that, variations encountered by individual panels need not be
considered as the constant reference voltage can be considered as the
maximum power point voltage. The data for this method varies with
geographical location and has to be processed differently for different
geographical locations. The CV method does not require any input. It is
important to observe that when the PV panel is in low insolation conditions,
the CV technique is more effective than either the P&O method or the IC
method (analyzed below).

Drawback:
The current from the photovoltaic array must be set to zero momentarily
to measure the open circuit voltage and then afterwards set to 76% of the
measured voltage.
Energy is wasted during the time time the current is set to zero.
The approximation setting the voltage to 76% of the measured voltage is not
accurate.

Application of Solar Cell Systems

Solar Water Pumps
There are more than 10,000 solar powered water pumps in use in the
world today. They are widely used on farms to supply water to livestock. In
developing countries, they are used extensively to pump water from wells and
rivers to villages for domestic consumption and irrigation of crops. In solar
water pumping system, the pump is driven by motor run by solar electricity
instead of conventional electricity drawn from utility grid.
A solar photovoltaic water pumping system consists of a photovoltaic
array mounted on a stand and a motor-pump set compatible with the
photovoltaic array. It converts the solar energy into electricity, which is used

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for running the motor pump set. The pumping system draws water from the
open well, bore well, stream, pond, canal, etc.

Solar Vehicle
It is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar
energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the
sun‟s energy directly into electric energy. The term „solar vehicle‟ usually
implies that solar energy is used to power all or part of a vehicle‟s propulsion.
Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications or controls
or other auxiliary functions.

Solar Lanterns
When the Petromax-type solar lantern is plugged into a solar
photovoltaic cell, its rechargeable battery stores the electricity produced so that
it can be used to light home or power a radio. When fully charged, the lantern
will give light for 4 to 5 h, and the radio will run for 15 h. If both are used
simultaneously, the listening and lamp time will be shorter.

Solar Panels on Spacecraft

Spacecraft operating in the inner solar system usually rely on the use of
photovoltaic solar panels to derive electricity from sunlight. In the outer solar
system, where the sunlight is too weak to produce sufficient power,
radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) are used as a power source.

Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems

These are power systems energized by photovoltaic panels that are
connected to the utility grid. Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems
comprise photovoltaic panels, battery charging regulators, solar inverters,
power conditioning units, and grid-connected equipments. When conditions are
right, the grid-connected PV system supplies the excess power, beyond
consumption by the connected load, to the utility grid. Residential grid-
connected photovoltaic power systems that have a capacity less than 10 kW
can meet the load of most consumers. It can feed excess power to the grid,
which, in this case, acts as a battery for the system.

Cathodic Protection Systems

Cathodic protection is a method of protecting metal structures from
corrosion. It is applicable to bridges, pipelines, buildings, tanks, wells, and
railway lines. To achieve cathodic protection, a small negative voltage is applied

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to the metal structure and this prevents it from oxidizing or rusting. The
positive terminal of the source is connected to a sacrificial anode that is
generally a piece of scrap metal, which corrodes instead of the structure.
Photovoltaic solar cells are often used in remote locations to provide this
voltage.

Rural Electrification
Storage batteries are widely used in remote areas to provide low-voltage
electrical power for lighting and communications as well as for vehicles. A
photovoltaic-powered battery charging system usually consists of a small solar
cell array and a charge controller. These systems are widely used in rural
electrification projects in developing countries.

Water Treatment Systems

In remote areas, electric power is often used to disinfect or purify
drinking water. Photovoltaic cells are used to power a strong ultraviolet light
that can be used to kill bacteria in drinking water. This can be combined with a
solar-powered water pumping system. Desalination of brackish water can be
achieved via PV-powered reverse osmosis systems.

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Question & Answers

PART – A
1. Define Solar Irradiation
Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing through the
earth‟s atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation. The terrestrial
radiation expressed as energy per unit time per unit area (i.e. W/m2) is
known as Solar Irradiation.
2. Define Solar Insolation.
The term Solar Insolation (incident solar radiation) is defined as solar
radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time (in
J/m2 or kWh/m2)
3. Write the Expression for Solar Constant.
Iext=[1+0.033cos(360n/365)] W/m2
4. Define Latitude.
The latitude of a location on earth‟s surface is the angle made by radial
line, joining the given location to the centre of the earth, with its
projection on the equator plane. The latitude is positive for northern
hemisphere and negative for southern hemisphere.
5. Define declination.
It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from the plane of
earth‟s equator.
6. Define Zenith Angle,
It is the angle between sun‟s ray and perpendicular (normal) to the
horizontal plane
7. Define solar Azimuth Angle.
It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and
the projection of sun‟s ray on the horizontal plane. It is taken as +ve
when measured from south towards west.
8. Name some of the Instruments used for solar rotation measurements.
Pyranometer, Pyrheliometer and Sunshine recorder
9. What are heliostats?
Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a two-axis tracking
system which ensures that the incident sunlight is reflected towards a
certain target point throughout the day.
10. List the components of Heliostats.
The reflector surface (e.g. mirrors, mirror facets, other sunlight-
reflecting surfaces)
A sun-tracking system provided with drive motors foundations and
control electronics.

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11. List the types of receiver used in solar tower plant.

Water/steam receiver, Salt receiver, Open volumetric air receiver and
Closed (pressurized) air receivers
12. What is solar pond?
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size,
that looks like a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large,
salty lake as a kind of a flat plate collector that absorbs and stores
energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers of the pond. These
ponds can be natural or man-made, but generally speaking the solar
ponds that are in operation today are artificial.
13. List the components of solar pond.
Pond collector
Heat Exchangers
Thermal Engine
14. Disadvantages of Solar Pond.
Relatively low temperatures achieved in these ponds.
Solar-to-electricity conversion is fairly inefficient - generally less than
2%.
As well, large amounts of fresh water are necessary to maintain the
right salt concentrations all through the pond. This is an issue in
places where fresh water is hard to come by, especially in desert
environments.
15. Mention the Types of solar cells.
(1)single crystal silicon solar cell,
(2)polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell,
(3)cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cell,
(4)copper indium diselenide cell
(5)gallium arsenide cell.
16. Define the efficiency of solar cell
Energy conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio of power output of
cell (in watts) at its maximum power point (PMAX) and the product of
input light power (E, in W/m2) and the surface area of the solar cell (S
in m2) under standard conditions
η= maximum output power/(irradiance × area) = PMAX/(E × S)
17. Define Fill Factor.
It is a measure of squareness of the I–V characteristics of the solar cell
and is defined as
FF = Maximum output power/(open-circuit voltage × short-circuit
current)

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18. List some of the applications of Solar system.

Power Generation, Water Pumping, Solar Vehicles, Solar aircraft and
Rural electrification.

PART – B
1. What are the main problems associated with use of salt hydrate as
phase change storage media?
2. What are the basic features required in an ideal pyranometer?
3. Describe thermal energy storage system of solar energy.
4. Define solar irradiance, solar constant, extraterrestrial and terrestrial
radiations. What is the standard value of solar constant?
5. Explain the depletion process of solar radiation as it passes through the
atmosphere to reach at the surface of the earth.
6. Define the terms: altitude angle, incident angle, zenith angle, solar
azimuth angle, latitude angle, declination angle, and hour angle.
7. Explain the construction and principle of operation of a sunshine
recorder
8. Describe the working of solar thermal power plant.
9. Describe the working of central receiver or tower power plant.
10. Explain the principle of working of solar pond.
11. With the help of schematic diagram, explain the working of solar pond
electric power plant
12. Write short notes on V-I characteristics on PV cell.
13. Explain the types of PV Cell.
14. Discuss the types of PV system.

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