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“CompTIA A+ 220-1001 Study Notes”

Complete Book
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Table of Content
1.0 Mobile Devices

1.1 – Given a scenario, install and configure laptop hardware and components.
1.2 – Given a scenario, install components within the display of a laptop.
1.3 – Given a scenario, use appropriate laptop features.
1.4 – Compare and contrast characteristics of various types of other mobile devices.
1.5 – Given a scenario, connect and configure accessories and ports of other mobile
devices.

1.6 – Given a scenario, configure basic mobile device network connectivity and
application support.
1.7 – Given a scenario, use methods to perform mobile device synchronization.
2.0 Networking

2.1 Compare and contrast TCP and UDP ports, protocols, and their purposes
2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware devices
2.3 Given a scenario, install and configure a basic wired/wireless SOHO network
2.4 Compare and contrast wireless networking protocols
2.5 Summarize the properties and purposes of services provided by networked hosts
2.6 Explain common network configuration concepts

2.7 Compare and contrast Internet connection types, network types, and their
features
2.8 Given a scenario, use appropriate networking tools
3.0 Hardware

3.1 Explain basic cable types, features, and their purposes.

3.2 Identify common connector types.
3.3 Given a scenario, install RAM types.
3.4 Given a scenario, select, install and configure storage devices.
3.5 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, CPUs, and add-on cards.
3.6 Explain the purposes and uses of various peripheral types.
3.7 Summarize power supply types and features.
3.8 Given a scenario, select and configure appropriate components for a custom PC
configuration to meet customer specifications or needs.

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3.9 Given a scenario, install and configure common devices.

3.10 Given a scenario, configure SOHO multifunction devices/printers and settings.
3.11 Given a scenario, install and maintain various print technologies.
4.0 Virtualization and Cloud Computing

4.1 Compare and contrast cloud computing concepts.

4.2 Given a scenario, set up and configure client-side virtualization.
5.0 Hardware and Network Troubleshooting
5.1 Given a scenario, use the best practice methodology to resolve problems.
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems related to motherboards, RAM, CPUs,
and power.
5.3 Given a scenario, troubleshoot hard drives and RAID arrays.
5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot video, projector, and display issues.
5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common mobile device issues while adhering to
the appropriate procedures.
5.6 Given a scenario, troubleshoot printers.
5.7 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common wired and wireless network problems.
We will cover the given content in the following order:
 Hardware
 Mobile devices
 Networking
 Virtualization and cloud computing
 Hardware and network troubleshooting

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3.0 Hardware
3.1 Explain basic cable types, their features, and their purpose.

Beginning with fiber optics, there is a good deal of material you will be exposed to. In this
objective, the content will be more specification oriented and will cover questions such as:

- What is the maximum cable length? And

- What speeds does cable X support?
Twisted Pair
Here, we look at the foundation and in many cases, the best solution, for your connections.
Most of this is worth knowing for your general working knowledge base as well as for the
test.
All of the following cable tables consist of some form of twisted pair cable. Cables can be
broken into two classes: shielded twisted pair (STP) and unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

UTP vs STP

The difference between the two cable types is in the internal construction of the cable,
specifically the amount of insulation or shielding surrounding each internal cable pair. Each
internal pair is twisted using a specified number of twists per inch. This reduces the
possibility of the pairs being parallel to each other and prevents crosstalk.
Types
CAT3 –
Used in the early days, twisted pair implementations of this type use up to six wires or
conductors. The most common use of CAT3 is the telephone which uses two pairs for each
phone connection. This means the cable itself can support two phone lines.

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CAT5 –
Getting harder to find and no longer installed, this cable rating uses four pairs and can
support up to 100Mbps transmission speeds with a maximum cable length of 100 meters
(328 feet). You can get higher speeds in real world applications but for the purpose of A+,
remember the specification described here.
CAT5e –
This cable is known as CAT5 Enhanced where the enhancement refers to reduced crosstalk.
This doesn’t sound like a big deal until you look at the speed improvement. How does 10
times faster sound? CAT5e supports gigabit ethernet (1000Mbps)! This can be attributed to
a stricter attention to the number of twists per inch in the pairs. Remember, your hardware
has to support the speed. It’s not a magic cable. CAT5e supports 1Gbps with a maximum
cable length of 90 meters (295 feet).
CAT6 –

OK now we’re cooking! CAT6 supports 10Gbps at a frequency of 250 MHz. These speeds can
be attributed to a further reduction in crosstalk. While maintaining the same external RJ-45
form, the connector and cable are engineered to further isolate the cables from each other,
resulting in the higher throughput.

The wires are arranged in the connector to allow a slight, yet significant separation
compared with CAT5 wires, which run straight, horizontal, and adjacent to each other. As
you know, parallel cables will practically guarantee crosstalk. The maximum length for a
CAT6 is 90 meters with an additional 10 meters for a patch cable.
CAT6e –

This enhancement doubles the transmission frequency to 500 MHz and restores the
traditional segment length to 100 meters (328 feet). This is technically not a standard but
CAT6e is widely recognized and observed.
CAT7 –
This performance standard increases the transmission frequency to 600 MHz and provides a
more reliable and durable cable than its predecessors. CAT7 wraps the entire insulated pair
with an additional layer, wrapping the whole cable bundle to provide an additional layer of
shielding.

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Coaxial
RG 6 cable

RG-6 (Radio Grade-6) cables have a variety of uses although they are used mainly in
communication. Construction can vary somewhat by the manufacturer, but all RG-6 cables
consist of a solid copper core encased in a plastic insulating sleeve, which is then covered by
a wire mesh (sometimes foil) that insulates the cable from noise and provides grounding. All
of this is contained inside a plastic jacket. On RG-6 and RG-59 cables, an F-type connector is
used to terminate the connection. RG-6 is becoming the preferred cable type for cable
television (CATV) installations.

RG 59 Cable

RG-59 (Radio Grade-59) coaxial cables were once heavily used in CATV installations. The
construction is identical to the RG-6 except the RG-59 uses a thinner core. The RG
numbering system uses decreasing numbers to represent the size of the cores, making the
RG-6 considerably thicker than the RG-59. Both cable types use F-type terminators.

This device will also split a cable. There are a few configurations available depending on
your needs. However as you know, there is always a caveat. If you are splitting RJ-45, there
should be no decrease in performance since you have 8 wires available and the connection
will use 4 wires (normal) for the first PC and the other 4 for the second.

However, there will be a problem if you split an RG-6 or RG-59 coaxial (TV) connection. The
splitter will split the speed evenly to each device. Depending on the amount of signal you
have to begin with, one split generally isn’t a problem. However, your next split will take the
50% it receives and send 25% each to the downline devices. Image quality or performance
issues may arise at this point.

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Cable Jackets
Safety is your number one concern when running network cabling. This concerns not only
the usual such as dangling cables or running too close to power lines, but also the materials
you are using. The construction of the network cable you are running is something you may
not consider, but when examining cables you will find that the outer sheath generally
consists of one or two types of material, PVC (Polyvinylchloride) or Plenum grade.

Incorrect usage of these two types could result in you having to rewire your entire
installation. PVC is cheaper and is perfectly suitable for patch cables and exposed wiring, but
once you run inside a dropped ceiling or any location that moves air, plenum grade cabling
is required by most states.
PVC releases toxic fumes when ignited and it is easily combustible. Plenum cable is less
flammable than PVC and mandatory wherever ventilation is present. Plenum cable will be
clearly marked.
Fiber Optic

Fiber optic transmissions use pulses of lights for signalling which are then sent over plastic
or glass strands. The glass medium (fiber) is susceptible to breakage and signal loss if it is
bent over a certain radius which is dependent on the thickness of the fiber. Fiber optic cable
should never be coiled tightly.

Fiber detail
The fiber core is protected using a plastic sheath wrapped in synthetic strength fibers, which
give the cable resistance to breakage. A plastic outer sheath completes the wire. If there is
any concern about moisture seeping into the cable, a synthetic gel is used to fill any gaps
and protect the fiber.
Connector Types
We will discuss the connector types covered in your objectives. The benefits of using Fiber
optic cable versus copper are plentiful. Each connector can be configured to use single-
mode or multimode.
A few major benefits are shown below:
- Fiber has a broader bandwidth and is capable of handling more discrete channels at
a higher speed.
- Fiber is immune to electromagnetic interference which cause signal degradation.

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- Fiber suffers less signal loss (attenuation) over distance.

- Fiber cannot be “tapped” providing increased security over copper.
ST – Straight Tip

The ST (Straight Tip) connector is one of the longstanding connector types. You will see this
in the field and you should be able to recognize it on sight.

Helpful identification points to remember are the BNC type connector and the straight tip
on the fiber.
SC – Subscriber Connector
The SC (Subscriber Connector) has also been in use for some time and is a very reliable and
stable snap-in connector that offers low signal loss along with ease of use. You may
sometimes see this connector referred to as a standard connector or a square connector
because of its shape.
LC – Lucent Connector
The LC connector is a newer design relative to the others. You may see it referred to as a
Local Connector, Lucent Connector, or even a Little Connector. The main advantage of this
connector is its size. The LC connector is about half the size of the SC connector but
otherwise completely comparable.

SC – Subscriber Connector LC – Lucent Connector

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Twisted Pair Connectors and Ethernet Wiring

Now we’ll look at the copper network cable types. Once the most exhaustive connection
method you would need to know for A+, the 802.3 series of cables are now being replaced
by Fiber and Wireless. Nevertheless, 802.3 cables are still heavily used in the field with many
networks running RJ-45 and wireless networks covering the same areas. We will now look at
the two main twisted pair implementations: RJ-11 and RJ-45. Here is how the connectors
compare.

T – 568 A & B detail for CompTIA A+ 220-1001

Changes in network hardware have made it possible for this connector to reach speeds of
100Mbps. As the technology has advanced, even greater speeds can be attained by making
enhancements to the internal configuration of the connector and the cable while leaving the
original shape and size of the connector unchanged.
Coaxial
Another network cable option is Thinnet or the RG-58 variant.
RG-58

This 10BASE2 connector and cable were harder to manage than its 10BASET cousin. It used
BNC connectors and a somewhat less manageable shielded copper core cable. RG-58
matched the 10Mbps speed and had a longer range, but it was difficult to implement the
required bus topology and required a T connection at each host, along with termination at
the cable ends, to prevent signal reflection.
F- Connector
Your objectives call for knowledge of the F-Type connector.

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This connector is not as much a network connector as it is a video connector. Your Home
Media Center PC will require this connector in order to connect your cable or antenna
system to it.

An RG-6 cable uses an F-type connector. It is similar to BNC, however the F-type connector
screws onto the component, creating a connection where a failure point will most likely be
the cable itself rather than at the connection point. The connection is strong and extremely
unlikely to pull out.
Video Cables
We’ll discuss display connector types and cables. When using today’s PCs, the flat panel
monitor is the way to go. When working in the field however, you will encounter a mix of
older CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors and TFT (Thin Film Transistor) flat panels which have
a clear crisp resolution and deep rich colours.

Most of the improvements you see in monitors today are the result of the greater number
of pixels in the display combined with the tens of thousands of colors each individual pixel
can produce. The color bit depth of the earliest monitors, or the number of colors the
monitor can display, was 16 which was pretty good for 1984.
But now each individual pixel can produce over 16.5 million colors, making graphics look
beautiful, realistic, and lifelike. So what does this have to do with connectors? When you
think about it, the original monitors were monochromatic and as a result, didn’t have a
heavy data load. These early monitors would only need to show mostly text and one color
over black. As the display complexity increased, new interfaces were designed to support
the increased amount of data.
DVI D – I – A

We will discuss the connectors that you need to know. We’ll look first at the DVI connector
and cable. This connector comes in three configurations and is capable of carrying digital
signals, analog signals, or both depending on the type. DVI-D carries digital signals only, DVI-
A carries analog signals only, and DVI-I carries digital and/or analog signals.
VGA (HD15), RCA, & BNC

The naming of the VGA connector has been updated to include HD-15 or DB-15, signifying
the high density capabilities of the connector and the cable. VGA is a 15-pin male connector
although some older, high-end PCs used 5 BNC coaxial connectors, with each BNC cable
carrying one color or synchronization signal, to improve picture quality.

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RCA cables have been used to carry analog component video.

Display Port & mini-HDMI

The DisplayPort interface and cable are designed to replace the older VGA and DVI
connections. An interesting note is that on a DisplayPort adapter, you will often find a VGA
or DVI interface on it for flexibility.

The newest video interface introduced is HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface). This
evolution of video controller is also capable of carrying device control information to
compatible devices, allowing you to control your video player, game system, monitor, and
multichannel audio amplifier through a single device via the HDMI connector. The HDMI
connector and cable are available in two configurations, standard and mini-HDMI (these are
compared in the table). Often, you will find the standard HDMI connector on a PC or
monitor and the mini-HDMI connector on a camera or gaming system.
Thunderbolt

Currently we have USB 3.0, running at 5Gbps, which is fast! However, faster still is the
Thunderbolt card connection. For a time, Thunderbolt was only available to Mac users.
Fortunately, Thunderbolt is available to all. Thunderbolt takes advantage of its low-latency/
high-bandwidth design to achieve theoretical speeds of 20 Gb/sec, through two channels,
although your mileage may vary. This technology has been crucial to the 4K/UHD revolution.
The 4K/2K maximum resolution is 4096 x 2160 and is the maximum resolution of 4K Ultra
HD. 4K Ultra HD should be seen to be fully appreciated as it is similar to your first HD TV
experience, but times FOUR!!!

Display cable types

For the A+ test, you will be expected to know about the following cable types. You will also
need to be able to identify the pre-USB mouse and keyboard connectors that use the mini-
DIN 6-pin connector.

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PC connector types and cables

Multipurpose cables
A dongle is a connector that allows a peripheral device to connect with other devices. An
example is an RJ-45 dongle that has PC compatible connectors. Shown below is an RJ-45-to-
Thunderbolt dongle that we’ll discuss later. It might be a little hard to make out but notice
the small Thunderbolt logo on top of the smaller connector to the PC.

Thunderbolt Ethernet Adapter by Apple

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When Wi-Fi was still a novelty for the average consumer, Wi-Fi dongles permitted Wi-Fi
access to devices that didn’t originally have it. When 802.11b devices needed to be
upgraded to 802.11g or 802.11n, Wi-Fi dongles were used to accomplish this.

Bluetooth adaptation is another area where rather than buying a new laptop, a user can
simply add a Bluetooth dongle. For Mac users, there is a USB alternative through
the DisplayPort.
Here is a full-size look at a laptop’s DisplayPort.

Display port
Technically, the Mini-DisplayPort is still a dongle in the general sense of the term. The
DisplayPort interface allows ultra-high resolution, 3D, and data connectivity but not sound
as of this current version of the test objectives.
During the lifespan of DisplayPort, another high resolution technology called Thunderbolt
was released. To avoid confusion, Thunderbolt connectors were designed to support all the
features of DisplayPort. When connected, Thunderbolt has the advantage of chaining
Thunderbolt devices together through a single interface.

The Thunderbolt data transfer rate exceeds USB 3.0 and FireWire 800. The Thunderbolt
(PCI-Express) signalling uses two dedicated channels which provide isolation for the send
and receive signals. While being physically identical to the DisplayPort, the Thunderbolt
connector and port can be identified by the Thunderbolt logo present on both the
connector and the port.
Device cables and connectors
SATA & e-SATA connectors
This connection uses Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) for internal drive
connections such as hard disks and optical drives. SATA is the replacement for Parallel ATA
(PATA) which was the preceding primary drive connection method. Because of its flexibility,
the SATA interface can connect externally to the machine using an eSATA port.

In the table, you can see the internal SATA data and power connectors. Many SATA devices
ship with a MOLEX-to-SATA adapter cable for power. E-SATA connects external devices. You
can distinguish SATA from eSATA by noting the L-shaped SATA connector. The eSATA
connector has a straight rectangular interface and an external rib on each side of the plug
which prevents improper insertion.

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USB Connectors
Next we see USB and the various cable configurations. First is the USB A Male connector
which is the machine end of a standard USB 1.0-to-2.0 cable. The USB 3.0 cable end will be
identical in size and shape, but is coloured blue to differentiate it from the older versions.
USB extension cables are available and will have a USB A Male connector on one end and a
USB A Female on the other end.

On a standard USB 1.0-to-2.0 cable, the devices will connect using a USB B Male connector.
As the selection of USB connectable devices grew, these devices also became smaller which
called for a new, smaller connection type. For example, the USB A connector ended up
being larger than the new cell phones and tablets that it needed to connect to.
These smaller connectors started with the Mini A connection which have been deprecated
in favor of the Micro connection. The Micro connection is half the height of the Mini,
making the Micro connectors 1.8mm high.
Table 1: Device cables and connectors

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Identify Device Cables & connectors

Note:
The IDE connector (aka PATA) is a legacy hard disk connector. Newer PCs will not have this
connection type. If you are dealing with an older machine, you will need to recognize the
cable as shown below.

IDE or Parallel ATA connector

Adapters and converters
USB A to USB B & USB to Ethernet
In this section, we will look at the adapters and converters that can be used to modify the
connection type from one to another. You will find two basic configurations: one single
adapter where each end has the desired connector and the other configuration where both
connections are attached to a short length of cable (a dongle).

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Adapters and converters are extremely useful, with USB type adapters and converters being
the most common. You can find a USB adapter or converter to modify practically anything.
Consider a one piece USB adapter that converts an RJ-45 Ethernet cable to USB. A little
device like this can save you from having to replace the hardware in a desktop or can help
you add functionality to a machine that does not have an Ethernet adapter.
One of the earliest adapters of this type was the PS/2-to-USB adapter. This came with new
(at the time) mice, allowing you to connect a USB mouse via your PS/2 connection. During
this time, USB ports were uncommon and if you had USB capability on your machine, you
probably only had two ports.
If you need to change the “gender” of a USB port, it is possible using the USB B-to-A Adapter
which is shown in the table below. This helps if you need to connect to a USB B device and,
like most of us, have a cable collection consisting of only USB A cables. You will be all set
with no loss in capability or performance! This is also indispensable if you need to add
length to an existing cable.
DVI to HDMI and to VGA & Thunderbolt to DVI
Now we’ll move onto video converters and adapters. There is no shortage of video
converters and adapters although your only real concern is to not send digital signals over
an analog connection. This is not really an issue for the most part as the signal is converted
before transmission and these adapters are not manufactured. This is a good way to
differentiate between these components.
An adapter is a component that basically rewires the connection from one pin configuration
and shape to the desired pinout and shape. A converter adapts the configuration AND
modifies the electrical properties of the signal being carried to the desired format.

For example, DVI-to-VGA is an area where the digital versus analog issue will present itself.
VGA uses analog signalling whereas DVI is capable of either. You have to be careful. The VGA
(or DE-15) interface is an analog-only connection type and digital signals are not handled.
Make sure you have a DVI-A connection which is analog only or as a second choice, DVI-I
which is integrated to carry either digital or analog.
In the latter case, look at to the graphics adapter settings to be sure. That aside, all you need
is the little adapter shown below. There are also digital-to-analog and vice-versa converters
available should you find yourself stuck.
Next, let’s consider DVI to HDMI. These data formats are compatible although DVI is unable
to carry the audio signal.
Next, let’s consider HDMI to VGA. Since we’ve established that VGA is analog and that HDMI
is digital, a converter is needed as you can see by the small brick at the cable end of the
image. However, it gets the job done!
The last entry in our list of goodies is the Thunderbolt-to-DVI adapter. This is an interesting
case because of the multiport compatibility between the Thunderbolt interface and the
MiniDisplayPort (mDP).

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These two interfaces are very closely designed and are almost, but not completely,
interchangeable. Thunderbolt uses the same connector as the mDP and for the purposes of
this comparison, the differences are insignificant. Since the DVI connection and the
Thunderbolt/mDP connection are both digital, only an adapter is necessary. No converter is
needed.
Table 2: Adapters and converters

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Identify Adapters and converters

3.2 Identify common connector types.
Twisted Pair Connectors and Ethernet Wiring

Now we’ll look at the copper network cable types. Once the most exhaustive connection
method you would need to know for A+, the 802.3 series of cables are now being replaced
by Fiber and Wireless. Nevertheless, copper network cables are still heavily used in the field
with many networks running RJ-45 and wireless networks covering the same areas. Here we
will look at the two main twisted pair implementations, RJ-11 and RJ-45.

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Here is how the connectors compare.

RJ-11

This connector supported the early 10BASE-T networks and Voice Grade telephone
connections with 6-pin capability. While still used in telephone implementations, RJ-11 has
been surpassed in networking by RJ-45which will be described later. RJ-11 supports speeds
of 10Mbps, which is adequate for voice, but highly inefficient for networking which can
attain speeds of 1000Mbps.

RJ-45
This connector succeeded RJ-11 for network use. RJ-45 uses four twisted pairs of wire
configured to reduce cross-talk and other cable related problems. In its initial configuration,
RJ-45 was capable of matching RJ-11 speeds, 10Mbps, which was the standard for the time.
Keep in mind how the RJ-45 connectors are wired.
There are two dominant wiring pinouts: T-568A and T-568B.

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T – 568 A & B detail

Changes in network hardware made it possible for this connector to reach speeds of
100Mbps. As the technology has advanced, even greater speeds can be attained by making
enhancements to the internal configuration of the connector and the cable while leaving the
original shape and size of the connector unchanged.
Coaxial
Another network cable option is Thinnet or the RG-58 variant.
RG-58 Coaxial
This 10BASE2 connector and cable were harder to manage than its 10BASET cousin. It used
BNC connectors and a somewhat less manageable shielded copper core cable. RG-58
matched the 10Mbps speed and had a longer range, but it was difficult to implement the
required bus topology and required a T connection at each host, along with termination at
the cable ends, to prevent signal reflection.
F- Connector
Your objectives call for knowledge of the F-Type connector. This connector is not as much a
network connector as it is a video connector. Your Home Media Center PC will require this
connector in order to connect your cable or antenna system to it.
F Type
An RG-6 cable uses an F-type connector. It is similar to BNC, however the F connector
screws onto the component, creating a connection where a failure point will most likely be
the cable itself rather than at the connection point. The connection is strong and extremely
unlikely to pull out.
RS-232 / DB-9
The RS-232 cable is used for serial communications. It has a 9-pin configuration and
supports PC to router/switch connections over a null modem cable. Similar legacy serial
connectors can support peripherals such as the mouse.

RS-232 connector

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USB Cable End Details

When looking at the cable ends presented above, the most significant features would be
what you’d expect: shape, color, and size. Changes began with USB 2.0 where the need for a
standard connector for portable devices such as smartphones was apparent.
Before this modification, each manufacturer had to design their own ”B” end of the cable
because the standard connector was twice the size of the device! Eventually, the USB 2.0
mini connector and the USB 2.0 micro connector (see table above) was designed to solve
this issue.

Evolution of the USB Connector

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During the development and enhancement of FireWire, development speeds reached

800Mbps! We found ourselves in the position where market domination was inevitable but
it didn’t happen. What went wrong?
There were two developments that hindered FireWire adoption.
The first, not too surprisingly, was greed. Apple was preparing to impose a $1 per port
royalty on FireWire connections. They eventually opted not to impose the charge but it was
too late as it had left a bitter taste with the consumers.
Second, there was a generation of FireWire only iPods. These new devices would only
accept Fire Wire connections. Customers seeking only to upgrade their music player were
forced to upgrade their computer to FireWire as well! Hmmmmm. This is not one of the
major points but it certainly bears some scrutiny.

When FireWire 800 was developed, there was no consideration for backwards compatibility.
In contrast when USB upgraded from 1.1 to 2.0, compatible connectors were used. For the
end user, this greatly simplified their migration to the new technology.

With the introduction of the USB-C connector, one of the main user complaints about the
USB mini and micro connectors was solved. The shape of mini and micro USB connectors
had a top and a bottom and as a result, these connectors could only be inserted one way.
USB-C connectors are reversible, having upper and lower contacts, and can be inserted
easily without a struggle. USB-C supports the USB 3.0 and USB 3.1 standards. However, USB-
C is not backwards compatible.

USB-C connector
Apple’s proprietary Lightning cable shares the same reversible properties as the USB-C
connector. We can see the port on the device has upper and lower connectors.

Lightning cable and connector

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SCSI
Next, we see a DB-25 external SCSI connector. This connector supports parallel
communication between peripherals and also for RS-232 connections. This cable and
connector can be distinguished by the opposite cable end. A printer will use a Centronics
connector on one end and a DB-25 on the other.

External SCSI DB-25 connector

E-SATA

Because of its flexibility, the SATA interface can connect externally to the machine using an
eSATA port. In the table, you can see the internal SATA Data and power connectors. Many
SATA devices ship with a MOLEX-to-SATA adapter cable for power.

E-SATA connects external devices. You can distinguish the SATA from eSATA by noting the L
shaped SATA connector. The eSATA connector has a straight rectangular interface and an
external rib on each side of the plug. This feature prevents improper insertion.

SATA and eSATA connectors

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Molex-to-SATA Power
Below, you can see a typical Molex-to-SATA power connector. The white Molex connector
supplies power for two SATA devices.

Molex-to-SATA power connector

3.3 Given a scenario, install RAM types.

When you are taking the CompTIA A+ Hardware exam 220-1001, you will need to know the
different types of RAM, their characteristics, and which types are preferable for high-
performance workstations and servers.
What is DDR RAM?
DDR stands for Double Data Rate and it is the standard RAM used in the majority of PCs
today.
There are a few different versions of DDR RAM:

- DDR, which first appeared around 2000.

- DDR2, which doubled the performance of DDR, while using less power.
- DDR3, which doubled the performance of DDR2 while using even less power.
- DDR4, which offers higher clock speeds along with lower latency and power
consumption.
The type of motherboard being used determines the type of RAM that can be installed.
Every DDR version has its own unique notched module shape, preventing installation of DDR
RAM on a motherboard that doesn’t support it.
DIMMs and SODIMMs
DDR RAM comes in two primary physical sizes: DIMMs and SODIMMs. DIMM stands for Dual
In-line Memory Module and SODIMM stands for Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module.

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View of a Dual In-line Memory Module or DIMM

DIMMS are commonly used in desktop computers and servers while SODIMMS are used in
laptop computers.
Exam Tip:
Remember this fact by using the mnemonic DIMMs for Desktops (D for D).

SODIMM

SODIMM in its laptop memory socket

RAM Channels
RAM channels refer to the level of communication between RAM modules and the system’s
memory controller. The greater the number of channels, the more RAM modules the
memory controller can access.

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Most standard PCs are dual-channel compatible, meaning the motherboard has at least two
RAM sockets. Two identical RAM modules must be installed for dual-channel functionality to
work.

Triple-channel motherboards have at least three RAM sockets (or a multiple of three) and
require certain models of CPU such as the Intel Core i7 or Xeon processor. There are also
quad-channel motherboards with four RAM sockets (or a multiple of four).

Triple and quad-channel RAM systems are much more expensive to build and are commonly
reserved for very high-performance servers and workstations.
Parity vs. Non-Parity
Older versions of RAM were available in parity and non-parity types. Parity RAM has the
ability to detect memory-based data errors (but does not correct them) while non-parity
RAM does not have this function.
Parity RAM was made largely obsolete by ECC RAM.
ECC RAM
Error-Correcting Code (ECC) RAM can both detect and correct memory-based data errors.
ECC RAM is commonly used in critical servers where data corruption cannot be tolerated.
ECC RAM is more expensive and requires ECC-supporting motherboards and processors
which are more expensive as well.
3.4 Given a scenario, select, install, and configure storage devices.
Optical Drives/Media Capacity
CD-ROM / CD-RW

CD-ROMs are optical media drives that read round plastic discs which contain an aluminium
or dye coating on one side. This coating contains pits and lands or binary ONs and OFFs. CD-
ROMs are mass produced by music or software distributors and are read-only.

The maximum capacity for a CD-ROM is 700 MB of data or 80 minutes of audio. Don’t forget
to allow 2 seconds between each track if you are cutting it close.

CD-Rs and CD-RWs are writable CD-ROMs. CD-Rs can only be written once while CD-RWs are
rewritable, meaning the data on them can be completely overwritten with new data or the
disc can be erased.

Writing to a writable CD media requires a CD-RW drive. Since these drives use a red laser to
write to the recordable dye in the backing, CD-RW drives are referred to as a burner.

CD-RW drives are most commonly internal devices (PATA / SATA) but can also be quite
useful as a portable device, allowing you to back up data before working on a unit.

You may also see these drives’ write speed expressed as 52x or 48x where the x indicates
the increase in speed.

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Pits and Lands in Optical media

Pits and Lands represent the ones and zeros in binary storage. The raised dots or oblong bits
displayed are the lands and the remaining space on the disc are the pits. This technology is
the same for all optical media. Only the density of the lands varies, allowing for more data
depending on the size and density.
DVD-ROM / DVD-RW / DVD-RW DL

The same principles that apply to CD-ROMs apply to DVD-ROMs, DVD-RWs, and DVD DLs.
The capacity of the DVD disc increased to 4.7 GB. This is accomplished by increasing the
density of the pits and lands while still using a red laser.

It was discovered that the capacity of the DVD-ROM could be doubled to 8.5 GB by using
two layers of recordable dye. The laser can then focus on one layer at a time. All of the DVD
drives discussed will be either internal (PATA / SATA) or external.
Blu-ray

Blu-ray (BD) technology is the highest capacity consumer grade optical technology currently
available. Blu-ray uses a blue laser that has a shorter wavelength than the previous
technologies, allowing for higher density data storage. A Blu-ray disc has a capacity of 25 GB
for a single layer disc and 50 GB for a dual layer disc.
This dramatic capacity increase allowed movie studios to distribute content that wouldn’t
otherwise fit on a DVD. Enhancements such as HD and 3D fit comfortably on a Blu-ray disc
with room for alternate formats and additional features.
BD-R

BD-R is the 25 GB Blu-ray write once recordable disc. Blu-ray recordable discs use the same
speed rating identifiers that were used on CD and DVD technology. For example, a 1x BD-R
writes at roughly 36 Mbps and a 2x at 72 Mbps.

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2x is considered to be the minimum acceptable read speed for viewing BD-ROM movies.
Considering that it would take over 90 minutes for a 1x BD-R to write 25 GB of data, the
need for speed is important.

Also consider that your maximum write speed will be determined by the slowest
component: the drive or the media. You may have a 16x BD-R drive but if your media is
rated at 4x, it is unlikely that you will write at any speed near 16x.

Most Blu-ray devices will be backwards compatible to DVD and CD-ROMs. Considered high
end for PCs, the majority of these devices will be internal and use the SATA 2.0 or higher
connection in order to support the high transfer rates. External BD-R drives are also
available. These predominantly use USB 2.0 and optimally USB 3.0.
BD-RE

BD-RE discs are rewriteable but otherwise, use the same process as BD-R. This is an
advantage even though disc prices are coming down. The write speeds of BD-RE drives are
comparable to that of BD-R but there is some pre-write overhead that takes time. The BD-
RE media must be completely erased and verified before the write process can begin.
Solid-state drives
M2 drives
Solid state drives are highly beneficial in standard form factors such as 2.5”. These drives
can be used to upgrade the performance of laptops with SATA connections.
As consumers wanted smaller and thinner portable devices, the M2 drive addressed the
need by using the PCI Express Mini Card and SATA compatibility. These drives offered the
most storage and fastest speeds while having a much smaller footprint in the device.
NVME – Non-Volatile Memory Express
Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) evolved from the M2 standard and offered even
greater speed.
To get the most from an NVMe drive, use it as the boot device in the system.
NVMe drives use the PCI Express x4 to provide the fastest performance.
Magnetic hard disk drives

Magnetic hard disk drives are the primary storage device for most computers on the market
today. Solid state drives are coming down in price, but you will find the cost per gigabyte is
still the best for the magnetic hard disk.

These drives come in two main physical sizes: the 3.5” PC drive and the 2.5“ drive which is
better suited to portable devices.
Surprisingly, the iPod Classic 160 GB media player contains a magnetic hard disk.

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Inner view of a hard disk drive Seagate Medallist ST33232A

When selecting a drive, consider the form factor and the rotational speed of the disks. 2.5”
disks are power efficient and compact, helping reduce the overall size of portables while
conserving battery life.
5400 rpm

The 2.5” disk is available with two platter rotation speeds. 5400 RPM drives use less energy
and are quieter, but do not offer the faster data rates that can be achieved with a 7200 RPM
drive.
7200 rpm / 10,000 rpm

The 7200 RPM drives on average consume more power. The speed difference will be
tangible when moving large files or using disk intensive programs. 3.5” disks are mainly used
in desktop units. They are available with three rotational speeds: 5400 RPM, 7200 RPM,
and 10,000 RPM. 10,000 RPM drives are more expensive and less power efficient.
When it comes to pure performance in a magnetic storage device using access speed as the
main criteria, the 10, 000 RPM disk will always win. These are used in servers and SAS (Serial
Attached SCSI) devices. In addition to needing a SCSI controller, the penalty for this kind of
performance is heat, noise, and poor comparative energy efficiency.
15,000rpm
15,000 rpm hard disks found their niche in SAS applications. There is some debate as to
whether they are cost efficient in terms of capacity, noise, heat, and power consumption
when compared to SSD drives.
Hybrid
Hybrid drives, or SSHD devices, strike the balance between cost, performance, and capacity.

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By coupling a nominal amount of solid state non-volatile memory with a terabyte or two of
magnetic storage, the time it take to boot and access frequently used program files can be
decreased.

When presented with the option, your system’s firmware will store this data in the hybrid or
cache portion of storage, making it rapidly accessible when you reload the program or even
reboot since the data on the SSD persists without power and will be instantly available.
Flash –
Be sure to write protect these devices when using them portably as the risk of data loss or
virus infection is very real. As the technology progressed, so did the packaging and the
capacity. Since they are small and don’t take too much space, slots for these solid state
memory packages were built directly into laptops, offering safe and efficient portability of
data. Yes, this was before the Cloud. There really is no substitute for having a “hard copy” of
your data and these smaller, more efficient storage mediums continue to proliferate.

Compact Flash and SD

Laptop manufacturers support one or two package types, but not all. The most convenient
solution to this problem of design compatibility was to create a portable USB memory card
reader that would support all types of memory cards such as the one shown below. If you
look closely, you can see that the multi-card reader will accept SD cards, Compact Flash,
Micro-SD, and Mini-SD storage cards. It’s nice to have one of these handy.

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Raid types
This section covers all of the technology associated with RAID. RAID is shorthand for a
Redundant Array of Independent Disks. This technology allows multiple disks to appear as a
single volume. The disks are capable of creating mirrored images of other drives and
maintaining a consistent backup of a particular disk. Some RAID configurations are very fault
tolerant.

RAID assigns different numeric qualities to each level. There is Hardware based RAID and
Software based RAID. The most prevalent are RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 5, and Raid 10. We will
explain below what makes them different. There is another RAID array, called JBOD or Just a
Bunch of Disks, that only requires two or more disks and the data is spanned across them.
This array has no fault tolerance or redundancy. The most prevalent RAID array
configurations are explained below.
RAID 0
RAID 0 uses two or more drives and is used to increase the size of the volume available. The
data on the volume is treated sequentially and will be written across all drives in the array.
There is no parity. If a drive in the array fails, the volume fails.
RAID 1
RAID 1 also requires two disks to be paired together. You would think that using identical
hardware, combining the drives would double the volume size. With mirroring this is not the
case. In RAID 1, the second drive is used as a mirror. When you write data to the mirrored
set, you write to both of the drives at the same time and read requests can be handled by
either drive.
RAID 5
RAID 5 arrays are quite special, especially in the way they store and manage data. The
minimum requirement is three physical disks. In this configuration, there is a performance
and fault tolerance and an increase in speed through the use of parity. When data is written,
it is spread across the available drives except the parity drive. Each disk will contain both
parity and standard data. If a drive fails, there is enough information to completely rebuild
the drives in minutes, not hours that a backup based restore would take.
Raid 10

RAID 10 is the most recent RAID development and is also known as RAID 1+0. RAID 10
combines RAID 1 and RAID 0. The disk requirement is a minimum of four disks where two
drives are mirrored and two drives are striped, making this the most robust storage solution
available.
Hot swappable drives

Hot swappable drives provide storage flexibility for PCs and laptops through an external
interface that allows hard disks to be added or removed without the need to power down
the machine.

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Originally this was a complex operation, but the introduction of USB and SATA technologies
combine to make this a reasonably safe process. The configuration can be a single drive or
an enclosure that houses multiple drives which can be swapped in and out as necessary.

It is a good idea to check the write caching status on your drive dock that you intend to
swap your drives on. This is disabled by default but it’s best to turn this on to allow recovery
of lost data. You will find this setting in the Device Manager in the properties of the device.
3.5 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, CPUs, and add-on cards.
The Motherboard Form Factor

Although it sounds like the motherboard design is pretty standardized, the truth is that the
original design has evolved dramatically since its inception. Here we will break them down
by design, technically referred to as their Form Factor, and the standards that govern them.
Form factor is a crucial term.

When you refer to an ATX Form Factor, you have also defined the size of the internal case
dimensions, the connection type, the size of the power supply, and the measurements and
connection type of the Motherboard power. Listed below are the Form Factors the A+ 220-
901 exam is concerned with:
ATX

This is the standard motherboard size. It is the platform for workstations and gaming PCs
alike. Its form factor specification calls for a size of 12.0” by 9.6”. The processor you can use
is determined by what will fit in the socket of the motherboard you’ve chosen.

Let’s assume you did your homework and know that the processor type, motherboard, and
memory are all correct and meet your design requirements. If any one of these are wrong,
you will not have a working PC. Refer to A+ 220-901 sub-objective 1.9 for a good starting
point on this.
Micro-ATX (mATX)

In order to reduce the overall size of PCs, smaller form factors were introduced. One of
these was the Micro-ATX (mATX) which shaves a few inches off of the length (9.6” by 9.6”).
It shares the same power supply connections with the regular ATX along with the same
input/output back panel. mATX cannot replace a full-size ATX motherboard but it can
contain onboard audio. It also contains at least one expansion slot that can be used by a
riser card.
Mini-ITX (aka ITX)
Mini-ITX is by far the favorite by those who seek silence over performance. That is not to say
that performance generates noise, but it does generate heat which in turn requires cooling
which can generate noise. Obviously given its size, Mini-ITX accommodates fewer
components compared to the other form factors.

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Motherboard connector types

PCI

The 32-bit PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus is the oldest expansion slot
currently covered under the A+ objectives. It is available in 32 or 64-bit versions and is used
to connect legacy hardware to the PC as seen in the image below.

PCI 32 or 64-bit versions

PCI was subsequently replaced by PCI Express (PCI-e) which is practically the only PCI slot
you’ll see today.
PCI-X
PCI-X (where X stands for extended) comes with 32 or 64-bit slots that are designed to be
backwards compatible with 32-bit PCI cards.

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These cards are designed to run at 3.3 V. The higher voltage portion of the slot is beyond
what the 32-bit 3.3 V card can reach.
PCI-e

Another variation of PCI is sometimes written as PCI-e (where e is for Express). PCI-e and
PCI-X are not compatible with each other. When using PCI-Express, 16 lanes of
communication are available and the physical size of the card will determine the number of
lanes it may utilize. For example, an x16 slot will accommodate an x1 card
In the following image, you can see the PCI-e 16 slots: The first one is black and the second
is blue. The slots can be used together for increased bandwidth.

PCI-e 16 slots: The first is black and the second is blue.

Mini-PCI / Mini-PCIe
USB is always an option when adding a wireless card. Here we’ll talk about internal
expansion options: the Mini PCI slot and the Mini-PCIe slot.
Here is how they compare.

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Mini-PCI to Mini-PCIe Comparison

The Mini-PCI and the Mini-PCIe slot allow manufacturers to adjust laptop features to user
needs without having to design a new laptop. The slot works the same way as in desktops,
only on a much smaller scale. Accessible through a service panel, the Mini-PCIe slot is USB
2.0 compliant and can be used to increase storage capacity, add Bluetooth, or add/upgrade
wireless capabilities.

For example, a user with a decent laptop and 802.11 b/g/n wireless only had to buy an
802.11g or 802.11ac card and swap it out if they wanted a wireless upgrade. This wireless
upgrade required care and patience because while the card was easy to swap out, the
internal antennae have tiny F type connectors that take time and care to connect. Pictured
here is a Mini-PCIe wireless card ready to be installed. Note the black slot and the gold
antenna connectors. The card will be screwed into a secure position.

True computer portability was born in laptops with the introduction of the mini-PCI card.
This card could be a modem or a wireless interface card. Improvements have followed but
real untethered portability began with this standard.
Riser cards
Space inside the PC has always been at a premium. One clever solution is to change the
orientation of the installed expansion card. Instead of installing vertically in a single slot, the
riser makes it possible to mount multiple cards horizontally from one vertical installation
(see picture).

The cards can vary in height but this does not have any impact on the case height. This type
of arrangement can support up to four cards per slot. There is renewed interest with these
cards due to the popularity of Home Theatre PC units which need the capabilities of a full
size PC with half the space.

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CPU Sockets
This section addresses CPU sockets, the processors they support, and the technologies they
employ. The first thing you will notice is that there are many pin configurations and design
variations. There are eleven individual socket types but these can be grouped into two main
categories.

The PGA (Pin Grid Array) type consists of a socket on the motherboard which is made up of
a pattern of small receptors designed to only accept a particular chip’s pin pattern. Then
there is the LGA (Land Grid Array) type which reverses the PGA design by putting the small
fragile pins inside the socket where they have greater protection against bending and
breakage. The LGA design also provides a more solid connection.
NOTE: Intel favours the LGA package while AMD offers a mix of LGA (TR4) and PGA chips
(AM series and FM2). Intel and AMD processors use incompatible motherboards.

Asus P7P55-M LGA 1156

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Although 32-bit processor architecture is present, most of today’s systems have moved to
64-bit architecture. Another thing to consider is that a new machine today will likely have its
GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) integrated on the processor chip.

Notice how the LGA socket is configured to make optimal contact with an LGA processor.
This is a bit of a hardware revolution compared to previous PGA designs which used pins on
the processor chip to make the connection.

These pins are not only fragile but get exposed to more incidental damage than those in the
LGA design which uses the socket to help protect the pins. Be advised this does not mean
that the PGA design is gone. LGA is where the technology is headed but PGA units exist in
vast numbers.
Disable execute bit

Both Intel and AMD processors offer a hardware-based security feature which prevents
application code from executing in specified memory areas. This feature is known by several
names: Execute Disable Bit (EDB) and execute Disable (XD) by Intel and Enhanced Virus
Protection (EVP) by AMD. This feature is generically called the NX bit (no-execute).
CompTIA refers to this feature as the disable execute bit. Although it’s a processor feature,
the disable execute bit must also be supported by the UEFI/BIOS and the operating system.
When enabled, the processor can isolate certain memory areas and prevent the execution
of malware, particularly those that produce buffer overflows.
SATA & eSATA connectors
We start with the SATA connector. This connection uses Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment (SATA) for internal drive connections such as hard disks and optical drives. SATA
is the replacement for Parallel ATA (PATA) which was the preceding primary drive
connection method. Because of its flexibility, the SATA interface can connect externally to
the machine using an eSATA port. In the table, you can see the internal SATA Data and
power connectors. Many SATA devices ship with a MOLEX-to-SATA adapter cable for power.
eSATA connects external devices. You can distinguish the SATA from eSATA by noting the L
shaped SATA connector. The eSATA connector has a straight rectangular interface and an
external rib on each side of the plug. This feature prevents improper insertion.
Front panel / USB connector
This is for the hundreds of thousands of technicians who spent their days crawling
underneath desks to hook up speakers. We now have front panel connections for a variety
of configurable connectors. This includes USB which allows for incredible ease of
connectivity for a wide variety of devices. It’s safe to say your prayers (and mine) are
answered.
Here are some of the options available for the front panel:
> USB
> Audio
> Power button

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> Power light

> Drive activity lights
> Reset button

Hooking up the system LEDs while also showing some motherboard connections and labels.
BIOS / UFEI settings

Here we will look at the PC’s BIOS (Basic Input Output System) and UEFI (Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface) configuration from the CompTIA A+ 220-901 exam perspective. Your
knowledge of these technologies, old and new, holds the key to success on the A+ exam.
Take the System BIOS or UEFI as an example. Now this is cool! It’s a GUI! Menu driven! And
that is just looks. Now we stop and before the smart half of the class starts yelling, I’ll take
care of this. If you are using UEFI you don’t have a UEFI BIOS. UEFI Is UEFI and BIOS is BIOS.
Although they appear to perform similar functions, the similarities are superficial. For
example, changing the boot drive is a common feature and easily configured for either
firmware. The same is not true for configuring HDD’s that are greater than 4 TB.
OK, we have identified the type of firmware involved and their roles but suppose you
stumble on a working motherboard that has the components you need on-board! Fantastic
news! All you have to do is ensure firmware compatibility.
Depending on your equipment and its level of support, this can be as simple as pressing a
button on the motherboard (UEFI) or as tough as assembling the whole machine and
evaluating the results (BIOS). Refer to the documentation and choose your path.

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In a BIOS configured system, you will encounter a tab based multilevel interface that is
navigated using the keyboard only. Most BIOS have the following main tabs:
Main: Contains Main entries for system date and time. Shows amount of installed memory.

Example of main tab in BIOS

Devices:
Depending on your configuration, you may or may not have these choices. If you have the
following items, this is where they will be: Serial Port Setup, USB Setup, ATA Drive Setup,
Video Setup, Audio Setup, and Network Setup.
Advanced:
Will contain settings for the primary CPU setup and manageability. Items such as
Multiprocessing, Hyper Threading, and Virtualization technologies will be controlled here.
Power:
This section controls the system behavior after a power loss. Power saving settings are also
stored here along with automatic cooling settings (if any).
Security Boot:

This section contains the capability to lock down the system as necessary, from power on
and administrative passwords to setting Secure Boot. Also listed here is the provision to
allow or disallow BIOS flashing.

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Exit:
You can save your changes and exit or disregard them if you made a mistake.
Observing the BIOS configuration, you will notice settings for:
Boot sequence:

Selecting the order in which device boot data is loaded. This could be anything from a USB
stick, a CD-ROM, or a hard disk. For stronger security, disable USB boot.
Enabling and disabling devices:
This controls which devices will be considered as acceptable when seeking boot data. Again,
consider security factors when making these decisions.
Date/time:
Current System Date/Time. A zero-day attack can be triggered by changing the date.
Clock speeds:
Timings set for CPU and memory. Changing these could easily reduce system stability.
Virtualization support:
Enable/disable hardware virtualization support
BIOS security:
Enable/disable security settings including TPM, passwords, lo-jack, and secure boot.
CMOS Battery

CMOS/UEFI settings (the System Configuration Information) are stored safely in the
firmware. All of these essential settings are maintained by a small watch battery. When this
battery is low or dead, signs of failure include the loss of the PC date and time and the loss
of hard disks.
Make certain that the configuration does not get lost or forgotten by keeping it
electronically refreshed. Firmware is reasonably resistant to data loss but to be safe, it is
periodically refreshed electronically using a tried and true 2032 battery. This battery model
remains unchanged since 1985!

CMOS Battery

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CPU features
When selecting your processor and motherboard, the key features you should be concerned
with are the processor speed, the number of cores, and the amount of cache memory
available.
When calculating your processor speed, remember that if you have four 2GHz cores, the
resultant speed is not additive. What you have is four cores capable of operating at 2.0 GHz
simultaneously. Your processor with four 2 GHz cores does not equate to an 8GHz
processor.

A good look in the BIOS/UEFI will flesh out the rest of the information you need to satisfy
this objective. On Intel motherboards, is hyper threading enabled? You want hyper
threading to be active because this enables your processor to work on multiple tasks,
smoothing out the operations and allowing several things to take place at once.
You also want to check your L1, L2, and L3 cache. These locations act as temporary holding
areas for data that are in process but not complete. L1 is the fastest and usually the most
expensive real estate on the machine. Generally, L1 cache is in multiples of 64k of fast
memory on the processor chip.
Following that will be the L2 cache. Sometimes L2 cache is on the chip but more often than
not it’s on the motherboard. L3 cache, if present, will be on the motherboard. All of these
relatively small storage areas save the PC from having to save and retrieve data from the
system buses during routine operations.
Virtual technology
You will undoubtedly be tested on this topic. Virtualization enables you to run multiple
instances of complete machines on a single hardware platform. This is a considerable
resource savings and quite a boost to productivity.
Remember to check the BIOS/UEFI first. With virtualization enabled in BIOS, you can install
as many virtual machines as you like! However, everything must be properly licensed. Once
installed, you can’t tell the virtual machine from the original!
Cooling and Processor Speeds
Processor speed is defined by the core speed of the processor multiplied by the speed of the
Front Side Bus. The processor speed can be manipulated. Processor speed is sometimes
sped up or “Overclocked” by increasing the multiplier of the Front Side Bus. This practice
can be dangerous since the faster the processor runs, the hotter it gets.

For normal use, processors come supplied with a 12-volt fan and heatsink that is attached to
the processor via thermal paste and clamps. This provides adequate cooling for general use
but will prove inadequate in extreme situations such as overclocking.

If you intend to overclock the machine, it is important to upgrade the cooling system to a
liquid-based system and add fans to the case. Otherwise, you will shorten the life of the
processor.

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Passive Heat Sink

No discussion of heat control in today’s PCs would be complete without mentioning the
original cooling solution. The passive (or fanless) heatsink consists of a small aluminium
block with fins that stick up vertically to catch airflow and dissipate the heat from the chip. A
remarkably simple design, the passive heatsink creates enormous surface area for more
effective heat exchange.

Thermal Paste
The exchange is where the chip conducts its heat through a layer of thermally conductive
paste which is used to avoid uneven thermal transfer. Attaching a fan to the passive
heatsink creates the more familiar active heatsink.

Active Heat Sink

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The most modern approach for moving heat is the liquid based cooler.
This design takes the elements described up to this point and adds cooling liquid. Sealed and
leak-proof, a liquid based cooling system flows liquid over the chip to absorb the heat.

The liquid is then cooled through radiators located in cooler areas of the machine,
dramatically decreasing the temperature. The cooled liquid is then returned to the chip and
the process repeats continuously.

Liquid Based Cooler

Video cards
Most of today’s PCs ship with video integrated in the motherboard. These solutions are
more than sufficient for the average user. Very advanced users, such as graphic artists and
extreme gamers, will order custom cards or manually upgrade their video components.
Users will seek cards that have very high frame rates, as much fast memory as they can
afford, and the fastest video interface attainable.

PCI Express 2.0 x16 Video Card

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Here’s a card that fits the bill: PCI Express 2.0 x16 connection, good speed, fast memory, and
lots of connectors. Adapters are usually used for other possible connections. These
expansion cards can be used either as upgrades or as replacements for a failed motherboard
component.
Sound cards
For most PCs, sound chips are being embedded on the motherboards. If it is deficient, sound
will be one of the first PC shortcomings users will want to address. Usually, upgrades will
entail a pair (or more) of speakers and a more powerful sound card to drive the speakers.
Sound cards are usually an internal device that connects to a PCI expansion slot.
A typical sound card is shown in the image below.

Typical PCI-e-x1 sound card

Network cards
There are two types of network cards: wired and wireless.
Wired network cards

First we will look at the wired cards. These cards have either Fiber optic, Ethernet, or both.
When your Ethernet card fails or if there is a good reason to upgrade, such as for a faster
Ethernet switch, it’s time to look at your network specifications. Determine the best fit for
the new or proposed network and select the card. Don’t buy it yet! Check your machine for
free ports and make sure that they are compatible with your card choice.
Wireless network cards
The same holds true for wireless cards. Check the specs! Most of the time, you will end up
adding an internal card but it is easy to find USB models of these cards. It’s easy to see that
the wireless networking trend took off quickly and there were innumerable laptops and
portables with Ethernet only connections installed that needed wireless upgrades.

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The quickest and easiest solution to this condition was to develop a USB Wireless adapter.
There! All fixed. There are also a number of Wireless network cards available in PCI and PCI-
e configurations.
USB cards
USB Cards provide additional or even faster USB connections to your PC. Available in several
configurations (with internal and external ports), you can take a PC with USB 1.0 installed
and add a USB 3.0 card. If the card has internal connections, you can also upgrade your hard
disk. Ultimately, you will triple the throughput of your connected devices. If you have any
need to upgrade, consider the USB option for ease of use.
E-SATA cards – Covered above.
3.6 Explain the purpose and use of various peripheral types.
Printers

Printers create hard copies of the content displayed on your computer’s display. This can be
as simple as printing a note from your word processor. On the other hand, you can also take
a screenshot of your display for troubleshooting purposes. There are several types of
printers you are expected to know for the test. You will be expected to know these different
types of printers and how they operate.
Impact printers or Dot matrix use the impact method to create paper prints.
Inkjet distributes fluid ink on the paper by ejecting small amounts of coloured dye from
small ink containers. LaserJet uses the electromagnetic properties of the ink, the drum, and
the fuser to create the most stable output type. Moisture does not cause LaserJet prints to
distort unlike other types.
ADF/flatbed scanners

Multi-function devices combine useful technologies into a single device. You may initially
see an inkjet printer and on closer examination see that it is also a flatbed scanner. The
scanner may have automatic document feed (ADF) which allows you to scan multiple
documents and then either print them or save as a file on the network.

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Scanners and Barcode readers

Practically all products sold today have a barcode somewhere on their packaging. The
arrangement of the bars provides specific product information which is read by the barcode
reader and passed onto a cash register or other payment device.
This practice has been so successful that companies found that by changing its format, they
could add more information to the barcode such as web links to the manufacturer’s web
page.
The QR (Quick Response) code was developed to satisfy this need and is read by the
consumer using their smartphone. It is not unusual to see a shopper reading a QR code and
comparing products using their phone.

Optical
DVD-ROM / DVD-RW / DVD-RW DL

The same principles that apply to CD-ROMs apply to DVD-ROMs, DVD-RWs, and DVD DLs.
The capacity of the DVD disc increased to 4.7 GB. This is accomplished by increasing the
density of the pits and lands while still using a red laser.

It was discovered that the capacity of the DVD-ROM could be doubled to 8.5 GB by using
two layers of recordable dye. The laser can then focus on one layer at a time. All of the DVD
drives discussed will be either internal (PATA/SATA) or external.
Keyboard/Mouse

We start out with the keyboard and mouse. Believe it or not, the first consumer grade PCs
did not have a mouse or even a graphical interface! Everything was command line driven.
Originally, mice were connected through the serial port. They then upgraded to PS/2 and
then ultimately to USB.
Keyboards followed roughly the same path. However, keyboards were originally connected
using an XT connector, a DIN connector that was twice the size of the PS/2. Keyboard design
evolved from an alpha numeric rectangular device, which reportedly caused fatigue and
nerve damage after extensive use, to a curvy ergonomic design that was more natural.
Newer keyboards and mice are wireless, allowing for user mobility during gaming and home
theatre applications.

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Touchpads & signature pads

How do we navigate through our operating systems without using a mouse? For 99% of
situations, the solution is the touch pad. We will look at a well-worn laptop touchpad to
illustrate how the device is used. Most of the action takes place at the large top section of
the touchpad. Here, your fingertip uses capacitance to change the electrical properties of
the touchpad, allowing you to navigate around your desktop using the touchpad surface.

Touchpad
Notice how centred the wear pattern which indicates a well configured pad. Left and right
clicks are physical actions, requiring you to push down on the buttons. This can be
considered a form of biometric input because the electrical properties of your fingertip
create the connection point that influences the motion.
Biometrics are most often found in security enforcement situations where an individual’s
biological properties are used to identify them in a more definitive way than with a token or
passphrase.
Signature pad
Another type of touch sensitive device is the glass-in signature pad. The signature pad,
otherwise known as the digitizer, is composed of a three-piece electronic sandwich where
the glass is the top layer. By pressing on the top layer with a stylus, you can electronically
authorize a transaction with your digital signature.

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Signature pad
Monitors
Not so long ago, computers used CRT monitors to display graphical output. CRTs were bulky
and heavy. A 22” CRT weighed over 50 pounds. LCD displays were first used in laptops and
proved to be suitable for desktops. LCD technology is able to produce higher resolutions
than CRTs and a 22” LCD can be carried with one hand.
Useful peripherals
Broadband access, now available to most users, made long distance meetings
commonplace. In addition to your PC, all you need is a webcam and a microphone. If you
have a newer laptop or a tablet, the webcam and microphone are built in.
If not, your best bet is to get a USB webcam and microphone. Other items designed to make
your life easier is the digital camera. There’s probably one built into your smartphone.

You can take the digital memory card in your camera and transfer your pictures to your PC
using a smart card reader. This is also true of movies you create with a camcorder.

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Gaming
OK! Enough of the boring stuff. Let’s play a game! Let’s talk about a First Person (that’s you)
Shooter (what you have in your hand) (FPS). In an FPS game, you walk around, shoot things,
and collect items.
To navigate and perform actions, you will use your mouse and keyboard at the minimum.
You may also need a Game pad or a USB Joystick. Now let’s get some action.
The same first person shooter mentioned above can be moved into the virtual environment.
Virtual reality (VR) headsets provide an immersive visual environment for gaming.
Broadband internet allows multiplayer gaming and enables players to communicate and
form teams using headset microphones, ear buds, and speakers. VR headsets are now being
used for police and military training to combine safety with immersive virtual reality
environments.
VR headset

Joystick & Gamepad

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Projector
One display type you may encounter is the projector. Screen output is backlit and projected
onto a screen or even a clean white wall. This gives a great deal of control over the size of
the projected image.
Brightness and lumens

The brightness of a display is measured in lumens and is the measurement of the candle
power produced by an object. Let’s say lumens = brightness and more lumens is usually
better. A low cost monitor, sufficient for office productivity, can be rated as low as 250
lumens while a high performance CAD/CAM or gaming monitor can be rated in the tens of
thousands of lumens.
External storage drives
Hot swappable drives provide storage flexibility for PCs and laptops through an external
interface that allows hard disks to be added or removed without the need to power down
the machine. Originally this was a complex operation, but the introduction of USB and SATA
technologies combine to make this a reasonably safe process.
The configuration can be a single drive or an enclosure that houses multiple drives that can
be swapped in and out as necessary. It is a good idea to check the write caching status on
your drive dock that you intend to swap drives on. This is disabled by default but it’s best to
turn this on to allow recovery of last data. You will find this setting in Device Manager in the
properties of the device.
KVM Switch

KVM stands for Keyboard Video Mouse. A KVM switch saves space by allowing one
keyboard, monitor, and mouse to be used across multiple PCs. You can switch from one PC
to another by simply pressing a button.
Magnetic reader/chip reader
ID badges
Security badges contain coded data that identifies you to the security system and includes a
current picture and personal security challenges. Your security data can be stored on a
magnetic strip or NFC contactless storage. The card should also have the company logo and
be tamperproof. NFC is also the technology that supports tap and pay transactions.
Smart cards
Smart cards are another way to deliver security tokens to the system. Smart cards may or
may not be combined with badge technology. One thing that separates many smart cards
from other tech is its ability to both send and receive data.
This enables mutual authentication, allowing each component to trust the other. Smart card
readers scan for smartcards in range. When one is detected, communication can begin.

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3.7 Summarize power supply types and features.

Input 115V vs. 220V

When hooking up the power to your system, one of the main things you’ll notice is that
directly near the three-prong power connector is a small switch that reads 115/230. This
switch allows the PSU to accommodate international voltage and allows you to provide the
correct voltage to your PC.
24-pin motherboard adapter

The main function of a power supply is to provide the correct amount of power to the
motherboard. The connection between the power supply and the motherboard has evolved
from a single connector into a two-part connector, the 20+4 pin connector. This connector
will supply the appropriate power to where it is needed.
In the image below, the white connector is the legacy connector and can be compared to
the newer 20+4 pin. On the newer 20+4 pin, the additional four pins are free and can be
moved over in order to provide an additional 12 volts to the processor.
Both connectors shown below are the main connectors to the motherboard and operate at
+3.3V, +/- 5V, and +/- 12V.

Motherboard power connectors: 20 (white) and 24 pin (black).

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Output 3.5V, 5V and 12V

Here’s a look at the connectors you will find on an ATX power supply. Listed first are the
connectors that supply power to the drives and provide supplemental power to the
motherboard.

Wattage rating
Any discussion of a power supply will include wattage. For a power supply, wattage is the
amount of power that can be delivered to the system. When selecting a power supply,
ensure you are delivering the correct amount, i.e. an amount that will support the sum of
the components your system will have.
Different processor and memory combinations will have different power requirements. Use
an online wattage calculator to determine your needs, then add on another 10% on top for
power peaks.

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Number of devices/types of devices to be powered

This is a crucial element of power supply selection. When replacing a power supply, always
select a replacement power supply with the same wattage or higher. For a new build, you
can calculate your power needs using an online wattage calculator. You’ll be surprised how
much power you need. As you add drives, expansion cards, and fans you’ll see your power
requirement rise. The motherboard, processor, and memory will also play a role. For
example after using one power supply calculator, the calculated requirement for an older
processor was 502 W (this is a load of 452 W + 10%). When we plugged in (😊) values for the
latest Socket/ CPU, our load jumped to 681 W + 10% = 731 recommended wattage. Always
get a bigger power supply than you need. You’ll never know when you may want to add a
hard drive or DVD player.
3.8 Given a scenario, select and configure appropriate components for a custom PC
configuration that meets customer specifications or needs.
We will look at a performance based question and explore how that question type can
address exam objective 3.8. Objective 3.8 aims at assessing your ability to “Given a scenario,
select the appropriate components for a custom PC configuration that meets customer
specifications or needs.” First notice that the exam objective starts by stating “Given a
scenario…”
This is important because this signals that CompTIA will not be satisfied with just asking you
simple knowledge based question. CompTIA will want to see you apply this knowledge to a
given situation as it would occur in real life. This is where a Performance Based Question
comes in particularly handy.

A+ 220-1001 Performance Based Question (PBQ) – Custom workstation assembly.

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The scenario that sub-objective 3.8 puts you in is one where you are asked to perform a
“custom PC configuration” based on customer specifications or needs. In this question you
are asked to configure a CAD/CAM workstation. Here is the question as presented:

“You are assembling a CAD/CAM design workstation. From the parts available choose those
that best meet the requirements. Drag the labels to the correct motherboard locations.”
Keep in mind that since you are configuring a CAD/CAM design workstation from the parts
available, you need to choose parts that meet the requirements. To achieve that in this
performance based question, drag the appropriate labels to the correct motherboard
location. There is a list of components in the left pane.

On the right of the screen is a motherboard with highlighted locations. These are the
targets. Here is a portion of 3.8 that highlights the CAD/CAM design workstation
requirements (you will need to know these inside and out by the time you take the test).

CompTIA A+ 220-1001 Exam Objective 3.8 – CAD/CAM

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In order to answer this question, consider making sub-objective 3.8 your virtual answer grid.
Here is how we can do this.
Under 3.8, CompTIA’s requirement for a CAD/CAM design workstation is:

A) Multicore processor
B) High-end video
C) Maximum RAM
With that in mind, let’s go back to the choices presented in the question. After
consideration, here is what your A, B, and C answers should be for this question:

A. The first choice is 8GB RAM which is a decent amount but not the only good amount.
Checking the rest of the choices, 32GB is available and since the requirement
is maximum RAM, the choice is simple. Select 32 GB and drag it to the memory slots on the
motherboard.
B. The answer at the top of the list is the AMD 145 Sempron which is a decent processor but
only has a single core. We need a multicore processor. The AMD FX-8150 has 8 cores which
easily qualifies it as multicore, a label that is assigned to the processor. Here is where you
should realize that knowledge of actual hardware specifications is as just as critically
important to the exam as the exam objective requirements.
C. The choice is between the Galaxy GeForce GTX760, with 4GB of memory, and the NVidia
GeForce GT240 that has 1GB of memory. The GTX both outperforms the GT and has more
memory that is also faster. The GTX satisfies CompTIA’s “high-end video” requirement.
You’ll drag the GTX card to the slot and since we are in Study mode, we can check the
answer:

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Success! We get a “Question Answered Correctly” message (see green text at the bottom of
the frame). There is also an explanation of what we did and why we did it.
The main take home here is that if:
1. You know your components, and
2. You know the requirements for the different workstations under exam objective 3.8,
then it’s almost hard to miss any of these questions.
Of course, this is not the only performance based question type on the A+ Core 1 exam.
There are others. There is also a distinct difference between the performance based
questions in 220-1001 compared to 220-902. In 220-1001, the questions tend to be this kind
of “enhanced drag and drop” while in A+ 220-902, the performance based questions are
more software simulations within the software where you may be asked to perform tasks.
Performance based questions in A+ 220-1002 will be discussed in later.
We are hoping that if nothing else, you have learned that the process of elimination
combined with your hardware knowledge will allow you to master any of the questions that
address sub-objective 3.8.
3.9 Given a scenario, install and configure common devices.

We will cover Core 1 objective 3.9 which covers installation and configuration of common
devices according to a given scenario.
Desktop
One generally pictures a standard PC when thinking about desktops, but there are other
virtual configurations that appear the same. These other configurations use cloud-based
resources in order to create a Virtual Desktop Interface (VDI) on the client’s computer which
will be explained below.
Thin client
The thin client is a PC that is heavily reliant on cloud resources. This system will have
minimal computational power.

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The thin client will only meet the minimal requirements for the operating system and may
only support a browser and a broadband network connection in order to communicate with
the cloud based VM. The Cloud VM handles most, if not all, of the processing for
applications. This is an attractive low-cost model. Portable devices such as tablets and
smartphones can take advantage of this virtualization.
Thick client

A regular desktop computer can be used as a thick client. Thick refers to the computer’s
configuration. These units meet or exceed the OS and application requirements. A thick
client can use the cloud based VDI or it can be used as a standalone PC.
Account setup/settings
For clients to access virtual resources, they must have an account on the cloud
hypervisor/VM. If the user requires a configuration that stays the same with each login, a
persistent VDI is used. This allows the user to create and save their own custom
configuration which is presented during each login. Conversely, a non-persistent VDI does
not save any changes and delivers a standard configuration with each login.
Laptop/common mobile devices
Touchpad configuration
How do we navigate through our operating systems without using a mouse? For 99% of
situations, the solution is the touch pad. We will look at a well-worn laptop touchpad to
illustrate how the device is used. Most of the action takes place at the large top section of
the touchpad. Here, your fingertip uses capacitance to change the electrical properties of
the touchpad, allowing you to navigate around your desktop using the touchpad surface.

Notice how centred the wear pattern which indicates a well configured pad. Left and right
clicks are physical actions, requiring you to push down on the buttons. This can be
considered a form of biometric input because the electrical properties of your fingertip
create the connection point that influences the motion.
Biometrics are most often found in security enforcement situations where an individual’s
biological properties are used to identify them in a more definitive way than with a token or
passphrase.

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Touchscreen configuration
A touchscreen is a device that takes physical input on your display, such as finger or stylus
movement, and converts it digitally. This device makes it possible to draw directly into your
program. Touchscreens are a great accessory for a graphic artist, giving them the ability to
create and digitally modify their creations.

Application installations/configurations

First, insure your hardware connectivity requirements have been met. Second, review the
software installation requirements. Third, download and install the application to your PC.
The application is usually designed to be installed correctly on mobile or desktop devices
when the correct version is chosen.
Synchronization methods
There are two main ways to sync data.
1) Synchronize to the Cloud

Synchronizing to the Cloud syncs your selected data to the Cloud. An internet connection is
required in order to accomplish this. Examples of free, limited, and subscription-based cloud
services include iTunes, iCloud, Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive. If you are using a
proprietary synchronization method, be aware that it may only sync the proprietary or
specially configured data.
For example, a Dropbox sync requires that the data to be synced to be uploaded first to the
online Dropbox folder, after which it will be synced. In the case of iOS products, only some
of the content can be synced such as purchased content.
2) Synchronize to the Desktop
Synchronizing to the Desktop is quite common and in many cases is accomplished through a
physical connection between the mobile device and the desktop. However, sync can be
configured across all configured devices.
In the image below, we use Windows Media player to sync images between the desktop and
an Android device.

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Android Sync with Desktop

Account setup/settings

A Windows workstation can create two account types for new users: Standard and
Administrator. When creating new users, it is best to make them Standard. New users can
be added to Groups if they need additional privileges. A new user is created from the
control panel by clicking the User Accounts applet.
This opens an Account wizard which initially asks for the user’s email address and password.
If you do not have this info, this page can be skipped and you can create an account with
just a username and password that you set. The password can and should be changed when
the user first accesses the machine.

Once the user is set up on their machine, they have the option to create a Single sign-on
Microsoft account which gives them Cloud access to online storage and more. Other
vendors offer similar services.
Wireless settings
In order to configure a wireless connection to a router, you will need the Service Set
Identifier (SSID) of the wireless router and the passphrase.

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You will also need to know the router’s encryption and security type along with the channel
number in case you run into connection issues. Wireless security can be improved by
stopping the router from broadcasting its SSID, filtering the MAC addresses allowed to
connect to it, and reducing the radio power. Radio power is often overlooked but today’s
router ranges far exceed what you would need to cover a SOHO or even a business with an
unobstructed floor plan.
3.10 Given a scenario, configure SOHO multifunction devices/printers and settings.
We will cover Core 1 objective 3.10 given a scenario, configure SOHO multifunction
devices/printers and settings.
Duplexing
Let’s start by looking at a multifunction printer. In the image below, we have a network
connected device that is capable of printing on both sides of the paper, known as duplexing,
through the use of an adapter on the printer. This can save quite a bit of paper. Duplexing is
accomplished by printing the odd pages first, reorienting the paper, feeding it back into the
printer, and then printing the even pages.

Duplex setting in Windows

Collating and Orientation
Another printer feature is collating. Collating is where the printed pages are arranged in a
pre-determined order. There are two types of orientations used in printers. The first is
portrait mode where the output reads from top to bottom as a regular letter. The second
mode is landscape mode in which the page is printed with its long side facing the top. This is
good for materials that are wider than they are high.

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Portrait Printing Layout

Print Quality

You can also adjust the quality of the printer output by choosing the paper type and
size/quality. For example, change paper type to Photo paper if you are printing pictures.

Printer Sharing
Printer device sharing is very dependent on how it is set up. Wired printers are best for
office use as the Ethernet connections to other PCs are consistent. Start by connecting a
workstation printer and sharing it. The printer can be connected to the workstation using
USB, a legacy serial port, or through wireless. Once installed, the printer can be shared by
the workstation through a number of ways.

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For example, an ad-hoc share where a one-to-one connection involving just two PCs and
one printer can be used. A Bluetooth connection is an example of this type. Wireless
printers open up a multitude of options. Wireless printers contain their own integrated print
servers and do not require connection to a workstation. Devices can print directly to the
printer through wireless and as a result, these printers can be optimally placed in the
workspace. Workstations can connect directly to the printer using 802.11(a,b,g,n,ac) or
Bluetooth. If the printer is configured properly, it is capable of remote printing or cloud
printing, making it possible to instantly deliver a hard copy of a document directly to the
device from practically anywhere.
Sharing and Security

Remember to think about security when planning this configuration! Just putting a printer
on the Internet exposes it to attacks. Securely configure the device with user authentication
because otherwise, anyone can access the data being sent.
Hard drive caching
Expect not to have any semblance of privacy unless you are encrypting your transmissions.
Also remember that unless configured differently, the print job is spooled or stored on a
hard drive until the printer is ready. This method is known as hard drive caching. Users who
will be using the device remotely should be properly authenticated. In the case of a
classroom or learning institution, a public share may be acceptable. This would not be the
case for a bank. Also, remember that the printer will have its own interface that can be used
to access the features and functions of the device. It is important to be aware of the
Operating System settings for the device which can override the printer’s applet. Check both
to be sure.

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So how does one connect to a wireless printer?

The material here will apply to either Apple or Microsoft software.

The most common way to connect to a freestanding wireless printer is through its IP
address (TCP/IP). You can do this the hard way by manually installing the printer or in the
case of Apple or Apple compatible products, the Bonjour service which will quickly find the
device for you. An easy way is to use AirPrint, a driverless program that can work from your
smartphone and will simply print it for you. Any combination of these will get you going. In
all cases, TCP will be the underlying carrier.
3.11 Given a scenario, install and maintain various print technologies.
We will cover Core 1 objective 3.11 given a scenario, install and maintain various print
technologies.
> Laser
Replace toner, apply maintenance kit, perform calibration, clean.

> Thermal
Replace paper, clean heating element, remove debris.

> Impact
Replace ribbon, replace print head, replace paper.

> Inkjet
Clean heads, replace cartridges, perform calibration, clear jams.
Now it’s time to cover one of the most important and exciting topics yet! Printers!! Before
we get too deep into it, we will diffuse a potentially volatile topic that will not be appearing
on your tests. We will break down the printers by type and then for each type, we will
describe the components and troubleshoot various printer problems, tracing them back to
the component that is responsible.
Laser Printers

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Laser printers basically have two main areas of concern:

- The printer, i.e. everything that is not the toner cartridge.
- The toner cartridge

Laser unit dell visible

Understanding the printing process step-by-step is your best path to success in this area. All
steps are occurring so fast that they appear to happen almost simultaneously. We will look
at each step, where it fits in the process, and how it relates to other processes. The cartridge
contains all (or most) of the components needed to create the image and to prepare it for
transfer to the page.
Cartridge:

This is the main replaceable item in a Laser printer. The cartridge contains the drum, toner
hopper, agitator blade, wiper blade, and the shutter. Ever since the replaceable cartridge
was introduced to laser printing, maintenance and support needs of these printers has been
significantly reduced.

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The ink cartridge, the drum, and toner, contains everything that could be considered a
consumable or wear item.

HP Drum & Toner

This includes the transfer belt, transfer roller, pickup rollers, separator pads, and duplexing
assembly.
Laser printing is a photo-electric process.
Charging:

The imaging drum has a very high negative voltage (-600V) applied to it by a roller or a wire
depending on the age.
Exposing:
In this stage, the laser writes the image onto the drum, increasing the voltage of the
exposed areas from approximately -600V to -100V.

Laser Exposing

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Developing:
The toner is applied to the drum by applying a light charge, attracting the toner to the highly
charged drum.
Fusing:
The fusing assembly provides both friction and heat to the paper as it passes through,
melting the toner onto the paper.

HP Fuser Kit
Cleaning:

The drum is cleaned so that a new page can be printed. This process utilizes the erase lamps
which are a part of the printer lid and are often covered with red film. Exposing the drum to
this light erases the drum completely. The scraper blade also removes any remnants, leaving
a completely clean drum ready for a new page to print.

HP Cleaner Kit
Example of preventative maintenance on an HP LaserJet:
As part of your periodic maintenance duties, you will be assigned one or two printers to
perform preventative maintenance. You have been asked to perform preventative
maintenance on an HP LaserJet.

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Maintenance Kit
First, use the model number to look up the maintenance schedule for your unit(s). After
looking it up, you see the printer needs new rollers, vacuuming, and toner cartridge
replacement. In your toolkit, you have a Datavac/2 Pro Series Toner Vac because it meets
HP’s stringent requirements, along with many other manufacturers. New printer parts are
approved when they pass the manufacturer’s requirements and are guaranteed to fit.

Datavac-2 Pro Series Toner Vac

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An additional part that is becoming more popular in new printers is the transfer belt or
roller. This is used to move documents through multicolour laser printers and scanners.
Having the right tools and documentation are crucial aspects when working on this.
Inkjet
Now to the bread and butter of SOHO printer implementations, we have Inkjet printers.
These are inexpensive and an economical addition to your Small/Home Office that will give
your mailings, business cards, and pictures that extra pop! You can use them to print decent
letters too!

Whatever your design of choice, you will find inkjet printers that are available in every price
range and feature configuration. Inkjets are compatible with most OS’s and connection
types.

Ink cartridges are modular and can be replaced one at a time, reducing the general
maintenance cost. Each cartridge uses a heated nozzle to disperse precise amounts of ink in
order to produce the desired color or pattern. The colored ink modules are driven back and
forth on each line in order to produce continuous, seamless, and high-resolution output.
Many models use belt driven ink delivery. These machines have evolved from cheap laser
alternatives into full-fledged, multifunction devices incorporating scanners, copiers, and fax
machines that can also act as standalone wireless devices. With the addition of a duplexer,
this modest little printer can play with the big boys!
Whenever you change a printer cartridge, the machine must be recalibrated. If calibration is
not performed, your print quality will suffer.
Thermal After having paid for something at a cash register, have you ever looked at your
receipt and wondered why it looks funny and old-school and why there are two? This is a
thermal receipt and is one of the oldest cash accounting printing technologies still in use.
Impact Printing, or Dot Matrix, was developed concurrently with thermal. As money became
more valuable, the desire to pilfer even small amounts grew quickly. With no tracking
system, companies could literally be robbed out of solvency by its own employees. Adding
machines were created to generate a hard copy of any tabulations and to generate a record
of all transactions. The current benefit of dot matrix is its ability to print out multiple copies
of the same document, known as carbon copies.
Dot Matrix technology uses a ribbon that is impregnated with ink and a set of pins that fire
independently, transferring a dot of ink on the paper at the point of impact. This point of
impact has sufficient force to activate the carbon in a multi-page document so that
duplicates can be generated in real-time.
Virtual
Every computer in the world has the opportunity to create a virtual counterpart. For the
220-1001 3.11 sub objective, you are expected to know specifically that you can use your
Operating System (OS) tools to perform the following actions:

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Print to file:
The default output saved from Print-to-file is a .prn file. Check the Print-to-file box in the
Printer Properties applet.
Print to PDF:
Check the Print-to-PDF box in the Printer Properties applet.
Print to XPS:
Checking this uses the built-in Microsoft printer.
Print to image:

Installing PDFill (a 3rd party program) will allow the Microsoft printer to print directly to an
image format such as PNG, PPG, BMP, TIF or GIF.
3D Printers
Plastic filament
The prices for 3D printers, in addition to the materials used to print 3D objects, are
beginning to drop. Once costing tens of thousands of dollars, 3D printers can now be
purchased for a thousand dollars. Printing materials have become more affordable, with
materials such as plastic filament now costing around twenty dollars or less. That’s cheaper
than inkjet cartridges!

Looking at the 3D printing process, you’ll need good software to create your 3D model and
to transfer the digital model to the 3D printer. You can then print the object in pretty much
the same way as you would with a standard printer, but not exactly.

Consider during standard 2D paper printing, a horizontal 1D stripe is deposited line by line
until your image or text is complete. Now with 3D printing, each pass of the printer head
creates fine layers of the chosen material, in our case plastic filament, that stack vertically.
This process is called Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) or Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).
Both of these processes are additive, meaning that each print layer is added on top of the
object until the object is complete. Depending on the process, the filament can be melted
with UV light or heat.

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1.0 Mobile Devices

1.1 – “Given a scenario, install and configure laptop hardware and components.”
Hardware/device replacement
With laptops (aka notebooks) and most portable devices, there is a repair vs. replace cost
and a convenience balance that always needs to be considered.
- How much is a replacement?
- How much better, faster, and cooler is the new device?
- How much will a repair cost?
- What would keep you from having to reinstall all of your programs?
- How recent is your backup?

Please think about this before you go to bed tonight as you ultimately will be called upon to
replace individual components regardless of the soundness of the decision.

When working on any devices to replace any components, please consider the following
guidelines:

1. Make absolutely sure there is no power supplied to the unit. This includes the AC
adapter and the battery. Remove both.
2. Review the owner’s manual and/or technical documentation for the device.
Download and print the documentation from the manufacturer’s website.
3. The repair/replace process will be different for every manufacturer and even
different models from the same manufacturer. Consult the documentation before
picking up a screwdriver.
4. Keep the removed screws on a stable surface and separate them by size. You can use
a labelled piece of paper or a small case with multiple compartments to organize the
screws by the locations they go back to.
Keyboard
The keyboard can be one of the easier components to replace. However, you may need to
remove components to get access to the screws. In this example, we will assume the screws
are immediately accessible from the top once we remove the plastic faceplate.
TIP:

Faceplate – To pry the plastic faceplate and frame components apart without scratching or
gouging them, use a spudger if available, or cover the tip of a butter knife or small flathead
screwdriver with a bit of soft, thin cloth.
The objective is to keep the metal edges of your tool from direct contacting with the easily
damaged plastic of the faceplate. Slip your tool into the crevice between the faceplate and
pry upwards gently. Remember, these pieces are only held in place by small plastic tabs.
They should separate with slight force. If you have to pry hard, stop and reapply using a
slight force. Once pried off, move to a different position and repeat.

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Consult the documentation to be sure there are no screws holding the faceplate down.
Once you have begun to separate the pieces, work around the edge of the faceplate until
you can lift it up.

Before moving the faceplate too far, check to see if there are ribbon cables or other
connectors connected to it. If so, do not twist or disconnect the connections.
Simply move the faceplate out of your way in order to expose the two to four screws that
secure the keyboard. Remove the screws and lift the keyboard up gently until you can see
the ribbon cable that connects it to the motherboard.

Keyboard removal
Observe the orientation of the cable as one side of the ribbon will be striped. The
connectors are ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) type and are released by lifting the tabs at both
ends of the connector.
If the replacement keyboard came with a ribbon cable attached, remove the original
keyboard and cable. If not, release the original keyboard from the cable leaving the ribbon
intact on the motherboard.

Get the replacement keyboard and insert the ribbon cable in the connector, making sure
there are no unintended twists in the ribbon. An intentional twist in the cable will be pre-
existing, flat, and at a 90o angle. The ribbon cable connector should slip right into the
socket. If it does not, check that both end tabs on the connector are fully raised.
Insert the cable until you feel it stop and push down on the connector ends to secure it.
Secure the keyboard and move the face plate so that it is in position but not snapped in.
Power up your laptop and test the keyboard. If the keyboard works, power down the
machine and replace the face plate.

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Hard Drive
Before obtaining your replacement part, start by checking the manufacturer’s website for
the exact replacement. Since this would be the perfect time to upgrade, look at your options
in terms of drive speed and capacity. This could be the perfect time to upgrade to
an SSD (Solid State Drive) or a Hybrid (SSD and HDD).
If you choose the SSD, you will be rewarded with faster speed and longer battery life. Be
aware of the physical size differences in available drives. If you get a 1.8” drive a 1.8” to
2.5″adapter will ship with the drive. There is quite a noticeable size difference as you can
see.

1.8” and 2.5” drives

OK, say you have your replacement drive and are ready to proceed to the next step.

The hard drive is usually accessed by removing a service panel on the bottom of the laptop.
You can identify the panel because in most cases, a barrel symbol, indicating the hard drive,
will be present on the panel. The panel may also cover the memory and the wireless card.
There may be a panel covering only the hard drive. In either case, look for the barrel symbol.
Once you locate the panel, remove the panel by loosening the screws that secure it and pry
it up. The screws should stay on the panel by design. When you remove the panel, you will
see the hard drive.

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Service panel removed

The drive will be in a mounting assembly held in by two or four screws. In our example, the
drive is secured with two screws and a Mylar sheet with lifting tabs on it. Remove the drive
assembly carefully and disconnect the SATA connector.

2.5″ HDD in assembly

We see a 2.5” standard magnetic drive. There will be four screws holding the drive in the
assembly. Remove the screws and place your replacement drive in the assembly. If the new
drive is an SSD, the drive will be 2mm thinner than the 9mm drive you are replacing,
requiring a 2mm spacer that will be shipped with the new drive.
This spacer ensures the footprint will be the same as both drives are 2.5”. Here is the new
SSD drive with a black/yellow 2mm spacer installed in the assembly.

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2.5” 7mm SSD in Assembly with Spacer

Mount the new drive in the assembly, reconnect the SATA connector, and replace the drive
assembly in the laptop by screwing it back in. Replace the service panel. If you want to check
that the drive is being seen, power up the laptop, access the UEFI/BIOS, and look for the
disk. Your new drive will not be available to the operating system until it is initialized.
Memory
When you are replacing memory, an upgrade is certainly viable. When replacing or
upgrading your memory, you must check with the manufacturer for the memory types and
capacities your system will accept. It possible that a 4GB DDR3 SO-DIMM from different
manufacturers will have the insertion notches in different positions at the edge of the
module. Know exactly what you need and get as much as the system will take.
Laptop memory is typically installed in pairs so make sure you get 2 modules of the same
memory from the same manufacturer.
The installation process requires removal of the same service panel as that of the hard drive.
The pair of SO-DIMMS are held in place by metal clips on both sides of each module. Move
the clips outward simultaneously and the module will pop up slightly, enough for you to
grasp and remove it. Do this for both modules.
Remove your new memory from its packaging and carefully install it by sliding it into the
memory slot and pushing down to seat the module and engage the retaining clips. Here is
what it should look like installed. Note the silver retaining clips and the notch in the memory
module are perfectly aligned in the socket. Also note that the palm rest and touchpad were
removed to access the memory.
Bonus points if you can tell what the difference is between the image and the guidelines
provided in the instructions. (Answer: Different memory manufacturers.)

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Installed memory
Smart card reader
Before you diagnose a Card reader as faulty, try the card in a different machine. Make sure
you have good media before tearing your laptop down. If you have diagnosed your Card
reader as faulty, consider a USB replacement as discussed in Part 1 of this objective. Check
the documentation. These results will inform you during the replacement decision process.

Smart Card readers provide access to the content through slots. These slots can be in either
a double door flap type opening, for Compact Flash, or a single, open slot of a specific size
depending on which SD card type you are using. In either case, the reader will be pretty
deep in the laptop unit.
Usually, the best way to access the reader is through the top by removing the keyboard and
the bezel. Some Card readers can be accessed through a bottom panel while others could be
soldered to the motherboard. Check the ribbon cable for damage and use the one that
came with replacement if supplied. Reverse the disassembly process to close up the case.
Make sure all of the screws are back in the right places.
Optical drive
An Optical drive used to be pretty tough to access. Fortunately, later laptop models hold the
drive in with a single screw to an assembly that has SATA connectors fitted into it.
Otherwise, you may be able to get to the drive from the bottom service panel or you’ll have
to have to disassemble from the top. Follow your instructions carefully. Generally speaking,
the Optical drives that use a slide-out tray are easier to remove than the slot insertion type.
Wireless card / Mini-PCIE
When replacing a wireless card, there is always the USB option. In this discussion, we will
discuss internal expansion options with the addition of a Mini PCI slot followed by a Mini-
PCIE slot. Here is how they compare.

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Mini-PCI to Mini-PCIE Comparison

Mini-PCI allows manufacturers to adjust the laptop features to user needs without designing
a new laptop. This slot works the same way as in desktops, only on a much smaller scale.
Always accessible through a service panel, the Mini-PCIE slot is USB 2.0 compliant and can
be used to increase storage capacity, add Bluetooth, or add/upgrade wireless capabilities.

This was a common issue as a user with a decent laptop and a 802.11 b wireless card would
need to swap out for a 802.11g or 802.11n card.
While the card was easy to swap out, the wireless upgrade required patience because the
internal antennae on the card have tiny F type connectors that take time and care to
connect.

Here is a Mini-PCIE wireless card ready to be installed. Note the black slot and gold antenna
connectors. Once connected, the card will also be screwed in.

Mini-PCIE Wireless Card

Screen
The laptop lid is the most distinguishable component. The laptop lid contains the backlight,
the inverter that converts the DC power in the laptop back to AC power, and the LCD screen.

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The LCD is secured to the lid with screws. The inverter is easily accessible once you have
removed the bezel. The lid will be secured to the laptop body with two hinges that are
typically accessed by gently removing a faceplate with curved extensions which protect the
hinge and any cabling.

Laptop Faceplate with Hinge Covers

Once the faceplate is off, you’ll see the power and monitor cable. This should detach easily.
If it doesn’t, stop and double check your instructions. Once the lid is free, you can now work
on it. First, remove the bezel. It will be secured by four screws that are hidden under rubber
plugs at the corners. Next, pry the bezel loose, working slowly and gently.
Once the bezel is off you will see the components. If you are not working on the screen, be
careful. If you are replacing the screen, be careful with the new one.
The screen will be secured by screws around the outer edges (four to six). Remove the
screws but don’t move the screen more than a ½ inch or so as the ribbon cable for the
screen is delicate and deliberately short.
You may also find a wireless antenna disconnect too. Follow your instructions carefully and
if replacing the screen, use the new LCD ribbon if possible. After reconnecting everything
and securing the screen, check your work quickly by powering and booting the machine.

Don’t handle the machine here. Just observe for any problems and power down.
Reassemble it all carefully, reversing the process.
DC Jack
Please be absolutely sure that the DC jack, or charging port, has failed before you replace
the jack. Make sure the AC adapter isn’t the issue too. Check the DC jack using a voltmeter
by moving the testing wire around to ensure roughly +12V DC is showing consistently. DC
jack replacement could involve a significant laptop body tear down to access and remove
the jack through de-soldering.

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In this case, you will need solder, a good soldering iron, and a de-soldering wick to absorb
excess solder. Depending on your laptop’s design, you may find the jack on a small circuit
board connected to the motherboard by a ribbon cable. This is the ideal scenario if jack
replacement is necessary.

We recommend that you take pictures or precise notes. Keep track of your screws,
components, and their orientation for reassembly. Don’t heat the jack connections for a
long period of time as you don’t want to damage the board. Be sure your soldering iron is
hot and you have the de-soldering wick ready. Remove the broken jack and replace it.
Reassemble the laptop.
Battery
Batteries are the easiest replacement of all. Obtain the exact battery you need, preferably
from the manufacturer. Use genuine parts if available. Release and remove the old battery
and replace with the new one.
The new battery should fit exactly using the original latch as the old battery. If possible, it is
advisable to do this at a time when you won’t be using the laptop for several hours as it’s
important that the battery is completely charged before the first use.
Touchpad
If your touchpad has failed, you can consider an external USB mouse or trackball. Otherwise,
this is another component that can be installed several ways. The touchpad will be
integrated with the palm rest.
After reading the instructions, locate and remove the screws that hold the touchpad and
possibly the keyboard. Disconnect the touchpad connector from the motherboard by pulling
the connector. Do not pull the wires or ribbon. Reverse the process to install the new
touchpad.
Some models may have the touchpad screwed and glued onto the palm rest. For these, you
may need to replace the palm rest entirely. Otherwise, you’ll have to carefully pry the old
touchpad off of the palm rest after removing any screws.

Be careful not to damage the palm rest. Work around the edges of the old touchpad.
Carefully remove all of the old adhesive from the palm rest. There should be adhesive with
your replacement part, or a recommendation.

Make sure the new touchpad is as flush as possible so that there is no space between the
touchpad and palm rest. The reattachment process should be documented by the
manufacturer. Use only genuine parts.
Speaker
Speaker replacement is a relatively simple repair. Correctly diagnose the problem and be
sure you have the right drivers in the operating system. If the issue is no sound, the problem
could be as simple as a loose wire. The speakers are usually installed under the faceplate.

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Typically the speakers will be above the keyboard with an assortment of controls, like the
power button in particular.

Speaker Above the Button Control Board

The speakers could also be below the keyboard with the touchpad. In any case, be careful
not to break any connections. When buying replacement parts, get a pair of speakers since
if one has failed, the other could be near the end of its life.
Matched speakers will provide a better experience.
Locate the speaker connection which could be on the motherboard or on a separate sound
board. There will be a pair of wires on the connector. Remove the connector from the board
using the connector and not by pulling the wires. Be careful of other connections involved.
Very often, the buttons on the top faceplate simply line up with the actual buttons soldered
to the control board.
System board

Replacing the System Board is the type of situation that really challenges the repair vs.
replace decision. The replacement requires a complete teardown of the unit. The system
board or motherboard is under all of the peripherals and system components. It will have
components on both sides: CPU on top, memory and expansion on the bottom.
This will be your ultimate test of documentation and procedure.

If you remove the screws from something and it doesn’t move, flip the case over and see if
there is another screw or two still holding it. The organization and documentation of the
screws in particular is critical. There’s nothing worse than your last screw being the wrong
size. Take pictures and use nonconductive labels to help reassemble the unit.

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You will be taking everything apart except the LCD screen so give yourself at least an hour or
two of uninterrupted time.
Here’s a nice comparison of a notebook and a standard ATX motherboard:

ATX and Laptop System Boards Comparison.

This is a test! You’re looking at probably four screw sizes and lots of little connections. Take
the laptop apart slowly and deliberately. Take notes, use your cell/smart phone camera, and
give yourself every aid possible. A small compartmented storage container will work. Even
an empty egg carton would be ideal here.
CPU
The CPU replacement is not as tough as it would seem. It is also an opportunity to look at
possible upgrade options using manufacturer recommendations. Select the best match
considering cost and performance. The heat sink should be visible after removing the
keyboard and bezel assembly.

Because the height is not available as it would be in a conventional PC, you’ll find that the
heat exchange assembly occupies up to one fourth of the surface area of the system board,
using copper piping to get the processor heat to the fan in a single long flat package. Once

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the heat exchange assembly is removed, the processor will be visible. Here we see both the
processor and the heat exchanger.
Note the old thermal paste still stuck to the processor and the bottom of the heat
exchanger. Be sure to clean the old thermal paste off both surfaces.

Motherboard Processor and Heat Exchanger

Remove the old processor and replace. Make sure you have thermal compound or a thermal
pad between the new processor and heat sink for even heat distribution.
1.2 Given a scenario, install components within the display of a laptop.
Wi-Fi antenna connector/placement
Webcam
Microphone
Inverter
Digitizer

We will examine the functions available and the features of a laptop display panel. While
most of us think of it as simply “the lid”, more and more features are finding their way into
the laptop display panel. We will begin by examining the types of displays available for the
laptop display. The display type can provide space for other components without adding
size. Laptop displays break down into two main types: LCD and OLED. These display types
can be defined further by their characteristics.

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LCD
LCD is a term that has had its definition evolved as the technology has improved. The basic
LCD design consists of a liquid crystal material sandwiched between two clear plastic sheets
with a light source behind the package. The liquid crystal material is divided into small
squares.
Each square is independent of the others and each is capable of 32-bit color depth. These
squares are referred to as pixels and many monitors are classified by its monitor pixel count,
that is, how many pixels wide and how many pixels high is the screen’s resolution.

For example, you may see a display listed as 1680×1050. This indicates that there are 1,680
independent rows of pixels arranged horizontally on the display and 1,050 rows of pixels
arranged vertically. You may also see values such as DPI (Dots per Inch).

With DPI, more is better. Here is a great comparison of how pixels have been and are used
to provide imperceptibly clean images.
Remember, these images are greatly magnified.

Pixel geometry

The time it takes a pixel to respond to a changed value is known as the response time. The
response time is defined as the time it takes a pixel to change from completely black to
completely white, and then return back to black. The response time is measured in
milliseconds. Response times vary from 1ms to 11ms.
The monitor’s cost varies according to its response time. Use these numbers to ballpark the
monitors you are choosing. Often, the response time measurement is instead the response
time for the pixel to go from grey to white to grey.
In addition, with no true definition of grey, these measurements are highly inconsistent.
Instead, use your eyes and look for ghosting and viewing angle when selecting a monitor.
TTL vs. IPS

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There are three technologies used in LCDs: TN, TTL, and IPS. Let’s familiarize ourselves with
these three technologies.
TN – Twisted Nematic

Twisted Nematic (TN) screens have exceptional response times, brighter colours, and crisp
imaging. The downside to this technology is that they use considerably more power while
providing a restricted viewing angle compared to the other types.
TTL – Transistor Translator Logic

Describes a digital circuit that uses Transistor Translator Logic (TTL). The term has also been
used to describe monitors that accept digital signals as opposed to analog signals such as
composite or component.
IPS – In-Plane Switching
In-Plane Switching (IPS) technology provides an enhanced viewing experience when
compared to the other display types. IPS offers truer colours and an expanded viewing angle
when compared to the others.
Fluorescent vs. LED backlighting
For all the previously discussed screen technologies, keep in mind that there is no light
emitted from the screens themselves. Like a photographic “negative” or a projector slide,
the screens need illumination for us to see the image.
That is where the concept of backlights comes in. Two types of backlights are shown below.
Inverter
CCFL – Cold Cathode Fluorescent Light
Cold Cathode Fluorescent Light (CCFL), or its common name fluorescent light, is simply a
fluorescent light placed behind the display. Multiple lights can be used but each one
requires its own Inverter board. The Inverter converts DC current into AC current to power
the bulb. If two lights are used, two inverters are required to power them.
LED – Light Emitting Diodes
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are quite bright and very efficient in terms of energy
consumption. LEDs are also environmentally friendly. One of the reasons for their efficiency
comes from the fact that the power does not have to be “inverted” for use.
The LED is able to use DC power straight from the motherboard with no waste. In addition,
LEDs themselves are small, efficient, and quite bright. When placed behind the LCD, they
produce bright accurate color.
Here are images of a LED panel and a CRT monitor display. Both are highly magnified for
detail but the similarity is evident.

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Tri-color

CRT
OLED – Organic Light – Emitting Diode
Another type of display is the OLED (Organic Light – Emitting Diode) which uses a thin LED
film of organic material sandwiched between two electrode grids. There’s no backlight and
the lower light produced by the LED film allows for better contrast and deep blacks. This
display type is best suited to low light environments where you can see the benefits of the
technology.
What’s in the lid?

We’ve examined the types of technology used in laptop displays, but the lid also contains
some other necessary items that make sense being in the lid.
Wi-Fi Antenna
Your Wi-Fi antenna benefits greatly in range and performance if you can get it up in the air
an extra foot or two. Putting the Wi-Fi antenna in the lid makes a lot of sense.
Webcam & Microphone

When it comes to webcam and microphone placement, the laptop lid is the ideal location.
This makes videoconferencing or chatting much more natural.
Digitizer/touchscreen

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A digitizer is a device, or even an overlay on your LCD panel, that takes physical input, such
as finger or stylus movement, and converts it digitally on your display.
For example, this device makes it possible to draw directly into a graphics program. This is a
great accessory for a graphic artist and provides him/her the opportunity to create and
digitally modify their creations. The digitizer can be considered a touchscreen.
1.3 Given a scenario, use appropriate laptop features.
In this section, we will address laptop features but instead with more of a practical approach
to the subject.
Special function key
On a laptop or notebook, it is fairly common to see the top row of keys configured as dual
purpose utility keys, allowing the user to perform a variety of actions without cluttering the
workspace with rows of infrequently used keys. The goal here is to dedicate the top row
(mainly) of keys and give them unrelated but specific functionality.
The Function key (Fn) is used to access these various functions and is shown below.

Function key highlighted

The Function key combination makes it harder to perform unintended actions.
Bonus question for everyone, which primary keyboard feature is activated by the Fn key?
As seen in the keyboard shown, multilingual capabilities are active when the Fn key is
pressed.

For the most actions, manufacturers assign the functions using their own layout. However,
all functions work through the following: press and hold the Fn key and the desired option
key.
Dual displays

The first function we will look at is the Fn+f4 command. This command will extend the
laptop monitor to a second connected monitor. This is useful for presentations require an
overhead projector or separate large monitor.
Here is the Windows configuration screen showing two monitors.

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Windows configuration screen showing two monitors.

Wireless (on/off)

The wireless key is not universally part of the Fn key arrangement. In most cases, your
device will have a Wi-Fi symbol, switch, or button that will be off when Wi-Fi is off, turn
amber when Wi-Fi is on, and turn blue when a connection is established.
Cellular (on/off)
If your laptop has cellular capability, it will have a control button or area to enable/disable
cell service. It is good practice to switch to 802.11 series connections when they are
available to save on cellular data.
Volume settings
The volume up/down buttons will be available either as a Fn related action or as a separate
control. Some models use touch sensitive surfaces to control volume level.
Screen brightness
Screen brightness is usually controlled with a Fn related action.
Bluetooth (on/off)
Bluetooth is usually controlled by a Fn command or a separate button. Bluetooth uses a lot
of power so if you are on battery and are not using Bluetooth, it’s best to switch it off.

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Keyboard backlight
Some keyboards are backlit for use in low ambient light situations. While this is very helpful,
one should assess the power use vs benefit when on battery.
Touch pad (on/off)
Many individuals have trouble using a laptop keyboard and touchpad at the same time as
their palms, or other parts of the hand, make contact with the touchpad. This will cause the
cursor to jump to a different location. You can toggle the touchpad on and off to rectify this
situation.
Screen orientation
Most laptop screens today are in landscape mode where the display is wider than it is tall.
This is highly suited for multimedia entertainment which uses 16 pixels horizontal for every
9 pixels vertical.
Media options (fast forward/rewind)

Multi-function keys.
As mentioned above, laptops are being used as multimedia platforms. Here f9 is play pause,
f10 is stop, f11 is fast rewind, and f12 fast forward.
GPS (on/off)
GPS mode should have its own switch. GPS functions help when you are trying to find a
specific location, but keep in mind that what you are tracking can track you. We recommend
turning GPS off unless in use.
Airplane mode

This is another setting that should have its own switch or even a menu setting. Airplane
mode disables all communication to and from the device when activated.
Docking station
A docking station is an extremely convenient way to make all necessary connections
through a single device. Generally speaking, the docking station has a keyboard, mouse,
monitor, and network connection. The laptop is connected to the station through a
proprietary connection.

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Physical laptop lock and cable lock

All laptops are fitted with a small reinforced attachment point that can be used to help
prevent theft. Cable locks are attached to these attachment points. These cable locks are
sometimes referred to as Kensington connectors after one of the prominent manufacturers
of security cables. The opposite end of the cable lock is mounted to something secure.

Cable lock on laptop.

Rotating / removable screens
When adding flexibility to a laptop, it’s hard to ignore the benefits of a removable screen.
Removing the screen cuts the weight in half without compromising performance. A rotating
screen allows a user to swivel around and lay the screen face up, giving the look and feel of
a tablet with the power of a laptop.

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1.4 Compare and contrast characteristics of various types of mobile devices.

Here we will examine the characteristics of several mobile devices.
Tablets
Tablets are a class of devices that are usually connected with other devices using Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, or NFC.

Tablet using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or NFC

A tablet is larger than a smartphone and typically lacks a tactile keyboard and cellular
capabilities.
Smartphones
Smartphones are an evolution of the traditional cell phone and possess the added capability
of running mobile applications (also referred to as apps). Based on a larger physical platform
(approx. 4”x6”), the combination of apps with a touch sensitive display enable the device to
perform additional functions such as taking pictures, accessing social media, and playing
games. There are many apps out on the marketplace, allowing you to pretty much do
anything on your smartphone. In the image, we see a cyclist using a navigation app which
utilizes the smartphone’s built-in GPS.
Wearable technology devices
These are devices that you can wear that are capable of measuring, storing, and
transmitting data. Typically, this type of device will use Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. For Wi-Fi
connected devices, your devices do not need to be near each other as the Wi-Fi internet
connection allows the devices to communicate.

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Smart watches
Smart watches are smaller than smartphones but can possess many of the same features
depending on the level of communication built in.

Smart watch

Smart watches can accommodate everything from simple interaction to full text and voice
communication if equipped for cellular communications.
Fitness monitors
Taking advantage of Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, fitness monitors monitor your body state and
report the data back to the master device. These devices allow you to measure heart rate
and activity levels in real time.
VR/AR headsets and Glasses

Glasses and headsets are a design breakthrough in the wearable technology field. These
devices project your smartphone or tablet display to a clear lens or a screen.

Glasses and headsets

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Using a built-in microphone, these devices can respond to voice commands using voice
recognition technology, allowing you to dictate and send email or text messages along with
verbally confirming any command or control input. They can also provide an immersive
experience by blocking out all other external stimuli and place you in a virtual environment
as shown below.

VR headset with headphones

Phablets
Physically fitting in the space between smartphones and tablets, phablets are bigger than a
smartphone and smaller than a tablet. Phablets make web browsing more manageable and
minimize the eye strain associated with smartphones. The display size makes viewing
multimedia content easier on the eyes as well.
E-Reader
An e-Reader is a dedicated reading device for e-books. Many e-Readers also allow you to
highlight and jot down notes. An e-Reader is not suitable for gaming. Gaming and viewing
video content requires a higher frequency refreshing screen which on an e-reader can cause
flicker. Gaming and viewing video content requires a TFT display which is not power efficient
and adds to the devices weight. In addition, e-Readers have considerably less resources than
a tablet.

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Kindle e-Reader

The Kindle utilizes its resources for maximum benefit by using E-ink and higher quality
display resolutions. Originally possessing black and white displays, current Kindle models
have been upgraded to full 32 bit color depth displays. Content is typically stored on the
device and storage expansion is possible using smart cards.
Smart camera
Forward-facing and rear-facing smart cameras are typically found in your smartphone or
tablet. These cameras are smart in the sense that they incorporate additional features
alongside standard picture taking such as anti-jitter image stabilization, smile recognition,
and blink recognition.
GPS
The foundation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of satellites which are
orbiting earth in a fixed position relative to the earth’s surface. This orbit is referred to as a
geosynchronous orbit.

A minimum of three satellites is used by the GPS module inside your personal device to
determine the exact location. The time required to receive the signals from the GPS
satellites is measured and triangulated to determine your location.

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Reading GPS output on a smartphone

1.5 Given a scenario, connect and configure accessories and ports of mobile devices.
We’ll look at the connection types, the physical connection, and any communication
protocols that may be used.
Connection types
NFC
Let’s start with the connection types available for mobile devices and their accessories. We
have already discussed Wi-Fi and Bluetooth in detail (in prior Exam Notes) but there is a
third type that you need to be knowledgeable about. This third type is called Near Field
Communication (NFC).

NFC is not a new technology and due to its main security feature of its 10 cm transmission
range, has experienced resurgence through the proliferation of mobile devices. Attackers
have to be practically touching the target device in order to be able to exchange data.

NFC can be used for tap and pay, which exchanges payment information with a NFC capable
reader at the cash register, as well as exchanging contact information with friends or clients
simply by tapping compatible phones together. The ultimate business card!
Proprietary vendor specific ports (communication /power)

Each vendor introducing new technology will design proprietary connector types for power
and data. As the technology becomes popular with users, the manufacturers or the IEEE will
agree upon and standardize a specific connection type that will be used in the
2nd generation of devices.

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Micro-USB/mini-USB/USB-C
Micro-USB and mini-USB are two connection types that became standard then eventually
were phased out in favour of another. The mini-USB connector was introduced as a digital
camera and media player charger and data connector.
Mini-USB was only marginally smaller than the standard USB B connection and it wasn’t long
before a replacement, the micro-USB, was designed and adopted. The micro-USB
connection is more durable and mobile device friendly than the mini-USB.
The micro-USB is also considerably smaller and is suitable to not only fit media based
devices but also the sleek, thin smartphones and Tablet PCs that were flooding the market.
The mass adoption of micro-USB spelled doom for the mini-USB connector. You may see the
mini-USB in the field but all new devices are considerably more likely to be micro-USB as
devices developed a slimmer profile.
Most recently, the USB-C connector was developed with a higher speed, a small profile, and
a reversible orientation. With USB-C, you can plug it in either way and there’s no more
guessing when you connected a device.

USB-C Connector
Lightning

Apple was one of the initial developers of USB-C along with other major industry leaders.
Seeing how slowly the standard was being developed, Apple left the group and developed
their own similar but proprietary connector called Lightning.

This connector was in production before USB-C (USB 3.1) was approved. The connector is
compatible with many other standards, but you’ll need to obtain adapters to use it.
Bluetooth
Earlier Bluetooth wireless connections were not as fast as it is currently (initially 2MBs). The
maximum range and speed have increased fairly steadily as shown in the table. Special
protocol features allow users to create Personal Area Networks (PAN).

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Characteristics of different Bluetooth versions

IR
Infrared transmissions use the invisible light spectrum to transmit low power signals to
compatible devices.
There are many applications that utilize the technology, most notably remote control
signalling for home theatre devices, garage door openers, and any dedicated device that has
an unobstructed line-of-sight.
Some smartphones incorporate this technology allowing users control of their multimedia
components.
Hotspot/tethering

During tethering, a smartphone is connected to a laptop or tablet using a compatible USB

cable, allowing the cellular device’s connection to be shared wirelessly to other devices.
During this process, the Internet connection is used to create a mobile hotspot, through
which the other devices can access resources on the internet.
Accessories

Practically speaking, any network-capable and many device-specific accessories can be

connected, used, or shared. Here is the short list.
Headsets
The diminutive size of most smartphones and even laptops makes sound reproduction a
challenge. A good headset can be connected using the 1/8” headphone jack, USB, or
Bluetooth. Any of these connection types will provide high quality audio.
Speakers/Docking Station
The device size and speaker quality will have the greatest impact on the sound quality again.
If you plan on using your mobile device to listen to music or watch movies, the built-in
speakers in most mobile devices will not provide the most enjoyable experience.

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Tablet dock

For the most enjoyable experience, connect your device to a docking station containing
stereo speakers and possibly a sub-woofer. There are many brand specific docks built
exactly for your device.
Game pad
In a gaming machine, once you have a high speed processor, a high resolution display, and
superior sound, the last thing you will need is a superior game controller. The controller
should have good response numbers as you do not want any missed actions and poor
response time. Avoid poor or bad connections by not using Bluetooth or IR controllers since
those devices need a direct line of sight. Something as simple as your pet or a friend passing
between your controller and the gaming machine could get you killed in the game quickly.
Extra battery pack/ battery charger
When you travel, many airports, train stations, and hotel lobbies have charging stations for
your devices. If you have the ability, carry an extra battery and keep it charged. It sounds
simple but there are few things worse than having the foresight to have an extra battery
and later find that it’s dead! Lastly, bring a power inverter that you can plug into a rental
car’s cigarette lighter and so that you can charge your devices.
Credit card readers
If your business requires taking payments, there are very handy credit card readers that
attach to your cell phone and validate credit cards over the internet.

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Multi Smart card readers

For Memory/Micro-SD, carry a read/write USB adapter that will let your presentations or
sales data live on if your primary device fails. Keep the backed up information up to date.
Protective covers / waterproofing
Protect your devices from the elements by placing your devices in protective cases that will
protect them if dropped and keep them dry. Be smart and don’t blindly trust these
protections past what common sense would indicate.

1.6 Given a scenario, configure basic mobile device network connectivity and application
support.
We will cover Mobile devices and how they connect to networks.
IMPORTANT NOTE:

One area NOT explicitly listed on the objectives that should be there concerns Short
Message Service (SMS) and the evolution of Multimedia Message service (MMS). SMS,
otherwise known as text messaging, is a practice that should only be undertaken when you
can provide your attention to it, i.e. not while you are driving (the statistics on this are
seriously alarming).
Smartphone communications are responsible for more driving injuries and fatalities than
drunk driving! We’ll leave that there and consider this a Public Service Announcement from
DTI Publishing to you. Although it has not on the test so far, it’s likely to be on the way to
the test. Do take heed. Ok, so now on to the actual goods…
Wireless / cellular data network (enable/disable)
Here we will look at a few wireless data device configurations and usages. For this section,
consider an anonymous mobile device and service provider. The mobile service plan has
unlimited 4G LTE service on calls and data. The unlimited calls and data factor is a
consideration when we talk about sharing services.
Hotspot
In general, the term hotspot refers to an area where you can wirelessly connect to the
internet and other application layer services such as email, messaging, and social media.
Many businesses, including prominent coffee houses, offer this service as a way to
encourage patrons to extend their stay at their location, providing additional sales
opportunities that a grab and go patron would not be exposed to.
Having a delicate, icing drizzled pastry in your field of vision will have an effect on you. It
won’t be long before you’re back at the counter either for a refill or that pastry!
Depending on the device’s capabilities, your own wireless device can be turned into a
hotspot. With your own hotspot, you can have a completely supported wireless business
meeting with a small group at a park or a lake, anywhere but that conference room.

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In most cases, the device sharing the hotspot will have its internet capability disabled.
Bandwidth will not reflect the full capacity of the host and battery life will be impacted.
Tethering

This technique allows you to connect your cell phone to a laptop or tablet through USB or
Bluetooth, enabling devices using the phone’s cellular connection to provide mobile
connectivity to another device. This connection is a one to one connection share. Good for
essential connectivity, this connection type offers limited bandwidth and if used over a
Bluetooth connection, will drain the battery quickly.
Airplane mode
If you suffer loss of connectivity, first check if that little airplane icon on your smartphone is
showing. The first icon on your phone indicates that the device’s radios are capable of
communication.

Airplane Mode On
The initial proliferation of cellular and Wi-Fi capable devices prompted a concern among
airlines that these devices could interfere with the safe operation of the systems on an
aircraft. Passengers were instructed to turn their devices off. Boring! Device manufacturers
came up with a quick mode, called Airplane mode, which disables the offending radios.
Pressing the airplane icon switches off all the external communication methods of the
device.

Airplane Mode Off

Bluetooth

Bluetooth has been around for some time, but never really realized its potential until mobile
devices began using Bluetooth to establish short range communication between peripherals
and other devices.

The most significant and potentially lifesaving application of this technology came when
Bluetooth was combined with hands free headsets, enabling hands free phone
conversations.

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This made driving while talking much safer. This was enhanced when auto makers
incorporated Bluetooth into the automobile’s features, allowing users to make calls without
even looking at the phone.

The technology is available in many devices including headphones, keyboards, and even
some heart monitors. When two devices are connected together via Bluetooth, they are
said to be paired. Up to 7 additional devices can connect, using a master/slave relationship,
in a small network called a PAN (Personal Area Network), also referred to as a piconet.
Here is an example of a Bluetooth headset waiting to pair and how a one to one connection
works. The blue light on the left hand button will light when paired.

Bluetooth headset
Enable Bluetooth
For starters, both devices must be Bluetooth capable and have Bluetooth enabled when
initiated. In most cases, the device will actively search for devices to pair.
Enable pairing
The devices must be set (initially) to discover nearby Bluetooth devices. In essence, one
device must be discoverable for the other device to find it. Most devices enter this mode for
15 to 30 seconds when powered up. If the devices are set to automatically pair, you’ll be
connected after a couple of easy clicks.
Find device for pairing

One of the devices will initiate the paging process that will locate other device(s) and
establish the parameters for the connection. Automatic pairing is not the best practice as it
leaves you more susceptible to Bluetooth attacks such as Blue-snarfing and Blue-jacking
(covered later). Consider the environment you expect to be in and picture a 10 meter range
around yourself.

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Here, in three steps, is a Headset pairing to a PC.

Step 1 – Discovery

Step 2 – Pairing

Step 3 – Ready to go

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Enter appropriate pin code

One way to protect your device from unauthorized access is the use of a passcode or PIN.
Many devices require this to establish the Bluetooth connection. Your hands free car setup
generally requires this as do most keyboards and other command and control peripherals.
The problem with this is that the passcodes are so simple that they are practically
guaranteed to be cracked. For example, you will encounter default codes such as 0000,
1111, or the most secure 1234. Most users don’t even think of changing it. Here’s a Tablet
that has a decently complex PIN.

Test connectivity
Testing the connection can be as simple as trying the device. However, depending on your
software, there may be in app connection testing available. In the app, you can see items
such as connection speed, signal strength, and signal confirmation which are generally
found under Settings/ Bluetooth. 3rd party programs are also available.
Corporate and ISP email configuration
There is no shortage of email service providers. You probably have multiple accounts. Your
primary account is most likely provided by your ISP. Your employer will generally assign you
one as well. If you need apps for your smartphone or tablet that are not provided by your
OS developer, you will have another account. My only advice here is to not use the same
password for all of your accounts since one compromised email password could expose all
accounts.
POP3
Receiving email is done over different protocols. There are two main protocols available
depending on your service. The first is Post Office Protocol (POP) with the latest version
being POP3. This protocol is responsible for the management, saving or deleting, of email
messages on the server. The default mode in POP3 is to delete the message after delivery.
Leaving messages on the server is useful if you use multiple devices for messaging.
IMAP
Today’s email user is probably using email on a collection of possible devices, tablet,
smartphone, and laptop, as opposed to the traditional PC.

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If your smartphone downloads and deletes a work related email (POP3 default), you will
have a problem when you check email on your PC or laptop because the email will be gone.
The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), on TCP port 143, solves this problem by
leaving the messages on the server regardless of the delivery status. Every device that
checks will get the email.
This is great unless you get spammed a lot. It’s possible that 18 out of 20 emails are junk and
your server space will end up filling quickly. This calls for closer scrutiny of the undeleted
messages on your server. You will have to move them to the trash folder and purge it, or
configure the client to purge trash. Despite this, IMAP is the preferred client messaging
protocol.
SSL settings

The Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) uses TCP port 25 for internet mail transmission.
It is an internet standard protocol. Due to the proliferation of SPAM and other email related
vulnerabilities, other ports can be used, most notably port 587.

A secure nonstandard implementation of this protocol is SMTPS which is quite effective

because it is one of the protocols that can utilize SSL (Secure Sockets Layer). SMTP is
responsible for the transmission of email between servers and for sending email from a
client. Other protocols are used to receive email on the client.
Exchange, S/MIME

Using S/MIME in Exchange provides encrypted authentication, message integrity, digital

signatures, and overall message security. This can be enabled in Outlook under Tools/ Trust
Center/ E-mail Security. The server will require it and without server support it will not
work.
Here is a good example of the email configuration available on a Windows phone. Click Add
An Account and follow the steps to configure your account(s). As you can see here, the
user’s default email was created when he signed on to the device for the first time.

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Integrated commercial provider email configuration

Google/Inbox

Google provides email under the gmail.com domain. If you use the chrome browser, you can
access Gmail from your Start page or by simply entering gmail.com in your address bar. You
will be prompted to sign in or to create an account. The Gmail program only needs to be
installed if you plan to use it offline. By default, Gmail will synchronize your last 7 days of
emails when installed.
Yahoo

Yahoo is available as an app or through the browser. Create an account at Yahoo.com, click
the mail button while online, and off you go. Follow the setup wizard to install the app, if
desired.
Outlook.com

Formerly Hotmail.com, Outlook.com is a hosted email program that is capable of deploying

3rd party apps. This is useful if you frequently require them. The installation is simple and is
guided by a wizard.
Exchange Online
Offered as an upgrade from Outlook.com, Exchange Online is available with Microsoft Office
365, providing additional security and reliability.
iCloud

More than just email, iCloud can be used to back up and store your data. If you have an
AppleID, possibly created using a portable music player, you can use that to login to your
iCloud.com account. Otherwise, create one and follow the steps in the wizard to get set up.
You can select objects to synchronize at will on a schedule.
PRI updates/PRL updates/Baseband updates
PRI Updates
The PRI (Product Release Instructions) is a document or webpage that provides the
description for the software update process. It defines new or changed feature descriptions
and how to implement the update.

Always read this document to be sure the update doesn’t suddenly need access to your
contacts or camera. This documentation is also helpful if an update has undesired side
effects. You can review it for the possible cause.
PRL Update
The PRL is a database file stored in your cellular device. Called the Preferred Roaming List,
this file stores the device’s performance carrier preferences regarding connection
frequencies and other settings to be used on the connection.

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Baseband Update
Baseband updates are applied to the modem firmware in your cellular device. It is not an OS
update, although this update can be rolled with the general OS update when necessary.
Radio firmware
Radio firmware controls the parameters of your cellular and/or Wi-Fi signal. When problems
exist with the device connections, a firmware upgrade often resolves the issue. Be careful
and ensure that there is uninterrupted power throughout the process and that you don’t
interfere in any way. Treat the radio firmware the same way you would a PC’s CMOS ROM.
Any problem during the update could render the device useless (brick). Be careful.
IMEI vs. IMSI

Yes more acronyms. These are relatively simple. You know that each device on a network
must have a unique identifier. Equally in the interconnected environment today, each
mobile device, such as phones or tablets, on the planet has to have a unique hardware
identifier. This is known as the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identifier) and is a
number that is unique worldwide and assigned by the manufacturer. The IMSI (International
Mobile Subscriber Identifier) operates under the same principle of uniqueness, but is
assigned to the user or cellular subscriber. This number will be assigned by your service
provider and stored on your device’s SIM card, making it portable. This means if you
upgrade to a device that uses a compatible SIM card, your IMEI will change and your IMSI
won’t. Simply put, the IMEI is the phone and the IMSI is you.
VPN
VPNs (Virtual Private Network) are useful in the mobile environment. They provide highly
secure connections from unlikely locations, basically anywhere with cellular service. By
providing a secure tunnel for your connection, its integrity and security are assured.
1.7 Given a scenario, use methods to perform mobile device synchronization.
In this section, we will look at the ways data is managed in order to prevent loss in the
mobile environment. In particular, we will look at the ways to synchronize (sync) data with
your PC or within the cloud. We will look at the types of data typically synced by category
and application.
We will look at the methods used and how your authentication credentials are common
among various services. Specialized software and encrypted connections will be covered as
they may be required. Here is a look at some free sync apps available for Android in Google
Play.
Synchronization methods
There are three main ways to sync data.
1) Synchronize to the Cloud
2) Synchronize to the Desktop

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1) Synchronize to the Cloud

In order to synchronize to the Cloud, i.e. syncing your desired data to the Cloud, you will
need an internet connection. Examples of free, limited, and subscription Cloud services
include iTunes, iCloud, Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive. If you are using a proprietary
synchronization method, be aware that it may only sync the proprietary data or specially
configured data.

For example, a Dropbox sync requires the data to be synced to be uploaded first to the
online Dropbox folder, after which it will be synched. In the case of iOS products, only some
of your content can be synced such as purchased content.
2) Synchronize to the Desktop
Synchronizing to the Desktop is quite common and is often accomplished through a physical
connection between the mobile device and the desktop. However, this sync can be
configured across all configured devices as you will see. Here, we are using Windows Media
player to sync images with the desktop and android device.

Android Sync with Desktop

Here, you can see the other sync apps available from the Play Store.

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Android Apps in the Play Store

3) Synchronize to the Automobile
Many newer vehicles are equipped with hands-free technology, allowing your cell phone to
connect to the car’s audio system. When first connected, your car will prompt you to sync
your contacts.
Types of data to synchronize
The sync process, which creates a second copy of the selected content in another location,
is a real logistical time saver as well as a good loss prevention technique for your data.
Whether you are syncing with a local computer, a network, or a cloud based location, the
data classifications and programs used will usually be the same. We will look at the data
types first.
Contacts
Your contact list or address book is a great way to retain information about those you
interact with. However, this information is only useful if it is accessible. Ideally, any mobile
contacts should be available on your home or office PC or vice versa. This is accomplished by
importing or exporting information to suit your needs.
Applications
Typically, the applications used for the sync process are OS dependent, i.e. a Google Gmail
account for Google Drive on Android, Apple’s iCloud for syncs to and from the internet, and
iTunes to/from the PC. Most mobile OSs include some type of sync or backup capability.
Usually, these tools allow you to choose which content should be synced. Third party apps
are also available should the built-in options not suit your needs.

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Email
Email is an example of one of the earliest applications of synced and easily accessible data,
email contact lists. Your email client may sync contacts or address books, reminders, and
the emails themselves. You can choose to sync any or all of these.
Pictures

Pictures can be synced between devices and the internet. While technically a backup, using
a shared internet location such as iCloud Drive or Google Drive allows you to sync your
content easily. The online presence of your data is the key to unifying the content across all
of your devices.
Music -Videos – Documents ––Bookmarks

These can also be synced and shared using the same tools described above. Simply select or
deselect the content as desired. It is important that you set how you want the sync to
handle duplicate content. You don’t want to lose anything, but you also do not want
multiple copies of the same content.
Calendar
Your email client will typically include a calendar. You can choose to sync any or all of it.
Location data
Location data is used most importantly by emergency services. When you make a VoIP or
cellular call to 911, your location information is shared whether you have the feature
enabled or not. If enabled, the location data synced to the cloud can be used to find lost
mobile devices. Depending on the app, you can tell the device to ring or emit a tone, show
current or last location on a map, and activate the camera to view potential information
about the people or places in sight.
Social media
Social media has the ability to sync a great deal of your data. Make sure your synced data is
encrypted and protected.
EBooks
These can be synced individually or as a whole collection. The programs and available
settings are OS dependent.
Passwords
Offer to Save Passwords
When you enter a new password in Android or Chrome, you’ll be asked if you want to save
the password in your Google Account, making them available to any device that accesses
the Google Account. iOS users can sync the Keychain to iCloud. A sample of saved
passwords for a Google account used with Chrome is shown below.

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Mutual authentication for multiple services (SSO)

Mutual authentication for multiple services, otherwise known as Trust, occurs when the
client(s) must authenticate with the server(s), and vice versa, before any actual data is
exchanged in either direction. Communication only takes place after both parties are
satisfied that the other party is authentic. If there is a problem, a connection will not be
established.

Sometimes in a browser, a red padlock will appear as opposed to a green padlock which
indicates that the connection is secure. This type of authentication allows users to access
authorized content or services from the desktop or mobile platforms using a Single Sign–On
(SSO). In some cases, the connection is allowed and access is reported to the primary
account holder.
Software requirements to install the application on the PC
Reviewing software requirements to install the application on the PC ensures that the
hardware connectivity requirements have been met. You can then expect to download and
install applications to the PC. The application and app are different but when chosen
correctly, are usually designed to install correctly on mobile or desktop devices.
Connection types to enable synchronization
Connection types that enable synchronization are often high speed and reliable. These
include your home 802.11 Wi-Fi connection as well as USB and FireWire. These connections
offer two-way transmission of data over a secure and reliable connection, which is crucial to
synchronization. For example, however good your cellular provider is, there is no continuity
guarantee associated with synchronization. In addition, your data limits or a connectivity
issue could cause a sync to fail. These events are less likely on Wi-Fi or direct cable
connections.

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5.0 Hardware and Network Troubleshooting

5.1 Given a scenario, use the best practice methodology to resolve problems.

This objective is relatively self-explanatory and the shortest of them all. In this section, we
will break down best practice methodology for closer inspection and add comments where
necessary.

First of all, always consider corporate policies, procedures, and impact before implementing
changes. Then, while staying within the confines of these policies, proceed as follows:
Identify the problem using the following steps:

 Question the user in order to identify the user’s changes to the computer.
 Perform backups before proceeding further.
 Inquire regarding environmental or infrastructure changes. This requires you to
check with the user, and any other relevant parties, regarding any changes that may
have impacted the issue.
 Review system and application logs. Use Event Viewer on the local machine and
review any server logs that are relevant to the issue.
 Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious).
 If necessary, conduct external or internal research based on the symptoms. Use the
information you’ve gathered to make a determination about the cause of the issue.
Test your theory to determine the cause.

 Once your theory is confirmed as the cause of the issue, determine the next steps to
resolve the problem. If your theory is not confirmed or proven incorrect, come up
with a new theory or escalate. Don’t waste time. If your theory doesn’t work,
rethink, get help, or escalate the issue to a higher-level technician.
 Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution. Always
plan the steps you need to take in order to resolve the problem first. Then follow
them.
 Verify full system functionality and implement preventive measures if applicable.
 When you are satisfied with your resolution, verify full system operation. You can
have the user perform this validation whenever possible. Take any steps that would
prevent recurrence of the issue.
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems related to motherboards, RAM, CPUs, and
power.

Moving right along, we’re at the fifth out of five Main Domains! We are also almost finished
with the Hardware side of the CompTIA A+ objectives. In this section, we will mainly focus
on troubleshooting with regards to the devices themselves as well as any issues involving
network connectivity.
You really need to have a solid grasp of each of these objectives in order to have a chance of
beating the test. Here they are!

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Common symptoms
When you have a system crashing unexpectedly, it’s good to have a list of things to check.
This list should consist of items known to cause general problems such as overheating,
memory problems, and power problems.
The important thing is to determine what area of the system is likely causing the issue and
to systematically test every possible cause of that issue. This can take seconds or days to
diagnose depending on your methods.
For example, if you know you are having a video problem that appears to be memory
related, what type of memory should you check first? Say the machine is using RAM Boost.
Would you check that first? Probably not.
What about the main system memory? L2? L3? Video memory?
In this example, the smart money would be on the video memory as the culprit. Check the
video memory using the video diagnostics tool from the manufacturer of the graphics card.
If the computer has upgradeable memory, try removing it. The graphics will be slower, but
your problem may disappear.
Use your knowledge of how the system components interact with each other and compare
that with what you see and hear.
Let’s look at the system problems in the order presented in the objectives. The first problem
listed happens to be one of the toughest to diagnose.
Unexpected shutdowns

This condition can be caused by anything from a bad power supply to system memory, the
processor, or even the motherboard. So if the cause can be basically anything, where do you
start?
First, allow the system to cool down to room temperature, shut it off, and move onto
something else until the system components and heat sinks are cool to the touch.

Now start the machine. If it’s your machine, follow your normal usage pattern until the
crash presents itself again.
What were you doing when the crash occurred?
Do the contributing elements appear to be related to system load, a specific program, or is it
simply a matter of operating time?
If it’s a user machine, observe the user’s actions and ask questions.
System lockups
Lockups will be diagnosed much the same way as unexpected shutdowns, however this time
with an emphasis on heat related conditions.

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System error in Event Viewer

Here is a typical error shown in the event viewer. After recovery, always try to use the Event
Viewer to find out what caused the problem.
POST code beeps

When there is a speaker present on the motherboard, audible codes will sound which
provide high value system failure information, giving the technician good detail on the
system level failures prior to successful POST.
This series of long and short beeps will direct the technician to the component or subsystem
that has failed or is not otherwise present. This is quality information that is delivered
before the screen data is visible. Unfortunately, these audible codes are always different
from one UFEI/BIOS manufacturer to the next.
Proprietary crash screens (BSOD/pin wheel)
This condition is more often referred to as a “hang” than a crash. During this condition, a
single program or a group of processes will stop responding to operator input. When
diagnosing this condition, always give the program in use a few seconds to respond.
Sometimes it is that simple.
If this doesn’t work, use the task manager to examine the running processes and see which
process is “Not Responding.” Examine the tasks and processes involved since it’s often more
than one. Once identified, end the offending tasks.

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Blank screen on bootup

This condition has several accompanying conditions, a couple of which are shown below.
System boots to BSOD – Blue Screen of Death

BSOD – Blue Screen of Death

Troubleshoot by looking up the STOP: error code displayed on the BSOD and follow the
instructions if relevant. These codes tend to be generic. Sometimes, there may be several
related to the same incident, as you can see in the image. You may have to gather clues
from each instance.
Black error screen on boot
Sometimes you will receive a black screen with a short “Humane” message such as “PCI
Wireless card not connecting. Check the connections.” Albeit rare, these messages do exist.
These messages will show when there is enough information presented to the bootloader
for it to provide specifically actionable feedback to the user. The best examples of this are
“Boot to Safe Mode” and “Boot to Last Known Good Configuration.”
BIOS time and settings resets

Many Startup errors can be attributed to power settings. One classic example of this is when
your system date and time reverts back to something irrational.

At this point in your studies, you will have covered the BIOS settings on a PC and how the
BIOS settings are stored, modified, and maintained.

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CMOS Battery

When the device is off, the information stored in the BIOS is saved using a small watch
battery, more specifically a 2032 type battery. This is a very power efficient method of
storing essential system configuration information.
Attempts to boot to incorrect device
Among the system settings stored on the UEFI/BIOS are the Drive or Hard Disk information.
This includes the Hard Drive boot order. The Drive or Hard Disk information tells the
read/write heads where to look for the boot information as well as the preferred boot drive
selection.
Continuous reboots
Sometimes, a continuous series of reboots will be caused by a failed update or software
corruption. More often than not however, the continuous reboot situation is usually caused
by a failing motherboard component, the processor, or RAM.
No power
A no power condition is diagnosable by the general lack of noise, fan operation, drive
operation, and lights. Check all of your power sources, wall outlet, and power strip. If these
are okay, check the connections to the motherboard.
Overheating

This is a serious condition with potentially severe consequences. The circuitry used in
today’s components can only tolerate so many extremes of hot or cold. The greatest danger
for circuitry is heat.
Fortunately, there are sensors built into the motherboard that can detect temperature
extremes and either issue a warning or shut down the system.

Causes of overheating can be due to clogged airways where the internal air circulation is
impeded or where there is excessive dust build-up on heat exchanging surfaces such as the
aluminium fins, heat pipes, and fan/cooler assemblies.
When you hear an odd sound coming from the case, it is probably the heat sensor. The
sound will be loud and distinct enough to not to be mistaken for anything else.

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Intermittent device failure

An intermittent failure can have a number of causes such as a failing processor,
motherboard, RAM, or bad drivers. Check the processor temperature first and then run
RAM diagnostics.
Fans spin – no power to other devices

If the fans spin, you know that 12V power is being delivered to the system since fans and
drive motors operate on the 12 Volt power channel. Some of the logic boards and indicator
lights use 5 Volts or 3.3 Volts.
Smoke/ Burning smell
Anytime you smell electrical components burning or smell or see smoke, cut the power to
the device(s). This is serious. Get the device outdoors since burning components can create
noxious fumes.
Distended capacitors
Capacitors store energy until they are released. When looking at the top of the capacitor,
you can see the pressure relief scores. These cross-shaped indentations serve to create a
weak area that will allow the capacitor to vent as opposed to exploding. You can see that
two of the capacitors have already failed in the image below.

Failing capacitors
Tools
Multimeter

A Multimeter is a tool capable of measuring a wide range of both positive and negative
electrical values. A Multimeter is used to measure two or more electrical values, usually two
of the following three: voltage (Volts), current (Amps), and resistance (Ohms).

A Multimeter is an essential tool for any technician. As you spend time in the field, you will
realize that the majority of the problems you will see have their root in electrical power.
Invest wisely in your meter.

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You can get a good analog meter and it will serve you well. Consider that these are fragile
instruments and require you to pre-set the value range you expect to see. If you don’t set
the correct value range, you run the risk of damaging the indicator pin.

There is an easier and more accurate alternative to the analog meter. This is a digital
Multimeter. You will find that most digital Multimeters are auto ranging, eliminating the
potential for damage. In addition, the readings you get on a digital Multimeter are quite
clearly defined as opposed to an analog Multimeter where an accurate reading depends on
the angle you are viewing the meter from.

Two types of Multimeters

Power supply tester
A Power supply tester functions much in the same way as a Multimeter, except it looks for
specific ranges. When using a good power supply tester, the first thing you will notice is that
the values are constantly fluctuating.
This is because most power sources vary within a tolerable percentage throughout the day
due to the load or number of electrical devices being used and the quality of the incoming
power.
Please do not call the power utility if you encounter this. These variances are all kept within
tolerance and mainly concern your line voltage, which will be between 100 to 125 Volts AC.
You will see smaller incremental variations in the measurements of your device. The device
will accept variations and will not warn or alarm you unless the values are dangerously low
or high.

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Most people think high voltage is the only thing you have to worry about, but low voltage
can also be problematic for electronics. A good tester will monitor DC Positive voltages of 12
Volts, 5 Volts, and 3.3 Volts. As you can see in the digital output of the tester shown in the
image below, all the readings are close but only one is “spot on.” Given these variances, the
meter rates each range as good. There will be connections on the device which accept
different power connectors such as ATX P1, Molex, and SATA.

Power supply tester

Loopback plugs
Loopback plugs are essentially devices that send signals to themselves. Self-contained, these
devices are able to diagnose the sending and receiving of data on the interface being tested.

Loopback plug

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POST Card/ USB

Next, we come to the POST Card/USB. The POST card has been around for a long time and
has been instrumental in diagnosing many hardware failures that occur before POST
completes. USB now makes it possible to perform POST level diagnostics without opening
the case. For (typically) under $10, you can diagnose all the functions performed during
POST and you can use the digital code sent to see where your problem is.
Log entries and error messages
Always use all the tools available to diagnose and troubleshoot RAM, CPU, and power
problems. If you can access the operating system, you will be able to use diagnostic tools
such as Resource Monitor in order to examine the resource usage and look for issues that
could appear to be related to hardware. You can also use the Performance Monitor to view
and log selected performance data over time in order to evaluate any changes you make.
Finally, we’ll talk about Event Viewer again. Here you will be able to view system events and
filter them to suit your requirements. Even BSODs will be tracked here.
5.3 Given a scenario, troubleshoot hard drives and RAID arrays.
This objective technically deals with hardware but as you’ll see, this objective has a software
thread running through it. Don’t ever think about these tests in a strictly hardware or
software sense. We need the software to direct the hardware and the hardware to run the
software. With that established let’s move on. In this objective, we are asked to
troubleshoot hard drives and RAID configurations using the appropriate tools.
We will start out by examining the devices and configurations you are likely to encounter.
We will look at the drive, the configuration possibilities, and the problems that may occur in
the particular configuration.
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

This is by far the most recognizable component in modern hardware. It has however
undergone many changes. From the first hard drives to today, the principle behind a hard
drive is the same. A hard drive is a sealed enclosure that contains several magnetic platters,
the read/write heads, and all the objects that makes operation possible. We’ll look at them
closely later.
Currently, a basic hard disk can come in two physical sizes: 2.5” and 3.5”. This doesn’t sound
like a big difference but it is. The smaller size accommodates the limited space requirements
for a portable machine. In addition, the smaller size reduces the energy requirement which
saves valuable battery life.

Let’s now look at the original, commercially available drive which is the venerable 3.5”
magnetic hard drive. This drive has been in use since, believe it or not, when one could
consider 5 MB a sufficient amount of storage!
During this time, a decent system would cost in the neighborhood of $3,000 and you could
get your own copy of the ground breaking Windows 95!

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The world has not been the same since! Shown below is a great shot of the inner workings
of a HDD.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD) internal assembly

Inside the Hard Drive

Observe the perfection of the platters. This level of quality and integrity is essential to
ensure reliable performance and long Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF). MTBF is a
numeric representation of the average useful life of a component, usually measured in tens
of thousands of hours.
If you are responsible for the maintenance of hardware at your company, one of the many
essential tools is an external hard disk enclosure. This greatly simplifies the process of
swapping drives in and out of your machine for testing.
Furthermore, it allows you to check the cables and connectors involved in order to validate
them.
Shown below is a 3.5” hard drive that is open and labelled. This image explains in good
detail the components inside the enclosure. We’ll start with the platters.

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Hard Disk (HD) internal details labelled

Platters are very precisely machined and metallically coated. Platters have been designed to
store your data in incredibly small sections called sectors. The data is read from and written
to these sectors through the heads. There is one head for each platter. The platters are
double-sided and can hold different data on either side. The tolerances in here are quite
tight. For example, a drive having three platters can easily hold 2 TB of data.
The heads are controlled by an actuator which consists of very strong rare earth magnets
which control the actuator arms that hold the heads. The actuator can precisely move the
heads to the right positions and can move them rapidly to the next location. Now this is
where your speed is generated. By combining the rotational speed of the platters with the
ability to read/write efficiently to either side of any platter, you have the speed and
efficiency you need in a hard drive.
Higher read/write metrics can be achieved by increasing the spindle speed. Speeds are
available from 5,400 RPM to 10,000 RPM and above. There are of course advantages and
disadvantages to everything. Let’s say you want to get more speed from your laptop by
switching to a 10,000 RPM from a 5,400 RPM hard drive. Your laptop will be faster but your
battery will run out twice as fast.
Common symptoms
By far the most common complaint about a working machine is slow performance which
many users tend to blame on the hard drive. Others blame the processor or memory which
is a little closer to home.

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Slow performance
Poor hard drive performance can be blamed on a number of conditions. Fortunately, there
are solutions for most of them. To address a slow drive, you will want to use system tools to
define and possibly repair the problem. These tools include Defragmentation.
It is possible for a large file to exist with parts of the file spread all over the disk. Parts of files
that are not directly (logically) close to each another are referred to as fragmented. Reading
a file that is spread out like this takes longer.
The process of defragmentation (Defrag) moves the associated files together in a contiguous
arrangement that is easier and faster for the drive to read. In addition, free space that is
clear is created to write data in. The end result is faster reads and writes. This should be a
once a month preventative maintenance activity.
Next, we’ll move to other drive problems that are associated by their causes or repairs.
Here are some drive errors that can be pinpointed and possibly remedied in the UEFI/BIOS.
Drive not recognized
The drive was not auto-detected and the setup data needs to be configured manually. Either
that has occurred OR the drive has been damaged and cannot be recognized by the system.
OS not found and/or Failure to boot
The drive is improperly set up OR the drive is damaged beyond repair. The operating system
boot files are always located on the outermost track of the hard drive. This space is reserved
for this purpose alone.
RAID not found

This would indicate that the RAID controller has failed OR one or more disks are
misconfigured.
RAID stops working
This would indicate that one or more of the RAID disks has failed.

Reporting Technology (S.M.A.R.T) tests critical areas of hard drive functionality quickly
during boot to assess drive “health.” S.M.A.R.T. errors appear when there is plenty of time
to act, provided you act fast. This is not the sort of error that will go away by itself.
Proprietary crash screens (BSOD/pin wheel)
This screen is a death by degrees sort of thing. A BSOD (Blue Screen of Death) is pretty much
what the name implies. By the time you see a BSOD, your system is already dumping the
contents of its memory into a DMP file to be used for diagnosis.

The pinwheel indicates that the program you are running has crashed and has taken some
system functions with it. You may be able to use Task Manager to recover.

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Tools
Here is a look at some of the software tools that can be used to fix any hard drive issues.
CHKDSK
This command, depending on the parameters used, can check a drive’s overall condition all
the way down to predicting sector failures and getting the data off of them before there is a
problem.
FORMAT
Use format when you are ready to start fresh. Formatting a Windows disk essentially clears
all data from the disk.
File recovery software
If you don’t have it turned on, turn it on now. Windows has the System Restore feature that
will restore your system back to a point before you had a problem. Also, Windows SFC
(System File Checker) will check critical Windows system files and restore them if necessary.
Bootrec
This command can be used to repair the boot sector of a hard drive including the files that
belong there, such as the MBR and BCD.
Diskpart

This is a command line disk partitioning utility. It can be used to delete all partitions on a
disk or to re-arrange the sizes of partitions provided there is space. Diskpart on a new drive
can create a partition, initialize it, and format it in preparation for the operating system.
5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot video, projector, and display issues.
We will troubleshoot some of the more common video problems you’ll need to know about.
Common Symptoms
VGA mode
Accessed in the Advanced Boot Options by pressing the F8 key at startup, Windows will
offer VGA mode as a boot option. Newer versions of Windows (8.1-10) refer to VGA mode
as low resolution video. In either case, the display mode we are referring to is the most
basic video resolution and color setting available.

The purpose of VGA mode is to successfully access the system using the standard VGA driver
as opposed to the manufacturer’s driver. Using the standard driver enables you to see your
system while reducing the video system’s impact on system operation.

In this mode, your on-screen objects may appear larger or geometrically distorted. Shown
here is the Windows 8.1 access method. Here you would press F3 to access low resolution
video. You will now have the ability to troubleshoot the system.

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Startup settings in Windows 8.1

No image on screen

There are a variety of possible causes for this condition. Troubleshoot this condition as you
normally would any hardware issue. Start with the obvious. Is the computer operational?
Are the fans and lights all running? Obviously there will be no image on the screen so you
can’t use this to check. However, do check the monitor (if it applies) for Power indicator
lights and check the cable connections carefully. If everything is in order, try a different
monitor on the system. If these steps fail, grab your user manual as there may be a reset
sequence.
Overheat shutdown

Any heat related issues are most likely to be associated with the graphics subsystem. Often,
the demands of high quality video, rapid frame rates, and millions of colors combine on the
video chipset, which may even be part of the processor. The by-product of all this is heat.
Although heat exchangers, fins, and fans are capable of dissipating the heat, their
effectiveness can be reduced with dust, its only natural enemy.
For example, a slight layer of dust in the fin housing or under the fan blades can be sufficient
to impede the cooling capacity of the cooling unit. Variations in temperature may cause the
system to shut down protectively. Dust is easy enough to clean and dust build-up is
important enough to check regularly.

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Here are some of the terms related to video problems that you are going to need to be
familiar with.
Dead pixels

A dead pixel is a picture element on an LCD panel that remains unlit despite the fact it
should be displaying a color or light of some type. Dead pixels usually remain black.
Artifacts
Although artifacts usually appear as a small segment of corrupted screen output, we’ll show
the most extreme illustration of artifacts that we can find. Shown below is a screen full of
artifacts.

“Artifacts” – Corrupted screen output

In the 1970’s, this condition would be remedied by striking the display which, as strange as
it sounds, would work for short periods by reconnecting broken tube filaments. This archaic
technique will not work with solid state components. Repairs can be attempted using
manufacturer designed software as sometimes a driver patch can help which would save
money and man hours.
Color patterns incorrect

This condition will be present in new “out-of-the-box” monitors. If the colors are distorted
or obviously wrong, start by power cycling the monitor. If that fails, consult the
documentation for the calibration routine or use the Windows built-in calibration wizard.
Dim image

More often than not, a dim image is the result of the power saving settings on a laptop or
the ambient light settings on a flat panel TV. This condition is remedied using the monitor’s
controls to adjust the brightness.

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Flickering image
A flickering image is the result of your monitor running a refresh rate of below 60Hz. At or
above 60Hz, the human eye cannot detect changes in an image. If you display progressive
groups of images at 60 frames per second, those images would appear to simply flow along.
If you take those same images and display them at 50 images per second, they will appear
to stutter as each new image is shown.
Distorted image and geometry
Images on your monitor are displayed using a strict X-Y axis description, X pixels high by Y
pixels wide. 1024 by 768 is reproducible by most monitors. If a perfect circle is shown on the
monitor, variations to either of the x-y values will result in an imperfect circle, possibly an
egg shape. Shown below is when a perfect grid of squares is displayed at the wrong
geometry.

Distorted geometry
This can be resolved by setting your monitor to a standard resolution. A very common
example of this condition occurs when you display old television shows on current flat panel
wide screen monitors. The old content will appear stretched, short, and fat.
Burn-in
Finally, just about the worst thing that can happen to a monitor with years of useful life
remaining is a condition called burn-in. Burn-in happens when a single motionless high
contrast image is displayed for a long period of time, such as over a day.
The result is that the image is “burned-in” or permanently present on the display. The image
may be faint but it is constantly being shown.

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5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common mobile device issues while adhering to the
appropriate procedures.
Common symptoms

Many mobile device problems are easy to diagnose and have simple solutions. Remember,
you are smarter than whatever device you are working on.

Mobile devices add a degree of difficulty since everything is smaller and harder to manage
inside the enclosure. Take your time to establish a distraction free environment to work in.

Give yourself a stable clean work area, lay out your tools and containers for small parts, AND
Relax! We’ll start by looking at a group of related problems and for each problem, we’ll
identify the part that needs repair, replacement, or adjustment.

More often than not, when you encounter a display problem on a mobile device, diagnosis
is usually simple. The repair is another matter.
No display
For this condition, the simplest way to start the laptop and if you are lucky, resolve the
problem is by checking your monitor function key combination. Determine the keystrokes
and cycle through them. If the LCD doesn’t begin to display, get a known functioning
external monitor and connect it. If it works, you are in great shape!
Dim display
The worst case scenario for this condition is to replace the backlight but let’s not get ahead
of ourselves. Take a step back and first look for the brightness controller. Look on the
keyboard for a brightness button or slider.
If that does not work, try uninstalling the video drivers in the Device Manager. Check for a
newer version on the driver manufacturer’s website and install it. Lastly, keep in mind that
some laptops are configured to dim the display when the unit is switched to battery power.
Flickering display
For this problem, perform the steps listed above. Check the display properties for the
Brightness and the Refresh rate and double-check the connections. A low refresh rate will
cause a flickering display. If the monitor still doesn’t work, the issue can either be due to a
failed inverter, backlight, or LCD panel.
Research the costs involved in replacing the components versus the cost of replacing the
device. It might be time for an upgrade. Shown below is an image of a typical inverter board.

Inverter Board

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Inverter boards are a relatively easy to access and replace.

Ghost Cursor cannot display to external monitor

This can be due to potential device driver issues. Toggle through the Function key for the
display. Also when using an external monitor, make sure the cables you are using are fully
functioning.
Sticking keys
If the keys on your mobile device are sticking, first try blowing compressed air. If that
doesn’t work, use contact cleaner. If that fails, replace the keyboard.
No power/Battery not charging

Your battery indicator should look something like this. In our example, the battery is slightly
discharged. When the battery is fully charged, the indicator should read 100%.

Battery indicator
If you suspect that your battery is not charging, there are simple tests for this. Check the
green light on the AC adapter. Check that the battery is not overheated. Make sure
the battery is not swollen.
If these signs are good, let the battery charge for a reasonable period of time, remove the
AC adapter, and attempt to power up the machine. If this works, all is well. If this does not,
remove all power from the machine and try using only the AC Adapter. If that works, you
have a dead battery.
Num lock indicator lights
It is entirely possible that you will come across a laptop that when some of the Alpha
characters are typed, numbers are displayed instead.
This is a design enhancement enabling those who have a large amount of data to input on a
small laptop to rearrange some of the keys to form a numeric keypad.

This issue often occurs when a user has inadvertently activated the function. When the
function is activated, the Num lock indicator light on the keyboard will be on. Repeat the
keystroke to deactivate the function.

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Num lock LED is green

If there is a numeric keypad present, Num Lock will toggle the numeric keypad between
numeric and the other values shown.
No wireless connectivity

When “No Network” is reported by a user, you have to determine whether it is a local host,
network, internet, or e-mail problem.
The first thing to check is the state of the wireless card on the host as the user may have
inadvertently turned it off. There should be a button or a switch with an indicator light.
When the light is on, open a Command Prompt window and try pinging a known good host.
If it fails, continue your diagnosis process.

Use the information from ipconfig to determine if you have an address assigned by your
DHCP server or an APIPA address. If you have an APIPA address, your machine didn’t
connect. Release and renew your IP address by using the ipconfig /release command (to
clear the IP address data) and the ipconfig /renew command (to attain a new configuration).
Intermittent wireless

Here is another variation of the wireless connectivity problem. In this case, the wireless
connection is unreliable. If you have a wireless locator, move it around the workspace until
you find the best signal. Make sure the location is practical for the user.
Try to find the best balance. Often, repositioning the lid of a laptop slightly will yield a
stronger signal. If there are a few users having this issue, consider placing a low power WAP
at an accessible location.
No Bluetooth connectivity

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Bluetooth is a great method for creating small personal networks. Before you start an
installation, make sure your OS and portable device software is up to date. For example, if
you have a headset that came with a disk, go to the manufacturer’s website and see if there
is newer software. However, do not install Beta software.

Once properly configured, paired Bluetooth devices seek each other out when powered up.
However in order to communicate with each other, Bluetooth devices must first need to be
paired with each other. This is usually where the problem comes in as there is no hard and
fast standard for connecting Bluetooth devices. Having the documentation is crucial. Read
and understand it before you start.
When pairing Bluetooth devices, you may need to create or use passcodes. The passcodes
used are simply technicalities and are often 0000 or 1111 for example. There is also
important sequencing information that you should consider during the initial set up such as
which device you turn on first.

If you get the pairing wrong, you may end up locking yourself out of the device which
requires having to uninstall and reinstall the software. Take your time and do it right the
first time. Check the Device Manager for problems before you attempt any connections to
Windows machines.
GPS not functioning

GPS (Global Positioning System) uses satellites in geostationary or geosynchronous orbit

around the earth to calculate precise locations on the planet. There are over 30 satellites
orbiting the Earth, transmitting time signatures of the highest accuracy. In order to enable
GPS functionality, devices such as laptops or smartphones have GPS modules attached to
them.

The GPS signal is low power, does not tolerate interference, and needs an unobstructed
view of the sky. In order to accurately find its position on Earth, the GPS module must be
able to “see” 4 satellites. The module then uses the precise time signatures from those
satellites and uses the differences in reception to locate its position. The biggest problems
with GPS are due to obstruction of the sky and RF interference.
Touchscreen non-responsive
A non-responsive touch screen can have a variety of causes. First if you have a screen
protector, remove it and turn the device off. Clean the screen and your hands thoroughly.
Don’t reinstall the screen protector until it can be ruled out as a problem. Restart the device
and recalibrate the screen.
Apps not loading

If you have a condition where apps will not load or if apps load slowly, first check the
battery.

- Is the battery overheating?

- Is the device warm to the touch?

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Examine the battery carefully for signs of swelling, which is a dangerous condition. Remove
the battery and allow it to cool to room temperature. If the battery is swollen replace it
immediately. Do not take chances with a swollen battery. If it is not swollen, reinstall the
battery and re-evaluate the condition.
Slow performance
This condition is related to heat and also with having too many apps open. Start your
evaluation by feeling the temperature of the device in areas not related to the battery.
Consult your documentation for specific heat related remedies.

This condition could be due to a combination of too many apps opened which exhausts the
system resources and generates unwanted heat. Shut the device down and let it cool.
Restart the device and use your application manager to see exactly what gets loaded at
startup.
Make adjustments to the apps to lower resource usage and monitor the device for any
recurrence of the heat issue. If the steps above don’t work, you can always refresh the
device back to its factory settings using the key combination from the manufacturer.
Unable to decrypt email

Most problems of this type are caused by a corrupted public key. Public keys are created
and shared with people encrypted email is received from. If you can’t decrypt email at all,
focus on your machine as your public key is corrupt. You should recreate your public key and
share it with your confidential contacts.
Frozen system

When we discuss a “Frozen” system, we are usually talking about a smartphone or tablet. A
system lockup or freeze cannot be recovered and your only option is to perform a soft
reboot. Each manufacturer has a different method for rebooting from a lockup so follow the
manufacturer’s instructions.
No sound from speakers

Sound issues on a mobile device can either be hardware or software related. First, check the
software. The user may have turned down the volume or muted the speakers. Check the
Sound device in the Device Manager and see if it has any problems. Check the drivers and
update them.
If all the above fail, try the Hardware Troubleshooter in the Control Panel. If all these
methods fail, plug in a set of headphones or external speakers. If they don’t work, you may
have a hardware problem.
Disassembling processes for proper re-assembly

Disassembling a laptop can be one of your greatest challenges unless you adhere to a few
simple steps. First and foremost, don’t even touch the laptop unless you have the proper
documentation from the manufacturer and you’re wearing a ground strap.

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Remove all power sources from the unit including the battery and the AC adapter. Next,
follow the listed steps.
Document and label cable and screw locations
Take pictures if you can.
Organize parts
There are several ways to organize the removed parts. You can take notes and tape the
screws to a piece of paper. You can use the repair manual and tape the screws next to the
appropriate instructions. You can also label the removed parts and organize them using an
empty egg carton or pill box.
Refer to manufacturer resources
Always check the diagrams or pictures in the repair manual. Follow all instructions to the
letter.
Use appropriate hand tools
You will find different screw sizes, lengths, and screw head configurations inside a laptop.
These include different sized Phillip’s heads, flat heads, and Torx heads. Your repair manual
will have these screw head configurations clearly labelled. Use the right tool for the job or
damage to the screw may result.
5.6: Given a scenario, troubleshoot printers.
Overview of printer types and how they function
Troubleshooting printer problems is infinitely easer if you know how printers should
function under normal conditions. Let’s start out by looking at the most common printer
found in SOHOs: The inkjet.
A fast and efficient printer, the inkjet, or bubble jet, can produce picture quality images,
plaintext, and everything in-between. These printers are capable of duplexing (printing on
both sides of the paper) and are capable of creating prints from the smallest wallet sized
photo to full size legal documents.

Interestingly, these printers are constantly getting features added. You can find an all-in one
printer with full printing capabilities, Fax, Scanner, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi or Gigabit for under
$100!

However, there is a slight drawback as ink costs $99. Do your homework before buying!
Compare the prices of the consumables, such as the ink, versus the cost of the unit.

So how does it work? Let’s consider the example of a networked inkjet printer that is shared
with everyone without restriction.

Start by installing the printer on your workstation. Make sure you have the exact make and
model number of the printer. This is imperative. If you can’t find the correct printer drivers
in Windows’ driver list, go to the manufacturer’s website and download the right one.

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A generic device driver will give you generic results, will possibly miss out on features, and in
the worst case will give no connection.
A networked printer can stand alone or it can be shared by a workstation on the network.
Remember that the printer must be turned on and shared for either of these two options to
work. Sharing requires the most attention.
You must give permission to each user and also specify which of the printer’s capabilities
each user can utilize. This is where Groups comes in handy. You could manually assign the
correct capabilities for each user, or you can assign one set of permissions and capabilities
to the PrintOps group and add the users in the PERFORMANCE group to it.

Using this tool, you can setup 20 computers in one go! Be cognizant of the group’s
capabilities and more importantly, the impact of any group changes on other groups. This
could be significant. For example, the PrintOps group is a global Security group.

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Printer Operator Properties

Alright, let’s get this A+ sub-objective 5.6 out of the way by addressing specific cases. These
objectives are fundamentally just a list of knowledge points that you are responsible for and
don’t follow any particular logical order. This will make them seem jumpy because they are!
We’ll smooth them out as much as possible while still trying to deliver the relevant content.
The Laser Printing Process
The Laser printing process is a continuous, 7-step cyclical process in which each step is
occurring simultaneously. The Laser Printing Process is fascinating and efficient.

First, a piece of paper is drawn into the printer while the drum is charged. This is called the
Conditioning phase.

Laser printing process

A uniform -600 volt charge is applied to the image drum which is constantly rotating. Next,
the image to be printed is written onto the drum. This is referred to as exposing or writing.
Exposing takes place when a focused laser beam is scanned across the entire drum. The
laser turns on and off rapidly, discharging some areas of the drum while retaining others.
This creates the image on the drum.
At this point, the image is present but still invisible. Next in the cycle is the toner hopper,
where the toner (ink) is drawn onto the areas of the drum that were discharged earlier.
These areas are very narrow strips and do not look like anything until a few dozen of them
are exposed. However, that never happens.

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After the toner is attracted to the drum, it is immediately pulled onto the paper by the
transfer corona. The transfer corona is positioned so that the paper travels between the
drum (now coated with toner) and the corona wire. Pure electrical energy acts as the
physical force which moves the toner from the imaging drum to the paper.

Once the toner is on the paper, the toner needs to be “fixed” or melted onto the paper. This
requires that the paper is heated to a temperature of around 400 degrees. The heat
required is determined by the printer, toner, and paper manufacturers.
The temperature should never be exceeded. However, the temperature must be hot
enough to melt the toner. Signs of under heated toner or problems with the fuser (fusing
corona) are streaky, dusty toner. After this, the cleaning phase takes place and any residual
toner is removed.
When a laser printing cycle begins, a single piece of paper is drawn into the printer. A
separator pad is used to ensure that only one sheet of paper is picked up. A failure here can
cause paper jams or creased/torn paper.
Laser Printer
A Laser printer consists of two main components, the printer and the cartridge. The
cartridge contains all of the high wear items which include the toner, photosensitive drum,
charging corona, and the excess toner hopper.
Here are the seven steps of laser printing.

1. Processing – The digitized image is prepared to be transferred to the photosensitive

drum.
2. Charging – The imaging drum is charged by the charging corona wire to a uniform
voltage of greater than -600 VDC. This voltage repulses all toner on drum.
3. Exposing – A laser beam is scanned across the drum, discharging all areas of
exposure. This drains the charge off of the drum. All points exposed to the laser will
now attract toner.
4. Developing – Due to the difference in electrical potential, toner is attracted to the
areas discharged by the laser and repulsed by the charged areas.
5. Transferring – A transfer corona, carrying a positive charge and positioned
permanently beneath the paper path, draws the negatively charged from the drum
onto the paper.
6. Fusing – A fusing roller placed beneath the paper is heated to above 400 degrees.
This melts the toner powder into the final image.
7. Cleaning – Any remaining static voltage on the paper is dissipated and the drum is
exposed to an erase lamp which returns it to a neutral charge.
Inkjet Printer
The Inkjet process consists of one or more ink cartridges that contain focused nozzles. When
not in use, these cartridges are positioned in a maintenance station to keep the nozzles free
from dust.

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Inkjets operate by scanning the print heads across the paper and spraying small focused
bubbles of ink onto the paper. Inkjet printers cost less to purchase than laser printers but
have a higher maintenance cost.

Printer types
Dot Matrix Printers

A dot matrix printer operates on the impact principle. This printer will eject and return a
small cluster of individual rods onto a ribbon that is damp with ink, which leaves a dot on
the paper. After several passes of the ink head, a readable image made up of these dots is
produced. This is the only printer type capable of producing images on multi-sheet carbon
paper.

Dot matrix printers are quite noisy. Special paper, that has a series of holes along each side
allowing it to be “tractor fed,” is used for these printers.
Thermal printers
This printer type uses a specially treated paper that is heat sensitive. The print heads are
heated to the specified temperature and contact the paper. The chemicals on the paper
react to the heated print head, leaving a black mark at the point of contact.
Common symptoms

Here are some of the common problems you will encounter in the field when supporting
printers. Please keep in mind that this stuff could very well be on the test too! Here is a
breakdown. This first set of problems will be most common on a laser printer.

Steaks on a laser printer will appear as vertical blank areas which run consistently down the
length of the page. The most probable cause is that the toner is not even in the cartridge.
This is easily fixed (temporarily) by shaking the cartridge and evenly distributing the toner.
You should prepare to replace the cartridge.
Faded prints indicate a failing charging corona which requires cartridge replacement to
fix. Ghosting of images on the print can also be repaired by replacing the cartridge.

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In this case, it’s important to note that the circumference of the image drum is considerably
less that the length of the paper. An imaging drum will rotate almost 10 times in order to
print a single page. This makes the cleaning process crucial. Check the erase lamps while you
are working. Print blank pages to check the erase lamps.

Moving on, if you have laser output that is not fused, is sandy, or is gritty to the touch, this
indicates a failed fuser. Order and replace.

If you see a memory error when printing, your image is too large (too much data) for the
printer’s buffer. This is currently less of a problem but it still happens. Reduce the size of the
image. For example, reduce the pixel requirement from 1200dpi to 600dpi. Reduce the load
on the printer until you can diagnose it.
If your printer is not printing, printing garbage, or printing wrong colors, perform the
following actions:
- Make sure you are connected to the printer.
- Make sure the printer is online.
- Make sure the right print drivers are installed.
- Print a test page from your workstation to the printer.
- Print a self-test page from the printer console and compare it with a machine test.
- Run the printer set-up alignment software.
- If the print queue is jammed and if the printer will not print, clear all the items from
the queue.
This is a personal bit of observation. Person 1 can’t print so they tell Person 2 who sends a
second job. It doesn’t work so they both try again. As news of the problem spreads down
the aisle, each person tries once or twice and confirms the issue. Person 1 calls the helpdesk
and tries to print while on the phone. Person 2 sees Person 1 on the phone, tries to print,
and asks to be included on the ticket. This repeats until 50 print jobs are queued and before
the help desk can see and clear the queue.
Moving on, here are some more issues that can be fixed with the same general solution
provided the printer is online and operational.
Errors such as Access denied, Unable to install printer, and errors on the local machine can
all be traced to the permissions. Try accessing the machine the printer is attached to. If the
printer is standalone, check the Print Operators group and make sure you are an area
member with correct permissions. On the printer’s host, check your accessibility to the
machine. The printer will be visible. Try a test page from there and evaluate the results.
5.7: Given a scenario, troubleshoot common wired and wireless network problems.
Today we will look at the connectivity of wired and wireless networks. What are some of the
more common connectivity issues? What can we do to address them?
Common Symptoms
Limited & Local Connectivity

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Local connectivity and intermittent connectivity can all be addressed with the same basic
troubleshooting methods. For the purposes of the exam objectives, network shares,
printers, and email are considered to be local resources.

Begin by trying to access a known working address on your local network. This will help to
determine whether your problem is with the physical network or the programs and
protocols being used. If your connection is wired, check the indicator status to see if the
lights are on and flickering.

Next, check the neighboring computers for signs of the same problem. Determine whether
you have a problem with one PC or 20 PCs. The troubleshooting methods for each case will
be different.
If you are able to access some but not all of the available network resources, determine the
level of accessibility and see if there is a pattern. Perhaps a bad network segment or a
device can be isolated as the point of failure.
Once you have narrowed down the problem to a specific area in your network, rule out
issues with your internet service provider and the installed equipment. Check the IP address
assigned to the device. If it starts with 169.254.xxx.xxx, you know it has been assigned an
APIPA address which prevents it from communicating with the DHCP server.
To summarize:
1. Check lights on the NIC and devices.
2. Test or swap out the Ethernet cable.
3. Check switches and indicator lights on wireless connections.
4. For wireless connections, consider radio power, frequency, and line of sight issues.
5. Decide if you want to use the command line interface or GUI based diagnostics. For
this example, let’s do the command line first. Open a command prompt by clicking
the command prompt icon or typing cmd in the search window.
6. Let’s use a few commands and varieties to diagnose the NIC and establish its relative
location. First, let’s check that the NIC, its drivers, and the protocol stack are
functioning properly. Ping the localhost by name (ping localhost) and number (ping
127.0.0.1). Next, ping a common internet address. Most DNS servers will have
looked up Google recently. Google’s IP address is surprisingly simple (8.8.8.8). Ping
Google to validate connectivity.
Unavailable resources

In addition to the local resources listed above, Internet connectivity can also be impacted by
the same issues. If you can’t connect to your local network, your connection to the Internet
can be impacted.
No connectivity
Generally when we discuss connectivity, we’re talking about wireless connectivity. We will
look at all aspects of the wireless connection from the SSID to channel selection.

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APIPA/link local address

APIPA/Link Local Addressing is used to assign an IP address to a client. The Windows nodes
on a network will self-assign non-routable addresses to themselves until the server is able to
provide an address.
IP Conflict

An IP Conflict occurs when two IP based machines use the same address. Duplicate
addresses are not tolerated by the TCP/IP addressing scheme.
Other IP related issues
You can stock utilities such as variations of the ipconfig utility. You can test the settings on
your new DHCP server by creating, renewing, and refreshing the IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.
The addressing can be systematically modified whenever necessary using this process.
Slow transfer speeds
This occurs when your resources are impacted by the number of users on a segment or link.
The advertised connection speed is measured when no other devices are competing for
resources. As the number of users increases, the comparative speed will decrease. Be aware
of the number and type of connections in use by your device at any given time. Monitor and
end any app that is using resources without proving a useful service.
Low RF signal
When you encounter nominal RF signals, it is very difficult for your devices to perform up to
their optimal rates. As the power levels drop on the radio, you will see a decrease in
performance. In the image below, observe the Linksys WAP that has low/no power.

Weak RF showing on open wireless network

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SSID not found

In many cases, it is advisable to hide your SSID from the prying eyes of the internet. If you
think about it, you are providing would be attackers with 50% of the information necessary
to access your wireless network.
Here is a good look at Windows Wireless settings available from the Taskbar.

Screenshot of open wireless networks

Check the warning that comes from your cable provider. Open season! If the connection has
to be “Open,” then you should not broadcast the address.

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2.0 Networking
2.1 Compare and contrast TCP and UDP ports, protocols, and their purposes.

We will look at 220-1001 Sub-objective 2.1 “Compare and contrast TCP and UDP ports,
protocols, and their purposes”.

In the objectives, TCP vs. UDP is listed last. This topic should really be listed before protocols
and ports in order to best help you understand what to expect when you use a particular
protocol in terms of performance and reliability. That is why this review is starting with the
last item on the list: TCP vs. UDP.
TCP vs. UDP

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a protocol that rides on top of the IP protocol
(Internet Protocol) and is designed to address the reliability issues of IP, which is inherently
unreliable. This is the main reason why you see the TCP/IP protocol suite referenced as a
single protocol in internet communication.
TCP is responsible for the connection and the continuity necessary for reliable
communication on any network, most notably the Internet. TCP opens a reliable “socket” on
each end of the transmission throughout the entire communication. To effectively do this,
TCP needs to know the IP addresses and ports of both the client and the server.
This action is known as connection-oriented and can be viewed much like a traditional
telephone call consisting of the following actions: pickup, dial, connect, chat and hang up.
This is why Port/Protocol information is significant.
With the connection sockets established, TCP becomes responsible for breaking the data
into packets of up to 64K, however the lower level protocols that use TCP have much lower
maximum packet sizes such as 1500K for Ethernet. TCP breaks the data down to the
necessary size and adds its header.

TCP is also responsible for delivery, meaning that all failed packets are retransmitted and
that the packets arrive intact in the correct sequence. Most importantly each packet receipt
is acknowledged, referred to as ACK. If it isn’t acknowledged, the packet will be
retransmitted. In the end, all data is delivered to the correct host in sequence and complete.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an unreliable, connectionless delivery system for
communication that also rides on top of IP. The difference with UDP is that the packets are
all individual and are all handled separately. This negates the flow control and other checks
and balances offered by TCP.

This means no solid connection, no inter-packet relationship like in the case of TCP where a
packet will say “I’m the 7th packet of 90” to the system. This also means no error control
and no acknowledgment of packet receipt let alone dropped or lost packets. The sender has
no information as to whether their communication was received or not.
So why use UDP?

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UDP is fast due to the lack of ACK. UDP data streams continuously to the destination,
regardless if the receiver is ready or not. TCP sends, waits for the ACK, and then sends more.
This could add a substantial amount of time to large transmissions.
Port Numbers and Protocols
We will list the related ports and protocols as defined by the A+ objectives.
21 – FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used in a client/server configuration to transfer files. FTP
can operate in active or passive mode and uses TCP to control the connection. In active
mode, the connection is initiated by the client and informs the server about which port it
intends to use to receive data.

In active mode (although port 21 is used for command and control), the data will be sent
out on port 20 which serves as the FTP server’s data port. Passive mode is used in situations
where inbound client TCP connections are not possible. Firewalls generally block inbound
connections by default. In this case, the client sends a PASV command to the server and the
server determines which client port can be used for the transfer.
22 – SSH
Secure Shell (SSH) opens a secure network channel over an unsecured network using public
key cryptography, providing confidentiality and integrity for network services. This makes
SSH a cryptographic network protocol.
SSH is used to secure remote network logins and other confidential data. Passwords cannot
be intercepted because the encryption is established before the login is required.
23 – TELNET

Developed in the late 60’s, Telnet was designed to support remote logins and
communication between computers during what was a “kinder and gentler” time for
networks. Telnet provides a functional command prompt on the remote host.

However, these communication channels are in plaintext making them subject to

interception. This is not acceptable for today’s networks and the internet. Since Telnet does
not encrypt data, SSH has generally replaced Telnet for these connections.
25 – SMTP
The Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) uses TCP port 25 for internet mail transmission.
SMTP is an internet standard protocol. Due to the proliferation of SPAM and other email
related vulnerabilities, other ports can be used for SMTP, most notably port 587.
A secure, nonstandard implementation of this protocol is SMTPS.
SMTPS is quite effective because it is one of the protocols that can utilize SSL. SMTP is
responsible for the transmission of email between servers and for sending email from a
client. Other protocols are used by the client to receive email.

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53 – DNS
The Domain Name System (DNS) is mostly known for its function of translating friendly
domain name URLs such as www.mysite.com into its actual IP address which are much more
difficult for humans to remember (think IPv6!).
DNS uses the two protocols TCP and UDP on port 53. DNS servers update themselves by
maintaining a list of known host-to-address translations in a distributed database while also
receiving and adding unknown or moved domains.
This supports the hierarchical nature of domain naming of domains and sub-domains. Each
domain has a designated authoritative name server that manages the domains and sub-
domains. The name server also communicates that information to the database.
80 – HTTP
Web Browsers use the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for internet communications.
HTTP can be considered the foundation of the World Wide Web. HTTP uses the client/server
method where a client uses a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to locate and request
information from the target server of the resource. The response is more often than not an
HTML page.

A typical URL begins with http:// (or increasingly https://) followed by the Fully Qualified
Domain Name (FQDN) of the desired resource. URLs to websites can be distributed between
parties using clickable links called hyperlinks, named in reference to the hypertext
communication being used. HTTP uses TCP/UDP port 80 and sends unencrypted data by
default. This is inherently un-secure.
110 – POP3
Receiving email is done over several different protocols. There are two main protocols
available depending on your service. The first is Post Office Protocol (POP) with the latest
version being POP3.
This protocol uses port 110 by default and is responsible for the management of messages
on the server (saving and deleting). Deleting the message after delivery is the default mode.
Leaving messages on the server is useful if you use multiple devices for messaging.
143 – IMAP

Today’s email user is probably using email over a collection of devices including Tablets,
Smartphones, and Laptops. If your smartphone downloads and deletes a work-related email
(POP3 default), you will have a problem when you check email on your PC or laptop.
The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) on TCP port 143 solves this problem by
leaving the messages on the server regardless of the delivery status. Every device that
checks the server will get the email.
This is great unless you get spammed a lot. If 18 out of 20 emails are junk, your server space
will fill up quite quickly.

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This calls for closer scrutiny of the undeleted messages on your server. You have to move
spam emails to the trash folder and purge it or configure the client to purge trash. Despite
this, IMAP is the preferred client messaging protocol.
3389 – RDP
This is for the old timers that used Telnet and then Terminal Services. From Windows XP
onward, the Remote Desktop Connection (RDC) was available.
Using the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) on TCP/UDP port 3389, RDC is able to bring a fully
functional remote machine’s desktop and its programs to your device. This requires that the
client and server software be configured on Microsoft products but versions of Remote
Desktop are available for most OS’s.
137-139 NetBIOS/NetBT
Server Message Block (SMB) predates Active Directory and was the foundation of
Microsoft’s Windows for Workgroups networking capability. Based on NetBIOS, SMB can
run on UDP ports 137 and 138, and TCP ports 137 and 139 as NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NetBT).
445 – SMB/CIFS

Server Message Block (SMB) runs directly on TCP port 445. While being one of the oldest
networking protocols, it has been continuously improved. The 3.0 version implemented with
Windows 8 (3.02 in 8.1) supports improved performance in virtualized data centers. It is
pervasive in many network applications and embedded devices.
However, newer versions support end-to-end AES encryption. The Windows 10 version of
SMB, version 3.1.1, requires secure negotiation when connecting to earlier versions. You
may also see this service named as Common Internet File System (CIFS) or Samba depending
on the operating system.
427 – SLP
SLP was designed to help networks grow from small networks to large enterprise networks.
Operating on port 427 the (Service Location Protocol), SLP allows clients to locate servers
and services on the network.
548 – AFP

Apple File Protocol (AFP) version 3.0 and higher use TCP/IP ports 548 or 427 to support the
proprietary Apple sharing protocol. This protocol uses URLs with the structure
afp//server/path. At the time of this writing, AFP is migrating to SMB. This is probably not
covered in the scope of the objectives.
67-68 – DHCP
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) has saved years of man hours and
countless misconfigurations. As the most common IPv4 or IPv6 TCP/IP addressing method,
DHCP is responsible for complete client configuration on a TCP/IP network.

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On a work network, there is usually an assigned DHCP server. Residential or SOHO

implementations use the router provided by the ISP to perform this function. DHCP assigns
or leases a unique IP address to each host. The duration of the lease is determined by the
network administrator or is weekly by default.

DHCP will also define the internet gateway and Domain Name Server to be used. This means
that your machine may not get the same IP address when rebooted or otherwise
disconnected. However, the DNS and Gateway settings will remain.
The DHCP server has an available pool of IP addresses available to assign to clients (hosts)
that attempt to connect to the network. The client broadcasts a UDP discovery packet for an
address to all connected networks.
All DHCP servers will offer an address to the client. The client will then accept the offer from
the nearest server by requesting a lease.
That server will lease that address to the client. The address assignment process is identical
for both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. For the sake of consistency, the ports used are UDP 67 for
the server and UDP 68 for the client.
389 – LDAP

Think of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) as a phonebook for network
services. The protocol serves to maintain and provide access to a distributed directory of the
users, applications, available network services, and systems throughout an IP network.

Based on the x.500 standard’s directory, services using the Directory Access Protocol (DAP),
which relied on the 7 layer OSI model, LDAP uses only a portion of the x.500 standard set
and uses the newer and more relevant four layer Internet protocol suite on port TCP/UDP
389 at the application layer.
By containing all the required network information, including users and their credentials,
LDAP servers can be used to quickly validate user access. LDAP can precisely fulfil specific
and detailed responses to queries about the network.
The more details specified in the request, the more concise the response. In addition to its
own Distinguished Name (DN) object identification, LDAP can ask DNS servers to locate
other LDAP servers.
161-162– SNMP
As one of the more popular network management protocols, Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP) is used to monitor and configure network nodes such as printers, hosts,
routers, and servers on TCP/UDP ports 161 and 162 using a network manager.
SNMP agent software is used on the nodes to enable monitoring.
2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware devices.
We will look at the evolution of interconnectivity and the roles these devices play.

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HUB

The smallest network you can create is a one-to-one (Peer to Peer) relationship between
two computers or devices. A hub is designed to distribute multiple signals to multiple hosts.
Communications are managed by CDMA (Carrier Sense –Multiple Access), where the host
will check the cable to see if it is clear before transmission is initiated. When a signal is
distributed by a hub, it is sent to all connected devices, causing a burst of communications if
left unchecked (CDMA).
Network interface card

Devices connect to hubs and switches either wirelessly or through RJ-45 UTP cabling. The
wired connection requires a Network interface card (NIC) as shown below.

PCI Express 1X Ethernet card.

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Switch/ Managed/ Unmanaged

A switch determines whether or not a destination Hardware (MAC) or network (IP) address
is attached to the switch itself. A switch uses MAC or IP addressing knowledge about the
devices connected to it and the device oriented environment it exists in.
Switches utilize packet switching and the information contained in each packet to determine
if the destination for the packet is connected locally or needs to be forwarded upstream.
Unlike a hub, an unmanaged switch uses the information gained to direct traffic to the
correct port. Switches operate as MAC Bridges.

The goal of a switch is to enable efficient traffic management. A managed switch has
features not found in an unmanaged switch such as VLAN support and traffic prioritization.
Managed switches can use the SNMP protocol to enable remote management.
Patch panel
Cable management is always important. It is especially important when there are a large
number of users assigned and the cable closet is not particularly roomy. The purpose of a
patch panel is to connect and manage inbound and outbound cables in a central area.
Typically, the destination would be labelled on the panel and lead to a wall jack. Presented
below is a good example of a well-organized patch panel. Take a good look. Notice the really
precise cable routing and management of four switches in a well-kept server space. Most
installations start out like this.

Router /Access Point

Here they all are rolled into one device! Most reputable ISPs provide a device like the one
shown. For this image, we took the most fully featured non-ISP related modem available.
My guess is that most of you have seen a variation of this in your travels. This device is a
Cable Modem, Router, Firewall and Wireless Access Point as well as a Switch/Bridge.

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Wireless router

Think of the Router as your network traffic cop. Ultimately, the router and the firewall
which has the final say, decides which traffic does and does not get on to your network. The
router is useful for finding the quickest path for your data to take while finding its way
through the maze of routers and servers from point to point.
Shown here is a combination Router/ Wireless Access Point. It is responsible for routing and
also access to the Wireless Network among other functions.
Cloud-based network controller

Cloud resources and even entire virtual networks can be accessible using Software Defined
Networking (SDN). Network management can be delegated to cloud resources to provide
centralized management. This technique can be used to create virtual WANs.
Bridge
Here is a diagram explaining the function of a bridge. The bridge takes the digital signal from
the Wireless environment and converts it for use with a wired entertainment component.

Bridge diagram

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Modem
When one thinks of a modem, one thinks of the traditional digital to analog phone modem,
where the signal is converted from digital to analog on the opposite end. The device can be
internal.

Phone Modem RJ-11

Over the past few years, the term modem became synonymous with Cable Modems. Cable
Modems, or Fiber modems, are at the most commonly used modems in use today. Most ISP
provided modems today have port forwarding/ triggering functionality as well.

This all-in-one feature bundling is part of the appeal of these devices. You no longer need a
separate WAP, DHCP sever, and Modem. Depending on the modem itself, you may find a
fully configurable Router and Firewall.

Modems are trending towards having all services coming in on a single connection. (Show
Router Access Point.jpg) Many readers have or have had this device in their homes.
Cisco and Linksys are the most famous modem manufacturers.
Firewall

Firewalls can be a hardware device, software, or both. Naturally, you can address more
threats with the combination approach by using your hardware firewall as the first line of
defense.

Next, your software firewall will provide additional protection and possibly even malware
scans.

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The hardware firewall device’s placement is important. It should be between the external
network, in most cases the internet, and your private network or LAN.
Repeaters/extenders

Digital audio information is represented on a sine wave display as a series of squared off
steps, resembling a staircase. If displayed in the analog format, it would represent the same
information as a smooth vertical line, a peak followed by decay back to zero. Here is the
simplest display of this process
Since the PC is transmitting information digitally, the signal can be refreshed and restored to
its original state using a repeater or extender without distortion. Using this method with an
analog signal would boost the unwanted noise level along with the desired signal.
Ethernet over Power – EOP
We will talk about two conceptually similar but vastly different technologies here. Your
objectives call for The Ethernet over Power (EOP) technology. This type of power
distribution allows for energy and Ethernet to share the same cabling. This allows for
communication, command, and control signals to be sent along with the main power supply.

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Power over Ethernet- PoE

The PoE (Power over Ethernet) system reverses this existing technology using Ethernet cable
as its primary carrier. This impacts the effective Volt/Amp delivery as the RJ grade cable is
not rated to carry the higher voltages some devices require. It is however ideal for a low
voltage operation such as a security monitor or a baby monitor.

Phone over Ethernet – Upside down!

PoE Injectors vs. PoE switch
A PoE injector provides data and power to a single device. A PoE switch on the other hand is
capable of distributing power and data to all connected devices.
2.3 Given a scenario, install and configure a basic wired/wireless SOHO network.
Router/switch functionality
SOHO networks will usually contain a number of switches and at least one router. Looking at
the switch first, a switch operates at layer 2 of the OSI model. It is responsible for providing
collision free, full duplex communications between network hosts using MAC addressing. A
switch can accommodate different speeds such as 10/100 Mbps and Gigabit connections
without data loss. Consider the switch as a LAN device.
The router operates at layer 3 and uses IP addresses to identify other routers, enabling
Internet connectivity. Switches connect to routers to access all external content. Since the
router receives MAC addresses with the switch communications, the router can control
access with MAC filtering.

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Access point settings

A wireless access point (WAP) can be configured, through its web-based setup page, to
extend the range of your existing wireless network. This is accomplished by configuring the
WAP using the existing SSID. WAPs can also be configured as wireless repeaters.
NIC configuration

Your network interface card (NIC) lets your device access the network. Your connection can
be wired or wireless but will require an IP address, subnet mask, DNS server and default
gateway.
Wired
You can see the MAC address, status, and link speed while viewing the properties for the
Ethernet connection along with the DHCP status and address. The IPv4 and IPv6 properties
are also shown including the device addresses, default gateway, and DNS Servers. Manual
configuration is performed in the Network and Sharing Center where you can configure the
information discussed above, the subnet mask, and configure an alternate configuration.

Ethernet Settings in Windows 10

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Wireless
Your wireless NIC configuration settings will be essentially similar to the wired settings. You
will see that the wireless connection has obtained both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses that are
operational with the IPv6 having both link-local and global addresses. Also note the two
gateways. Further configuration details are not displayed, such as the SSID, but are required,
particularly the encryption settings which are set manually in the Network and Sharing
Center.

Wireless NIC Settings in Windows 10

IoT device configuration

The concept of the Internet of things (IoT) describes the many diverse things that can
communicate and be controlled wirelessly using the Internet via a smartphone app. This
technology is useful in business but your interaction with the IoT will probably begin at
home. The technologies used in this operation will be discussed in the next article. For now,
we’ll identify them as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee and Z-Wave.
Devices can be controlled directly by your smartphone or a voice activated digital assistant.
With the right equipment, you can adjust your thermostat on the way home, to set your
preferred temperature, and turn on the lights. An important benefit of IoT is the ability to
lock your doors. At some point, all of us have been away and have wondered if we locked
the door. Now, simply tap an icon in your app and the door is locked.

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Home security has benefited greatly from IoT devices. Besides locking the doors, motion
activated cameras with speakers can be installed to watch for intruders or parcel thieves as
well as allow you to communicate with them. That’s a great deterrent. Your voice activated
internet connected digital assistant will help you keep track of your devices.
Cable/DSL Modem Configuration/ Wireless settings
Encryption/ Channels
The 802.11 family of wireless standards uses one channel to communicate. This channel is
set by the network administrator, in a business environment, or the home user, in a SOHO
environment. As you will see, the available channels are not plentiful as there are between 1
and 3 channels that you can use in the 2.4 GHz band.
We will focus mainly on the SOHO deployment here per the objectives. In the 5GHZ band
there can be as many as 8 channels. In the US, the 5GHZ band is subject to Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) restrictions limiting to four channels in the lower end of
the band (5.250–5.350 GHz) and five in the upper end of the band (5.470–5.725 GHz).

5 GHz Modem/ Router Configuration Panel

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You can see the absence of the reserved channels by reviewing the available channels and
noting the gap between Channels 48 and 149. 149 is the default setting so we’ll leave it
alone. If there are connection problems, check the channel and ensure the Mode supports
all of your devices.

Also in our case, switch to another channel, possibly in the lower end of the band. You can
also choose your encryption type which could prevent connections in the case of a
mismatch. Most residential SOHO routers default to WPA/WPA2 (TKIP/AES), allowing most
devices to communicate their credentials and start a session. The WPA2 (AES) method is
faster if your devices support it.
Port Forwarding
The port forwarding technique allows incoming connections, on a particular port or port
range, to be delivered to a single specific address or host on the LAN. This is quite useful if
you are running a Web server as you’d want all new inbound traffic on port 80 to go to that
device only. This requires no action on the server’s part since it will respond to specific valid
requests. Here’s how that configuration would look on a SOHO. Your inbound port 80 traffic,
from your public IP address, would be directed to the Private IP of the server.

Port Forwarding Configuration Panel

Port Triggering is a variation on this process and requires an outbound communication to

“trigger” that port to receive traffic. This inbound connection will only be available during a
session after which it timeout.

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IP Addressing
Next on our list is the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). I can’t say enough good
stuff about this. Imagine having 50 or so users who need to connect to not only the LAN but
the internet as well. This is small considering what you will face in the field.
However without DHCP, you would have to enter each device configuration individually on
each device. This includes a complete address (IPv4 and IPv6), the subnet mask, the default
gateway, and DNS servers.
DHCP automatically sets up the entire configuration, saving you the headache of manual
configuration. In some cases, for example machines that should not “move” in terms of their
addressing such as web, DNS, and email servers, these machines would use static or manual
addressing for reliable discovery by all clients.

Here is a typical residential/SOHO configuration. Examine the configuration and picture

manually adding this to each client along with the DNS settings.

DHCP Configuration Panel

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DMZ
You know by now that a DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) is a network area outside of your private
network that is exposed to any and all traffic on the internet. On the surface, this just looks
like trouble. However, there are good reasons to have this zone.
Your web server for example is a prime example of effective DMZ utilization as the web
server can get hammered with traffic and your LAN will be impervious to it. The services you
offer can be delivered without risk.
The main aim is to have a DMZ server receive the traffic that would normally get dropped by
the firewall. The most important point in this configuration is that the hosts in the DMZ
cannot connect to the LAN. The LAN on the other hand can connect to anything in the DMZ
and the untrusted public network (internet). The DMZ server has access to everything
entirely except your LAN.
NAT

NAT stands for Network Address Translation and concerns the translation of one network
address to another address. This, in the vast majority of cases, allows the translation of a
group of private addresses to communicate externally through a single address, such as the
static public address assigned to you by your ISP. This many-to-one concept is a common
practice, even for large organizations not wishing to expose their networks to the
uncontrollable internet.

Network Address Translation – NAT

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More often than not and in spite of DHCP, a NAT client will typically get the same address
every time it connects, unless other circumstances prevent it such as a small available pool
of addresses.

This is where the combination of PAT (Port Address Translation) and NAT combine to form
DNAT (Destination Network Address Translation). Adding the port to the IP address allows
for up to 64,000 addresses to exist from a single IP address.
Basic QoS
It’s easy to envision the need for prioritization of programs and services as there is always
contention for bandwidth. The most obvious example of this would be an environment
where basic QoS (Quality of Service) is not available and you are on a VoIP phone call. You
receive an email and your conversation breaks up for a short period of time. This is because
the email program has the same priority on the connection as your phone call. This is easily
fixed with QoS.
To enable QoS, each device on the network must have QoS enabled. Most NICs have it
enabled by default. Routers and both ends of any communication must also have QoS
enabled. The router is one of the main choke points in the service. If you find less than
optimal network performance for a particular application, such as video conferencing, you
can increase its priority on your router.

Most routers have built-in settings for popular programs. Some can be blocked and others
increased or decreased based on your needs. Think carefully about your choices because
setting too many programs to the highest priority level does not help.
The priority of the network’s use must be carefully evaluated before you make any
wholesale changes. Remember that real time A/V communication is dependent on
uninterrupted packet transmission and reception and takes precedence over an upload or
download.
UPnP
UPnP provides automatic discovery of available hosts and services on the local network. It
should be used with caution as it is easily exploitable by hackers. If you use UPnP, many of
your security measures are overridden.
Whitelist/blacklist

Network access can be permitted or restricted based upon whitelists and/or blacklists.
Routers and switches can be configured to enforce a blacklist which allows network access
to everyone except those listed on the blacklist. Conversely, a white list blocks all traffic
except those on the whitelist.
MAC filtering

In addition to white/black listing, network devices can implement MAC filtering. This
technique uses the filter list to permit access to the devices on the list. This process
becomes more tedious as a network grows.

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2.4 Compare and contrast wireless networking protocols.

We will dissect CompTIA 220-901 sub objective 2.5 which deals with wireless encryption
standards and encryption. The 802.11 family is an important area to understand and
fundamentally is specification based, consisting of alpha designations, frequencies, speeds,
distances, and common problems. These are all testable. We’ll also follow that up with
covered encryption types.
Standards
We will try to keep it simple while conveying the pertinent information about the 802.11
a/b/g/n/ac family. This is your key to defining the standard and its capabilities and
compatibilities.
Understand that different countries have different regulations regarding radio power levels
(range) and the number of channels available for transmission. We will deal exclusively with
the US specification.

In the US, we have 11 channels available of the 14 possible in the 2.4GHz frequency, of
which only non-overlapping channels can be used. Channel 14 is unavailable because it does
not have the required channel separation.

Each transmission channel takes 20 – 22MHz and must be separated by roughly 16 to

22MHz, leaving only three free channels for practical use. These free channels are 1, 6 and
11 for 802.11b/g/n. In a pure 802.11n zone, 40MHz a channel is used. This is easily
understood in the graphic shown.

2.4 GHz channels

You can see if you used channel 4 with 802.11b/g/n, your transmissions be corrupted by
both channels 1 and 6. As a technician, this is one of the settings you would check to resolve
a Wi-Fi connection or quality problem.
Backward compatibility is also something to check. If you are using 802.11n in compatibility
mode and your users are not getting the advertised speeds, you can attribute this issue to
the bandwidth reduction adjustments needed to comply with the earlier standards.
The only way to get the full value of the “n” channel is to operate in 802.11n only mode and
to upgrade the older NICs. This is best conveyed in the following graphic if you consider that
the 40MHz “n” channel is broken down to comply with the “b/g” modes when they are
used.

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Non overlapping channels

Frequencies

When we reference frequencies, the 2.4GHz frequency band is everything between 2.4 and
2.5 GHz. The 5GHz frequency band is roughly everything between 5.1 and 5.8GHz.
Now down to the specs.
802.11a

This standard is capable of 54Mbps transmissions of up to 50 meters in the 5GHz band. This
is essentially a deprecated standard.
802.11b
This is the first widely adopted Wi-Fi standard. This offers 11Mbps speed with a distance of
100 meters, with direct line of sight (outdoors), in the more crowded 2.4 GHz band. It is
susceptible to interference from household devices such as cordless phones and microwave
ovens.
802.11g
This standard is capable of 54 Mbps speed with a distance of up to 100 meters outdoors in
the 2.4GHz band.
802.11n

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This standard is capable of speeds up to 600Mbps using up to four emulated full-duplex

Multi In Multi Out (MIMO) antennae.
These antennae can send and receive virtually simultaneously, using Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) which slices the transmissions into imperceptible chunks that give the
impression of full-duplex.
All 802.11 family standards are half-duplex. Before this advancement, Wi-Fi signals did not
use the multiplexing duplex and as a result, only one party in the communication could send
data at a time. TDM, along with multiple antennae, greatly increased performance.

802.11n operates in both the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands for backward compatibility. As with any
radio-based transmissions, the signal weakens as the distance from the transmitter
increases.
802.11ac
This is the latest implemented standard and can theoretically reach speeds of up to 7 Gbps
using up to eight antennae. The additional antennae allow the 802.11ac standard to utilize a
theoretical channel bandwidth of 80 to 160 MHz.

80 80 MHz and 160 MHz are new with 802.11ac

802.11 ac covers the same distance as 802.11n. The maximum distance is 70 meters indoors
and 250 meters outdoors in the 5GHz band, making it backwards compatible to 802.11n
only.

Interestingly, the signal strength does not weaken at the outer perimeters of coverage. It’s
all or nothing. By default Wi-Fi signals are Omni-directional as are the signals from a radio
station, distributing the signal evenly across the coverage area.
802.11ac standardizes the use of beamforming technology which focuses the transmissions
directionally to active devices, strengthening the signal directionally as opposed to the
shotgun blast nature of traditional Wi-Fi.
This gives each device a longer, stronger, and faster signal that is less likely to encounter
significant interference.

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Beamforming technology
Currently, the recipient of the transmission must support beamforming for it to be effective.
Here’s a short table that summarizes most of the testable material discussed above.

Bluetooth
Initial Bluetooth wireless connections were not as fast as its contemporaries (initially 2MBs).
Since that time, the ranges and speeds have been increasing fairly steadily as shown in the
table. Special protocol features allow users to create Personal Area Networks (PAN).

Characteristics of different Bluetooth versions

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NFC
Let’s start with the Connection types available for mobile devices and their accessories. We
have already discussed Wi-Fi and Bluetooth in detail (in prior Exam Notes) but there is a
third type that you need to learn about. This is Near Field Communication (NFC). NFC is not
a new technology and has experienced resurgence through the proliferation of mobile
devices due to its main security feature, its 10 cm transmission range. Attackers have to be
almost touching to be able to exchange data.
NFC can be used for tap and pay, which exchanges payment information with a NFC capable
reader at the cash register, as well as exchanging contact information with friends or clients
simply by tapping compatible phones together. The ultimate business card!
RFID

For authentication/security purposes, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) can be used to

transmit a security token wirelessly without any additional user input. An RFID tag can also
be used to track inventory and many other objects including your pets!
ZigBee
In a nutshell, Zigbee is a PAN or wireless ad-hoc network. It is simpler than Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth. Zigbee is a low power, short range solution that uses low bandwidth transmitting
in the 5 GHz or 900 MHz bands with 20 meter indoor range. It is ideal for home automation
and medical applications because it creates a mesh network. Zigbee is incompatible with Z-
Wave.
Z-Wave

Z-Wave is a competing home automation technology. Z-Wave uses the 900 MHz band. It
shares the low power and low data rate properties of Zigbee but has a bit more range.
3G
3G is the third generation of mobile wireless technology. Compared with 2G, its main
benefits are higher speed (20 Mbps), better A/V capabilities, and global roaming. Along with
its voice and data capabilities, Internet browsing was made possible on cellular devices.
4G
4G offers even faster connections, taking the buffering and jitter out of streaming media.
LTE
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution as it pertains to mobile data. While switching from 3G to
4G is a noticeable improvement, adding LTE to 4G provides data rates that are roughly ten
times that of 3G.
5G
5G is where the fun starts! While not available at the time of this writing, 5G should be
spreading by the time you take the test. 5G speeds will optimally be in the 500MBps range.

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This increase may cause users to abandon their wired broadband connection in favour of
5G. Home routers offering this speed will be available. Before you ditch your cable, consider
that 5G service will be costly.
2.5 Summarize the properties and purpose of services provided by networked hosts.
Here we will look at some of the specific services provided by network servers and other
network hosts. We will examine the purpose and properties of various servers, internet
appliances, and legacy systems.
Server roles

Specialized servers are the key to efficient web content delivery for mail, file print,
addressing, and name services as well as user authentication. We will now break them
down.
Web server

A Web server is used by companies to deliver web based content over HTTP. This can be
done privately, in the case of an internally accessed company webpage, or publicly over the
internet.
File server
A File server is primarily used to establish a central location where users can store and share
content such as documents, media files, and spreadsheets. The computer hosting the
service is attached to the local network. An NAS (Network Attached Storage) device is often
used in this type of application. However, this is not the same as an internet based file
server which uses the FTP protocol and is accessed using FTP client software.
Print server

A Print server is a network connected, shared device that manages and distributes print
“jobs” to the printers it controls. Users and administrators can manage print jobs through
the queue, which displays all jobs received by the server and their status.

A single user can manage their own jobs and an administrator can manage all jobs. While
print servers as computers are still a part of many networks, stand-alone wired and wireless
network based printers exist that contain built-in print servers.
DHCP server
A DHCP server is responsible for delivering IP addressing and related configuration
information to its clients using the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. This service has
saved countless man-hours and address duplications.

The DHCP server uses an assigned address range, called a scope, in order to provide
addresses to hosts without duplication along with any other necessary information such as
subnet masks and gateway information. These addresses are leased to the host for a
predefined period of time, after which they are refreshed or renewed.

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DNS server
DNS servers have made user interaction on the internet dramatically simpler. DNS servers
translate Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN) into IP addresses. Once a server performs
this translation, the translation information is stored in its database for quicker access.
The DNS (Dynamic Name Server) is joined to the Dynamic Name System which allows it to
consult with other DNS servers when necessary. A new server will do this frequently but
over time, less frequently as it consults its local database first.
Proxy server

A Proxy server is a dedicated computer or network device that handles all external requests
made by users on the network. When the Proxy server receives a request for a webpage, it
checks its internal cache of previous requests and if found delivers the content quickly,
providing improved performance.
If the content is not cached, the Proxy will either connect to or act as a firewall and perform
private to public NAT (Network Address Translation). The Proxy is capable of masking the
client IP address, blocking specified traffic, and filtering out malicious traffic.
Mail server
A Mail server can conceptually be considered an email server as it handles email. Email is
customarily sent using an email client software package, which allows emails to be
composed and sent. This same program will also check your mail server for any inbound
messages. There are two main types of mail servers: incoming and outgoing.
The outgoing server will use the Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) to send traffic to
other mail servers en route to the destination. Delivery to the destination client is achieved
using one of two incoming server types: POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) and IMAP (Internet
Message Access Protocol).

To summarize, you send email using an SMTP configured mail server and receive email using
either a POP3 or IMAP server. These can be separate servers or hosted on the same server.
Authentication server
An Authentication server is usually an application running on a server, such as Active
Directory for example. This internet or network appliance handles authentication by
providing a user, or device, access to designated resources on the network as determined by
the administrator.
Syslog
Syslog is a protocol that allows network devices to send TCP messages to a Syslog server
regarding network events such as logon/logoffs, errors, and maintenance. The syslog server
maintains a database of these devices and events for use by administrators.
Internet appliance

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UTM
The Unified Threat Management (UTM) is a way to reduce cost and administrative overhead
by combining multiple security features, such as router, firewall, and content filters, into a
single hardware appliance in order to protect the network from unwanted or malicious
traffic. The UTM is generally positioned between the Internet and the protected network.
Here is a look at some of the possible elements.

IDS
The Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is one of the earliest network intrusion monitoring
devices and is often found as a feature of a UTM, router, and server. It comes in two primary
configurations, either as a network based NIDS, that will monitor an entire network, or as a
Host based solution HIDS, when individual workstations have this capability.
The IDS signals an alarm when suspicious activity is detected. However, this solution lacks
the capability to block traffic.
IPS

An Intrusion Protection System (IPS) takes the IDS concept and evolves it to detect an alert
condition before it enters the network and drops or blocks the connection. This is an
effective approach but is not a replacement for IDS.
The IPS is vulnerable to encrypted network traffic, making a layered approach the optimum
solution as opposed to “either or”.

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End-point management server

Endpoints are any devices, such as computers, tablets, smartphones, and laptops, that
require network access. The endpoint server inspects the endpoints to see if they meet the
established policy criteria before they can access the network. Endpoint condition includes
the status of software updates/patches and anti-malware updates.
Legacy / embedded systems
When considering network servers and devices, remember that you will encounter
networks that are comprised of a mix of new(er) and legacy (= old) hardware. A single
computer hosting multiple services, such as file and print or web and email, is not
uncommon. Also, you will encounter services that are embedded in the firmware. Many
routers, particularly the consumer grade or SOHO designs, have services such as DHCP and
Proxy built in.
2.6 Explain common network configuration concepts.

Here we will solidify the concepts covered in A+ 220-1001 sub-objective 2.6 “Explain
common network configuration concepts”. We will look at the properties that make TCP/IP
the robust protocol set that it is and how TCP/IP is used to manage networks from the
smallest of LANs all the way up to the World Wide Web.
IP Addresses

The TCP/IP protocol stack is the foundation of the World Wide Web and most local
networks. Each host or client connecting to a network such as the Web needs a unique
address. Duplication of addresses causes a failure of one or both hosts.

The IP protocol is used for host identification. There are two types of IP addresses being
actively used: IPv4 and IPv6. The original addressing organization was IPv4 which, while still
heavily used today, has exceeded its capacity to serve the rapidly growing number of
internet connected computers and devices. In 1999, the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority) began the deployment of the IPv6 protocol.
IPv4
An IP address consists of 32-bits, separated using a dotted decimal notation into four octets
with dots (periods). The numbers are assigned in binary, where you could see a number like
11011111.10110010.10011011.00000011.
For each octet, the maximum value is 255 (all 1’s in binary). The binary number is then
converted into decimal numbers that are easier for humans to recognize. The example
above would translate to a decimal value of 13.168.155.3.
Each octet can assign eight binary values of zero or one. A good way to verify that your
TCP/IP protocol stack has been correctly installed with a new network card is by pinging its
loopback address. The IPv4 address is 127.0.0.1 and by pinging this, you can check the
installation and functionality of the interface.

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Loopback IPv4 and IPv6

IPv6

In order to address the inevitable exhaustion of IPv4 addresses, the deployment of IPv6
began in 1999, providing 340 undecillion or
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 addresses. The IPv6 address is 128-
bits in length and although it is actually a binary address, the use of a 128-bit binary address
is impractical for human interpretation.
Instead, the IPv6 is expressed in hexadecimal numbers separated by colons and consists of
eight groups of hexadecimal values. Hexadecimal numbering allows for up to 16 case
sensitive values (0-9 and A-F) to be expressed for each digit as opposed to the standard base
10 decimal system. Each hexadecimal digit represents four digits or bits of binary.

Each of the eight groups of an IPv6 address represents 16 bits (Two four bit values). A typical
IPv6 address will look something like this, 2002:1F93:AF34:DA4C:0000:0000:0000:CADE. For
IPv6, the loopback function is the same as IPv4 using an IPv6 address. This address is
represented as 0::1 or even simply ::1.
In IPv6 shorthand notation, groups of zeroes are represented by double colons. Our
example can be written as 2002:1F93:AF34:DA4C:: CADE. Note that the double colons
substituted for three groups of zeroes. Only one set of colons is allowed in an IPv6 address.
Here, the binary value of the first block would be 0010 0000 0000 0010.

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The Interface Identifier or node address is represented by the last 64-bits of the 128-bit
address. In our example, the node is identified as 222 or binary 11011110.

Public and Private Addresses

The IANA has reserved the following address ranges for private networks. The address
ranges are listed below. The best example of private network deployment is with SOHO or
at home where you are provided a single, public IP address from an internet service
provider (ISP) and use NAT/PAT to assign private numbers to use the public address for
computers and phones.
IPv4

The IANA has reserved the following address ranges for private networks. This means any
address within these ranges is private and non-routable.
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
IPv6
The address block of fc00::/7 is reserved by IANA for private use as Unique Local Addresses
(ULA). This means that the first block assigned will be fd00::/8.
APIPA/link local

Best described as Zero configuration networks, APIPA and link local addresses are assigned
to hosts when there is no reachable DHCP server and there is no manual address
assignment. IPv4 uses the address range 169.254.1.0 to 169.254.254.255 and IPv6 uses the
block fe80::/64, in other words the address fe80 and enough zeroes to make 64 bits. You
may see a % sign followed by a number in the IPv6 link local address. This is a Zone ID
network identifier. This is useful as many computers have wired and wireless connections.
Each NIC or device on a network segment is given an ID to determine which interface to
send particular traffic out on. APIPA and link local addresses are non-routable.
Client-side DHCP vs Static Addressing

The most common IPv4 or IPv6 TCP/IP addressing method is DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol). On a work network, there is usually an assigned DHCP server.

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Residential or SOHO implementations use the router provided by the ISP to perform this
function. DHCP assigns or leases a unique IP address to each host. The duration of the lease
is determined by the network administrator, otherwise is weekly by default. DHCP will
define the internet gateway and Domain Name Server to be used. This means that your
machine may not get the same IP address when rebooted or otherwise disconnected,
however the DNS and Gateway settings will remain.
The DHCP server has an available pool of addresses available to assign to clients (hosts) that
attempt to connect to the network. The client broadcasts a UDP discovery packet for an
address to all connected networks. All DHCP servers will offer an address to the client. The
client will accept the offer from the nearest server by requesting a lease and that server will
lease that address to the client.
The address assignment process is identical for both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing and only the
address format will be different. This greatly simplifies network management as the other
option is Static IP addressing. Should you need a client to maintain a specific IP address, you
can create a DHCP reservation in order to hold that address permanently.

Manual configuration of IP in Windows

Static IP addressing is preferable for Web servers and Internet gateways where you would
like to be able to consistently locate the machine. Any device that is accessed consistently
by users should be statically addressed.
Otherwise and depending on the size of the network, this would be an incredibly labour
intensive task that would require documentation to avoid duplication of addresses.

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If it isn’t memorized, look up the Gateway and DNS servers on a neighboring machine.
Gateways and DNS

If known, network clients can access computers on the local network or internet using its IP
address. Internet access is dependent on the configuration of the Gateway on the network,
a device that handles off network requests and forwards them to the internet. The address
of this device is part of the client configuration as is the DNS server address.
It is improbable that the average person knows the IP address of the sites they wish to visit
or even devices or machines on the network. Name resolution solves this problem by using
a DNS (Domain Name Server) to resolve the IP addresses into names. A DNS server
maintains a list machines along with their IP addresses and their domain names.
For example, a DNS server would have an entry that read www.mysite.com = 202.22.222.2.
With that information, any user can type in the address using the domain name and the
server will look it up and translate the address. If the name is not known to the server, it will
request it from the other DNS servers known to it. Once a device successfully connects, this
information is cached locally. Don’t forget that a Default Gateway and a DNS Server must be
configured in order for your settings to work properly.

ipconfig all

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Subnet mask vs. CIDR

The original IPv4 design divided the 32-bit address into four 8-bit groups where each group
had a maximum value of 255. In the original IPv4 design, the network number field was
allotted the first eight bits of the address, representing the network. The remaining 24 bits
(the rest) are used to identify the host.
While it could support over 4 billion devices, this format could only support 254 networks
and was quickly deemed insufficient. A solution was needed to create more networks in
order to support the rapidly growing number of LANs as internet and business networks
were proliferating. A quick solution was needed!
Subnet masks
Subnet masks were devised to allow more of the 32-bit address to be used to identify
networks. This addressing scheme allows a second set of numbers, in eight bit blocks that
used to be called classes, to identify how many bits of the address are used to identify the
network.

The subnet mask is 32-bits long and formatted in the same way as the IP address. This
allows us to use 16-bits or more for the network address.

The 16-bit mask will use all 1’s for the first 16-bits for the network address, giving you a
hexadecimal representation of 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000. The zeroes in this
example are available for host identification. In dotted decimal notation, this is written as
255.255.0.0.
24-bit subnet masks are prevalent in SOHO and residential deployment, giving a subnet
mask of 255.255.255.0. Subnet masks are a quick and painless way to provide more
networks. However the only drawback is quite significant as switching from a 24-bit subnet
mask, providing 254 hosts and one subnet, to a 16-bit subnet allows 65534 hosts on one
subnet. This is wasteful in most cases and only partially addresses the problem.
VPN
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) provides networks with an added layer of security by
establishing secure encrypted connections over the public network in order to protect
network traffic from eavesdropping or modification.
VLAN
Virtual LANs (VLAN) can combine multiple networks into a single VLAN, making
administration easier because the VLAN appears as a simple LAN. A LAN can also be
configured with VLANs in order to isolate departments within an organization.
NAT

Network Address Translation (NAT) enables a router to assign private IP addresses to

multiple clients while appearing externally (publicly) as a single address. This one-to-many
method represents the majority of NAT configurations.

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2.7 Compare and contrast Internet connection types, network types, and their features.
We will look at Internet connection types and features. Everything in the objective
statement will be covered here. Let’s get to it!
Internet Connection Types
Once limited to the plain old telephone service (POTS) dial-up connection, internet
connectivity has woven its way into our daily existence. It’s hard for some of us to imagine
now having to go home to access a webpage or email. Here is how it breaks down.
Cable
The cable internet connection is a broadband, high speed internet connection that is always
on. It uses a cable modem that communicates over the same line that carries the cable
television signal and is capable of very high speeds depending on your service agreement.
Cable modems can support voice and data and can be wired or wireless depending on your
preference. Typically, a cable modem can give up to 160Mbps depending on the plan.
DSL
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) uses the existing ordinary copper telephone lines (POTS). In its
basic configuration, DSL feeds three signals to and from the DSL modem. The first two
64Kbps channels provide 128Kbps for data. These can be split to carry voice on one line and
data over the other, allowing internet and phone services to be used at the same time. The
third line carries command and control data, consuming very little bandwidth.
DSL is an “always on” connection type and there is no need to dial-up the connection. There
is a variety of DSL technology available but all use the same infrastructure cabling for
communication. The later versions of DSL use different techniques to achieve higher speeds.
One method is Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) which allows for equal upload and
download rates. SDSL can reach theoretical speeds up to 22Mbps.

Another method is Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) where the upstream and
downstream speeds are not the same. This allows the provider to adjust the data rate
according to what the customer is willing to pay for, maxing out at 640Kbps upstream and
up to 24Mbps downstream. A variation of SDSL is VSDL (very-high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber
Line) which is capable of up to 70Mbps over short distances.
Dial-up
Dial-up technology has been around since the beginning. Dial-up uses POTS lines, as does
DSL, but the connection is not persistent. Dial-up requires a modem (modulate/demodulate)
to modulate the digital signal from a PC to the analog waveform used by the phone lines. On
the receiving end, the signal is converted back to digital or demodulated.
Dial-up modem speeds began at 14.4Kbps, increasing to 28.8, and with v92 technology
achieved a blistering 56.6 Kbps. Each of those speed increases were greatly anticipated and
considered ground-breaking in the pre-broadband era.

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Fiber
Fiber optics provide the highest bandwidth currently available, in the range of up to 43
terabits per second depending on the provider. This is made possible mainly by the capacity
of the media and by the fact that the line is dedicated. The line is yours and yours alone,
point to point. This connection requires complete fiber directly from the ISP to your building
and onto the device. No copper is permitted at any point.
Satellite
Satellite communication takes advantage of satellites orbiting the earth in a geosynchronous
orbit, an orbit where the satellite has the same fixed position relative to Earth. There are
over 400 satellites orbiting in this manner. Most of these satellites are communications
satellites which deliver voice, data, video, and internet. Typically, these connections max out
at 15Mbps. The required equipment consists of a roof mounted satellite dish, aimed at the
target satellite, and a receiver (or transceiver) to send and receive data.
Line of Sight

Satellite and long range wireless internet transmissions require an unobstructed line of sight
between the devices. They can also be impacted by severe weather and are not the best
choice for live streaming.
ISDN

Chances are slim that you will encounter ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) in the
field. ISDN was aimed at the business class user in the pre-broadband era. ISDN bandwidth
is up to 128Kbps.
Cellular
Cellular communication takes place over a CDMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) network of
fixed antennae which are placed strategically to provide the best coverage areas in North
America.
International satellites, in conjunction with CDMA, are used in the GSM (Global System for
Mobile Technology) standard which prevails in the rest of the “covered” world. Cellular
service, in any of its varieties (later), is the largest wireless internet connection type in the
world.

2G cellular is actually slower than dial up on paper. Speeds may vary but don’t expect more
than 50Kbps on this connection. The next advance was 2G E or 2G EDGE (Enhanced Data for
GSM Evolution) which brought the speed up to 384Kbps. Then came 3G which is a
noteworthy improvement when properly implemented.
Speeds are between 200K and 4Mbps. However, check for the latest revision of the
standard. The hands-down winner currently is 4G (LTE or WiMAX) and will get between
100Mbps and 1Gbps. 4G LTE is the fastest combination and you are likely to encounter
more LTE implementations than WiMAX.

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Tethering
This technique allows you to connect your cell phone to a laptop or tablet through USB or
Bluetooth, enabling the device to use the phone’s cellular connection to provide mobile
connectivity to another device. This connection is a one to one connection share. Good for
essential connectivity, this connection type offers limited bandwidth and if used over a
Bluetooth connection, will quickly drain the battery.
Mobile Hotspot
Depending on the device’s capabilities, your own wireless phone can be turned into a
mobile hotspot. You can have a completely supported wireless business meeting with a
small group at a park or a lake, i.e. anywhere but the conference room. Most importantly, in
most cases the device sharing the hotspot will have its internet capability disabled.
Bandwidth will not reflect the full capacity of the host and battery life will be impacted.
Network Types

Networks are classified by several factors in order to identify their purpose. Technically, a
network can consist of two computers as long as they can communicate with each other. On
the smallest scale, a LAN exists if you were to connect to your desktop, which has its printer
shared, in order to print content from your laptop. The network types discussed can be
wired, wireless, or both.
LAN

A Local Area Network (LAN) exists when one or more PCs or wireless devices are connected
and share resources and services with each other. Good examples of this network type are
businesses that can interconnect one or more buildings and their users (hosts). There may
be one printer on each floor that the users can access through the LAN.
WAN

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is the polar opposite of a LAN. A WAN can have many users
and small networks. The key distinction in a WAN is that the users are spread over a large
geographical area. The most extreme version of a WAN is the Internet where billions of
users can access the resources made available by millions of other networks.
PAN

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a very short range network consisting of personal devices.
Generally speaking, this is a Bluetooth configuration and can be made up of personal heart
and activity monitors connected to a cell phone. The cell phone can in turn connect to a
laptop via Bluetooth and create another PAN. The key distinction here is the short range and
personal nature of the connection.
MAN
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers a large geographical area such as a city or
metropolis. MANs are created by cities and municipalities to provide essential connectivity

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during power outages or other catastrophic events that would interrupt a traditional WAN.
They are reliable and redundant.
WMN

A Wireless Mesh Network (WMN) consists of wireless mobile devices communicating in a

radio based, cable free network. WMN networks do not require a centralized server and are
similar to ad-hoc networks. Data is passed from node to node without using a WAP or
gateway.
2.8 Given a scenario, use appropriate networking tools.

In this session, we will look at the tools necessary to keep your network running optimally.
These include diagnostic and performance tools. Have fun and use your knowledge for
optimization!
Crimper

CAT 5 and CAT 6 cable use the same crimping tool. Be sure to match the cable ends against
each other and the wiring standards. Your typical crimper will be able to do all RJ cable
terminations.

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Cable stripper
Most cable types require some to all of the protective coatings to be removed before it can
be terminated. Coaxial cable is a good example of this since the outer sheath needs to be
cut away, exposing the mesh shielding, before the protection for the core removed. Each
cut must be at a predetermined depth and sequence.

Multimeter
Multimeters can be analog or digital. Analog meters are designed to test continuity, positive
AC, and negative voltages as well as resistance. The display typically consists of a needle
over a gradient background, with the needle resting on the value currently being measured.
The delicate internal windings can be damaged on an analog Multimeter from extreme
under-voltage or over-voltage. Digital Multimeters address this problem by auto-ranging
themselves into the volt/amp range that would provide relevant output. Otherwise, digital
Multimeters would display an error message.

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Tone generator & probe

Using a tone generator and probe, cables can be traced and followed end-to-end. One
device is useless without the other. During operation, one wire has a tone applied to it at a
frequency readable by the probe. If an audible signal is produced at the opposite end of the
test cable, you have the right cable.

Cable tester

An indispensable tool for network diagnostics, the cable tester can diagnose wiring
problems from broken and cut cables to loose wires and crossed pairs. Less expensive than
a network Multimeter, this tester is often all you need to fix a connectivity issue. Place the
Master on one end of the suspect cable and the Remote on the other end.
The light display will show each wire sequentially. Any sequence problems can be usually be
attributed to a crossover cable in the line. Find the problem and replace with T-568A or T-
568B depending on the installation.

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Loopback Plug
A loopback plug can be used to test any port on a PC, router, or switch. Currently, the
loopback plug is most commonly used to test the operation of a physical network interface
card port. The device typically uses software to send and receive data, thereby validating or
invalidating the port.

Patch Panel

Patch panel wiring closets represent some of the most challenging situations for a network
technician. Every cable, going to every wall jack in the area, terminates here. In some cases,
you will only need to connect an RJ-45 jack to a numbered port. For others, you will have to
run 8 wires to their correct locations on the patch panel. Here is an example:

Punch down tool

In the image above, each individual wire must be solidly placed into position. This is where
the punch down tool comes into play.

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The punch down tool is designed with a recoil-like mechanism that firmly punches the wire
into position and trims off excess wire. One click and you’re done.
Wi-Fi Analyzer

Wi-Fi Analyzers are used to discover Wi-Fi problems, but more importantly are used to help
optimize the performance of the Wi-Fi network. They range from the simplest “How many
bars are you getting?” test to multicolour spectrum analysis of the wireless environment.
This tool is a useful diagnostic!
Wi-Fi Analyzers are available for free from your wireless provider’s site and will run on your
smartphone. Keep in mind that wireless signals are measured in dBm and are always
expressed as a negative value. For example, a -25 dBm signal is stronger than a -90 dBm
signal. Use this device to avoid channel overlap.

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4.0 Virtualization and Cloud Computing

4.1 Compare and contrast cloud computing concepts.

In this edition, we will examine the Cloud and the wealth of services available through it. A
quick caution, when you are examining services, there is a tendency in the sales community
to use Cloud terminology/buzzwords to describe traditional services in order to make them
sound updated.
You will not find these terms discussed here or on the test, but you may encounter them in
life or business.
We will first look at the Cloud service categories as defined by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST). Next, we will look at the types of services available and
some of the methods used to make hardware, applications, databases, and even operating
systems run online.
Common cloud models
Cloud services are hosted and managed by third party entities that provide most of the
hardware and software required to access their services on demand. These services need to
be broadly accessible and must provide resource pooling. Storage needs to provide rapid
elasticity and be capable of measured service. There are several service models which are
used to describe the level of service the provider and the customer are responsible for.
Think of Cloud service categories as a stack of service models, with the lowest layers
providing the foundation of total vendor management responsibility. Here is an example.

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Cloud services
SaaS

SaaS stands for Software as a Service. In this case, the vendor supplies and manages
everything from the hardware to the applications that are used. This is a total solution as
users and developers alike can access and modify the content. Different Cloud computing
types offer different levels of accessibility as you will see next.
IaaS

IaaS stands for Infrastructure as a Service. IaaS is at the foundation in terms of vendor
responsibility. The vendor supplies virtual access to the hardware, including virtual servers
that can run the customers, server software, and applications on demand. This
configuration also can be used to host websites and email servers. As the name implies, the
vendor supplies the Infrastructure and the customer supplies the applications and data.
Depending on the agreement, the vendor may or may not supply the operating system(s).
PaaS
PaaS stands for Platform as a Service. It is quite similar to IaaS but provides two additional
value-added services, making it the second layer in the Cloud Services model. For example,
consider a platform for collaborative software development that maximizes the workflow
regardless of the data source of an application.

This means dissimilar sources can be used and proprietary application data can be used in
the creation of software. This type of platform is useful for supporting multiple developers
and automating the testing process.
Public vs. Private vs. Hybrid vs. Community
Public Cloud
The Public Cloud is available to all parties over the Internet. There are numerous companies
providing publicly accessible services such as email and storage.
Private Cloud
A Private Cloud is internal to a company or organization and provides access only to those
on the premises or connected via VPN. Private Clouds are the most secure type.
Hybrid Cloud

A Hybrid Cloud is a combination of public and/or private Cloud networks. These are often
offered by hosting providers along with dedicated hosting. A company may use the private
internal Cloud for storage of confidential communication and the external Cloud for email
and web services.
Community Cloud
A Community Cloud is used by a collaborative group that shares resources for a common
goal.

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This could be a medical group, insurance company, or any group of entities that has a
shared objective. These Cloud types tend to be bigger than Private Clouds but smaller than
the Public Cloud.
Here is a graphic representation of the main Cloud computing types.

Cloud Requirements
In order to qualify as a Cloud compatible service, the Infrastructure, Platform, and Software
must meet the NIST guidelines listed below. These guidelines are the minimum requirement
as additional services can be provided by a Cloud service.
Rapid Elasticity
Rapid Elasticity is the ability of a Cloud solution to scale its service level to meet the
demand. This can take the form of adding storage space or user capacity seamlessly without
interruption or the need to physically change hardware.
On-demand

On-demand is used to describe a service that is available at any time. The redundancy that is
available to Cloud-based solutions makes 100% availability (uptime) a reality.
Resource pooling
Resource pooling allows providers to share and spread the available resources across
multiple consumers or companies. Resources are scaled dynamically and imperceptibly to
each user as needed. This provides the maximum utilization of resources while providing the
expected levels of service.
Measured / Metered service
Measured service is the practice of analyzing, measuring, or metering the amount of
resources used by an individual or organization. This is used for billing or for capping
instances of over the limit consumption. This covers quantifiable elements such as
bandwidth, storage, or other services.

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Off-site email applications

Even with instant messaging taking up much of the routine communication between known
users, email continues to be the most reliable method of communication. There are public
online email providers, such as Gmail or Yahoo, which are excellent for non-sensitive
communication. Off-site email applications, such as Microsoft Outlook, can provide hosted
email services that are accessible only to a single organization.
Cloud file storage services
Cloud storage is available from the major OS and mobile device manufacturers. iCloud
provided by Apple, Google Drive by Google, and Microsoft’s OneDrive are a few well-known
examples.
Synchronization apps
Each cloud storage option uses a proprietary sync app based on your account. The synced
data can be accessed using a browser and your account information. There are also third-
party sync apps that will work with several cloud storage services.
Virtual application streaming/cloud-based applications

Cloud-based applications use software installed only on the cloud server. These apps are
accessed through a web browser without requiring any local installation. A hybrid form of
this technology is streaming where a small portion of the app is installed locally and the
majority of the process is running on the cloud. This allows a streaming app to setup the
connection and its parameters locally, enabling quality adjustments to be made based on
the connection properties.
Applications for cell phones/tablets
Each OS will have a preferred download location for apps. This ensures optimal
compatibility with the device and software. For example, many of the apps used on cell
phones and tablets are different from those used on laptops and desktops regarding how
they use available resources. You may see the option to download the desktop or mobile
version of the software.
Virtual desktop

A virtual desktop can be provided as part of a cloud infrastructure. In this case, the cloud
service provider’s hypervisor presents a virtual desktop to a client using Virtual Desktop
infrastructure (VDI). This desktop will perform according to the base configuration and any
modifications called for by the user’s credentials. This is considered to be a persistent VDI.
Once connected, the integration is seamless and the user is not limited in their capabilities.
When a hypervisor allows guest or non-credentialed access, the VDI will consist of a generic
configuration and any changes will not be saved. This is considered to be a non-persistent
VDI.
Virtual NIC

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Hypervisors need at least one virtual network interface card (VNIC). Multiple VNICs can be
created in a hypervisor and it is advisable to create multiple VNICs when supporting multiple
virtual clients.
4.2 Given a scenario, set up and configure client-side virtualization.
We will look at virtualization, the ability to do more with less. Multiple tasks that once took
multiple machines to perform can now be done by one machine’s processing power. This
process is called virtualization and can involve two methods.
- Server-side virtualization (Type 1) occurs when all of the processing is handled by the
server which in-turn delivers virtual environments or machines to each client.
- Client-side virtualization (Type 2) occurs when the client desktops are virtualized into
multiple machines.

In both cases, the virtual machines operate in their own isolated space where their OS is
installed on software which is used to emulate physical hardware.
Purpose of virtual machines
The purpose of virtual machines (VMs) is multi-layered. Primarily, virtualization maximizes
the resources available. No additional physical resources are required for each virtual
machine such as keyboards, mice, and monitors. This reduces energy consumption and also
lowers overall heat generation.

Another very stabilizing aspect of using the virtual environment is that since the entire
machine is now essentially software, it is easier to backup and much easier to transport.
There is no hardware to transport and only the set of files, including the VHD (Virtual Hard
Disk), is required for transportation.
Virtual machines are run on software that emulates a customizable, physical hardware
environment and supports the installation and operation of multiple operating systems. This
is beneficial in application testing where a single physical machine can support Windows, OS
X, and Linux systems, providing a reliable operational environment to evaluate the products.
This configuration also enables the user to run an older application, for example one that
requires Windows XP, by installing it on a virtual Windows XP machine.
Classifications for Virtual Machines depend on the processing power of the client and are
as follows:
Zero client –

This is essentially a “dumb terminal” and consists of a keyboard, mouse, monitor, and
network interface. There is no operating system and this type uses complete server-side
virtualization.
Thin client –
This client does little to no processing but does have enough resources to barely support an
operating system. This type relies on the server to do all of the processing.

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Thick / Fat client –

This is a fully functional workstation PC or portable device that is entirely self-sufficient and
will access the server only when necessary.
Resource requirements
Resource requirements for hypervisors, or Virtual Machine Monitors (VMMs), depend on
the scale, number of virtual machines (or instances) to be deployed, the anticipated number
of users, and the type of hypervisor being used.

The VMM allocates a specified amount of Processor cores, memory, and hard disk space to
each virtual machine instance. There must be sufficient resources to support the host
operating system, the VMM, and the VMs to be deployed.

Shown below is an example of a generous allotment of Processor, memory, and disk space
which has been dedicated to a VM. Note the memory allocation and remember that the 64-
bit version of Windows 8 only requires 2 GB of memory.

The additional Processor, memory, and disk space can then be used to support more users.
The VMM captures these resources when this example VM is running.

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The VMM controls the total amount of memory available for all VMs while leaving sufficient
resources for the host. You should not run a VM below its system requirements or above an
amount that is supportable by the host as performance will suffer. This particular host has a
6 core processor and 16 GB of memory. With a host requirement of 2 GB and a 2 TB hard
disk, there is plenty of room for a single VM instance. As you enable each VM instance, less
computing power is available to the host.
Emulator requirements
One thing is constant: the host system’s UEFI/BIOS must support virtualization. Intel
platforms use Intel VT and AMD platforms use AMD-V. Without these enhancements,
virtualization on the host is not possible. The Emulator (VMM) must have access to enough
resources in order to sufficiently cover the host OS and any resource allocations due to the
VMs.

Shown below is the same VM running alongside a Linux installation that has 2 GB assigned.
That’s 2 GB for the host, 2 GB for the Linux instance, and 6 GB for the Windows install which
equates to 10 GB total memory usage.

VM Resource usage
In comparison at rest with no VMM enabled, the machine uses roughly 30% of the Processor
and 4.1 GB RAM.

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Security requirements
Security requirements for VMs are particularly important because new users tend to think
that VMs are protected by the host’s antivirus/antimalware software. This is not the case.
Remember that virtual machines are completely isolated from the host. Install the proper
protection packages on your VM and also realize that as a “machine,” separate software
licensing applies in most cases. Read your agreement carefully.
Network requirements
On a hosted VMM, you cannot consume more network bandwidth than the host can
support. For example, if you create instances of a Web server, an FTP server, and a file
server on the host machine and the instances experience high network traffic, the host PC’s
networking performance will fail since the network bandwidth will be allocated to the
running VMs. If the network traffic is really high, the network performance of the VMs will
also fail.
Hypervisor

Hypervisor is another term to identify the Virtual Machine Manager (VMM). Hypervisors
come in two types. Yes! That’s right! Type 1 and Type 2.
Type 1 hypervisor
A Type 1 hypervisor (Bare Metal) is installed on a clean machine with no operating system,
typically a server class machine in a multi-server environment. Compared to a conventional
operating system, this allows for more system resources to be dedicated to the VMs due to
the nearly non-existent overhead.

In order to remotely configure the hypervisor, Type 1 hypervisors require a Management

Console to be installed on a separate physical machine. This external control is required due
to the lack of an operating system on the target hardware.

Type 1 hypervisor management consoles have the capability to dynamically allocate

resources. This is easily demonstrated in the case of RAM. If you have 16 GB of RAM
installed, dynamic allocation can support multiple VMs configured with 16, 10, 8 and 4 GB of
RAM for a total of 38 GB.
The memory resources are supplied to the VMs as needed, meaning that in most cases the
total requirement of the VMs will not exceed 16 GB and each virtual machine will get what it
needs at any particular time. If the memory capacity is exceeded, the VM instance will be
moved seamlessly and imperceptibly to a server that can support it.

A Type 2 hypervisor (Hosted) is dependent on a host system’s operating system in order to

run. The picture below shows a Type 2 hypervisor installed on a Windows machine that is
running two VMs, one Linux and one Windows. In the left-pane, you can see the library of
available VMs.
Most type 2 hypervisors allocate all of the designated resources upon the boot of each
instance. It is quite possible to crash the host OS by over-allocating resources.

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For example, consider we have multiple instances of the same OS available and identically
configured for testing.
If we were to turn them all on at the same time, the allocated resources would exceed the
available resources and the Host, as well as the VMs, would all crash. Be aware of the finite
nature of your resources and how your hypervisor type will deliver them to the VM
instances.

Type 2 Hypervisor

That’s all for Sub-Objective 5.7! The tools you would use to test and repair connections are
listed in 220-1001 Sub-Objective 2.8. Review this section if you need a refresher.

If you have read all of the 220-1001 content to this point, congratulations!! You are ready to
move into the 220-1002! Good luck!

THANK YOU
&
ALL THE BEST

Krishna kumart5000@gmail.com 972-7506874