8.9.

6 Advantages of state-variable model

The state-variable modeling of a power system offers the
following advantages:
1. Modern control theory is based upon this standard form.
2. By arranging system parameters into matrices [A], [B], and [J], a very
organized methodology of solving system equations, either
analytically or by computer, is developed. This is important for large
systems where a lack of organization easily results in errors.

Example 8.4: Two interconnected Area-1 and Area-2

have the capacity of 2,000 and 500 MW, respectively.
The incremental regulation and damping torque
coefficient for each area on its own base are 0.2 p.u. and
0.8 p.u., respectively. Find the steady-state change in
system frequency from a nominal frequency of 50 Hz and
the change in steady-state tie-line power following a 750
MW change in the load of Area-1.
Solution:
Rated capacity of Area-1 = P1(rated) = 2,000 MW
Rated capacity of Area-2 = P2(rated) = 500 MW
Speed regulation, R = 0.2 p.u.
Nominal frequency, f = 50 Hz
Change in load power of Area-1, ΔP1 = 75 MW
Speed regulation, R = 0.2 = 0.2 p.u. × 50 = 10 Hz/p.u.
MW
Damping torque coefficient, B = 0.8 p.u. MW/p.u. Hz

Change in load of Area-1, ∆PD = 75 MW

1

p.u. change in load of Area-1

p.u. change in load of Area-2

Steady-state change in system frequency,

where

Steady-state change in tie-line power following load

change in Area-1:
Example 8.5: Solve Example 8.4, without governor
control action.
Solution:
Without the governor control action, R = 0

Steady-state change in tie-line power following load

change in Area-1:

It is observed from the result that the power flow

through the tie line is the same in both the cases of with
governor action and without governor action, since it
does not depend on speed regulation R.
Example 8.6: Find the nature of dynamic response if
the two areas of the above problem are of uncontrolled
type, following a disturbance in either area in the form of
a step change in electric load. The inertia constant of the
system is given as H = 3 s and assume that the tie line
has a capacity of 0.09 p.u. and is operating at a power
o
angle of 30 before the step change in load.
Solution:
Given:
Speed regulation, R = 0.2 p.u. = 0.2 × 50 = 10 Hz/p.u.
MW
Damping coefficient, B = 0.8 p.u. MW/p.u. Hz

Inertia constant, H = 3 s
0
Nominal frequency, f = 50 Hz

Tie-line capacity,

From the theory of dynamic response, we know that

It is observed that the damped oscillation type of

dynamic response has resulted since α < ωn:
∴ Damped angular frequency
 ∴ Damped frequency = fd

Example 8.7: Two control areas have the following

characteristics:

Area-1: Speed regulation = 0.02 p.u.

Damping coefficient = 0.8 p.u.

Rated MVA = 1,500

Area-2: Speed regulation = 0.025 p.u.

Damping coefficient = 0.9 p.u.

Rated MVA = 500

Determine the steady-state frequency change and the

changed frequency following a load change of 120 MW,
which occurs in Area-1. Also find the tie-line power flow
change.
Solution:
Given R1 = 0.1 p.u.; R2 = 0.098 p.u.
B1 = 0.8 p.u.; B2 = 0.9 p.u.
P1 rated = 1,500 MVA; P2 rated = 1,500 MVA
Change in load of Area-1,
∆PD = 120 MW, ∆PD = 0
1 2

p.u. change in load of Area-1

∴ Steady-state frequency change,

i.e., Steady-state change in frequency, ∆fss = 0.0012415 × 50

= 0.062 Hz

0
∴ New value of frequency, f = f − ∆fss = 50 − 0.062

= 49.937 Hz

Steady-state change in tie-line power

Example 8.8: In Example 8.6, if the disturbance also
occurs in Area-2, which results in a change in load by 75
MW, determine the frequency and tie-line power
changes.
Solution:
Change in load of Area-1, ∆PD = 120 MW
1

p.u. change in load of Area-1

Change in load of Area-2, ∆PD = 75 MW

2

p.u. change in load of Area-2

Steady-state frequency change,

∴ Steady-state frequency change = 0.002 × 50 = 0.1

Hz
0
∴ New value of frequency = f − Δfss = 50 − 0.1 =
49.899 Hz
Steady-state change in tie-line power,
Example 8.9: Two areas of a power system network are
interconnected by a tie line, whose capacity is 250 MW,
o
operating at a power angle of 45 . If each area has a
capacity of 2,000 MW and the equal speed-regulation
coefficiency of 3 Hz/p.u. MW, determine the frequency
of oscillation of the power for a step change in load.
Assume that both areas have the same inertia constants
of H = 4 s. If a step-load change of 100 MW occurs in one
of the areas, determine the change in tie-line power.
Solution:
Given:
Tie-line capacity, Ptie(max) = 250 MW
0 0
Power angle of two areas, (δ 1 − δ 2) = 457°
Capacity of each area, Prated = 2,000 MW
Speed-regulation coefficient = R1 = R2 = R = 3Hz/p.u.
MW
Inertia constant, H = 4 s
 Since, α < ωn, the dynamic response will be of a
damped oscillation type.
Damped angular frequency,

∴ Frequency of oscillation,

If a step-load change of 100 MW occurs in any one of

the areas, the total load change will be shared equally by
both areas since the two areas are equal, i.e., a power of

will flow from the other area into the area

where a load change occurs.

Example 8.10: Two power stations A and B of
capacities 75 and 200 MW, respectively, are operating in
parallel and are interconnected by a short transmission
line. The generators of stations A and B have speed
regulations of 4% and 2%, respectively. Calculate the
output of each station and the load on the
interconnection if
1. the load on each station is 100 MW,
2. the loads on respective bus bars are 50 and 150 MW, and
3. the load is 130 MW at Station A bus bar only.

Solution:
Given:
Capacity of Station-A = 75 MW
Capacity of Station-B = 200 MW
Speed regulation of Station-A generator, RA = 4%
Speed regulation of Station-B generator, RB = 2%
(a) If the load on each station = 100 MW

i.e., P1 + P2 = 100 + 100 = 200 MW (8.47)

Speed regulation

∴ (1 − f) = 0.0001P2 (8.49)

From Equations (8.48) and (8.49), we have

0.000533P1 = 0.0001P2
5.33P1 = P2 (8.50)
P1 + P2 = 200
Substituting Equation (8.50) in Equation (8.47), we get
The power generations and tie-line power are indicated
in Fig. 8.14(a).
(b) If the load on respective bus bars are 50 and 150 MW,
then we have
i.e., P1 + P2 = 50 + 150 = 200 MW
5.33 P1 = P2
P1 + 5.33 P1 = 200
⇒ 6.33P1 = 200
P1 = 31.6 MW
∴ P2 = 200 − 31.60 = 168.4 MW
The power generations and tie-line power are indicated
in Fig. 8.14(b).
 FIG. 8.14 (a) Illustration for Example 8.10; (b) illustration for Example
8.10; (c) illustration for Example 8.10

(c) If the load is 130 MW at A only, then we have

P1 + P2 = 130
5.33P1 = P2
 ∴ P1 = 5.33 P1 = 130
6.33P1 = 130
⇒ P1 = 20.537 MW
∴ P2 = 130 − P1 = 109.462 MW
The power generations and tie-line power are indicated
in Fig. 8.14(c).
Example 8.11: The two control areas of capacity 2,000
and 8,000 MW are interconnected through a tie line. The
parameters of each area based on its own capacity base
are R = 1 Hz/p.u. MW and B = 0.02 p.u. MW/Hz. If the
control area-2 experiences an increment in load of 180
MW, determine the static frequency drop and the tie-line
power.
Solution:
Capacity of Area-1 = 2,000 MW
Capacity of Area-2 = 8,000 MW
Taking 8,000 MW as base,

∴ Speed regulation of Area-1,

Damping coeffi cient of Area-1,

Speed regulation of Area-2, R2 = 1 Hz / p.u. MW

Damping coefficient of Area-2, B2 = 0.02 p.u. MW/ Hz
Given an increment of Area-2 in load,

∆PD = 0
1

∴ Static change in frequency,

Static change in tie-line power,

Note: Here, a12 value determination is not required

since values of R1, B1, and β1 are obtained according to
the base values.
Alternate method:

Find Then, obtain the ∆f(ss) and

∆Ptie(ss) values.
Here, there is no need to obtain, R1, B1, R2, and B2
separately.
Example 8.12: Two generating stations A and B having
capacities 500 and 800 MW, respectively, are
interconnected by a short line. The percentage speed
regulations from no-load to full load of the two stations
are 2 and 3, respectively. Find the power generation at
each station and power transfer through the line if the
load on the bus of each station is 200 MW.
Solution:
Given data:
Capacity of Station-A = 500 MW
Capacity of Station-B = 800 MW
Percentage speed regulation of Station-A = 2% = 0.02
Percentage speed regulation of Station-B = 3% = 0.03
Load on bus of each station = PDA = PDB = 200 MW
Total load, PD = 400 MW
Speed regulation of Station-A:

Speed regulation of Station-B:

Let PGA be the power generation of Station-A and PGB

the power generation of Station-B:
PGB = Total load − PGA = (400 − PGA)
⇒ 0.002PGA = 0.001875 (400 − PGA)
= 0.75 = 193.55 MW
(0.002 + 0.001875) PGA = 0.75

⇒ PGA = 193.55 MW

PGB = 206.45 MW
 PGA = 193.55 MW

∴ PGB = 206.45 MW

The power transfer through the line from Station-B to

station-A
= PGB − (load at bus bar of B)
= 206.45 − 200
= 6.45 MW
Example 8.13: Two control areas of 1,000 and 2,000
MW capacities are interconnected by a tie line. The
speed regulations of the two areas, respectively, are 4
Hz/p.u. MW and 2.5 Hz/p.u. MW. Consider a 2% change
in load occurs for 2% change in frequency in each area.
Find steady-state change in frequency and tie-line power
of 10 MW change in load occurs in both areas.
Solution:
Capacity of Area-1 = 1,000 MW
Capacity of Area-2 = 2,000 MW
Speed regulation of Area-1, R1 = 4 Hz/p.u. MW (on
1,000-MW base)
Speed regulation of Area-2, R2 = 2 Hz/p.u. MW
Let us choose 2,000 MW as base, 2% change in load for
2% change in frequency
Damping coeffi cient of Area-1,

Similarly, damping coefficient of Area-2 on 2,000-MW

base
Speed regulation of Area - 1on 2,000-MW base = R1

Speed regulation of Area-2, R2 = 2 Hz/p.u. MW

If a 10-MW change in load occurs in Area-1, then we

have

Steady-state change in frequency,

Steady-state change in frequency,

or Δf(ss) = −0.007633 × 50 = 0.38 Hz

Steady-state change in tie-line power:
 i.e., the power transfer of 7.938 MW is from Area-2 to
Area-1.
If a 10-MW change in load occurs in Area-2, then we
have

∴ Steady-state change in frequency,

Steady-state change in tie-line power:

i.e., A power of 2.061 MW is transferred from Area-1 to

Area-2.
Example 8.14: Two similar areas of equal capacity of
5,000 MW, speed regulation R = 3 Hz/p.u. MW, and H =
5 s are connected by a tie line with a capacity of 500 MW,
o
and are operating at a power angle of 45 . For the above
system, the frequency is 50 Hz; find:
1. The frequency of oscillation of the system.
2. The steady-state change in the tie-line power if a step change of 100
MW load occurs in Area-2.
3. The frequency of oscillation of the system in the speed-governor loop
is open.

Solution:
Given:
Capacity of each control area = P1(rated) P2(rated) = 500 MW
Speed regulation, R = 2 Hz/p.u. MW
Inertia constant, H = 5 s
o
Power angle = 45
0
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz
(a) Stiffness coefficient,

Since α < ωn, damped oscillations will be present.

∴ Damped angular frequency,