TRIBHUWAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING (IOE)

KATHFORD INT’L COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

A FIELD REPORT OF “SURVEY CAMP 2078”

(BCE III/I) 2075 TO
MARS NEPAL ENGINEERING SURVEY CAMP PVT.LTD.
BUNGMATI, KARYABINAYAK

Submitted By: Submitted To:

075/BCE/12 Ashish Thapa
075/BCE/67 Sangit Chaulagain Survey Camp Committee
075/BCE/12 Pradosh Karki Department of Civil Engineering
075/BCE/12 Kiran Khadka Kathford Int’l College of Engineering
075/BCE/12 Sunil Singh Thakur and Management
Balkumari, Lalitpur
 Abbreviations

CI – Contour Interval
HFL – High Flood Level
RL – Reduced Level
BS – Back Sight
CL – Center Line
PI – Point of Intersection
PT – Point of Tangency
PC – Point of Commencement
MC – Mid Point of Curve
TBM – Temporary Bench Mark
CP – Control Point
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5
Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 6
Survey group .............................................................................................................................. 6
Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1. Project Area ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Location and Accessibility ................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Topography and Geology ................................................................................................. 7
1.3 Climate, Rainfall, and Vegetation .................................................................................... 8
2. Topographical Survey............................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Brief Description of the area ............................................................................................ 9
2.3 Norms (Technical Specification)....................................................................................... 9
2.4 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.5 Methodology.................................................................................................................. 10
2.6 Traversing....................................................................................................................... 10
2.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10
2.6.2 Reconnaissance ....................................................................................................... 11
2.6.3 Major Traverse ........................................................................................................ 12
2.6.4 Minor Traverse ........................................................................................................ 12
2.6.5 Levelling ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.7 Detailing ......................................................................................................................... 15
2.7.1 Total Station ............................................................................................................ 15
2.7.2 Tachometry ............................................................................................................. 16
2.7.3 Detailing by Trigonometric Levelling ...................................................................... 17
2.8 Contouring ..................................................................................................................... 17
2.8.1 Methods of Contouring ........................................................................................... 17
2.8.2 Contour Interpolation ............................................................................................. 18
2.8.3 Contour Characteristics........................................................................................... 18
2.9 Balancing of Traverse ..................................................................................................... 18
2.10 Computation and Plotting ............................................................................................ 19
2.11 Plotting of Major and Minor Traverse ......................................................................... 19
3. Bridge Site Survey ................................................................................................................ 20
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Brief Description of the Site ........................................................................................... 20
 3.3 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Hydrology, Geology & Soil ............................................................................................. 20
3.5 Technical Norms and Specifications .............................................................................. 21
3.6 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 21
3.7 Methodology.................................................................................................................. 21
3.8 Site Selection.................................................................................................................. 22
3.9 Topographic Survey ....................................................................................................... 22
3.10 L-Section and Cross Section ......................................................................................... 22
3.11 Leveling ........................................................................................................................ 23
3.12 Detailing ....................................................................................................................... 23
3.13 Computation and Plotting ............................................................................................ 24
3.14 Comments and Conclusion .......................................................................................... 24
4. Road Alignment and Geometric Design ............................................................................... 25
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 25
4.3 Brief Description of the area .......................................................................................... 25
4.4 Hydrology, Geology and Soil .......................................................................................... 25
4.5 Instruments Required .................................................................................................... 26
4.6 Methodology.................................................................................................................. 26
4.7 Reconnaissance .............................................................................................................. 26
4.8 Horizontal Alignment ..................................................................................................... 26
4.9 Vertical Alignment ......................................................................................................... 27
4.10 Levelling ....................................................................................................................... 27
4.11 L-section and Cross Section ............................................................................................. 28
4.12 Curve Setting ................................................................................................................ 28
4.13 Comments and Conclusion .......................................................................................... 30
5. Orientation........................................................................................................................... 30
5.2 Resection........................................................................................................................ 30
5.3 Intersection .................................................................................................................... 33
5.4 Comments and Conclusion ............................................................................................ 34
Conclusion and Recommendation ........................................................................................... 37
List of Drawings ........................................................................................................................ 39
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 40
 Abstract
This report named “Survey Camp Report 2078” is the outcome of ten days survey camp
(Bungmati) organized by The Survey Instruction Committee, Department of Civil
Engineering, Kathford International College of Engineering and Management. The
survey camp was held in Lalitpur, Metro-22, Bungmati from the date 8 th Mangsir 2078
to 18th Mangsir 2078.
The report reflects the scopes, objectives, methodology, observation, calculation, and
drawings performed by students in the survey camp. There are explanations to all the
theoretical part of each and every survey work.
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of above, on, or
beneath the surface of earth, and is the most important part of Civil Engineering. The
results of surveys are used to map the earth, prepare navigational charts, establish
property boundaries, develop data of land used and natural resource information etc.
Further survey maintains highways, railroads, buildings, bridges, Tunnels, canals, dams
and many more. Thus, the objectives of survey camp were to make us gain the
experience in this field by performing topographic survey in a large area, learning to
prepare road alignment and select suitable site for bridge axis.
This report is prepared with great effort and dedication of the student who have devoted
themselves immensely from the very first time of field work till today. The authors of
this report are always striving towards making least number of mistakes in the report.
The authors feel that the readers will grant excuses and inform to the writers for any
kind of error present.
 Acknowledgement
We are immensely thankful to the organizers of “B.E. Survey Camp 2078, III/I 2075
Batch” of Kathford International College of Engineering and Management (2078
Mangsir 8 to 2078 Mangsir 18) which acquainted us with practical as well as theoretical
knowledge for surveying in the field. The ten days proved to be truly fruitful as it taught
us so much about surveying fieldwork. As a team, we were really curious and motivated
to learn and implement the theoretical knowledge into the practical field. This would
not have been possible without the unconditional support and guidance from our
respected teachers and instructors.
First and foremost, our deepest gratitude and appreciation goes to supremely
experienced and respectful lecturers Er. Narayan Basnet Sir and Er. Vishwanath
Khanal Sir for coming there and sharing their insightful knowledge with us. Their
presence, lectures, and stories they told, were truly insightful and will always be
remembered for the rest of our work life.
We are sincerely thankful to all other lecturers and instructors whose contribution in
stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped us coordinate and carry out the
survey works really well. Our sincere appreciation goes to all of the teachers namely:
Er. Nirajan Devkota
Er. Jeevan Gwacha
Er. Sujan Pudasaini
Er. Sher Bahadur Gurung
Er. Sagun Basnet

Also, thank you to all of the staffs of the college whose played crucial role in collection,
maintenance, and distribution of surveying tools and instruments.

At this moment, we must also thank all our friends and colleagues for their assistance
and support.

Last but not the least, we are thankful to the host of the survey camp, MARS Nepal
Engineering Survey Pvt. Ltd. for arranging such a pleasant stay and all the canteen
staffs for preparing delicious meals each and every day.

(Group-11)
KIC075BCE012 Ashish Thapa
KIC075BCE069 Sangit Chaulagain
KIC075BCE012 Pradosh Karki
KIC075BCE012 Kiran Khadka
KIC075BCE012 Sunil Singh Thakuri
 Working Schedule

Project title: Survey Camp 2078

Location: Metro-22, Bungmati
Duration: 2078 Mangsir 8 to 2078 Mangsir 18
Working time: 7:00 a.m. to 18:00 p.m.
Class: 7:00 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. (As Scheduled)
Surveyed by: Group no:11 of BCE 075 Batch

Working
Schedules Day Survey field Work
no.
1 08th Mangsir Reconnaissance, index sketch, MT station,
selection & pegging and MT observation

2 09th Mangsir Road: Selection of IP, Deflection Angle

Observation, L-Section & X-Section Observation
and computation
3 10th Mangsir Road: Deflection Angle Observation, L-Section &
X-Section Observation and computation,
Resection & intersection and all incomplete works
to complete
4 11th Mangsir Bridge Axis Selection, BS triangulation,
Reciprocal Levelling and RL transfer

5 12th Mangsir Bridge Site Detailing and Computation

6 13th Mangsir MT observation, mt station selection & pegging,

mt traversing and Mt computation

7 14th Mangsir MT & mt Traverse, Detailing

8 15th Mangsir Fly Levelling, Detailing

9 16th Mangsir Fly Levelling, Detailing

10 17th Mangsir Two-peg test, RL Computation and MT plotting,

Resection and Intersection
11 18th Mangsir Presentation and Viva
 5

Introduction
Surveying is the preliminary art of measuring a relative position of points or absolute
measurement of any feature on or beneath the earth surface by using distance, angle,
and elevation measuring instruments. Land- area surveys are made to determine the
relative horizontal and vertical position of topographic features and to establish
reference marks to guide construction or to indicate land boundaries. Survey is used to
establish property boundaries involving a thorough knowledge of real-estate laws as
well as skills in survey techniques.
Topographic maps are graphical representations of natural and man-made features of
parts of the Earth’s surface plotted to scale. They provide the bases for specialized maps
and data for compilation of generalized maps of smaller scale. It is impossible to start
railways, roads, canals, tunnels, transmission power line, dams, and bridge site location,
even building without preliminary survey. Before starting any structure or launching
the ambitious projects on the earth surface or below the ground, the role of survey is
critical. Survey never means measuring and drawing the ground feature to the
corresponding scale and portraying, these vertical relationships with others nearly. It
encloses the wide area and the system of surveying and the application is increasing
day by day. Besides using Theodolite traversing on the land, now remote sensing
system and photogrammetric has changed the survey procedure in new format.
Although modern sophisticated instruments such as EDM has introduced new
establishment but the basic principle is remains unchanged. However, it is true that we
are nearer to their true value with this modern equipment and handling is very easy. For
the purpose of water line, sanitary or road also the relative altitude is required, which is
ascertain by the leveling. Even the details of the enclosed area and the ground nature
can be portrayed in combined form as topographic map. The whole land can be
surveyed in different plots and can be united into a single map. The main thing is not
to violate the basic survey principles viz. working from whole to part, consistency of
work, accuracy required according to scale and independent check.
Above mention things are perquisite while handling the project and for gaining
experience such type of survey has to be done and what we do in the survey is not
different from it. In other words, it is the combat in field with the theory of survey as
with tools.
The main objective of the surveying course allocated for Civil Engineering Students is
to promote them the basic knowledge of different surveying techniques relevant to Civil
Engineering works in their professional practice. The surveying is one of the most
important subject matter during the civil engineering works like construction of
Highway, Irrigation project, Construction of building etc.
The survey was jointly organized by the Civil department of Kathford International
College of Engineering and Management for 2075 batch at Karyabinayak-12 (MARS
Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. Ltd.), Lalitpur which carries out for the duration
of 10 days under the supervision of the experienced lecturers.
 6

Objectives
The main objective of the camp is to provide a basic and fundamental knowledge of
practical implementation of different survey works, which is to be encountered in
future. It enhances the practical knowledge thereby implementing different works and
in other side involves the self-confidence eternally.
The main objectives of the survey camp can be enlisted as follows:
i. To become familiar with the surveying problems that may arise during the field
works in future.
ii. To became familiar with the instruments, their functions and handling the
surveying instruments for its use in surveying works.
iii. To become familiar with the spirit and importance of teamwork, as surveying is
not a single person's work.
iv. To complete the given projects in scheduled time and thus to know the value of
time.
v. To collect required data in the field in systematic ways.
vi. To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and
present it in diagrammatic and tabular form in order to understand by other
Engineers and related personnel easily.
vii. To tackle the mistakes and incomplete data from the field while in office work.
viii. To give the good opportunity to use the theoretical background on engineering
survey in the practical life.
ix. To know the complete methods of report preparation.

Survey group
The survey group consists of five members, all the group members during the survey
camp were working properly and the instruction team was teaching and directly
involved in the field to teach the students.

Scope
The scope of the survey camp is divided into three parts which are:
a. Topographical Survey on the MARS premises.
b. Bridge Site Survey
c. Road Alignment Survey at MARS Premises.
 7

1. Project Area
1.1 Location and Accessibility
The survey camp was conducted at Bungmati, Karyabinayak-12, inside the premises of
MARS Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. Ltd. The place is geographically located
between 85° 17' 39” and 85° 18' 46” longitude and 27° 36' 48” and 27° 36' 57” Latitude
(Figure 1). The altitude of the place is around 1277m. It is about 8 hectares of semi-
built-up landform situated on the northern bank of the Bagmati River. Between Bagmati
river and the site, passes the mega highway project of Nepal called
“Kathmandu/Madesh Expressway”.
The location is easily accessible through the roadway. Through Ring Road of
Kathmandu Valley, one has to reach Ekantakuna. Turning left and taking Ekantakuna-
Tikabhairab Road, it is a 4.0 km straight ride onto Bungmati Road which will lead us
to MARS Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. ltd.

Figure 1: Location Map of Survey Camp Site

1.2 Topography and Geology

The campsite is a semi-built-up landform. The terrain has a gentle downward slope
from North towards South. An express highway passes along the western and southern
boundaries of the area. There are plenty of permanent features like buildings, cottages,
etc. Rivers flow at the southern side of the area. There are thinly scattered trees and
bamboo forests inside the premises. Some chunks of land are used for cultivation and
cattle habitat. A part of the area on the western side near the bamboo forest has a steep
slope. However, a significant portion of the area is nearly flat and terraced.
 8

The place is geologically sound. Rocks or their exposure can be barely seen around the
area. The area has a gentle relief and the steep slopes are held tight by trees and herbs.
Thus, no case of mass movement can be seen or expected in the premise.

1.3 Climate, Rainfall, and Vegetation

The climate is of the Bungmati area is mild, and generally warm and temperate. The
average annual temperature around the area is 14.1°C. The temperature during the
summer season ranges from 16°C to 28°C and 2°C to 17°C during winter.
In a year, most rainfall occurs during the summer season. Generally, 90mm of
precipitation occurs during summer. There are very few records of rainfall during the
winter season.
The area lies in the deciduous monsoon forest zone (altitude ranging from 1470-1480
meters). Vegetation includes Oak, Maple, Elm, Bamboo, etc., and crops like maize,
wheat, millet, paddy, etc. are grown.

1.4 Description of Work

Traversing:
 No. of Major Traverse Stations =14
 No. of Minor Traverse Stations = 3

Road Alignment:
 Length of the road: 688m
 Cross section: 10m left and 10m right on both sides from central
line.

Bridge Site Survey:

 Bridge span: 62m
 Cross section up to 150m on upstream and 50 m on downstream at
25 m interval.
 9

2. Topographical Survey
Topographical surveying is the process of determining the positions of natural and
artificial features of the locality and presenting them using conventional signs on a
topographical map. It requires both horizontal and vertical control to be done.
It is carried out to depict the topography of the mountainous terrain, rivers, water
bodies, woods, and other details like roads, railways, boundaries, etc.

2.1 Objectives
The objective of the topographical survey is to prepare the topographic map of the
premises of MARS Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. Ltd.

2.2 Brief Description of the area

The Topographical Survey was performed inside the premises of MARS Nepal
Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. Ltd. The land area is about 8 hectares and contains
gentle to steep slopes with some flat areas too. It also has a significant number of
cottages, roads, pavements, ponds, trees, boundaries, etc.

2.3 Norms (Technical Specification)

All the students at the camp had to work under some norms provided by survey
instruction committee. The norms are listed as follows:
 The given work had to be completed within 11 days keeping 2 days each for
road site and bridge site.
 The proper handling and care of the instrument was the responsibility of the
entire group.
 The major and minor traverse had to be fixed in such a way that these points
were to be followed:
 At least 2 consecutive stations should be visible from a station.
 Two-way measurement for 1 traverse leg should be done. The
discrepancy should be greater than 1:2000.
 The number of traverse stations should be as possible as minimum.
 Two set of horizontal angles should be taken in major traverse & only
one set in minor traverse. The difference between the mean angles of
two set reading should be within the least count of the theodolite.
 The leg ratio of the traverse stations should not be less then 2:1 for
major traverse and not less then 3:1 for minor traverse, where ratio
stands for the shortest side: longest side.
 All the available checks should be applied to the traverse and adjusted
using appropriate method.
 After the completion of the fieldwork, the plotting of the traverse along
with details and the contour lines has to be done thus preparing the
topographical map of the worked area.
 10

 Plotting should be done by independent co-ordinate.

 Fly leveling should be done to transfer RL from TBM. The permissible
error in the leveling should not be greater than ± 25√k mm, where k is the
distance in km. All three-hair readings should be taken in this case.

2.4 Equipment

 Total station
 Theodolite
 Leveling staff (5m)
 Ranging Rods
 Measuring Tapes (30m & 5m)
 Leveling instrument
 Hammer
 Nails & pegs
 Plumb bob
 Compass
 Prism
 Prism holder

2.5 Methodology
Traversing using Total Station was carried out to conduct a topographical survey of the
site. This method of surveying followed all of the basic principles of surveying such as:
i. Working from whole to a part.
ii. Independent check.
iii. Consistency of work.
iv. Accuracy required

2.6 Traversing

2.6.1 Introduction
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help
of an angle measuring instrument and tape or chain respectively.
According to the nature of the starting or closing station, there are two types of traverse:
1. Closed traverse
2. Open traverse

i. Closed Traverse:
 11

When the lines form a circuit, which ends

at the starting point, it is known as a closed
traverse.

ii. Open Traverse:

When the lines form a circuit ends elsewhere except starting point, it is said to be an open
traverse.

2.6.2 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance (Recce) means the preliminary inspection of the area before
commencing the actual detailed survey, to fix the survey stations to form the framework
of the traverse. For this purpose, the detailed inspection of the given area of MARS
Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. Ltd. was carried out by reconnaissance survey.
The prior inspection procedure was carried out before both major and minor traversing.
Reconnaissance for major traverse focused on selecting the best location for fixing
major control points while keeping the following ideas in mind:
i. Adjacent stations should be intervisible.
ii. Leg ratio must be less than 2:1.
Note: Leg ratio means the ratio of the length of the longest leg to that of the
shortest leg. Leg ratio higher than 2:1 is considered inappropriate as it leads to
disproportionate balancing during the Bowditch Method of correction to closing
error.
iii. The traverse leg should not form an angle less than 30° and within 180°±20°.
iv. Stations should be properly spaced such that the whole area can be surveyed
with the least number of stations.
v. A more or less leveled surface should be sought, avoiding steep slopes and badly
broken grounds, to ensure the setting up of the tripod will be safe and easy.
 12

vi. The Traverse line of sight should not pass near the ground level to avoid
refraction.
Reconnaissance for minor traverse focused on selecting the best location for fixing
minor control points while keeping the following ideas in mind:
i. Leg ratio up to 3:1 is allowed.
ii. Stations should be at the commanding location from where a large area can be
controlled at a single instrument setup.

2.6.3 Major Traverse

If the major control points are interconnected by lines, a framework enclosing the entire
area to be surveyed is formed which is called Major Traverse. It is a controlling
framework in which the angle and distance measurements are done in a highly precise
manner.
In our survey, 14 major control stations were formed which included 11M1, 11M2,
……,11M12, and two reference control points CP1 and CP2. A leg ratio of 1.86 was
obtained. Distance of each leg was measured in both forward and backward direction
with precision ratio within 1:5000 using EDM. Two sets (0° set and 90° set) of
horizontal angle observation were done. In each set, face left and face right observations
were taken.

2.6.4 Minor Traverse

The controlling framework set up within or outside but linked to a major traverse to
facilitate the detailing work is called a minor traverse. All the vertical and horizontal
controls were transferred from the major traverse. Minor traverse legs were stretched
in and out of the detailing area according to the requirement to achieve maximum
information from that station. The linear and angular observations of minor traverse
need not be as precise as that of the major traverse.
In our survey, although a major traverse enclosed the entire area, we had to control the
details of only half portion which means the area to the west of the pavement. Thus, we
formed a link traverse comprising 5 control stations, out of which 2 stations (CP1 and
11M6) were that of the major traverse. The minor control points were strategically
located at such places from where a large number of details can be taken. The leg ratio
was maintained within 3:1. The precision in distance measurements of all legs of the
minor traverse was within 1:3000.

2.6.5 Levelling
Leveling is the art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth
or beneath the surface of the earth. It is used to find the elevation of given points with
respect to a given or assumed datum and to establish points at a given elevation or
different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum. Leveling deals with
measurements in a vertical plane. Finding out elevation is necessary to enable the work
and establishing points are necessary for the setting out of works.
 13

There are various types of levelling such as:

i. Simple Levelling
The operation of levelling for determining the elevation difference, if not too
great, between two points visible from a single position of the level, is known
as simple levelling.
ii. Differential Levelling
The method of levelling for determining the difference in elevation of two
points either too far or obstructed by an intervening ground is known as
differential levelling. The level is set up by the number of points and the
difference in elevation of successive points is determined in this method.
iii. Check Levelling
After the completion of fly levelling, level lines are run to check the accuracy
of the benchmarks previously fixed which is called check levelling.
iv. Profile Levelling
The operation of levelling carried out to determine the elevations of the points
at known distances apart, and also salient features, along a given straight line is
called profile levelling. It is also known as longitudinal levelling.
v. Cross-section levelling
The operation of levelling which is carried out to provide levels on either side
of the mainline at right angles, to determine the vertical section of the earth
surface on the ground is called cross section levelling.
vi. Reciprocal levelling
When the level is not possible to be set up between two points due to an
intervening obstruction as large water bodies, reciprocal levelling is carried out.
The two sets of reciprocal levelling are done to find out the difference in
elevation between two points accurately.

Temporary Adjustment of Level

The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following:
 Setting up the level
The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand and
leveling the instrument approximately.
 Levelling up
Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the
plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical.
It is done by adjusting the screws.
 Removal of parallax
 14

Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is not in the
plane of the crosshairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eye-piece for a
distinct vision of the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image
of the object in the plane of crosshairs.

Permanent Adjustments of Level

To check for the permanent adjustments of the level two-peg test method should be
performed. Two staff were placed at A and B of known length (about 40 m). First, the
instrument was set up on the line near B and both staff readings (Top, Middle, and
Bottom) were taken. Then, the instrument was set up at the middle C on the line and
again both staff readings on A and B were taken. Then computation was done to check
whether the adjustment was within the required accuracy or not.

Two peg Test

Two-peg test is one of the methods of adjustment of the line of collimation, which is
done to compensate the collimation error of the leveling instrument. The line of
collimation of the telescope should be parallel to the axis of bubble tube. Therefore, the
adjustment of line of collimation is very necessary, and is of prime importance, since
the whole function of the level is to provide horizontal line of sight. This test is
performed prior to leveling work to confirm the leveling instrument is in the satisfactory
condition fulfilling the permissible limit.

Fig: When instrument is at the center

Fig: When instrument is near to one side

Booking of Reducing Levels

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the
observed staff reading:
 15

 Height of the Instrument method

Arithmetic Check:
∑B.S. – ∑F.S. = Last RL – First RL
 Rise and Fall method
Arithmetic Check:
∑B.S. – ∑F.S. = ∑Rise –∑Fall = Last RL – First RL
Among the two methods, the Rise and Fall method was widely used.

Fly Levelling
The fly levelling was carried out between TBM 1 and S-TBM and check levelling was
performed to check the results.

Level Transfer to the Major and Minor Traverse Stations

The R. L of the temporary benchmark was then transferred to the control stations of the
major and minor traverse. The closing error was found to be within the permissible
limits. The misclosure was adjusted in each leg of the leveling path by using the
following formula:
Permissible error = ±25√k mm
where k is the total perimeter in km
Actual Error (e) = ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last RL – First RL
..
Correction to the elevation of ith leg=- e ×
Where L1, L2, …. Li are the length of 1st 2nd, …...ith leg.
and P is the perimeter

Relative Precision= 1/(p/e)

2.7 Detailing
Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing can be done
by either plane table surveying or tachometric surveying or by total station. We
performed detailing by total station, detailing by tachometry and tangential method
while carrying out the topographic survey.

2.7.1 Total Station

The total station was used to get the horizontal angle, horizontal distance, and vertical
height of different points when it was sighted to the prism with poles on those points.
 16

2.7.2 Tachometry
Tachometry is the branch of surveying in which both the horizontal and vertical
distances between stations are determined by making instrumental observations.
Tachometry is used in the preparation of contour maps and they also provide a good
check on distances measured with tape or chain.

Fig: Stadia measurement by a tachometer

Principle of Tachometry

In isosceles triangles, the ratio of the perpendiculars from the vertex on their bases
and the bases are constant.
The formula for the horizontal distance is
𝐻 = 𝑘𝑠. cos 𝜃
The formula for the vertical distance is

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑠.

where, s = staff intercept

θ = Vertical angle
 17

2.7.3 Detailing by Trigonometric Levelling

In this method, we have to take two middle staff readings, with two different vertical
angles along with a horizontal angle with any traverse leg.
We use the formula

𝐻= ( ) ( )

𝑉 = 𝐻 ∗ tan (90 − 𝜃2)

were,
θ1 is smaller zenithal angle and
θ2 is the bigger zenithal angle.
S is the difference in staff reading i.e h2-h1

2.8 Contouring
A contour is defined as an imaginary line passing through the points of equal elevation.
Thus, contour lines on a plan illustrate the configuration of the ground. The method of
representing the relief of the ground with the help of contour is called contouring. The
vertical distance between or the elevation difference of the two consecutive contour
lines is called contour interval. Every fifth contour whose elevation is divisible by 5
times of the contour interval (5*CI) is made visibly distinct by darkening in the color.
It is known as Index Contour. The least horizontal distance between two consecutive
contours is called the horizontal equivalent.

2.8.1 Methods of Contouring

There are two ways of contouring namely:
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
1. The Direct Method:

In the direct method of contouring, the ground points having equal elevation are plotted
and joined directly in the drawing sheet. For this, firstly the points with the same
elevations are found out by setting out the instrument at a point and by hit and trial
method of searching the points which give the same required staff reading.
2. The Indirect Method:

In this method, some suitable guide points are selected and surveyed, the guide points
need not necessarily be on the contours. There are some of the indirect methods of
locating the ground points:
a) By squares
b) By cross-sections
c) By tachometric method
 18

2.8.2 Contour Interpolation

The process of drawing contours proportionately between the plotted ground points or
in between the plotted contours is called interpolation of the contours. Interpolation of
contours between points is done assuming that the slope of the ground between two
points is uniform. It may be done by anyone of the following methods:
a) Estimation
b) Arithmetic calculation
c) Graphical method

2.8.3 Contour Characteristics

i. Two contour lines do not intersect each other except in the case of an
overhanging cliff.
ii. A contour line must close onto itself not necessarily within the limits of a map.
iii. Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the
case of a vertical cliff.
iv. Two contour lines do not unite to form a single one except in the case of a
perpendicular cliff.
v. Contours are drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a
gentle slope.
vi. Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope.
vii. When contours are parallel, equidistant and straight, it represents an inclined
plane surface.
viii. A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring
contours with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression without an
outlet.
ix. When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes
across them. Contours represent a ridgeline if the concavity of higher value
contour lies towards the next lower value contour and on the other hand, these
represent a valley if the concavity of the lower value contour, lies toward the
higher value contours.
x. The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
xi. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

2.9 Balancing of Traverse

There are two methods of balancing of the traverse, namely:
1. Bowditch's Method
2. Transit Method

Bowditch's Method
In this method, the total error in the latitude and departure is distributed in proportion
to the lengths of the sides. It is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear and
angular measurements are of equal precision. According to Bowditch’s rule:
 19

Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side = Total error in latitude (or departure) ×

Transit Method
In this method, the total error in latitude & departure of any side is distributed in
proportion to the latitude & departure of that side. This rule is adopted when angular
measurements are more precisely taken than linear measurements. According to Transit
rule:
Correction to latitude (or departure)of any side
Latitude (or departure) of that line
= Total error in latitude (or departure) ×
arithmetic sum of latitude (or departure)

2.10 Computation and Plotting

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude and
departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for
calculation. The latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate lengths
measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The latitude (L) of a line is positive
when measured towards the north, and termed Northing and it is negative when
measured towards the south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is
positive when measured towards the east, and termed Easting and it is negative when
measured towards the south, and termed Westing. The latitude and departures of each
control station can be calculated using the relation:
Latitude, 𝐿 = 𝑙 × cos 𝜃
Departure, 𝐷 = 𝑙 × sin 𝜃
Where, l=distance of the traverse legs
θ=Reduced bearing

If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of the
traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. Such an error is known as a
closing error.
Mathematically,

𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 = √{(ΣL)2 + (ΣD)2}

𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑝
Where, p = perimeter of traverse
The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the
two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse.

2.11 Plotting of Major and Minor Traverse

After computing the co-ordinate of each of the control points, they were plotted in A1
size grid paper. Both major and minor traverses were plotted to 1:500 scales. The
 20

plotted traverse was centered in the drawing sheet with the help of least co-ordinates
and highest co-ordinates.

3. Bridge Site Survey

3.1 Introduction
Bridge site survey refers to the work of surveying the location where the construction
of bridge is geologically, economically, and, technically feasible. The major goal of
this survey is to propose the best location for bridge axis. Topographic survey of the
proposed bridge site needs to be carried out to present the geography of that area by
plotting contour lines. Both horizontal and vertical control is carried out to obtain N, E,
and Z co-ordinates. In most of the cases, the horizontal control in bridge site survey is
carried out by Triangulation. It is because at such places only narrow strip like land is
available where setting out chain of interconnected triangles would be easier can
traversing.

3.2 Brief Description of the Site

The bridge site had slopes which were very stable. The trees and shrubs maintain the
greenery of the area. There are only few houses near the bridge site. Very few locals
were seen rearing their cattle around the grassy lands of the area. As rainfall barely
occurs in winter season, the site was drier than expected, literally, without water.

3.3 Objectives
 To select the possible bridge site and bridge axis for bridge construction
 To collect the preliminary data i.e. normal water flow level, High Flood Level
(HFL)
 To study about the geological features of the ground
 To carry out surveying for topographical mapping, longitudinal and Cross-
sectioning at both the upstream and downstream side of the river.

3.4 Hydrology, Geology & Soil

The river channel is fully dry due to no precipitation and lack of natural spring source.
The river has a cross slope and is really deep. Deep in the sense that the river banks are
at extremely higher elevation than the channel bottom. The gentle slope of channel bed,
large width of channel, and less water available for surface runoff suggests that the
depth of water is normally less and the water flows under less velocity.
About geology, the proposed location had steep yet stable slopes. Some rocky
exposures and large blocks of rock could be seen around the centerline of the river. The
western bank of the river had dry soil as it faced the sun directly. On the contrary, the
eastern bank is a sloppy land facing away from the sun which must be why it is always
damp and moist. The width of stream is not so big but high flood level covers large
 21

area. Water scoured marks on the sides show that HFL is about 5m below either of the
bank.

3.5 Technical Norms and Specifications

The following norms were followed while performing the bridge site survey:
 Control point fixing as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to
be done by the method of triangulation. While forming triangles, proper care
had to be taken such that the triangles were well conditioned, i.e., none of the
angles of the triangle were greater than 120˚ or less than 30˚.
 The triangulation angle had to be measured on two sets of readings at 0˚ and 90˚
by theodolite and the difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings
had to be within a minute.
 Transferring the level from one bank to another bank had to be done by the
method of reciprocal levelling.
 The scale for plotting the topographical map was given to be 1:500. In order to
plot the longitudinal section of the river; data had to be taken along the riverbed
up to 150m upstream and 50m downstream.

3.6 Equipment
The equipment used in the survey during the preparation of the topographic map in
bridge site are as follows:
1. Theodolite
2. Total Station
3. Ranging Rods
4. Measuring Tapes
5. Leveling Staffs
6. Plumb Bob
7. Pegs & Arrows
8. Marker Pen
9. Compass
10. Prism & Prism Holder

3.7 Methodology
Triangulation was adopted to perform the horizontal control of the bridge site. For this
angle measurement was done using Theodolite and distance measurement was done
using Measuring Tape.
Fly levelling using auto level was conducted to transfer RL from one to other stations
on same bank of the river. Reciprocal Levelling was done to transfer RL between two
points of bridge axis across the river.
Detailing was done using Total Station. Contour Map of the site was plotted. From the
map, L-section and X-section of the river channel was extracted using CAD software.
 22

3.8 Site Selection

Bridge is one of the costliest infrastructures that promotes economic and social life of
people. It is like the missing link of the chain where chain means major highways.
Bridge must be strong, stable, and must fulfill the purpose of its construction. For that,
it must be built at the best possible location. Hence, site selection is the integral step
which must be professionally conducted prior to any bridge construction process.
Geological condition of site should be sound and stable. Presence of bed rocks near the
bridge site makes it more favorable. It must not be selected in built up areas and the site
should have well defined banks. The river channel near the site should not be
meandering rather straight. The elevation difference between two opposite points of
bridge axis should be less than 1m so as to reduce the cost of cutting and filling during
the actual construction process. The proposed bridge axis should be perpendicular to
the river flow. The preference for shorter spans is high as the cost of construction gets
reduced. Apart from that, the construction of bridge must not hamper the ecological
balance between the flora and fauna of the site. The bridge location should be impartial
to any social or economic groups of people.
Keeping the aforementioned points in mind, the bridge site was selected and the best
possible bridge axis was proposed.

3.9 Topographic Survey

For the topographic survey of bridge site, Triangulation was done.
Triangulation is the process of measuring the angles of a chain or a network. The main
purpose of the triangulation was to determine the length of the bridge axis. The
triangulation also serves the control points for detailing. The bridge axis was set and
horizontal control stations were fixed on either side. Distances between stations on the
same sides of river i.e. base lines were measured with tape precisely. Then the
interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were measured with the theodolite
with two sets of observations. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by solving
the triangles using the sine rule. For vertical control, the level was transferred from the
arbitrary benchmark and RL was transferred to the stations on the next bank by
reciprocal leveling while direct level transfer method was used or the same bank.

3.10 L-Section and Cross Section

For gaining an idea about bed slope, nature of the riverbed, and the variation in the
elevations of the different points along the length of the river, L-section is carried out.
Keeping the instrument at the control (traverse) stations on the river banks, the staff
readings were taken at different points along the center line of the river up to 150 meters
upstream and 50 m downstream. The RLs of the traverse stations being known
previously, the levels of the different points on the river were calculated. Then the L-
Section of the riverbed was plotted on a graph paper on scale for vertical and horizontal.
Cross-section of a river at a particular point is the profile of the lateral sides from the
centerline of the river cut transverse to the L-Section at that point. The cross section
 23

can be used to calculate the volume and discharge of water at the particular section if
the velocity at the cross section is known. Cross sections were taken at an interval of
about 25 m extending 150 m upstream and 50 m downstream of the river. Staff readings
of points along a line perpendicular to the flow of river were taken from the station and
the elevations of the points were calculated using tachometric method.

3.11 Leveling

3.11.1 Transferring RL from BM to Control Points

The benchmark was in the western bank of the river. RL was transferred to the
triangular station from the BM by fly leveling by taking the back sight-reading to the
bench mark which should be within the given accuracy. The RL was transferred to the
opposite bank of the river by reciprocal leveling.

3.11.2 Reciprocal Leveling

This method is applicable when taping is obstructed but not the vision. For transferring
the RL across the bridge reciprocal leveling was performed. This method eliminates the
error due to focusing, collimation, earth’s curvature and refraction of atmosphere etc.

Fig: Reciprocal Leveling

True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e)

Also, the true difference in elevation = H = (ha'- e)-hb'
Taking the average of the two differences, we can get the actual difference in elevation
between A and B.

3.12 Detailing
Total station was used for detailing of the entire bridge site. The reading was taken from
the different station set up. The detailing was done with respect to the skeleton formed
 24

by triangulation. The vertices of triangles serve as a control point. The details were
booked, up to 150m upstream and 50m downstream. The data and the calculations have
been tabulated in a systematic way.

3.13 Computation and Plotting

The use of total station makes the detailing process easy and fast. The total station gives
the direct values of the horizontal distances and vertical height difference between the
station point and the detailing point. The RLs of the points can be calculated by using
following formula.

RL of detail = RL of station + HI ± V-Target Height

The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were plotted on the
respective scales after the completion of calculations. By taking an A1 grid sheet,
control stations were plotted accurately. All hard details as well as contours were, then,
plotted with reference to the control stations by the method of angle and distances.

3.14 Comments and Conclusion

Reconnaissance and the very first task, that is, bridge axis selection, took us half a day
to complete. We were confused at the beginning as we could not properly fix points for
bridge axis whose elevation difference was within 1m. As soon as we completed it, our
pace of work escalated too quickly. However, we again faced difficulty in fixing other
triangulation stations such that the triangles formed were well-conditioned. The reason
for it being so difficult was due to large trees which blocked vision from one side to the
other. Luckily, we were able to solve the issue. As we considered minimum approach
distance for the bridge to be at least 10-15m, our proposed bridge span came out to be
62m. Our proposed bridge axis is located in the straight portion of river and is
perpendicular to the river flow. The location for bridge piers is at high ground. Thus,
the invert level of bridge is sufficiently high from HFL and enough free board is
available.
 25

4. Road Alignment and Geometric Design

4.1 Introduction
The position of the center line of the highway in the ground is called highway
alignment. Highway alignment includes horizontal alignment and vertical alignment.
The projection of highway alignment in horizontal plane is called horizontal alignment
and the projection in vertical plane is known as vertical alignment. Alignment must be
selected in such a way that the overall cost during construction, operation and
maintenance is minimum. Road design outputs are in the form of following drawings:
Plan: Includes Centre line, structures, Right of Way (ROW), carriage way, shoulders,
side drain.
Longitudinal Profile: Soil Type, Depth of cut, Height of Fill, Side drain (Information
on from which chainage to which chainage), Direction of flow in the drain.
Cross section: Ground Level, Formation Level, Super elevation, Area of Cutting and
Area of filling thus computation of the volume and then cost estimation can be done.

4.2 Objectives

 To lay out the road joining from the northern part of the MARS to the southern
part
 To choose the best possible route for the road such that there was a minimum
of number of intermediate points (I. P.) there by decreasing the number of turns
on the road
 To design smooth horizontal curves at points where the road changed its
direction in order to make the road comfortable for the passengers and the
vehicles traveling on it
 To take the sufficient data of the details including the spot height around the
road to prepare the topographical map of the area, cross section of the road
segment hence making it convenient to determine the amount of cut and fill
required for the construction of the road.

4.3 Brief Description of the area

The terrain was not so steep rather it was a nearly flat built-up ground. There were not
so many undulations in the ground surface. However, some portions of land were used
for terrace farming. There are a lot of cottages and houses near the alignment. At some
places, there is not enough space for accommodating the width of the road.

4.4 Hydrology, Geology and Soil

The south facing land of the site faced the sun from morning to evening. Hence, the
land was mostly dry. The nearest river to the site was Bagmati River. Visual observation
 26

suggests that the land collects significant amount of precipitation that falls in the basin.
As the slope is gentle, the surface runoff would be at a low velocity. There are some
flatter parts in the southern site where infiltration is most likely to occur.
The site is geologically at a stable place. The land was built up mass of soil where things
like rock exposures, geological structures, etc. are barely seen. However, due to surface
soil being loose, surface erosion may take place in case of huge rainfall.
The soil of the site is mostly dry as the land faced the sun from morning to evening.
However, the soil is rich in humus and highly cultivable.

4.5 Instruments Required

 Theodolite
 Staff
 Tape
 Level
 Tripod
 Arrows
 Hammer
 Compass with stand

4.6 Methodology
The road alignment survey was carried out by:
i. Reconnaissance
ii. Preliminary Survey
iii. Final Location and Detailed Survey

4.7 Reconnaissance
The reconnaissance survey was performed along the given route. Tentative estimation
was done for the intersection points, where the direction had to be changed. While
returning back the route, the IPs were fixed. For this, the inter-visibility of the stations
was checked and gradient between the two IPs was adjusted such that it did not exceed
the ruling gradient (12%). Meanwhile, the pegs with IP number were driven at these
points.

4.8 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane. For this,
the bearing of initial line connecting two initial stations was measured using compass.
The interior angles were observed using theodolite at each IP and then deflection angles
were calculated.
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, ∆ = HCR − 180
If the deflection angle is positive, the deflection is towards right and if the deflection
angle is negative, the deflection is towards the left. The radius was assumed according
 27

to the deflection angle. Then, the tangent length, Beginning of the Curve (BC), End of
the Curve (EC), apex distance along with their chainage were found by using the
following formulae:
Δ
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑇 = 𝑅 × tan
2
ΠxRxΔ
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝐿 =
180°
Δ Δ
𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸 = R × tan × tan
2 4
Or,
Δ
𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸 = R × (sec − 1)
2

Θmc=90- /2 (For Left Hand Deflection)

Θmc=270+ /2 (For Right Hand Deflection)

4.8.1 Chainage Calculation

Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP – Tangent Length
Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC +L/2
Chainage of EC = Chainage of BC + L
The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length from
the apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the
tangents of two adjacent Ips did not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex
distance from IP along the line bisecting the interior angle.

4.9 Vertical Alignment

Vertical profile of the road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-
section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient
of 12%. According to Nepal Road Standard, gradient of the road cannot be taken more
than 12% which is called Ruling Gradient. In the vertical alignment, we set the vertical
curve with proper design. Vertical curve may be either summit curve or valley curve.
While setting the vertical alignment, we should keep in mind whether cutting and filling
were proportionately balanced or not.

4.10 Levelling
The method of fly leveling was applied to transfer the level from the given B.M. to all
the IPs, beginnings, mid points and ends of the curves as well as to the points along the
center line of the road where the cross sections were taken. After completing the work
of one-way fly leveling on the entire length of the road, check leveling was continued
back to the B.M. making a closed loop for check and adjustment. The difference in the
 28

R.L. of the B.M. before and after forming the loops should be less than 25√ k mm,
where k is the loop distance in km.

4.11 L-section and Cross Section

Nature of the ground and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the
length of road need to be known for the construction of the road. For this L-Section of
the road is required. In order to obtain the data for L-Section, staff readings were taken
at points at 15m intervals along the centerline of the road with the help of a level by the
method of fly leveling. Thus, after performing the necessary calculations, the level was
transferred to all those points with respect to the R.L. of the given BM. Then finally the
L-Section of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a vertical scale of 1:100 and a
horizontal scale of 1:1000. The staff readings at BC, EC and apex were also taken. The
RL of each point were calculated.
Cross sections at different points are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal section of
the road on either side of its centerline in order to present the lateral outline of the
ground. Cross sections are also equally useful in determining the amount of cut and fill
required for the road construction. Cross sections were taken at 15m intervals along the
centerline of the road and at points where there was a sharp change in the elevation.
While doing so, the horizontal distances of the different points from the centerline were
measured with the help of a tape and the vertical heights with a measuring staff. The
RL was transferred to all the points by performing the necessary calculations and
finally, the cross sections at different sections were plotted on a graph paper on a scale
of both vertical and 1:100 - horizontal.

4.12 Curve Setting

A regular curved path followed by highway or railway alignment is curve. It is
introduced wherever it is necessary to change the direction of motion due to the nature
of terrain. A curve may be circular, parabola or spiral and is always tangential to two
straight directions.
There may be different types of curves:
Simple curve, Compound curve, Reverse curve, Transition curve, etc.

4.12.1 Setting Out of Simple Circular Curve

Linear method

In this method, only a chain or tape is used. Linear methods are used when a high degree
of accuracy is not required and the curve is short.
E.g.: Offsets from Long Chord, Offset’s form Tangents, Successive bisection of
Chords, Offsets from Chords produced etc.
Offset from Long Cord Method

Mid-ordinate can be determined by the relation:

 29

𝐿
𝑂 = 𝑅 − √ [𝑅2 – ( ) ]
2
The Ordinate at a distance ‘x’ is given by:

𝑂 = √[(𝑅 – 𝑋 )– (R − 𝑂 )]
where,
Omc = mid-ordinate
Ox = ordinate at distance x from the midpoint of the chord
L = length of the long chord
R = Radius of the curve
Angular method

In this method, an instrument like theodolite is used with or without chain or tape. E.g.:
Rankine’s Method of Tangential Deflection Angles, Two Theodolite Method.
Rankine’s Method

In Rankine’s method, it’s assumed that the length of the curve and the chord length
are equal (case for larger radius). The deflection angle to any point on the curve is an
angle at the point of contact between the back tangent and the chord joining the point
of contact and that point. The angle subtended by first sub-chord is given by,
. ×
δ = minutes

The angle subtended by each normal chord is given by the formula,

. ×
δ= minutes

If δ1, δ2…, δn are the tangential angles made by successive chords with their tangents
and Δ1, Δ2……..Δn are the total deflection angles, then
Δ1 = δ1
Δ2 = Δ1 + δ1 = δ1+ δ2
…………………….
…………………….
Similarly,
Δn = Δn-1 + δn = δ1+ δ2 + δ3 +………. + δn = Δ/2
Field Procedure:
i. The instrument is set at T1 and zero is set along P.I.
ii. Then the theodolite is set to read an angle of δ1(=Δ1).
iii. With T1 as center and C1 as radius, the tape is swung and arrow was marked
at intersection of the tape with crosshairs.
 30

iv. Then angle Δ2 was set on the theodolite and with length of normal chord as
radius, the next point on the curve was marked at the point of intersection.
v. This procedure is continued till the point of tangency is located.

4.13 Comments and Conclusion

SESE, was our focus while selecting the road alignment. Additionally, we had to take
care of all the obligatory points that were present at the site. Assigning proper location
for IPs took a lot of time, especially when deflection angles reached marginal value and
road width was insufficient in certain places. The procedure that we followed to set out
the curve was easy. However, other widely used methods like Rankine Method are yet
to be practiced. We realized that laying out road alignment takes a lot of technical
knowledge, calculation consciousness, and manpower. One must pay proper attention
while calculating the chainages at each IP. We were fortunate enough that our
miscalculation in chainage was noticed in time by one of our instructors. Otherwise,
the whole work would have to be repeated. We tried our best to make the road short,
accessible, easy, and economical. There were many instances where we diverted the
road just to avoid heavy cutting/excavation work. After plotting the cross section and
profile of the road, the graph seemed pretty convincing. At every cross-section, the
balance existed between cut and fill. The longitudinal profile of the road also had gentle
gradient. The curves are pretty smooth as the deflection angles at each IP are below 90⁰.

5. Orientation
5.1 Objective:
 To find the coordinate of unknown point by observing from the points of
known coordinates.

5.2 Resection
Resection is the process used for determining the position of unknown point with the
help of already defined known coordinated points. The readings are taken from the
unknown points. Either two-point resection or three-point resection can be performed.
We performed three-point resection in the field.

Purpose of Resection
 To establish the control points around the survey area.
 For measuring the map whose plans are development with respect to common
origin.
 For joining the map with national grid line.
 31

Calculation
When co-ordinates of three known points are given, then the co-ordinates of instrument
point can be computed by barycentric co-ordinate method which was postulated by
famous mathematician JM Tienstra.

A, B, C = Points whose coordinates are known

P = Resection Point whose coordinates are unknown
α , β, γ = Angles to be measured
∠A , ∠B , ∠C = Angles to be computed by bearing reduction formula or cosine
formula
∴ Northing of P w.r.t A,B,C
𝑁 ×𝐾 +𝑁 ×𝐾 +𝑁 ×𝐾
𝑁 =
𝐾 +𝐾 +𝐾
Easting of P w.r.t A,B,C
𝐸 ×𝐾 +𝐸 ×𝐾 +𝐸 ×𝐾
𝐸 =
𝐾 +𝐾 +𝐾
Where, K1, K2, K3 = Tienstra’s Coefficients
1
𝐾 =
cot 𝐴 − cot β
1
𝐾 =
cot 𝐵 − cot 𝛾
1
𝐾 =
cot 𝐶 − cot 𝛼
 32

COORDINATE COMPUTATION BY RESECTION

Θ = 269˚44 12" Θ = 89˚44 12"

Θ = 282˚34 36"
Θ = 102˚34 36"
Θ = 251˚57 58"
Θ = 71˚57 58"
∠M = Θ −Θ = 12˚50′24"

∠cp = Θ −Θ = 251˚57′ 58-102˚34'36" = 149˚23′22"

∠m = Θ − Θ = 17˚46'14"

1
𝐾 = = 0.262862
𝑐𝑜𝑡∠M − 𝑐𝑜𝑡∠m ∗ 𝑐𝑝
1
𝐾 = = −0.2998099
𝑐𝑜𝑡∠cp − cot∠M ∗𝑚
1
𝐾 = = 0.322386
𝑐𝑜𝑡∠m − 𝑐𝑜𝑡∠M ∗ 𝑐𝑝
 33

𝐾𝑁 +𝐾 𝑁 +𝐾 𝑁
𝑁 =
𝐾 +𝐾 +𝐾
0.262862 ∗ 3055740.249 − 0.2998099 ∗ 3055759 + 0.322389 ∗ 3055739.694
=
0.262962 − 0.2998099 + 0.322386
= 3055723.078
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = |0.017| as compared with Gale’s Table’s computation.
𝐾𝐸 +𝐾 𝐸 +𝐾 𝐸
𝐸 =
𝐾 +𝐾 +𝐾
0.262862 ∗ 331870.599 − 0.2998099 ∗ 331800 + 0.322389 ∗ 331749.916
=
0.262962 − 0.2998099 + 0.322386
= 331808.448
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = |0.023| as compared with Gale’s Table’s computation.

5.3 Intersection
A minimum of two control stations is required for this operation, with the unknown
point visible from each of them. It is not essential that the control stations are inter-
visible, but it makes it easier if they are.
The theodolite is set up at each of the stations (control points) A and B in turn. At station
A, the telescope is first sighted on B and then transited round to P, measuring the angle
a. Similarly, at B the angle b between line BA and line BP.

Known point
Known point
Fig: Intersection
 34

Analytical Intersection for Co-ordinate Transfer

∠Xm1m2 = 36⁰32’47”
∠Xm2 m1 = 140⁰38’47”
∠m2Xm1 = 180⁰-(36⁰32’47”+ 140⁰38’47”) = 02⁰48’26”
Length of known Side, lm1m2 = 60.872 m
Using Sine Law,
60.872
𝑋𝑚 = × sin(140 38’47”)
sin(02 48’26”)
= 788.130 𝑚
60.872
𝑋𝑚 = × sin(36⁰32’47”)
sin(02 48’26”)
= 740.116 𝑚
Bearing Computation:
Ꝋm1m2=285⁰51’28” (Computed from coordinates/taken from Gale’s Table)
Ꝋm2X= Ꝋm1m2+∠Xm2 m1=246⁰30’15”
ꝊXm1= Ꝋm2X+∠m2Xm1=69⁰18’41”
ꝊXm1=69⁰18’41” + 180⁰=249⁰18’41”
Coordinate of X from Line m1X:
Latitude of m1X, L= -278.438
Departure of m1X, D= -737.307
Northing of X=Nm1+Lm1X=3055723.061-278.438=3055444.623m
Easting of X=Em1+Dm1X=331071.164-737.307=331071.164m
 35

Vertical Angle = 02⁰06’31”

Vertical Distance from Collimation line = l * tan(02⁰06’31”) = 29.018 m
RL of X= RL of m1+V+HI at m1 = 1277.554+29.018+1.486 = 1308.058 m
∴ (Nx,Ex,Zx)=(3055444.623m,331071.164m,1308.058m)
Coordinate of X from Line m1X:
Latitude of m2X, L= --295.071m
Departure of m2X, D= -678.752m
Northing of X=Nm1+Lm1X=3055739.694-295.071=3055444.623m
Easting of X=Em1+Dm1X=331749.016 -678.752=331071.164m
Vertical Angle = 02⁰32’19”
Vertical Distance from Collimation line = l * tan(02⁰32’19”) = 32.814m
RL of X= RL of m2+V+HI at m2 = 1273.565+32.814+1.548 = 1307.927 m
∴ (Nx,Ex,Zx)=(3055444.623m,331071.164m,1307.927m)

Discussion and Conclusion

The coordinates of tip of the temple was found by intersection method. The horizontal
angle observations were done in two sets. The coordinates are computed using both
m1 and m2 and the correctness of the calculation was verified by comparing the two
results. The value of elevation of tip of the temple obtained from two stations were
compared which differred pretty significantly. We are leaving it as it is considering
the error might have occurred while recording zenithal angles.
 36

5.4 Comments and Conclusion

Topographical survey is really easier said than done. Initially, it took us a lot of practice
and support from instructors to set out the works properly. Laying out a framework that
fulfilled all the requirements of length and angles was tedious. The steep slope, abrupt
change in elevation and dense bamboo trees in the western part create some problem,
particularly in intervisibility of stations. The marshy land in the southern boundary of
the site also forced us to place couple of stations out of the demarcated boundary.
However, due to those stations being at elevated land, it facilitated us to cover
significant number of details from a single station. The major challenge for us was being
able to use different Total Stations. We, rather, took it as an opportunity to learn menus
and functioning of Total Stations of various brands. The best thing of all, survey
instructors were always there to guide us in each and every obstacle we came across.
 37

Conclusion and Recommendation

The 11 days of the surveying was more adopted, accepted &
knowledgeable for the students. As far as this survey camp provide a reliable
knowledge and information about the compounds and the necessity of survey elements
during the 11 days of camping period. Our survey camp includes the Road alignment,
bridge survey, traversing and so engaged survey works. This survey camp helps to
builds up a self-confidence to remark the new adjustment regarding the utilization of
the works during our survey period in a feature. The necessity regarding the
performance on the bridge survey, road alignment and etc. helps us to face difficulties
in a next future. The field visit to Chituwa Khola, Bungmati was also so much beneficial
to all the students by which we get reliable information about the working phenomenon
under the bridge construction.
Our survey team was divided into 5 members by whom we successfully handle and
completed our whole survey works with a combined effort to a success and thus we
have prepared all the survey works under these 11 days with a reliable number &
collection of data.
Survey camp was almost good and also it gave a lot of
experiences and helped us to build up the confidence. Due to limited time, we had to
perform every work in schedule due to which some errors were committed in the field
but it may be due to instrumental error, whatever it may be, the main thing is that all
the errors were in the permissible limits and were corrected or distributed. Rather the
table work was more then the fieldwork. All the group members were equally active
and co-operative. So, we completed our work in time.
 38

List of Tables
1. Traversing
 Linear Distance Measurement Sheet
 Horizontal Angle Observation Sheet
 Major and Minor Gale’s Table
 Collimation Test Booking Table
 Fly Levelling and Reduced Level Correction Sheet
 Detailing by using Total Station
2. Road Alignment Survey
 Chainage Computation Sheet
 Fly Levelling from TBM to IP0
 Cross-Sectioning and Profile Levelling
3. Bridge Site Survey
 Linear Distance Measurement of Base Line
 Horizontal Angle Measurement Sheet for base and subsidiary triangles
 Angle Correction Sheet
 Gale’s Table for Base and Subsidiary Triangles
 Fly Levelling from TBM to Nearby Station and all other stations
 Reciprocal Levelling between A and B
 Detailing by using Total Station
 Detailing by using Theodolite
 Analytical Resection and Intersection
 39

List of Drawings
1. Location Map of Bungmati Survey Camp Area
2. Topographic Map of Mars Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt.Ltd. Premises
3. Drawing of Major and Minor Traverse
4. Drawing of Road Corridor Plan, Cross-sections of road, and L-Profile of Road
5. Drawing of Bridge Site Topographic Map, Cross-section of river, and L-
section of river
6. Drawing of Typical Structures
 40

Bibliography

R.Agor, A Textbook of Surveying

N N Basak, A Textbook of Surveying & Levelling

Narayan Basnet, Surveying (Volume I & II)

S.K. Duggal, A textbook of surveying