Basic gravity-casting system

• The molten metal is poured through a pouring basin or cup

• It then flows through the gating system consisting of
sprue
runners
gates
• sprue
Tapered vertical channel through which the molten metal flows
downward in the mold.
• Runners
Channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue into the mold
cavity
Connect the sprue to the gate
• Gate
Portion of the runner through which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity.
also called feeders
serve as reservoirs of molten metal to supply any molten metal
necessary to prevent porosity due to shrinkage during solidification.
• gating system appears to be relatively simple, successful casting requires
proper design and control of the solidification process to ensure adequate
fluid flow in the system.
Important function of the gating system in sand casting
To trap contaminants such as oxides and other inclusions
Remove them from the molten metal by having the contaminants adhere to
the walls of the gating system
preventing them from reaching the mold cavity
properly designed gating system helps to avoid or minimize
Premature cooling
Turbulence
Gas entrapment.
before it reaches the mold cavity, the molten metal must be handled
carefully to avoid the formation of oxides on molten metal surfaces from
exposure to the environment or the introduction of impurities into the molten
metal.
Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design
1. Bernoulli’s theorem 2. The law of mass continuity.
Bernoulli’s Theorem
It based on the principle of the conservation of energy.
Relates pressure, velocity, the elevation of the fluid at any location in
the system, and the frictional losses in a system
The Bernoulli equation is

where h - elevation above a certain reference level

p - pressure at that elevation
v - velocity of the liquid at that elevation
p - density of the fluid (assuming that it is incompressible)
g - gravitational constant
Conservation of energy requires that, at a particular location in the
system, the following relationship be satisfied:

• The frictional loss includes such factors as energy loss at the liquid-
mold wall interfaces and turbulence in the liquid.
Mass Continuity
The law of mass continuity states that, for incompressible liquids and in
a system with impermeable walls the rate of flow is constant.

Eq. (4)
where, Q - volume rate of flow
A - cross sectional area of the liquid stream
v - average velocity of the liquid in that cross section.
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two different locations in
the system.
• According to this law, the flow rate must be maintained everywhere in
the system.

• The wall permeability is important, because otherwise some liquid will

escape through the walls (as occurs in sand molds)

• Thus, the flow rate will decrease as the liquid moves through the
system

• Coatings often are used to inhibit such behavior in sand molds.

Sprue Design
In a free-falling liquid (such as water from a valve), the cross sectional area
of the stream decreases as the liquid gains velocity downward.
if we design a sprue with a constant cross sectional area and pour the
molten metal into it, regions can develop where the liquid loses contact
with the sprue walls.
As a result, aspiration (a process whereby air is sucked in or entrapped in
the liquid) may take place.
One of two basic alternatives is used to prevent aspiration
A tapered sprue is used to prevent molten metal separation from the sprue
wall
straight-sided sprues are supplied with a choking mechanism at the
bottom
The choke slows the flow sufficiently to prevent aspiration in the sprue.
The specific shape of a tapered sprue that prevents aspiration can be
determined from above two Equations
Assuming
The pressure at the top of the sprue is equal to the pressure at the bottom
There are no frictional losses
Relationship between height and cross sectional area at any point in the sprue
is given by the parabolic relationship
• Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin
• it flows through a sprue to a runner and a gate and fills the mold cavity.
• If the pouring basin has a much larger cross sectional area than the sprue
bottom, then the velocity of the molten metal at the top of the pouring
basin is very low and can be taken to be zero.
• If frictional losses are due to a viscous dissipation of energy, then f in Eq.
can be taken to be a function of the vertical distance and is often
approximated as a linear function.

• Therefore, the velocity of the molten metal leaving the gate is obtained as
h is the distance from the sprue base to the liquid metal height
c is a friction factor.
For frictionless flow, c equals unity
for flows with friction, c is always between 0 and 1.
The magnitude of c varies with
mold material,
runner
layout,
and channel size
and can include energy losses due to turbulence,
as well as viscous effects.
• If the liquid level has reached a height of x at the gate, then the gate velocity is

• The flow rate through the gate will be the product of this velocity and the gate area

• The shape of the casting will determine the height as a function of time

• Integrating Eq. (Q=AV) gives the mean fill time and flow rate, and dividing the
casting volume by this mean flow rate gives the mold fill time.

• Simulation of mold filling assists designers in the specification of the runner

diameter, as well as the size and number of sprues and pouring basins.
• To ensure that the runners stay open, the fill time must be a small fraction of the
solidification time,

• but the velocity should not be so high as to erode the mold material or to result in
too high of a Reynolds number

• Otherwise, turbulence and associated air entrainment results.

• Many computational tools are now available to evaluate gating designs and assist in
the sizing of components such as Magmasoft, ProCast, Quikcast, and Powercast.
Flow Characteristics
An important consideration of the fluid flow in gating systems is the presence of
turbulence, as opposed to the laminar flow of fluids.
• Turbulence is flow that is highly disordered; in casting systems such flow can lead
to aspiration.
• The Reynolds number, Re, is used to quantify this aspect of fluid flow
• It represents the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces in fluid flow and is
defined as
v is the velocity of the liquid D is the diameter of the channel, and p andȵ are
the density and viscosity of the liquid
• higher the Reynolds number, the greater the tendency for turbulent flow to occur.
• In gating systems, Re typically ranges from 2000 to 20,000, where a value of up to
2000 represents laminar flow.
• Between 2000 and 20,000, represents a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow.
• Such a mixture generally is regarded as harmless in gating systems.
• Re values in excess of 20,000 represent severe turbulence, resulting in significant
air entrainment and the formation of dross (the skin that forms on the surface of
molten metal) from the reaction of the liquid metal with air and other gases.
• techniques for minimizing turbulence generally involve avoidance of sudden
changes in flow direction and in the geometry of channel cross sections in gating
system design.
• Dross or slag can be eliminated only by vacuum casting
• Conventional atmospheric casting mitigate dross or slag by (a)
skimming, (b) using properly designed pouring basins and runner
systems, or (c) using filters, which also can eliminate turbulent flow in
the runner system.
• Filters usually are made of ceramics, mica, or fiberglass; their proper
location and placement are important for effective filtering of dross
and slag.
Fluidity of Molten Metal

• The capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities is called fluidity, c

• Consists of two basic factors:
(1) characteristics of the molten metal and
(2) casting parameters.
The following characteristics of molten metal influence fluidity
Viscosity, Surface Tension, lnclusions, Solidification Pattern of the Alloy, Mold Design, Mold
Material and its Surface Characteristics, Degree of Superheat, Rate of Pouring, Heat Transfer
Viscosity
As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature (viscosity index) increase, fluidity decreases.

Surface Tension.
A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces fluidity.
Because of this, oxide films on the surface of the molten metal have a significant adverse
effect on fluidity.
For example, an oxide film on the surface of pure molten aluminum triples the surface
tension.

Inclusions
Because they are insoluble, inclusions can have a significant adverse effect on fluidity.
This effect can be verified by observing the viscosity of a liquid (such as oil) with and without
sand particles in it
the liquid with sand in it has a higher viscosity and, hence, lower fluidity.
Solidification Pattern of the Alloy
The manner in which solidification takes place can influence fluidity.
fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing range
The shorter the range (as in pure metals and eutectics), the higher the
fluidity.
Conversely, alloys with long freezing ranges (such as solid-solution alloys)
have lower fluidity.

The following casting parameters influence fluidity and also influence the fluid
flow and thermal characteristics of the system.

Mold Design
The design and dimensions of the sprue, runners, and risers all influence
fluidity.

Mold Material and its Surface Characteristics.

The higher the thermal conductivity of the mold and the rougher its
surfaces, the lower the fluidity of the molten metal.
Although heating the mold improves fluidity, it slows down solidification of
the metal.
Thus, the casting develops coarse grains and hence has lower strength.
Degree of Superheat
Superheat (defined as the increment oftemperature of an alloy above its melting
point) improves fluidity by delaying solidification.
The pouring temperature often is specified instead of the degree of superheat,
because it is specified more easily.
Rate of Pouring
The slower the rate of pouring molten metal into the mold, the lower the fluidity
because of the higher rate of cooling when poured slowly.
Heat Transfer
This factor directly affects the viscosity of the liquid metal.
Although complex, the term castability generally is used to describe the ease with
which a metal can be cast to produce a part with good quality.
Castability includes not only fluidity, but the nature of casting practices as well.
Tests for Fluidity
In one such common test, the molten metal is made to flow along a channel that is
at room temperature
The distance the metal flows before it solidifies and stops flowing is a measure of
its fluidity.
This length is a function of the thermal properties of the metal and the mold, as
well as of the design of the channel.
Such fluidity tests are useful and simulate casting situations to a reasonable
degree.
Defects
various defects can develop during manufacturing that depend on factors such
as materials, part design, and processing techniques.
While some defects affect only the appearance of the parts made, others can
have major adverse effects on the structural integrity of the parts.
Several defects can develop in castings
the International Committee of Foundry Technical Associations has developed
a standardized nomenclature consisting of seven basic categories of casting
defects, identified with boldface capital letters:
Metallic projections, consisting of fins, flash, or projections such as swells and
rough surfaces.
Cavities, consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities including
blowholes, pinholes, and shrinkage cavities
Discontinuities such as cracks, cold or hot tearing, and cold shuts.
If the solidifying metal is constrained from shrinking freely, cracking and
tearing may occur
Although several factors are involved in tearing, coarse grain size and the
presence of low-melting-point segregates along the grain boundaries (inter
granular) increase the tendency for hot tearing.
Cold shut is an interface in a casting that lacks complete fusion because of
the meeting of two streams of liquid metal from different gates.
Defective surface such as surface folds, laps, scars, adhering sand layers, and oxide
scale.
Incomplete casting such as misruns (due to premature solidification), insufficient
volume of the metal poured, and runout (due to loss of metal from the mold after
pouring).
Incomplete castings also can result from the molten metal being at too low a
temperature or from pouring the metal too slowly.
Incorrect dimensions or shape
due to factors such as improper shrinkage allowance, pattern-mounting error,
irregular contraction, deformed pattern, or Warped casting
Inclusions, Which form during melting, solidification, and molding
these are generally nonmetallic.
They are regarded as harmful because they act as stress raisers and thus reduce
the strength of the casting.
Inclusions may form during melting when the molten metal reacts with the
environment (usually oxygen) or with the Crucible or mold material
Chemical reactions among components in the molten metal itself may produce
inclusions
slags and other foreign material entrapped in the molten metal also become
inclusions, although filtering can remove particles as small as 30 um.
spalling of the mold and core surfaces can produce inclusions, thus indicating the
importance of the quality of molds and of their maintenance.
Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting
cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions
of the molds and cores.
Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic
padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing
Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners) used in
castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where
there is a larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).