SPECIFIC HEAT OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD

MATERIALS

Lope G. Tabil, Jr., Ph.D., P.Eng.

Department of Agricultural and Bioresource Engineering
University of Saskatchewan
57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9
 SPECIFIC HEAT OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD MATERIALS

Introduction

Agricultural and food materials undergo heating or cooling during processing and storage. Heating
comes in the form of drying, evaporation, sterilization, pasteurization, baking, etc., whereas cooling
comes in the form of chilling or freezing The response of a material during the heating and cooling
processes are dependent on their thermal properties. During processing and storage heat may be
transferred by conduction, convection or radiation. Conduction is the predominant mode of heat
transfer, as such, information on the thermal properties of materials related to conduction is
important. One of these properties is the specific heat of a material, cp, which is the amount of heat
needed (kJ) to increase the temperature of a unit mass (kg) by one degree (°K).

Measurement

According to Mohsenin (1984), there are several methods of determining specific heat of food and
agricultural materials:
1) Empirical equations
2) Method of mixtures
3) Method of guarded-plate
4) Method of comparison calorimeter
5) Method of calculated specific heat
6) Adiabatic calorimeter
7) Method of differential scanning calorimetry

Empirical Equations

Materials whose specific heat were not experimentally determined are estimated by using the
Siebel’s (1892) equation. Data reported in specific heat of food materials in refrigeration sources are
all based on this equation:

for values above freezing:

cp = 0.837 + 3.348 Mw (1)

and for values below freezing,

cp = 0.837 + 1.256 Mw (2)

2
where:
Mw = moisture content of the material, decimal wet basis
cp = specific heat, kJ/kgK,

and 0.837 is a constant assumed to be the specific heat of dry solid.

Other equations similar equations were developed and one of which is Choi and Okos’ (1986) which
takes into account the proximate composition of foods:

cp = 4.180 Xw + 1.711 Xp + 1.928 Xf + 1.547 Xc + 0.908 Xa (3)

where:
X = mass fraction of component
subscripts w, p, f, c and a are for water, protein, fat, carbohydrate and ash, respectively.

The experimental specific heat values of the undried material is always greater than that of the
calculated values obtained from the specific heat values of the dry solid and the contained water
(Mohsenin 1984).

Method of Mixtures

The method of mixtures is the most widely used for measuring specific heat of food and agricultural
materials due to its simplicity and accuracy. A specimen of known mass and temperature is dropped
into a calorimeter of known specific heat containing water at a known temperature and mass. By
mass balance, the specific heat of the food material is calculated as follows (Mohsenin 1980):

(4)

where:
cps = specific heat of sample, kJ/kg°K
cpw = the specific heat of water (kJ/kg°K),
mw = mass of water, kg
ms = mass of sample, kg
E = water equivalent of the system, kg
Toc= initial temperature of calorimeter, °K
Tos= initial temperature of sample, °K

3
 Tem = equilibrium temperature of the mixture,°K.

The water equivalent of the system is usually obtained by calibration tests. A block of standard
copper with known specific heat can be obtained from the Bureau of Standards.

One disadvantage of this method is the heat loss during measurement although it is assumed that the
unaccounted heat losses are negligible. There are two approaches to minimizing the heat losses
during measurement:
a) starting the calorimeter with somewhat cooler than its surroundings such that the heat gained
during the first part of the experiment offsets the heat lost in the latter part; and
b) heating the jacket by an electric coil (adiabatic jacket) so that its temperature rises at the same
rate as that of the calorimeter and no heat gain nor loss results.
The “adiabatic calorimeter” incorporates a temperature controlling system which by heating or
cooling maintains the temperature of the water in the bucket and in the jacket of the calorimeter
virtually the same and thus minimizing heat exchanges between the calorimeter and its surrounding
atmosphere.

Another disadvantage of this method is that only an average cp value is obtained from the
corresponding temperature range. If a complete specific heat-temperature relationship is desired,
additional experiments must be run at different temperature ranges. Large temperature differences
between the sample and the calorimetric fluid would result in significant heat losses.

Hwang and Hayakawa (1979) developed a calorimeter by modifying a common household vacuum
jar. The method they developed provides no direct contact between the sample and the calorimetric
fluid, thus eliminating the heat of solution of dissolvable chemical entities of food. The calorimeter
consisted of a plastic lid and cover, two rubber O-rings, plastic handle and jacket, vacuum bottle,
plastic cup and a copper-constantan thermocouple. The plastic lid was filled with cork chips for
better insulation.

Method of Guarded Plate

In this method, the sample is surrounded by electrically-heated thermal guards which are maintained
at the same temperature as the sample. The sample is also being heated electrically, thus no heat
losses result. The electric heat supplied to the specimen in a given time is set equal to the heat gain
by the sample as shown in the following:

Q = cpmsT = VI (5)

or

4
 (6)

where:
V = voltage, V
I = current, A
= time, h
ms = mass of the sample, kg.

Method of Comparison Calorimeter

The comparison calorimeter is customarily used to determine the specific heat of liquids. There are
two cups in the calorimeter. One cup is filled with distilled water or other liquids with known
specific heat. The other cup is filled with the liquid whose specific heat is to be determined. Both
cups are heated to the same temperature and then placed in the calorimeter to cool. The cooling
curves of the two liquids are compared. If the two cups in the calorimeter are of the same size,
material exterior finish and mass, they may be considered identical emitters. The temperature of the
air or other medium surrounding the calorimeter is assumed constant (large heat reservoir) The two
cups have the same temperature so their net rates of heat losses are equal, then:

(7)

Assuming that the temperature change of the cooling body is sufficiently small, the specific heats
are constant and the rate of heat loss is euqal to the rate of temperature change:

(8)

from the above equation it follows that:

(9)

or

5
 (10)

where: t = temperature drop for cups a and b

m = mass of reference liquid (water) or the sample
 a = time for cup a and contents to drop T
 b = time for cup b and content to drop T.

Subscripts a, b, w, and s denote cup a, cup b, water and the sample, respectively. For an arbitrary
temperature change T, the time  it will take for each cup to drop through that interval of
temperature change can be found and used in the last equation to calculate the specific heat of the
sample cps.

Method of Calculated Specific Heat

The specific heat of food and agricultural materials can be determined from other thermal properties
such as thermal conductivity and diffusivity. In other cases, specific heat can be determined by using
constant-temperature heating method and the use of temperature distribution chart, a Fourier number
can be obtained. From the Fourier number, the specific heat can be calculated in terms of thermal
conductivity. The temperature ratio can be calculated, and the Fourier number can be taken from the
graph, where:

(11)

or

(12)

where:
F0 = Fourier number
k = thermal conductivity, Jm-1s-1°C-1
, = density, kg/m3
= time, s
rm = characteristic length of the object or radius for a sphere or cylinder, m

6
Gordon and Thorne (1991) developed a method for estimating thermal properties (thermal
conductivity, specific heat and heat transfer coefficient) of spherical foodstuffs from the density of
the food and temperature-time data at two points within the food during cooling. Three quantities
were derived from equations describing temperatures at two points within a sphere during cooling
which are functions of thermal conductivity, specific heat, density and external heat transfer
coefficient. The relationships between these variables and the derived quantities were evaluated by
multiple linear regression and expressed as polynomials. The first roots of these expressions were
extracted by the Newton-Rhapson technique and the expressions were then reduced in degree to yield
subsequent roots. A routine was devised which selected the set of roots most appropriate to the
original material. The specific heat values estimated by this method were similar to published values.

Adiabatic Agricultural Calorimeter

The adiabatic calorimeter is so designed that there is no heat or moisture transferred through the test
chamber walls. Maintaining adiabatic conditions is facilitated by enclosing the test chamber in
another chamber. A measured quantity of heat is added by means of heating cables buried in the bulk
of the material in a container placed in a test chamber. Adiabatic conditions is maintained by keeping
the temperature of the outside walls of the test chamber equal to those of the inside walls. The
specific heat is computed from the energy balance. The heat energy raises the temperature of the
material, the material container, the chamber walls, the air, the heater, thermocouple and thermistor
leads, and any auxiliary equipment in the chamber.

There are two heating techniques in the adiabatic calorimeter: a) intermittent; and, b) continuous.
The intermittent heating technique has been utilized by majority of adiabatic calorimeters. The
sample cells and its adiabatic jacket are allowed to attain the same temperature, while the initial
sample temperature is also measured carefully (West and Ginnings, 1958). The a constant power
input is applied to the sample heater for a carefully measured time interval. The adiabatic jacket is
maintained at the same temperature as the sample during the heating period, ensuring adiabatic
conditions between the sample and the environment. At the end of the heating period, the sample and
the jacket temperatures are allowed to equilibrate and the final sample temperature is again measured
carefully. The sample’s enthalpy-temperature relation is calculated from the temperature change. The
thermocouples are located on each of the inside walls and on each of the outside walls for monitoring
temperatures.

The continuous heating technique involves running the sample heater and adiabatic jacket heaters
continuously and the temperature and power input as a function of time is recorded (Solomons and
Gummings, 1964). This technique provides a complete set of enthalpy-temperature results over a
wide range of temperature in a relatively shorter time compared with the much longer and tedious
intermittent heating technique. The major disadvantage of this method is the introduction of a
thermal gradient within the sample which may become a source of significant error if not enough
care is taken in the thermal design of the sample cell.

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Otten et al. (1980) constructed a continuous adiabatic calorimeter. The cylindrical sample cell which
was made of copper, measured 5 cm in diameter and 10 cm long with a 1.575 mm wall thickness.
The sample cavity had a volume of 185 cm3. The cell was equipped with a threaded copper lid which
hermitically seals the cavity after tightening. Heating of the sample was done by a nichrome heater
with a diameter of 0.8 mm and 3.315 ohm, insulated and placed inside a narrow thin copper tube
which was placed inside a narrow, thin copper tube. The tube was wound and soldered onto the
inside surface of the sample cell. The adiabatic outer jacket was a 10 cm inside diameter and 14.8
cm high cylinder made of copper which is 6.0 mm thick. The jacket and the lid were fitted with a
0.8 mm diameter nichrome heater. The adiabatic jacket was supported by three 1-cm diameter,
plastic rods. The rods were fastened to a wooden plate and was placed on a styrofoam-covered base.
The whole system was enclosed in a styrofoam-line wooden box. The space between the cell and
jacket was evacuated to 6 x 10-3 Pa with a vacuum pump which eliminated convective heat losses
and reduced gas conduction. Radiant heat exchange was minimized by controlling the power input
to the adiabatic jackets so that the temperature difference between the cell and the jacket was close
to zero as possible.

If the system consists of a heater and a sample cell with an inert fluid, then the energy Q supplied
by the heater during a time is equal to the enthalpy rise H of the components:

Q = Hc(T) + Hf(T) (12)

The enthalpy change of a sample material is readily obtained by repeating the experiments over the
same temperature range and subtracting equation 12 from the results. Therefore,

Hs(T) = Hc+s+f(T) - Hc(T) - Hf(T) (13)

The specific enthalpy hs of the sample is:

(14)

where m is its mass, and its specific heat is:

(15)

which is the slope of the specific enthalpy-temperature plot.

Of interest here is the specific heat, and it is readily determined as follows. First, an experiment is
performed with the calorimeter without a sample so that:

8
 (16)

Then a second experiment is performed with a sample:

(17)

This approach allows for the determination of the sample cell mcp versus the temperature relationship
for the cell, since the mcp value of the finest fluid is known. Substitution of these values into
equation 17 give the mcp values of the sample. If the experimental temperature range is sufficiently
large, the temperature-time plot will probably be non-linear. In that case, values of dT/d are
obtained from the slope at enough discrete temperature points to obtain a smooth continuous curve
for cp versus temperature.

Method of Differential Scanning Calorimeter

This method is based on measuring very small thermal effects produced in thermal processes. A
thermogram is produced showing any gain or loss of energy as the equipment scans at a given rate
of temperature rise over a selected temperature interval. The area under the thermogram is
proportional to the heat energy absorbed or released by the sample during the heating and cooling
process. The system consists of a test sample holder, a reference material holder, a temperature
programmer and its associated heating or cooling system. A sample encapsulator or a volatile sealer
is used to seal the sample pans due to the presence of moisture in biological materials.

Using the thermogram, the deflection d from the base line with a sample in the sample holder is:

(18)

where  is the proportionality constant. Equation 18 can be rewritten as:

(19)

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By definition, the specific heat, cp is:

(20)

substitution of dQ/dT from equation 20, yield into equation 21:

(21)

where:
dT/d = rate of temperature scanning
m = mass of the sample
cp = specific heat
d = deflection from the base line of thermogram
 = proportionality constant

If a reference material with known specific heat, e.g. sapphire, is used, an equation similar to
equation 21 can be written for this reference material:

(22)

where d’, m’ and c’p are the corresponding values for the reference material.

During scanning, any deflection from the base line would be directly proportional to the heat
capacity of the sample only. The proportionality constant , is independent of the heat capacities cp
and c’p, and will cancel resulting in equation 23:

(23)

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Specific Heat Measurements for Agricultural and Food Materials

Method of Mixtures

Seafood: Rahman (1993) determined the specific heat of seafoods, namely calamari, squid, cuttle
and prawn by method of mixtures. A vacuum thermos flask (A) (1 L) with plastic cover and lid was
used to equilibrate the sample at room temperature. The equilibrium temperature was measured by
a glass thermometer (accuracy ± 0.2°C). Another flask (B) (1L) with thermocouple (Type K) was
placed through the lid to the midpoint of the thermos. The thermocouple had been previously
claibrated with ice and boiling water. 100 g of water was placed in a conical flask wih stopper dipped
into ice batch. After at least 2 h equilibration, 100 g of water was transferred from the conical flask
to thermos flask B and the temperature was recorded with digital thermometer with an accuracy of
± 0.1°C. After 10 min, 40 g of encapsulated sample in two small thin wall glass bottles was dropped
into flask B and the temperature recorded at 1 min intervals initially, then at 5 min intervals. The
equilibrium temperature was determined by graphical method described by Mohsenin (1980) to
reduce the error due to thermal leakage. The degree of mixing was improves by slight shaking of the
flask by hand. The water equivalent of the flask was determined using 40 g of water at a known
temperature. The sample and flask B were equilibrated at the same room temperature to reduce the
error. The method was calibrated by measuring the specific heat of water.

Grains: Rao and Pfost (1980) determined the specific heat of sixteen kinds of cereals, legumes and
oilseeds at five different moisture contents using toluene as calorimeter fluid by method of mixtures.
Toluene was used to eliminate the heat of sorption in this method since the it does not mix with
water and is sorbed by grain. The same toluene was used for testing the same grain. After testing,
the toluene was filtered and reused. Fresh toluene was used for different grain tested. To determine
whether there was heat loss from the calorimeter, the temperature was checked at 10 min intervals
for 40 min after the calorimeter was filled with 300 mL of hot toluene. They noted no drop in
temperature of the calorimeter. Toluene was heated between 35 and 40°C and 300 mL was poured
into the calorimeter. To obtain a maximum temperature change in the calorimeter, the tested material
was completely covered with the fluid. Depending on sample density, the masses of samples used
ranged between 130 to 300 g. Temperature of the grain sample was measured until a constant reading
was obtained. At the same time, the temperature of the fluid in the calorimeter was measured. The
grain was transferred quickly to the calorimeter through a 3.81 cm opening funnel. The calorimeter
was sealed and shaken for 30 s. It laid still for 30 s and temperature readings were taken (starting
temperature). The temperature readings were taken every 5 min for 15 - 20 min until it became
constant.

Onions: Toluene was also used by Rapusas and Driscoll (1995) as the calorimetric fluid in
measuring the specific heat of fresh and dried white onion slices. The amounts of sample used were
10-11 g and 100 mL, respectively. The onion slices (4 mm thick) had moisture ranging between 0
to 69.2% w.b.

11
Fruit pulps: Alvarado (1991) concentrated or dehydrated pulps of thirty one different fruits. The
specific heats of these fruits were determined by indirect mixing calorimetric method described by
Hwang and Hayakawa (1979). In this method, the food and the calorimetric fluid are not in direct
contact, thus eliminating the need for evaluation of the heat of solution.

Baked products: Hwang and Hayakawa (1979)determined the specific heat of cracker and cookies
using a calorimeter they developed. This method is known as indirect mixing method. Two hundred
fifty grams of distilled water was used as the calorimetric fluid. For each test, the samples were either
heated in an oven or in a water bath until they reach equilibrium. The calorimeter was placed in a
refrigerator. Thirty minutes before the test, the calorimeter was removed from the refrigerator and
allowed to equilibrate with the outside temperature. The heated sample was dropped quickly into the
plastic cup and the calorimeter was sealed. There is no direct contact between the sample and the
fluid, as such it is called indirect mixing method. Water temperatures were measured before and
approximately 1 h after sampling.

Gram: Dutta et al. (1988) measured specific heats of whole gram by the method of mixtures. They
made a calorimeter out of aluminum foil which was placed inside an insulated vacuum flask. About
20 g of grain was poured in at a temperature of 25°C, while 27 g of water was used with
temperatures of 10, 15, 40 and 50°C.

Soybean hulls: The specific heat of hydrated soybean hulls was measured by Muzilla et al. (1991).
They used the method of mixtures in the measurement with vegetable oil as the calorimetric fluid
to prevent further water absorption by the hulls. Two hundred grams of oil was used at a temperature
of 85°C, while 50 g of hydrated hulls were used at a temperature of 23°C. Two samples of soybean
hulls were used: a) processed with reduced lignin content; and, b) unprocessed. The samples were
ground with the FitzMill comminutor using either a 0.84 (fine grind) or 2.36 mm (coarse grind)
round-hole screen.
The specific heat of restructured pork/soy hull mixtures were determined also reported by Muzilla
et al. (1990) using the method of mixtures. The calorimetric fluid was water (ca. 100 g) at 80°C. The
soy hulls were similarly prepared as above and were blended to ground lean pork shoulder ranging
from 0.15:1.00 to 2.12:1.00 (soy hull:pork).

Manure: The specific heat measurement of separated manure solids was reported by Bohnhoff and
Converse (1987). They used the method of mixtures in the measurement. Moistures used were 18,
42 and 79% w.b. and 8 replicates were made for each moisture level.

Potatoes: Rice et. al. (1988) measured the specific heat of potatoes (c.v. ‘Record’) using the method
of mixtures. Two hundred fifty mL of distilled water was used as the calorimetric fluid. Specific heat
was measured from 40 to 90°C and at moisture contents of 70 to 80. The sample was cut by into
cylindrical shape having a diameter of 2.2 cm and 6 cm long.

Rice bran: The specific heat of rice bran was measured by the method of mixtures by Sreenarayanan
and Chattopadhyay (1986). The bran was sieved using B.S. sieve No. 25 and had an average particle

12
size of 2.69 mm. The rice bran had four levels of moisture from 3.49 to 18.15 % w.b. and had four
initial temperatures of 45, 65, 85 and 93°C. The calorimeter had a capacity of 250 mL. The rice bran
was contained in a cylindrical aluminum capsule of 24 mm internal diameter, 45 mm height and 0.25
mm wall thickness. The capsule had a screw cover which was tightened against a gasket. Three
separate capsules were used for replications and another capsule had a hole in its cap where a
thermocouple was inserted into the capsule.

Raisins: The specific heat of raisins were determined by method of mixtures (Vagenas et al., 1990).
The calorimeter used was cylindrical, measuring 20 cm internal diameter and 15 cm in height. Corn
oil was the calorimetric fluid used since water will dissolve the sugars of the raisins. The oil used
was 500 mL, while the sample was 10 g. Specific heat was determined at moisture contents of 14
to 80%.

Prepared foods, e.g. Cornish pastry: The specific heat measurement of prepared foods was
reported by Peralta Rodriguez et al. (1995). They determined the specific heat of cornish pastry
which consists of a filling in a pastry crust. Typically the filling contains beef, potatoes, swede,
onion, water, starch, vegetable stock and seasoning. The method used was indirect mixtures
following the method reported by Hwang and Hayakawa (1979). They used a wide-mouth thermos
bottle consisting of metallic jacket, O-rings, Dewar flask and plastic lid with metallic jacket. The
sample was placed in a nylon/polypropylene rotortable pouches so that it did not mix with the
calorimetric fluid (water). The measured specific heat of the calorimeter included the effect of the
retortable pouch.

Method of Comparison Calorimeter

Soymilk: Specific heat of soymilk from two soybean varieties (TGX-0102D and Doko) were
measured by Oguntunde and Akintoye (1991) using the method comparison calorimeter. Two copper
calorimeters were filled with equal quantities of milk and water, respecitively. The initial
temperature of each liquid was recorded. The two calorimeters were then simulataneously immersed
in a thermostatically-controlled water bath and the temperature of each sample was recorded every
30 s until the system had attained steady state.

Method of Calculated Specific Heat

Meat rolls: Cohen and Wierbecki (1978) estimated the specific heat of canned meat rolls using the
heat processing data in retorting. The pressure used in the retort was 124 kPa (18 psi) for 15 min.
Pork, chicken and ham meat rolls were processed at 116±1°C while beef was at 117±1°C. The
thermal conductivity of the meat rolls was 0.8 to 0.9 that of water which they based on Lentz’ (1961)
work. The thermal conductivity was determined from the heat processing data as elucidated by Ball
(1924).

13
Alfalfa pellets: The specific heat of alfalfa pellets was estimated based on the heating rate data by
Fasina and Sokhansanj (1996). Alfalfa pellets were initially cooled to 2.0±0.5°C and transferred to
an air-convection oven set at a temperature of 110±1.0°C. The estimate of the parameters of the
specific heat equation (which was linearly dependent on temperature) was done by writing the ehat
transfer equation and the non-linear estimation procedure equations in finite difference form.

Tomato juice concentrate: The specific heat of tomato juice concentrate was calculated from the
the measured values of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and density by Choi and Okos
(1983).

Adiabatic Calorimeter

Grains: Otten and Samaan (1980) measured the specific heats of wheat, corn, rye, oats, peas, barley
and soybeans using a continuous adiabatic calorimeter. They used mineral oil as the calorimetric
fluid. Experimentally, they measured the specific heat of mineral oil at the experimental range of 30
to 90°C to average 2.189 kJ/kg°C with a standard deviation of 0.034 kJ/kg°C. The power input to
the heater was adjusted to keep the heating rate below 1°C/min with the resulting difference in
temperature between the cell wall and the center of sample always less than 3°C. The specific heat
measurement was done in the 30 - 95°C range at different sample moisture contents and the average
specific heat was reported.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Tamarind juice: Manohar et al. (1991) used a Mettler TA 3000 thermal analyser system to
determine the specific heat of tamarind juice concentrates. About 5-10 g of tamarind juice was used
with concentrations of 20.18, 28.98, 37.00, 48.76 and 62.70% soluble solids. The initial temperature
of the heating program was 15°C and the final temperature was 75°C, with a rate of temperature rise
of 20°C/min. The specific heat was evaluated at temperatures of 25 to 75°C.

Lentil seeds: Tang et al. (1991) reported the use of DSC in determining the specific heat of lentil
seeds. The moisture content of the seeds were 2.1, 7.3, 10.8, 15.7, 18.0, 19.5 and 25.8% (w.b.) over
a temperature range from 10 to 80°C. They found that pan seal had a significant effect on the specific
heat values especially at higher temperatures. Thus, complete sealing of the sample was taken. The
scanning speed was set at 5°K/min and the sample thickness was less than 0.8 mm.

Surimi: Surimi made from Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) was determined using DSC
in the freezing range (Wang and Kolbe, 1990). The moisture content of the surimi was 80.3%. The
surimi samples were scanned at a temperature range of -80 to 40°C at a heating rate of 2°C/min.
Water condensation in and under the DSC cell was eliminated by forcing 40 mL/min of nitrogen gas
through the purging port while 140 mL/min nitrogen gas was flushed through the cooling port.

14
Baked products: Specific heat of bread, muffin and biscuit crumb was determined by DSC
(Christenson, 1989). Bread was cooled to 20°C, while muffin and biscuit were cooled to 5°C. The
samples were scanned at a rate of 10°C/min from the lower temperature limit to 90°C. The lower
limit of 5°C for biscuit was used so that heat of fusion of the fat could be obtained from the
thermogram.

Roasted coffee powder: Singh et al. (1997) determined the specific heat (bulk) of coffee powders
using the DSC. Coffee beans which were roasted for 3, 6, 9, 12, 13.5 and 15 min were ground in a
blender. The powders were sieved between U.S. series sieves number 35 and 40 were retained for
testing. They used 2-5 mg of the sample which were sealed in aluminum pans. A heating rate of
10°C/min was used. The specific heat determination was not made above 150°C because the
aluminum pans ruptured due to excessive pressure developed in the pans because of moisture in the
powders.

Granular starch: The specific heat of two native corn starches in granular form, a high-amylose
starch (Hylon7, 63%) and a high-amylopectin (98%) starch were measured by DSC (Drouzas et al.
1991). The starches were adjusted to moistures of 0, 9.09, 16.67 and 23.08%. The standard material
used was a sapphire. The conditions used in the experiments were: scanning temperature of 0 -
180°C, scanning rate of 10°C/min, and mass of sample about 25 mg.

Cassava mash: The measurements of specific heat of dry native cassava mash and dry cassava
starch at different temperatures were reported by Gevaudan et al. (1989). The temperature range was
-20 to 96°C. The cassava mash samples were completely dehydrated.

Borage seeds: The specific heat measurement of borage seeds was reported by Yang et al. (1998)
using a Mettler TA 3000 system (Mettler Instrumente AG, Switzerland). A single seed was used in
each DSC run. The seed was placed into a standard aluminum crucible (40 :L), which was in turn
placed into the pan holder in a crucible sealing press and sealed hermitically. The sealed pan was
then transferred into the DSC cell. The temperature range of the specific heat measurement was 50
to 80°C at a heating rate of 5°K/min. Experiments were repeated if weight loss exceeded 5%.

Apples: Ramaswamy and Tung (1978) used a Dupont 900 DSC to determine the apparent specific
heat of two apple varieties, Golden Delicious and Granny Smith. Sample of apple tissues of 8-14 mg
were cooled in the DSC cell to below -100°C using liquid nitrogen. Heating rate was at 20°C/min.
The specific heat data were obtained by first warming two empty pans at 20°C/min on the DSC from
-100 to 80°C to obtain a blank thermogram. Then the sample was placed in one of the pans, and the
sample and reference pans were warmed again from -100 to 80°C. Apparent specific heat at any
temperature was calculated by measuring the )T values for sample and blank at that temperature.

15
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properties of alfalfa pellets. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 63(4):333-344.
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17
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18
Table 1. Specific heat of agricultural and food materials

Material Method Moisture content Temperature Specific heat Reference

(% w.b.) range (°C) (kJkg-1°K-1)

Alfalfa pellets calculated 2 - 110 0.962 - 2.114 Fasina and Sokhansanj

(1996)
specific heat

Apples
‘Golden DSC 87.3 20 - 50 3.69 Ramaswamy and
Delicious’ -30 - -80 1.95 Tung (1978)

‘Granny DSC 85.8 20 - 50 3.58 Ramaswamy and

Smith’ -30 - -80 1.68 Tung (1978)

Borage seeds DSC 0.47 - 30.3 5 - 80 0.57 - 2.48 Yang et al (1998)

Cassava starch DSC 0 -20 - 96 1.351 Gevaudan et al. (1989)

at 20°C

Cassava mash DSC 0 -20 - 96 1.205 Gevaudan et al. (1989)

at 20°C

Cracker indirect mixing 2.72 25.0 - 78.3 1.60a±0.01b Hwang and Hayakawa
a (1979)
n=4; bSD

Cracker indirect mixing 2.55 24.3 - 61.1 1.57a±0.03b Hwang and Hayakawa
a (1979)
n=10; bSD

Cookie, cocoa indirect mixing 3.15 26.7 - 117.7 1.88a±0.03b Hwang and Hayakawa
a (1979)
based n=9; bSD

Cookie, sugar indirect mixing 3.53 26.1- 115.0 1.94a±0.04b Hwang and Hayakawa
a (1979)
based n=9; bSD

Cookie, sugar indirect mixing 3.87 25.0 - 115.6 1.93a±0.04b Hwang and Hayakawa
a (1979)
based n=9; bSD

Gram (Cicer Mixtures 11.0 - 24.5 19 - 35 1.464 - 2.904 Dutta et. al. (1988)
arietinum)

Lentils DSC 2.1 - 25.8 10 - 80 0.807 - 2.186 Tang et al. (1991)

Onion slices Mixtures 69.2 20 3.45a±0.08b Rapusas and Driscoll

(1995)

a
n=3 45.0 20 2.87±0.06
b
std. deviation 34.3 20 2.66±0.06

22.0 20 2.32±0.05

15.7 20 2.23±0.09

8.2 20 2.05±0.10

5.4 20 1.94±0.07

0.0 20 1.82±0.08

19
Prepared food: indirect mixtures 48.5 32.8 3.308a±0.264b Peralta Rodriguez et
a al. (1995)
Cornish pastry ave. temp. of n=5; bS.D.
sample

Prepared food: calculated specific 60.1 3±1 to 117±1 5.86 - 6.66 Cohen and Wierbicki
(1978)
Beef roll heat initial and final
temp. of sample

Prepared food: calculated specific 62.2 3±1 to 116±1 5.44 - 6.15 Cohen and Wierbicki
(1978)
Pork roll heat initial and final
temp. of sample

Prepared food: calculated specific 66.4 3±1 to 116±1 5.19 - 5.86 Cohen and Wierbicki
(1978)
Chicken roll heat initial and final
temp. of sample

Prepared food: calculated specific 67.9 3±1 to 116±1 4.94 - 5.61 Cohen and Wierbicki
(1978)
Ham roll heat initial and final
temp. of sample

Potatoes (c.v. Mixtures 76.3 40 2.735 Rice et al. (1988)

‘Record’)

Mixtures 76.3 50 3.174 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 76.3 60 3.321 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 76.3 70 3.482 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 76.3 80 3.955 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 76.3 90 4.015 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 78.8 50 3.335 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 75.4 50 3.173 Rice et al. (1988)

Mixtures 72.3 50 2.531 Rice et al. (1988)

Raisins (c.v. Mixtures 14 - 80 not reported 1.289 - 1.511 Vagenas et al. (1990)
‘Sultana’)

Rice bran var. Mixtures 1.72 Tao et al. (1994)

‘Lemont’

Rice bran var. Mixtures 1.72 Tao et al. (1994)

‘Nato’

Rice bran (c.v. Mixtures 6.39 - 18.04 38.2 1.691 - 2.083 Sreenarayan and
Chattopadhyay
Japonica x
(1986)
Indica)

Mixtures 4.26 - 18.04 63.1 1.733 - 2.214 Sreenarayan and

Chattopadhyay
(1986)

20
Rice bran (c.v. not known 10 28.8 1.729 Maharaj Narain et al.
(1978)
Japonica x
Indica)

not known 12 24.2 1.796 Maharaj Narain et al.

(1978)

Seafood - Mixtures 83.09 - 83.91 17 3.43 - 3.69 Rahman (1993)

calamari
(tentacle)

Seafood - Mixtures 79.98 - 81.59 17 3.35 - 3.47 Rahman (1993)

calamari (mantle)

Seafood - Mixtures 83.38 - 84.18 17 3.78 - 3.79 Rahman (1993)

calamari (wings)

Seafood - cuttle Mixtures 86.99 17 3.79 Rahman (1993)

(skin)

Seafood - cuttle Mixtures 80.92 17 3.59 Rahman (1993)

(mantle)

Seafood - King Mixtures 75.63 17 3.45 Rahman (1993)

prawn (green)

Seafood - King Mixtures 76.49 17 3.41 Rahman (1993)

prawn (tiger)

Seafood - Mixtures 80.35 17 3.29 Rahman (1993)

Octopus
(tentacle)

Seafood - squid Mixtures 79.61 - 83.02 17 3.50 - 3.58 Rahman (1993)

(tentacle)

Separated Mixtures 18 1.590a±0.350b Bohnhoff and

a Converse (1987)
Manure solids n=8; bSD

Separated Mixtures 42 2.176a±0.500b Bohnhoff and

a Converse (1987)
Manure solids n=8; bSD

Separated Mixtures 79 3.572a±0.262b Bohnhoff and

a Converse (1987)
Manure solids n=8; bSD

Soybean hull, Mixtures 23 4.725a±0.204b Muzilla et al. (1991)

a
(hydrated, n = 5; bstd. error
unprocessed,
fine)

Soybean hull, Mixtures 23 4.560a±0.204b Muzilla et al. (1991)

a
(hydrated, n = 5; bstd. error
unprocessed,
coarse)

21
Soybean hull, Mixtures 23 5.247a±0.204b Muzilla et al. (1991)
a
(hydrated, n = 5; bstd. error
processed, fine)

Soybean hull, Mixtures 23 4.889a±0.204b Muzilla et al. (1991)

a
(hydrated, n = 5; bstd. error
processed,
coarse)

Soy hull Mixtures 22 - 80 3.03 - 4.05 Muzilla et al. (1990)

(hydrated,
lower value is initial
unprocessed,
sample temp; higher
fine) pork value is water temp.
mixture

Soy hull Mixtures 22 - 80 3.07 - 4.05 Muzilla et al. (1990)

(hydrated,
lower value is initial
unprocessed,
sample temp; higher
coarse) pork value is water temp.
mixture

Soy hull Mixtures 22 - 80 3.76 - 4.18 Muzilla et al. (1990)

(hydrated,
lower value is initial
processed, fine)
sample temp; higher
pork mixture value is water temp.

Soy hull Mixtures 22 - 80 2.75 - 4.05 Muzilla et al. (1990)

(hydrated,
lower value is initial
processed,
sample temp; higher
coarse) pork value is water temp.
mixture

Starch - high- DSC 0 - 23.08 0 - 180 1.23 - 1.85 Drouzas et al (1991)

amylose and
high-amylopectin

Surimi - Alaskan DSC 80.3 -80 - 40 1.52 - 107.87 Wang and Kolbe
(1991)
pollock

Tamarind juice 20.19 - 62.70 35 - 65 2.41 - 3.41 Manohar et al., 1991)

concentrates total solids
content

Tomato juice calculated specific 4.8 - 80% 2.75 - 4.25 Choi and Okos
concentrate heat solids content (1983)

Tortilla chips DSC 1.3 - 36.1 150 - 190 2.19 - 3.36 Moreira et al. (1995)

Wheat flour indirect mixing 11.97 25.2 - 78.3 1.72a±0.01b Hwang and
a Hayakawa (1979)
n=12; bSD

22
Table 2. Specific heat of fruit pulps and dependence to moisture content (Alvarado, 1991).

Fruit (Botanical name) Specific heat (Moisture content)* Equation

kJkg-1°K-1 (% w.b.)

Apple (Malus communis) 3.64 (87.6) 3.31 (82.4) 3.27 (75.9) 2.68 (49.7) 1.51 + 0.0232M
Avocado (Persea drymifolia) 3.39 (74.0) 3.06 (65.4) 2.97 (61.1) 2.39 (44.2) 0.92 + 0.0332M
Babaco (Carica pentagona) 3.89 (92.5) 3.56 (88.0) 3.06 (83.5) 2.89 (71.5) -0.53 + 0.0463M
Banana (Musa cavendishii) 3.39 (75.6) 3.01 (66.8) 2.85 (59.1) 2.55 (44.7) 1.34 + 0.0262M
Banana var. (Musa auriens) 2.97 (68.1) 2.85 (62.1) 2.64 (55.2) 2.26 (39.8) 1.24 + 0.0255M
Banana var. (Musa paradisiaca) 3.35 (73.8) 2.97 (63.6) 2.76 (59.4) 2.47 (49.2) 0.66 + 0.0362M
Banana var. (Musa rosacea) 2.93 (70.0) 2.85 (65.0) 2.72 (59.4) 2.43 (45.7) 1.48 + 0.0209M
Candletree (Parmentiera 3.39 (83.1) 3.06 (77.8) 2.93 (72.5) 2.39 (54.6) 0.55 + 0.0332M
aculeata)

Cherry, black (Primus capuli) 3.31 (77.5) 2.89 (58.2) 2.47 (47.4) 2.51 (40.6) 1.47 + 0.0237M
Grape (Vitis vinefera) 3.52 (81.2) 3.14 (70.6) 2.93 (67.1) 2.35 (47.5) 0.68 + 0.0346M
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisii) 3.68 (88.7) 3.31 (83.5) 3.10 (78.6) 2.64 (63.1)
1.71 (11.4) 1.55 (9.2) 1.62 (1.9) 1.37 (1.4) 1.41 + 0.0229M
Guava (Psidium guajaba) 3.56 (86.6) 3.22 (76.7) 2.85 (66.7) 2.51 (50.7) 0.97 + 0.0294M
Lemon (Citrus limon) 1.70 (11.4) 1.69 (9.4) 1.63 (1.9) 1.45 (1.2) 1.51 + 0.0179M
Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) 3.64 (89.9) 3.35 (78.3) 2.76 (64.7) 2.26 (47.3) 0.66 + 0.0334M
Mulberry (Rubus glaucus) 3.60 (86.5) 3.10 (72.0) 2.89 (66.1) 2.64 (59.4) 0.55 + 0.0353M
Muskmelon (Cucumis melo) 3.77 (93.9) 3.48 (90.5) 3.18 (85.1) 2.97 (76.6) -0.52 + 0.0447M
Naranjilla (Solanum quitoense) 3.68 (92.4) 3.31 (82.8) 3.10 (72.8) 2.76 (63.1) 0.85 + 0.0303M
Nectarine (Prunus spp.) 3.60 (86.6) 3.39 (79.7) 3.10 (67.2) 2.60 (44.2) 1.56 + 0.0232M
Orange (Citrus sinensis) 3.52 (83.1) 3.27 (76.8) 3.01 (72.4) 2.68 (62.9)
1.85 (10.5) 1.68 (10.1) 1.78 (1.9) 1.36 (1.3) 1.52 + 0.0219M
Papaya (Carica papaya) 3.35 (89.7) 3.31 (77.3) 2.97 (70.7) 2.55 (55.5) 1.23 + 0.0248M
Pear (Pyrus communis) 3.52 (81.2) 3.22 (63.1) 3.10 (60.3) 2.43 (33.1) 1.70 + 0.0230M
Peach (Prunus persica) 3.43 (87.5) 3.22 (80.0) 3.10 (71.6) 2.72 (56.6)
1.78 (12.6) 1.71 (10.4) 1.69 (2.0) 1.43 (1.3) 1.51 + 0.0218M
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) 3.48 (84.7) 2.97 (71.0) 2.60 (62.1) 2.39 (46.0) 0.98 + 0.0286M
Plum (Prunus salicina) 3.68 (88.9) 3.10 (75.0) 2.97 (70.4) 2.81 (67.7) 0.11 + 0.0401M
Pricklypear (Opuntia tuna) 3.64 (84.6) 3.22 (73.6) 3.10 (68.2) 2.85 (53.7) 1.45 + 0.0250M
Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) 3.81 (92.0) 3.39 (86.1) 3.22 (78.1) 2.93 (67.1) 0.68 + 0.0329M

23
 Strawberry var. (Fragaria 3.68 (90.4) 2.93 (79.7) 2.76 (74.2) 2.64 (65.2) -0.21 + 0.0415M
chiloensis)

Tangerine (Citrus reticulata) 3.69 (87.0) 3.18 (76.8) 2.85 (64.2) 2.30 (48.3)
1.83 (12.8) 1.78 (10.6) 1.77 (2.0) 1.47 (1.5) 1.52 + 0.0221M
Tomato (Lycopersicon 3.94 (94.5) 3.48 (81.6) 3.18 (74.8) 2.93 (64.1) 0.71 + 0.0339M
esculentum)

Treetomato (Cyphomandra 3.56 (87.4) 3.18 (82.7) 2.97 (73.6) 2.64 (62.7) 0.45 + 0.0344M
betacea)

Watermelon (Citrulllus vulgaris) 3.98 (92.0) 3.68 (89.0) 3.18 (76.3) 2.97 (66.8) 0.33 + 0.0385M
* average of 2 replicates, M = moisture content, % w.b.

24
Table 3. Dependence of specific heat on moisture content and temperature.

Material Moisture Temp. range Specific heat Equation Reference

content (°C) (kJkg-1°K-1)
(% w.b.)

Alfalfa pellets 2 - 110 0.962 - 2.114 0.941 + .01072T Fasina and

T = °C Sokhansanj (1996)

Apples
‘Golden 87.3 20 - 50 3.69 3.36 + 0.0075T for Ramaswamy and
Delicious’ -30 - -80 1.95 -1<T<60°C Tung (1978)
2.18 - 1.48T for
-10<T-1°C
24.4 + 0.791T for
-25<T-10°C
2.89 + 0.0138T for
T-25°C

‘Granny 85.8 20 - 50 3.58 3.40 + 0.0049T for Ramaswamy and

Smith’ -30 - -80 1.68 -1<T<60°C Tung (1978)
2.65 - 1.42T for
-10<T-1°C
2.49 + 0.760T for
-25<T-10°C
2.50 + 0.0118T for
T-25°C

Baked 0 25 - 85 0.98 + 0.0049T Christenson (1989)

products -
bread solids

Baked 0 25 - 85 0.40 + 0.0039T Christenson (1989)

products -
muffin solids

Baked 0 58 - 85 0.80 + 0.0030T Christenson (1989)

products -
biscuit solids 0 30 - 58 1.17 + 00.030T

Barley 0 - 15 30 - 95 1.186 - 0.0128Mw + Otten and Samaan

23.0 Mw2 (1980)

Barley var. 0.8784 + 3.4750Mw Rao and Pfost

‘Larker’ (1980)

Bean 0 - 100 20 1.430 + 2.757Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Beet root 0 - 100 20 1.380 - 1.465 1.401 + 2.786Mw Niesteruk (1996)

25
Borage seed 0.47 - 30.3 5 - 80 0.57 - 2.48 0.582 + 7.36x10-3T - Yang et al (1998)
4.109x10-5T2 +
3.037x 10-2Mwp +
1.808x10-4Mwp2 +
6.4x10-4TM -
1.494x10-5TMwp2

T = °C; Mwp = % w.b.

Cabbage 0 - 100 20 1.402 + 2.785Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Carrot 0 - 100 20 1.424 - 1.507 1.373 + 2.814Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Cassava starch 0 -20 - 96 1.239 + 5.591x10-3T Gevaudan et al.

T = °C (1989)

Cassava starch 0 -20 - 96 1.1011 + 5.206x10-3T Gevaudan et al.

T = °C (1989)

Celery 0 - 100 20 1.401 + 2.786Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Chickpeas, 1.0002 + 3.3494Mw Rao and Pfost

garbanzo (1980)

Cottonseed 1.0396 + 2.8052Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Coffee powder 45 - 140 1.19 - 2.22 0.9210 + 0.007554T Singh et al. (1997)
Mexican, fresh T = °C

Coffee powder 45 - 150 1.34 - 2.46 0.9210 + 0.007554T Singh et al. (1997)
Mexican, T = °C
roasted 6 min

Coffee powder 45 - 150 1.10 - 1.99 0.9210 + 0.007554T Singh et al. (1997)
Mexican, T = °C
roasted 9 min

Coffee powder 45 - 150 1.38 - 1.90 0.9210 + 0.007554T Singh et al. (1997)
Mexican, T = °C
roasted 15 min

Coffee powder 45 - 110 1.77 - 2.13 1.2729 + 0.006459T Singh et al. (1997)
Colombian, T = °C
fresh

Coffee powder 45 - 110 1.64 - 2.28 1.2729 + 0.006459T Singh et al. (1997)
Colombian, T = °C
roasted 3 min

Coffee powder 45 - 130 1.62 - 2.86 1.2729 + 0.006459T Singh et al. (1997)
Colombian, T = °C
roasted 6 min

26
Coffee powder 45 - 150 1.70 - 2.44 1.2729 + 0.006459T Singh et al. (1997)
Colombian, T = °C
roasted 9 min

Coffee powder 45 - 150 1.29 - 2.04 1.2729 + 0.006459T Singh et al. (1997)
Colombian, T = °C
roasted 12 min

Coffee powder 45 - 150 1.33 - 1.80 1.2729 + 0.006459T Singh et al. (1997)
Colombian, T = °C
roasted 13.5
min

Corn var. 0 - 30 30 - 95 1.178 +6.27Mw - Otten and Samaan

Pioner 3965 8.7Mw2 (1980)

Corn (dent) 0.7771 + 0.5024Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Cucumber 0 - 100 20 1.392 1.385 + 2.802Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Gram 11.03 - 24.47 19 - 35 1.464 - 2.904 -4.19 + 0.0119T + 2.15 Dutta et al. (1988)
x10-5T2 - 0.373M -
1.65x10-4M2 +
1.38x10-3MT
M = % d.b; T = °K

Leek 0 - 100 20 1.396 + 2.791Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Lentil 2.1 - 25.8 10 - 80 0.807 - 2.186 0.5773 + 0.00709T + Tang et al. (1991)
(6.22 - 9.14M)M
M = decimal d.b.
T = °C

Lettuce 0 - 100 20 1.342 + 2.845Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Manure solids 18 - 79 1.590 - 3.572 0.920 + 3.295Mw Bohnhoff and

(separated Converse (1987)

Millet 0.9265 + 3.0564Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Milo 0.9881 + 2.6377Mw Rao and Pfost

(sorghum) (1980)

Mungbeans 1.0329 + 2.4702Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Mustard seed 1.2887 + 2.8889Mw Rao and Pfost

var. ‘Giant (1980)
southern
curled’

Oats 0 - 13 30 - 95 1.154 + 3.89Mw Otten and Samaan

(1980)

27
Oats 0.1415 + 12.5604Mw Rao and Pfost
(1980)

Onion 0 - 100 20 1.382 1.396 + 2.791Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Onion (white) 0 - 69.2 20 1.82 - 3.45 1.840 + 2.34Mw Rapusas and

slices Driscoll (1995)

Parsley 0 - 100 20 1.373 + 2.814Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Pea (green) 0 - 100 20 1.234 1.430 + 2.757Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Peanuts 1.0978 + 4.4799Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Peas (dry) 0 - 22 30 - 95 1.241 + 4.19Mw Otten and Samaan

(1980)

Pigeon pea 1.1497 + 2.4283Mw Rao and Pfost

(Tuvar) (1980)

Potato 0 - 100 20 1.256 - 1.424 1.381 + 2.806Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Pumpkin 0 - 100 20 1.385 + 2.802Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Rapeseed 1.2447 + 3.3076Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Rough rice 1.1363 + 1.7585Mw Rao and Pfost

(paddy) (1980)

Rye 0 - 13 30 - 95 1.242 + 5.20Mw Otten and Samaan

(1980)

Rye 1.0333 + 4.0612Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Soybeans 0 - 17 30 - 95 1.296 + 7.50Mw - Otten and Samaan

16 Mw2 (1980)

Soybeans 1.1212 + 2.5539Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Soymilk 2 - 12.4% 25 4.18 + 0.25Xs Oguntunde and

(Doko) total solids initial sample Akintoye (1991)
temp.

Soymilk 2 - 12.4% 25 4.18 + 0.50Xs Oguntunde and

(TGX) total solids initial sample Akintoye (1991)
temp.

Spinach 0 - 100 20 1.342 + 2.845Mw Niesteruk (1996)

28
 Starch (high- 0 - 23.08 0 - 180 1.23 - 1.85 (1.0185 + Drouzas et al.
amylose and 7.7893x10-3T)ms + (1991)
high- cpw mw
amylopectin) T = °C; subscripts s
and w are sample and
water, respectively

Sunflower 1.1803 + 3.1820Mw Rao and Pfost

(1980)

Swedish turnip 0 - 100 20 1.256 Niesteruk (1996)

Tamarind juice 20.19 - 62.70 35 - 75 2.41 - 3.41 4.18+(6.839x10-5 T - Manohar et al.

total solids 5.03x10-2)Xs (1991)
content

Tomato 0 - 100 20 1.350 Niesteruk (1996)

Tomato juice 4.8 - 80% 2.75 - 4.25 1.5785 + Choi and Okos
concentrate solids content 1.0956x10-2T - (1983)
2.1627x10-5T2
T = °C

Turnip 0 - 100 20 1.401 + 2.786Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Watermelon 0 - 100 20 1.385 + 2.802Mw Niesteruk (1996)

Wheat var. 0 - 15.9 30 - 95 1.272 + 5.31Mw Otten and Samaan

Ontario (soft (1980)
white)

Wheat var. 0 - 13.8 30 - 95 1.377 + 4.43Mw Otten and Samaan

Western (red (1980)
hard spring)

Wheat var. 0 - 13.1 30 - 95 1.311 + 4.82Mw Otten and Samaan

Frederick (soft (1980)
white)

Wheat 0 - 15.9 30 - 95 1.317 + 4.91Mw Otten and Samaan

(average) (1980)

Rice bran (c.v. 3.49 - 18.15 38.2 - 63.1 1.632 - 2.214 1.273 + 3.474Mw + Otten and Samaan
Japonica x ave. temp 0.005T (1980)
Indica) T = °C

Raisins (c.v. 18 - 80 not reported 1.289 - 1.511 1.400 + 2.782Mw Vagenas et al.
‘Sultana’) (1990)
Mw = moisture content, decimal wet basis
M = moisture content, % d.b.
T = temperature, °K
Xs = total solids content, %

29