THERMAL PROPERTIES

Competencies 1. Define thermal properties of biological materials.

2. Identify different methods in determining or measuring
thermal properties.
3. Explain the importance of thermal properties and its
applications to agricultural processing.

Introduction

Food materials often experience the movement of heat around and through them in various
forms and degrees during growth, harvest, handling, processing, transport, storage, and
preparation for consumption. Only a few foods such as fresh fruit and some vegetables go
from field to the table without any thermal processing. Most foods are thermally processed
to extend their shelf life and maintain high quality. Foods are exposed to heat transfer
numerous times during heating, cooling, freezing, frying, and/or baking. Thermal operations
are also used to insure safe food products for extended periods.

 A classic example is the pasteurization of milk, a heating process that eliminates

bacteria. Pasteurization, followed by proper cooling, provides a safe milk product for
weeks.
 Canned foods, which are good for years, are sterilized with heat processes.
 Juice, having been heated and aseptically packaged in boxes, is shelf stable without
refrigeration for months.

Heat transfer occurs by conduction, convection, and radiation. These mechanisms can occur
individually or simultaneously. In food processing, heat transfer is usually a combination of
conduction and convection.

  Conduction is principally involved during heat transfer within solid-like

materials, i.e., solids or static liquids.
 Convection is the transfer between solids (walls of pipes, vats, rooms) and fluids
(food materials). In other cases, the food may be the solid and the fluid might be air
or water.
 Radiant heat transfer is less frequently used but is becoming more common in
microwave and infrared heating.

The movement of heat to and through a food material depends primarily on the existence of
a temperature difference and on physical characteristics such as size, shape, density, and
thermal properties.

The thermal properties are unique for each food. Each mechanism of heat transfer has an
associated thermal property.

SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat (cp) or heat capacity is the heat required to increase the temperature of one
unit of mass by one degree. The subscript (p) is included because specific heat of solids and
liquids is determined at constant pressure.

Q Q
C= = (1)
(wV )∆ t m ∆ t

where,
C = specific heat, kJ/kg.ºC
Q= the heat supplied, kJ
w = specific weight, kg/m3
V= volume, m3
m = mass, kg
∆t= Temperature difference, ºC

For liquid water, the specific heat is 4.19 kJ/kg.K; for dry air, it is 1.0 kJ/kg.K.

Let’s practice:

1. If the temperature of 34.4 g of ethanol increases from 25 °C to 78.8 °C, how much
heat has been absorbed by the ethanol? The specific heat of ethanol is 2.44J/g°C.

Answer:
Q=?
m = 34.4 g
C = 2.44 J/g°C

ΔT = 78.8°C - 25°C = 53.8°C = 54 °C

Q = (34.4 g)(2.44 J/g°C)(54 °C)
Q = 4532.544 J = 4500 J

2. A 40 g sample of water absorbs 500 Joules of energy. How much did the water
temperature change? The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g°C.

Solution:

Q = 500 J
m = 40 g
C = 4.18 J/g°C
ΔT = ?

q 500 J
∆T= = =3 ℃
mc 40 gx 4.18 J / g ℃

Methods of measurement

1. Different scanning calorimetry

DSC measures small thermal effects produced during heating or cooling of a small
sample of the commodity being studied.State-of-the-art instruments are interfaced with
computers to produce an accurate measurement of the specific heat of a sample;
 Disadvantages:
1. erratic results (due to variations between samples)
2. cost of the instrument

2. Method of mixtures
A sample of known weight and
temperature is dropped into an insulated
chamber containing water or other
suitable liquid of known temperature and
weight. Probes suspended in the water are
used to measure temperature during the
experiment.

The specific heat of the sample is then

determined by calculating the heat gained
or lost by the water and chamber.

3. Siebel equation

For values above freezing,

Cp= 0.008 (M) + 0.20 (2)
For values below freezing,
Cp= 0.003 (M) + 0.20 (3)

where, C = specific heat, BTU/lb.ºF

M= moisture content of the material in percent wet basis, %

*Note that BTU/lb.ºF = 4.187 4.187kJ/kg.ºC

Applications

1. Heat load calculation

A commodity at field temperature contains a large amount of heat and can make up the
largest heat load in a storage facility. This quantity is called field heat and must be
included in the calculations for determining the size of the refrigeration system to install.

2. Optimization of heat treatments- Refer to applications for thermal diffusivity

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal conductivity (k) is the ability of a material to conduct heat when a

temperature difference exists between two surfaces, expressed in W/m.K

Heat is conducted quickly through a metal like copper, hence its thermal conductivity
value is high. Heat flows more slowly through materials like wood or fiberglass insulation;
their thermal conductivity is low. The thermal conductivity of most food materials is in a
relatively narrow range between 0.2 and 0.5 W/m K.

An example of heat transfer by conduction is that occurring within a mango fruit

during hot water or vapor heat treatment. During treatment, a temperature differences is
established between peel, which tends to heat up rapidly, and the cooler inner pulp of the
fruit. Heat transfer is faster if conductivity is greater and vice versa.

Thermal conductivity can be expressed by the following equation.

Q=K A ΔT (4)

where Q = amount of heat flow, kcal

A = area, m2
ΔT = temperature difference in the direction of heat flow, °C
K = thermal conductivity, kcal/m.hr.°C

If, m is the moisture content of the grain, then the thermal conductivity of wheat can be
expressed as follows,

K = 0.060+0.002 m, kcal/m.hr.°C (5)

The above relationship exists for the wheat bulk with the moisture content range of 10-20%
(db).

The thermal conductivity of sorghum may be given as follows,

K = 0.564+0.0858 w, W/m.°C (6)

where, w = fraction of moisture present in material.

Methods of Measurement

The measurement of thermal conductivity of agricultural grains poses much problem

because it depends on the structure and chemical composition of the grain.

Thermal conductivity probe

 Used for measurement of thermal conductivity of most of the food materials. The
probe consists of a hypodermic needle of 0.66 mm diameter and connected to
handle. A0.077 mm diameter constantan heater wire insulated with plastic spaghetti
tubing is inside the needle.
 The wire is taken from the handle to the top and back. The purpose of using constant
wire is to avoid the change in electrical resistance with temperature.
 The insulated chromel constantan thermocouples wire 0.051 mm in diameter is
wrapped around the upper half of the probe handle and the needle tip. The line-heat
source probe is inserted into the sample having uniform initial temperature.
 The probe is heated at a constant rate, and the temperature adjacent to line-heat
source is monitored. After a brief transient period, the plot of natural logarithm of
time us temperature is plotted, which has a slope equal to Q/4π K.
The thermal conductivity of material can be estimated by the following equation.

ln [(t 2−t 0 )/(t 1−t 0)] (7)

K=Q
4 π ( T 2−T 1)

Where, K=thermal conductivity of the sample, W/m °C

Q=Power generated by the probe heater, W/m
t1 and t2=time since probe is energized, S
t0=time conductance factor, S
T1,T2=temperature of probe thermocouple at time t1 and t2
respectively, °C

Applications of thermal conductivity please refer to application for thermal diffusivity

ENTHALPY

Enthalpy is the total heat content or energy level of a material. The enthalpy data are
required for frozen foods that freeze over a range of temperatures below 0 °C and for those
substances that freeze in a narrow temperature limit, as the case of pure substance like
water. The enthalpy of the material can be estimated by using following expression.

h2-h1= m Cp T2-T1) + m Xw L (8)

Where, h2-h1=enthalpy difference

m=mass of the product
Cp=Specific heat of the product
Xw=Water fraction
T2-T1=temperature difference
L=latent heat of fusion for water

THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
Thermal diffusivity is the rate at which heat is diffused out of a material. This property is
dependent on specific heat and conductivity of the material.

Thermal diffusivity is important in determination of heat transfer rates in solid food materials
of any shape. Physically it shows the relationship betwe
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en the ability of a material to conduct heat to its ability to store heat.

The thermal diffusivity may be calculated by dividing the thermal conductivity with the
product of specific heat and mass density. It may be expressed as,

K (9)
μ=
ρCp

Where, µ =thermal diffusivity

K=thermal conductivity
ρ=mass density
Cp=specific heat

Applications

Many commodities are subjected to heat or cold treatment to control disease and/or insect
pests. The design of the treatment procedure will depend on the rate of heat transfer into or
out of the commodity, as well as the capacity of the commodity to contain heat.

Comprehension Check:

Direction. Read the following carefully and do what is being ask. Write it in a clean
sheet of 1 whole paper. Erasure means wrong. (5 pts each) Submit it at 12:00
today (November 7, 2024)

1. From the equation of specific heat, q= mc∆T, identify each variable by

names and the units associated with it.
2. Calculate the following
a) A sack of palay with a mass of 50kgabsorbs 100kJ while
undergoing a temperature increaseof 30 °C. What is the specific
heat of the palay?
b) Tomato has a specific heat of 1.690kJ/kg°C. Howmany joules of
heat energy are required to raise the temperature of 300 grams
of tomato from 22 °C to 85°C?
3. Heat is not the same as temperature, yet they are related. Explain how
they differ from each other.
4. Why Engineers need to understand the mechanism of heat transfer?

References
Bautista, O. K. 2004.Postharvest Technology for Southeast Asian Perishable Crops. A
simplified guide. Technology and Livelihood of Resource Center.
Krishnakumar, T. 2019. Engineering Properties of Agricultural Materials. Retrieved at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330533752
Wilhem, L.R. ,Dwayme A. S., and Brusewith G. H. 2005. Properties of Food Materials. Chapter
2 in Food and Process Engineering Technology. ASAE. Retrieved at
https://www.academia.edu/28413203