28  Chapter 1   Introduction

2.
Assume a shape function to represent the physical behavior of an element; that is,
a continuous function is assumed to represent the approximate behavior (solution)
of an element.
3.
Develop equations for an element.
4.
Assemble the elements to present the entire problem. Construct the global stiff-
ness matrix.
5.
Apply boundary conditions, initial conditions, and loading.
Solution Phase
6.
Solve a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations simultaneously to obtain
nodal results, such as displacement values at different nodes or temperature values
at different nodes in a heat transfer problem.
Postprocessing Phase
7.
Obtain other important information. At this point, you may be interested in values
of principal stresses, heat fluxes, and so on.
In general, there are several approaches to formulating finite element prob-
lems: (1) direct formulation, (2) the minimum total potential energy formulation, and
(3) weighted residual formulations. Again, it is important to note that the basic steps
involved in any finite element analysis, regardless of how we generate the finite element
model, will be the same as those listed above.

1.5 Direct Formulation
The following problem illustrates the steps and the procedure involved in direct
formulation.

Example 1.1
Consider a bar with a variable cross section supporting a load P, as shown in Figure 1.1.
The bar is fixed at one end and carries the load P at the other end. Let us designate
the width of the bar at the top by w1, at the bottom by w2, its thickness by t, and its
length by L. The bar’s modulus of elasticity will be denoted by E. We are interested in
approximating how much the bar will deflect at various points along its length when it
is subjected to the load P. We will neglect the weight of the bar in the following analysis,
assuming that the applied load is considerably larger than the weight of the bar:

Preprocessing Phase
1.
Discretize the solution domain into finite elements.
We begin by subdividing the problem into nodes and elements. In order to high-
light the basic steps in a finite element analysis, we will keep this problem simple
and thus represent it by a model that has five nodes and four elements, as shown
in Figure 1.2. However, note that we can increase the accuracy of our results by
generating a model with additional nodes and elements. This task is left as an exer-
cise for you to complete. (See Problem 1 at the end of this chapter.) The given bar

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 28 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   29

w1

w2

P Figure 1.1  A bar under axial loading.

is modeled using four individual segments (elements), with each segment having
a uniform cross section. The cross-sectional area of each element is represented
by an average area of the cross sections at the nodes that make up (define) the
element. This model is shown in Figure 1.2.
2.
Assume a solution that approximates the behavior of an element.
In order to study the behavior of a typical element, let’s consider the deflection of
a solid member with a uniform cross section A that has a length / when subjected
to a force F, as shown in Figure 1.3.
The average stress s in the member is given by
F
s = (1.1)
A
The average normal strain e of the member is defined as the change in length
∆/ per unit original length / of the member:
∆/
e = (1.2)
/

1
1 u1 Element 1
/1
A1
2
2 u2
/2 Element 2
A2
L 3
3 u3
/3 Element 3
A3
4
4 u4
/4 Element 4
A4
5
5 u5

P P P

Figure 1.2  Subdividing the bar into elements and nodes.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 29 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 30  Chapter 1   Introduction

/
kequivalent

∆/ x

Figure 1.3  A solid member of uniform

F F cross section subjected to a force F.

Over the elastic region, the stress and strain are related by Hooke’s law,
according to the equation
s = Ee (1.3)
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. Combining Eqs. (1.1), (1.2),
and (1.3) and simplifying, we have
AE
F = ¢ ≤ ∆/ (1.4)
/
Note that Eq. (1.4) is similar to the equation for a linear spring, F = kx.
Therefore, a centrally loaded member of uniform cross section may be modeled
as a spring with an equivalent stiffness of
AE
keq = (1.5)
/
Turning our attention to Example 1.1, we note once again that the bar’s cross sec-
tion varies in the y-direction. As a first approximation, we model the bar as a series
of centrally loaded members with different cross sections, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Thus, the bar is represented by a model consisting of four elastic springs (elements)
in series, and the elastic behavior of an element with nodes i and i + 1 is modeled
by an equivalent linear spring according to the equation
Aavg E (Ai + 1 + Ai)E
f = keq(ui + 1 - ui) = (ui + 1 - ui) = (ui + 1 - ui) (1.6)
/ 2/
where ui + 1 and ui are the deflections at nodes i + 1 and i, and the equivalent ele-
ment stiffness is given by
(Ai + 1 + Ai)E
keq = (1.7)
2/
Ai and Ai + 1 are the cross-sectional areas of the member at nodes i and i + 1
respectively, and / is the length of the element. Employing the above model, let us
consider the forces acting on each node. The free-body diagram of nodes, which
shows the forces acting on nodes 1 through 5 of this model, is depicted in Figure 1.4.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 30 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   31

R1
Node 1:

k1(u2 – u1)

k1(u2 – u1)
Node 2:

k2(u3 – u2)
k2(u3 – u2)

Node 3:

k3(u4 – u3)

k3(u4 – u3)

Node 4:

k4(u5 – u4)

k4(u5 – u4)
Node 5:
Figure 1.4  Free body diagram of the
P
nodes in Example 1.1.

Static equilibrium requires that the sum of the forces acting on each node be
zero. This requirement creates the following five equations:

node 1: R1 - k1(u2 - u1) = 0 (1.8)

node 2: k1(u2 - u1) - k2(u3 - u2) = 0
node 3: k2(u3 - u2) - k3(u4 - u3) = 0
node 4: k3(u4 - u3) - k4(u5 - u4) = 0
node 5: k4(u5 - u4) - P = 0

Rearranging the equilibrium equations given by Eq. (1.8) by separating the

reaction force R1 and the applied external force P from the internal forces, we
have

k1 u1 -k1u2 = -R1
-k1u1 +k1u2 +k2u2 -k2u3 = 0
-k2u2 +k2u3 +k3u3 -k3u4 = 0 (1.9)
-k3u3 +k3u4 +k4u4 -k4u5 = 0
-k4u4 +k4u5 = P

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 32  Chapter 1   Introduction

Presenting the equilibrium equations of Eq. (1.9) in a matrix form, we have

k1 -k1 0 0 0 u1 -R1
-k1 k 1 + k2 -k2 0 0 u2 0
E 0 -k2 k 2 + k3 -k3 0 U e u3 u = e 0 u (1.10)
0 0 -k3 k 3 + k4 -k4 u4 0
0 0 0 -k4 k4 u5 P

It is also important to distinguish between the reaction forces and the

applied loads in the load matrix. To do so, the matrix relation of Eq. (1.10) is
written as

-R1 k1 -k1 0 0 0 u1 0
0 -k1 k 1 + k2 -k2 0 0 u2 0
e 0 u = E 0 -k2 k 2 + k3 -k3 0 U e u3 u - e 0 u (1.11)
0 0 0 -k3 k 3 + k4 -k4 u4 0
0 0 0 0 -k4 k4 u5 P

We can readily show that under additional nodal loads and other fixed bound-
ary conditions, the relationship given by Eq. (1.11) can be put into the general
form

5 R 6 = [K] 5 u 6 - 5 F6 (1.12)

which stands for

5 reaction matrix6 = [stiffness matrix]{displacement matrix} - 5 load matrix6

Note the difference between applied load matrix 5 F6 and the reaction force
matrix 5 R 6 .
Turning our attention to Example 1.1 again, we find that because the bar
is fixed at the top, the displacement of node 1 is zero. Hence, there are only
four unknown nodal displacement values, u2, u3, u4, and u5. The reaction force
at node 1, R1, is also unknown—all together, there are five unknowns. Because
there are five equilibrium equations, as given by Eq. (1.11), we should be able to
solve for all of the unknowns. However, it is important to note that even though
the number of unknowns match the number of equations, the system of equa-
tions contains two different types of unknowns—displacement and reaction
force. In order to eliminate the need to consider the unknown reaction force
simultaneously and focus first on unknown displacements, we make use of the
known boundary condition and replace the first row of Eq. (1.10) with a row
that reads u1 = 0. The application of the boundary condition u1 = 0 eliminates
the need to consider the unknown reaction force in our system of equations
and creates a set of equations with the displacements being the only unknowns.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 32 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   33

Thus, application of the boundary condition leads to the following matrix

equation:
1 0 0 0 0 u1 0
-k1 k 1 + k2 -k2 0 0 u2 0
E 0 -k2 k 2 + k3 -k3 0 U e u3 u = e 0 u (1.13)
0 0 -k3 k 3 + k4 -k4 u4 0
0 0 0 -k4 k4 u5 P

The solution of the above matrix yields the nodal displacement values. It should be
clear from the above explanation and examining Eq. (1.13) that for solid mechanics
problems, the application of boundary conditions to the finite element formulations
transforms the system of equations as given by Eq. (1.11) to a new general form
that is made up of only the stiffness matrix, the displacement matrix, and the load
matrix:
[stiffness matrix]5 displacement matrix6 = 5 load matrix6
After we solve for the nodal displacement values, from the above relationship, we
use Eq. (1.12) to solve for the reaction force(s). In the next section, we will develop
the general elemental stiffness matrix and discuss the construction of the global
stiffness matrix by inspection.
3.
Develop equations for an element.
Because each of the elements in Example 1.1 has two nodes, and with each node
we have associated a displacement, we need to create two equations for each
element. These equations must involve nodal displacements and the element’s
stiffness. Consider the internally transmitted forces fi and fi + 1 and the end displace-
ments ui and ui + 1 of an element, which are shown in Figure 1.5.
Static equilibrium conditions require that the sum of fi and fi + 1 be zero. Note
that the sum of fi and fi + 1 is zero regardless of which representation of Figure 1.5
is selected. However, for the sake of consistency in the forthcoming derivation, we
will use the representation given by Figure 1.5(b), so that fi and fi + 1 are given in

fi = keq(ui+1 - ui) fi = keq(ui - ui+1)

Node i Node i
ui ui

OR y

Node i + 1 Node i + 1
ui+1 ui+1
fi+1 = keq(ui+1 - ui) fi+1 = keq(ui+1 - ui)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.5  Internally transmitted forces through an arbitrary element.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 33 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 34  Chapter 1   Introduction

the positive y-direction. Thus, we write the transmitted forces at nodes i and i + 1
according to the following equations:
fi = keq(ui - ui + 1)
fi + 1 = keq(ui + 1 - ui) (1.14)
Equation (1.14) can be expressed in a matrix form by
fi k -keq u
b r = J eq R b i r (1.15)
fi + 1 -keq keq ui + 1
4.
Assemble the elements to present the entire problem.
Applying the elemental description given by Eq. (1.15) to all elements and assem-
bling them (putting them together) will lead to the formation of the global stiffness
matrix. The stiffness matrix for element (1) is given by
k1 -k1
[K](1) = J R
-k1 k1
and its position in the global stiffness matrix is given by
k1 -k1 0 0 0 u1
-k1 k1 0 0 0 u2
[K](1G) = E 0 0 0 0 0U u3
0 0 0 0 0 u4
0 0 0 0 0 u5
The nodal displacement matrix is shown alongside the position of element 1
in the global stiffness matrix to aid us to observe the contribution of a node to its
neighboring elements. Similarly, for elements (2), (3), and (4), we have
k2 -k2
[K](2) = J R
-k2 k2
and its position in the global matrix
0 0 0 0 0 u1
0 k2 -k2 0 0 u2
[K](2G) = E0 -k2 k2 0 0U u3
0 0 0 0 0 u4
0 0 0 0 0 u5
k3 -k3
[K](3) = J R
-k3 k3
and its position in the global matrix
0 0 0 0 0 u1
0 0 0 0 0 u2
[K](3G) = E0 0 k3 -k3 0U u3
0 0 -k3 k3 0 u4
0 0 0 0 0 u5

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 34 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   35

and

k4 -k4
[K](4) = J R
-k4 k4

and its position in the global matrix

0 0 0 0 0 u1
0 0 0 0 0 u2
[K](4G) = E0 0 0 0 0 U u3
0 0 0 k4 -k4 u4
0 0 0 -k4 k4 u5

The final global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling, or adding together, each
element’s position in the global stiffness matrix:

[K](G) = [K](1G) + [K](2G) + [K](3G) + [K](4G)

k1 -k1 0 0 0
-k1 k 1 + k2 -k2 0 0
[K](G) = E 0 -k2 k 2 + k3 -k3 0 U (1.16)
0 0 -k3 k 3 + k4 -k4
0 0 0 -k4 k4

Note that the global stiffness matrix obtained using elemental description, as given
by Eq. (1.16), is identical to the global stiffness matrix we obtained earlier from
the analysis of the free-body diagrams of the nodes, as given by the left-hand side
of Eq. (1.10).
5.
Apply boundary conditions and loads.
The bar is fixed at the top, which leads to the boundary condition u1 = 0. The
external load P is applied at node 5. Applying these conditions results in the fol-
lowing set of linear equations.

1 0 0 0 0 u1 0
-k1 k 1 + k2 -k2 0 0 u2 0
E 0 -k2 k 2 + k3 -k3 0 U e u3 u = e 0 u (1.17)
0 0 -k3 k 3 + k4 -k4 u4 0
0 0 0 -k4 k4 u5 P

Again, note that the first row of the matrix in Eq. (1.17) must contain a 1 followed
by four 0s to read u1 = 0, the given boundary condition. As explained earlier, also
note that in solid mechanics problems, the finite element formulation will always
lead to the following general form:

[stiffness matrix]5 displacement matrix6 = 5 load matrix6

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 36  Chapter 1   Introduction

Solution Phase
6.
Solve a system of algebraic equations simultaneously.
In order to obtain numerical values of the nodal displacements, let us assume that
E = 10.4 * 106 lb/in2 (aluminum), w1 = 2 in, w2 = 1 in, t = 0.125 in, L = 10 in,
and P = 1000 lb. You may consult Table 1.5 while working toward the solution.

Table 1.5  Properties of the elements in Example 1.1

Average Modulus of Element’s Stiffness

Cross-Sectional Elasticity Coefficient
Element Nodes Area (in2) Length (in) (lb/in2) (lb/in)

1 1 2 0.234375 2.5 10.4 * 106 975 * 103

2 2 3 0.203125 2.5 10.4 * 106 845 * 103
3 3 4 0.171875 2.5 10.4 * 106 715 * 103
4 4 5 0.140625 2.5 10.4 * 106 585 * 103

The variation of the cross-sectional area of the bar in the y-direction can be
expressed by:

w2 - w1 (1 - 2)
A(y) = ¢ w1 + ¢ ≤y≤t = ¢ 2 + y≤(0.125) = 0.25 - 0.0125y (1.18)
L 10

Using Eq. (1.18), we can compute the cross-sectional areas at each node:

A1 = 0.25 in2 A2 = 0.25 - 0.0125(2.5) = 0.21875 in2

A3 = 0.25 - 0.0125(5.0) = 0.1875 in2 A4 = 0.25 - 0.0125(7.5) = 0.15625 in2
A5 = 0.125 in2

Next, the equivalent stiffness coefficient for each element is computed from the
equations

(Ai + 1 + Ai)E
keq =
2/

(0.21875 + 0.25)(10.4 * 106) lb

k1 = = 975 * 103
2(2.5) in

(0.1875 + 0.21875)(10.4 * 106) lb

k2 = = 845 * 103
2(2.5) in

(0.15625 + 0.1875)(10.4 * 106) lb

k3 = = 715 * 103
2(2.5) in

(0.125 + 0.15625)(10.4 * 106) lb

k4 = = 585 * 103
2(2.5) in

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 36 27/11/14 9:32 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   37

and the elemental matrices are

k1 -k1 975 -975
[K](1) = J R = 103 J R
-k1 k1 -975 975
k2 -k2 845 -845
[K](2) = J R = 103 J R
-k2 k2 -845 845
k3 -k3 715 -715
[K](3) = J R = 103 J R
-k3 k3 -715 715
k4 -k4 585 -585
[K](4) = J R = 103 J R
-k4 k4 -585 585
Assembling the elemental matrices leads to the generation of the global stiffness
matrix:
975 -975 0 0 0
-975 975 + 845 -845 0 0
[K](G) = 103 E 0 -845 845 + 715 -715 0 U
0 0 -715 715 + 585 -585
0 0 0 -585 585
Applying the boundary condition u1 = 0 and the load P = 1000 lb, we get
1 0 0 0 0 u1 0
-975 1820 -845 0 0 u2 0
103 E 0 -845 1560 -715 0 U e u3 u = e 0 u
0 0 -715 1300 -585 u4 0
0 0 0 -585 585 u5 103
Because in the second row, the -975 coefficient gets multiplied by u1 = 0, we
need only to solve the following 4 * 4 matrix:
1820 -845 0 0 u2 0
-845 1560 -715 0 u 0
103 D T d 3t = d t
0 -715 1300 -585 u4 0
0 0 -585 585 u5 103
The displacement solution is u1 = 0, u2 = 0.001026 in, u3 = 0.002210 in,
u4 = 0.003608 in, and u5 = 0.005317 in.

Postprocessing Phase
7.
Obtain other information.
For Example 1.1, we may be interested in obtaining other information, such as the
average normal stresses in each element. These values can be determined from
the equation
AavgE
keq(ui + 1 - ui) (ui + 1 - ui)
f / u i + 1 - ui
s = = = = E¢ ≤ (1.19)
Aavg Aavg Aavg /

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 38  Chapter 1   Introduction

Since the displacements of different nodes are known, Eq. (1.19) could have been
obtained directly from the relationship between the stresses and strains,
u i + 1 - ui
s = Ee = E ¢ ≤ (1.20)
/
Employing Eq. (1.20) in Example 1.1, we compute the average normal stress for
each element as
u 2 - u1 (10.4 * 106)(0.001026 - 0) lb
s(1) = E ¢ ≤ = = 4268 2
/ 2.5 in
u 3 - u2 (10.4 * 106)(0.002210 - 0.001026) lb
s(2) = E ¢ ≤ = = 4925 2
/ 2.5 in
u 4 - u3 (10.4 * 106)(0.003608 - 0.002210) lb
s(3) = E ¢ ≤ = = 5816 2
/ 2.5 in
u 5 - u4 (10.4 * 106)(0.005317 - 0.003608) lb
s(4) = E ¢ ≤ = = 7109 2
/ 2.5 in

In Figure 1.6, we note that for the given problem, regardless of where we cut a
section through the bar, the internal force at the section is equal to 1000 lb. So,
f 1000 lb
s(1) = = = 4267 2
Aavg 0.234375 in
f 1000 lb
s(2) = = = 4923 2
Aavg 0.203125 in
f 1000 lb
s(3) = = = 5818 2
Aavg 0.171875 in
f 1000 lb
s(4) = = = 7111 2
Aavg 0.140625 in

f=P

f=P

P = 1000 lb P P

Figure 1.6  The internal forces in Example 1.1.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 38 27/11/14 9:33 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   39

Ignoring the errors we get from rounding off our answers, we find that these
results are identical to the element stresses computed from the displacement
information. This comparison tells us that our displacement calculations are good
for this problem.
Reaction Forces  For Example 1.1, the reaction force may be computed in a num-
ber of ways. First, referring to Figure 1.4, we note that the statics equilibrium at
node 1 requires
R1 = k1(u2 - u1) = 975 * 103(0.001026 - 0) = 1000 lb
The statics equilibrium for the entire bar also requires that
R1 = P = 1000 lb
As you may recall, we can also compute the reaction forces from the general reac-
tion equation
5 R 6 = [K]5 u 6 - 5 F6
or
5 reaction matrix6 = [stiffness matrix]5 displacement matrix6 - 5 load matrix6
Because Example 1.1 is a simple problem, we do not actually need to go through
the matrix operations in the aforementioned general equation to compute the
reaction forces. However, as a demonstration, the procedure is shown here. From
the general equation, we get
R1 975 -975 0 0 0 0 0
R2 -975 1820 -845 0 0 0.001026 0
e R3 u = 103 E 0 -845 1560 -715 0 U e 0.002210 u - e 0 u
R4 0 0 -715 1300 -585 0.003608 0
R5 0 0 0 -585 585 0.005317 103
where R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 represent the reactions forces at nodes 1 through 5
respectively. Performing the matrix operation, we have
R1 -1000
R2 0
e R3 u = e 0 u
R4 0
R5 0

The negative value of R1 simply means that the direction of the reaction force is
up (because we assumed that the positive y-direction points down). Of course,
as expected, the outcome is the same as in our earlier calculations because the
rows of the above matrix represent the static equilibrium conditions at each
node. When solving for reaction forces, it is important to note that you must use
the  complete stiffness matrix, without the influence of boundary conditions, as

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 39 27/11/14 9:33 AM

 40  Chapter 1   Introduction

shown in E­ quations (1.11) and (1.12). Next, we will consider finite element for-
mulation of a heat transfer problem. Example 1.1 also is solved using Excel. See
Section 2.11.

Example 1.2
A typical exterior frame wall (made up of 2 * 4 studs) of a house contains the materi-
als shown in the table below. Let us assume an inside room temperature of 70°F and an
outside air temperature of 20°F, with an exposed area of 150 ft2. We are interested in
determining the temperature distribution through the wall.

Resistance U-factor
Items hr # ft2 # °F/Btu Btu/hr # ft2 # °F

1. O
 utside film resistance (winter,   0.17 5.88
  15-mph wind)
2. Siding, wood (1/2 * 8 lapped)   0.81   1.23
3. Sheathing (1/2 in regular)   1.32 0.76
4. Insulation batt (3 - 3½ in) 11.0  0.091 6
5
5. Gypsum wall board (1/2 in)   0.45 2.22 4
1 3
Inside film resistance (winter)
6.   0.68   1.47 2

Preprocessing Phase

1.
Discretize the solution domain into finite elements.
We will represent this problem by a model that has seven nodes and six elements,
as shown in Figure 1.7.
2.
Assume a solution that approximates the behavior of an element.
For Example 1.2, there are two modes of heat transfer (conduction and convec-
tion) that we must first understand before we can proceed with formulating the
conductance matrix and the thermal load matrix. The steady-state thermal behav-
ior of the elements (2), (3), (4), and (5) may be modeled using Fourier’s law. When
there exists a temperature gradient in a medium, conduction heat transfer occurs,
as shown in Figure 1.8. The energy is transported from the high-temperature region

Siding Sheathing Insulation Gypsum

Batt Board

T1 = 205F Element 2 Element 3 Element4 Element 5 T7 = 705F

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7

Figure 1.7  Finite element model of Example 1.2.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 40 27/11/14 9:33 AM

 Section 1.5   Direct Formulation   41

k Ti+1

Ti qX

X Figure 1.8  Heat transfer in a medium

by conduction.

to the low-temperature region by molecular activities. The heat transfer rate is

given by Fourier’s law:
0T
qX = -kA (1.21)
0X
qX is the X-component of the heat transfer rate, k is the thermal conductivity of
0T
the medium, A is the area normal to heat flow, and is the temperature gradient.
0X
The minus sign in Eq. (1.21) is due to the fact that heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature. Equation (1.21) can be written in a difference form in
terms of the spacing between the nodes (length of the element) / and the respec-
tive temperatures of the nodes i and i + 1, Ti and Ti + 1, according to the equation
kA(Ti + 1 - Ti)
q = (1.22)
/
In the field of heat transfer, it is also common to write Eq. (1.22) in terms
of the thermal transmittance coefficient U, or, as it is often called, the U-factor
(U = k/ ). The U-factor represents thermal transmission through a unit area
and has the units of Btu/hr # ft2 # °F. It is the reciprocal of thermal resistance. So,
Equation (1.22) becomes
q = UA(Ti + 1 - Ti) (1.23)
The steady-state thermal behavior of elements (1) and (6) may be modeled
using Newton’s law of cooling. Convection heat transfer occurs when a fluid in
motion comes into contact with a surface whose temperature differs from the
moving fluid. The overall heat transfer rate between the fluid and the surface is
governed by Newton’s law of cooling, according to the equation
q = hA(Ts - Tf) (1.24)

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 41 27/11/14 9:33 AM

 42  Chapter 1   Introduction

where h is the heat transfer coefficient, Ts is the surface temperature, and Tf

r­ epresents the temperature of the moving fluid. Newton’s law of cooling can also
be written in terms of the U-factor, such that
q = UA(Ts - Tf) (1.25)
where U = h, and it represents the reciprocal of thermal resistance due to con-
vection boundary conditions. Under steady-state conduction, the application of
energy balance to a surface, with a convective heat transfer, requires that the
energy transferred to this surface via conduction must be equal to the energy
transfer by convection. This principle,
0T
-kA = hA[Ts - Tf] (1.26)
0X
is depicted in Figure 1.9.
Now that we understand the two modes of heat transfer involved in this
problem, we can apply the energy balance to the various surfaces of the wall,
starting with the wall’s exterior surface located at node 2. The heat loss through
the wall due to conduction must equal the heat loss to the surrounding cold air
by convection. That is,
U2A(T3 - T2) = U1A(T2 - T1)
The application of energy balance to surfaces located at nodes 3, 4, and 5 yields
the equations
U3A(T4 - T3) = U2A(T3 - T2)
U4A(T5 - T4) = U3A(T4 - T3)
U5A(T6 - T5) = U4A(T5 - T4)
For the interior surface of the wall, located at node 6, the heat loss by convection
of warm air is equal to the heat transfer by conduction through the gypsum board,
according to the equation
U6A(T7 - T6) = U5A(T6 - T5)

qconduction =- kA
0T
qconvection = hA[Ts - Tf ]
0X
Ti+1

Ti = Ts k

Tf , h

X Figure 1.9  Energy balance at a surface

with a convective heat transfer.

M01_MOAV4303_04_GE_C01.INDD 42 27/11/14 9:33 AM