Surveying Practice

INTRODUCTION
THEODOLITE SURVEYING

DEFINITION: The Theodolite is an intricate instrument used mainly for accurate

measurement of horizontal and vertical angles upto 10” to 20” depending upon the least
count of the instrument. Because of its various uses the Theodolite is sometimes known as a
universal instrument.

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE DIFFERENT PURPOSE FOR WHICH THE

THEODOLITE CAN BE USED.

1. Measuring horizontal angles.

2. Measuring vertical angles.
3. Measuring deflection angles.
4. Measuring magnetic bearings.
5. Measuring the horizontal distance b/w two points.
6. Finding the vertical height of an object.
7. Finding the difference of elevation b/w various points.
8. Ranging a line.

TYPE OF THEODOLITE:

Theodolites may be of two types

1) Transit Theodolite
2) Non-transit Theodolite

1. Transit Theodolite: In transit Theodolite, the telescope can be revolved through a

complete revolution (180 o) about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.
2. Non- transit Theodolite: In non-transit Theodolite, the telescope cannot be revolve
through a complete revolution in the vertical plane. But it can be revolved to a certain
extent in the vertical plane, in order to measure the angle of elevation or depression.

THE THEODOLITE MAY ALSO BE CLASSIFIED AS:

1. Vernier Theodolite:- When fitted with a vernier scale

2. Micrometer Theodolite:- When fitted with a micrometer

FUNDAMENTAL LINES OF A THEODOLITE ARE

1) The vertical axis

2) The horizontal axis
3) Line of collimation
4) Altitude level axis
5) Plate level axis

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THE DESIRED RELATIONSHIP B/W THE FUNDAMENTAL LINES ARE AS

FOLLOWS:-

1) The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the vertical axis
2) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis
3) The line of collimation should coincide with the optical axis of the telescope and
should also be perpendicular to the vertical axis
4) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal axis and the vertical
circle should read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.

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EXERCISE NO. 1(a)

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

AIM
To measure horizontal distance between two points using tape and Direct
ranging.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows.

THEORY
The process of measuring the distance using chain or tape is called
Chaining. While measuring the length of a survey line chain or tape must be
stretched straight along the line joining two terminal stations. When the length of the
line exceeds the length of a tape, some intermediate points will have to be
established in line with the two terminal points before chaining is started. This
process of establishing such intermediate points is known as Ranging. Direct
ranging is done when two end points of the survey lines are intervisible. In such
cases ranging can either be done by eye or through some optical instrument such as
line ranger or a theodolite.

Two persons engaged in the measurement of the distance are called

Chainmen. Counting of paces is one method to directly count the number of paces
while walking along the length to be measured. The distance covered by one pace
by an individual more or less remains constant and can be used for rough estimation
of distance. Passometer is an instrument used to help in counting the number of
paces made by an individual. It can be kept in the shirt or trouser pocket while
pacing. The instrument records the number of paces made by the bearer.
Pedometer has the facility of setting the pace distance of the individual. It records
the number of paces directly indicates the distance. Indirect measurement of
distance involves tacheometry, electromagnetic distance measurement [EDM]
instruments.

DIAGRAM

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FORMULA
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

PROCEDURE
1. Let the length of a line AB is to be measured, Point ‘A’ being the
starting point.
2. Erect two ranging rods vertically at ‘A’ and ‘B’.
3. The surveyor stands about half metre behind the ranging rod at ‘A’ in
line with ‘AB’.
4. The assistant then goes with another ranging rod and establishes the
rod at a point approximately in line with ‘AB’ (by judgment) at a
distance not greater than one chain length from ‘A’.
5. The surveyor at ‘A’ directs the assistant to move the ranging rod till it is
in line with ‘AB’. The code of signals used for this purpose is given in
the table below:
SL.
NO. Signal by the Surveyor Action by the assistant

1 Rapid sweep with right hand Move considerably to the

right
2 Slow sweep with right hand Move slowly to the right
3 Right arm extended Continue to move to the right
4 Right arm up and moved to the right Plumb the rod to the right
5 Rapid sweep with left hand Move considerably to the left
6 Slow sweep with left hand Move slowly to the left
7 Left arm extended Continue to move to the left
8 Left arm up and moved to the right Plumb the rod to the left
9 Both the hands above head and Correct
then brought down
10 Both the arms extended forward Fix the rod
horizontally and the hands
depressed briskly
6. Similarly establish some intermediate stations by direct ranging.
7. The follower stands at the point ‘A’ holding one end of the tape while
the leader moves ahead holding zero end of the tape in one hand and
a bundle of arrows in the other. When he reaches approximately one
tape length distance from ‘A’, the follower directs him for ranging in the
line.

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8. The tape is then pulled out and whipped gently to make sure that its
entire length lies along the line.
9. The leader then pushes the arrow into the ground, opposite the zero.
10. When the second arrow has been established by the leader, the
follower picks up the first arrow and both the persons move ahead as
described in the step7, 8 and 9.
11. At the end of the line (at B) the last measurement will generally be a
partial tape length. The leader holds the zero end of the tape at ’B’
while the follower pulls the tape back till it becomes taut and then
reads against the arrow.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Total distance measured = ………………….
Number of Paces = …………………………..

Pace value = =

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE ON SLOPPING GROUND

AIM
To measure distance between two points using tape on slopping ground.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows, Drop arrow, Clinometer.

THEORY
Reciprocal ranging or Indirect ranging is employed when both the ends of
the survey line are not intervisible either due to high intervening ground or due to
long distance between them. In case of irregular slopes the direct method of
chaining on slopping ground is suitable.

DIAGRAM

a) Direct method (Method of Stepping)

1. Let it is required to measure the horizontal distance between the two

points A and B.
2. The follower holds the zero end of the tape at A while the leader
selects any suitable length l1 of the tape and moves forward. The
follower directs the leader for ranging.
3. The leader pulls the tape tight, makes it horizontal and the point 1 is
then transferred to the ground by a plumb bob. Sometimes, a special
form of drop arrow is used to transfer the point to the surface, as
shown in figure above.
4. The procedure is then repeated. The total horizontal distance D
between the two points is then equal to l1+l2+l3+l4+……….
5. The lengths l1, l2 etc., to be selected depend on the steepness of
slope. Steeper the slope, lesser the length and vice versa.

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b) Indirect method
i. Angle measured

Clinometer

1. Measure the inclined distances l1, l2 etc.

2. The slopes of the lines (𝜃1 ,𝜃2 etc.) with the help of clinometer.
3. The total horizontal distance D between the two points is then
equal to ∑ 𝑙𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖

ii. Difference in level measured

1. The difference in the level (h) between the points is measured with the
help of levelling instrument.
2. The inclined length l is measured.

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3. The total horizontal distance D between the two points is then equal to
√ℎ2 + 𝑙2

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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EXERCISE NO. 1(b)

SETTING OUT OF PERPENDICULARS

AIM
To set out perpendiculars to a given chain line using cross staff, optical
square and tape.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows, Cross staff, Optical square.

THEORY
There are several types of instruments used to set out a right angle to a chain
line. The most common being cross staff, optical square and prism square. The
simplest instrument used for setting out right angle is a cross staff. It consists of
either a frame or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on a pole for
fixing in the ground. The common form of cross staff are open cross staff, French
cross staff, adjustable cross staff. Optical square is somewhat more convenient
and accurate instrument than the cross staff for setting out a line at right angles to
another line. It consists of a circular box with three slits at E, F, and G. in line with
the openings E and G, a glass silvered at the top and unsilvered at the bottom, is
fixed facing the opening E. Opposite to the opening F, a silver glass is fixed at A
making an angle of 45º to the previous glass. A ray from the ranging rod at Q passes
through the lower unsilvered portion of the mirror at B and is seen directly by eye at
the slit E. Another ray from the object at P is received by the mirror at A and is
reflected towards the mirror at B which reflects it towards the eye. Thus the images
of P and Q are visible at B, if both the images are in the same vertical line.

PROCEDURE
I. Perpendicular setting using optical square
To set a right angle on a survey line, the instrument is held on the line with its
centre on the point at which perpendicular is erected. The slits F and G are
directed towards the ranging rod fixed at the end of the line. The surveyor
(holding the instrument) then directs person holding a ranging rod and
standing in a direction roughly perpendicular to the chain line, to move till the
two images described above coincide.

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II. Perpendicular setting using cross staff

Cross staff

1. The cross staff is set up at a point on the line where perpendicular is to be set
out.
2. The cross staff is turned until one line of sight bisects the ranging rod at the
end of the survey line.
3. The line of sight through the other slit will be at right angle to the survey line
and ranging rod may be established in that direction.

III. Perpendicular setting using tape

DIAGRAM

Let it be required to erect a perpendicular to the chain line AB at a point C.

 3-4-5 method
1. Establish a point E at a distance 3m from C.
2. Put the zero end of the tape at E and the 10m end at C. The 5m and
6m marks are brought together to form a loop of 1m.
3. The tape is now stretched tight fastening the ends E and C. The point
D is thus established. CD will be perpendicular to AB.

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 Second method
1. Select E and F equidistance from C.
2. Hold the zero end of the tape at E and 10m end at F.
3. Pick up 5m mark, stretch the tape tight and establish D. Join DC.CD
will be perpendicular to AB.

 To drop a perpendicular to a given chain line from a point outside it

1. Select any point E on the line AB.
2. With D as centre and DE as radius, draw an arc to cut the chain line in
F.
3. Bisect EF at C. CD will be perpendicular to AB.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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EXERCISE NO. 2
OBSTACLE
a) OBSTACLE TO RANGING BUT NOT CHAINING

AIM
To range and measure the distance between two points which is having
obstacle to ranging but not chaining.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows, Cross staff.

THEORY
There may be two cases of this obstacle.
a) Both ends of the line may be visible from intermediate points on the line –
by Reciprocal ranging or indirect ranging.
b) Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate points on the
line.

DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Let AB be the line in which A and B are not visible from intermediate point on
it.
2. Through A, draw a random line AB1 in any convenient direction but as nearly
towards B as possible.
3. The point B 1 should be chosen in such a way that it is visible from B and BB1
is perpendicular to the random line. Measure BB 1.
4. Select points C1 and D 1 on the random line and erect perpendicular
𝐴𝐶1 𝐴𝐷1
C1C= 𝑋𝐵𝐵1 and D 1D= 𝑋𝐵𝐵1 on it.
𝐴𝐵1 𝐴𝐵1

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OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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b) OBSTACLE TO CHAINING BUT NOT RANGING

AIM
To range and measure the distance between two points which is having
obstacle to chaining but not ranging.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows, Cross staff, Optical square.

THEORY
There may be two cases of this obstacle:
i. When it is possible to chain round the obstacle, i.e. a pond, hedge etc.
ii. When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle, i.e. a river.

DIAGRAM

When it is possible to chain round the obstacle

When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle

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PROCEDURE
A. When it is possible to chain round the obstacle
Method (a):
1. Select two points A and B on either side.
2. Set out equal perpendiculars AC and BD shown in[fig.(a)]. Measure
CD=AB.
Method (b):
1. Set out AC perpendicular to the chain line. Measure AC and BC [fig.(b)]
2. The length AB is calculated from the relation AB=√𝐵𝐶 2 − 𝐴𝐶 2 .
Method (c):
1. By optical square or cross staff, find a point C which subtends 90º with A
and B.
2. Measure AC and BC [fig.(c)]. The length AB is calculated from the
relation AB=√𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 .
Method (d):
1. Select two points C and D on either side of A in the same line.
2. Measure AC, AD, BC and BD [fig.(d)].
3. Let angle BCD be equal to 𝜃.

𝐵𝐶 2 +𝐴𝐶 2 −𝐴𝐵 2
cos𝜃=
2𝑋𝐵𝐶𝑋𝐴𝐶
4. The length AB is calculated from the relation

(𝐵𝐶 2𝑋𝐴𝐷)+(𝐵𝐷2𝑋𝐴𝐶)
AB=√ − (𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐴𝐷)
𝐶𝐷
Method (e):
1. Select any point E and range C in line with AE, making AE= EC.
2. Range D in line with BE and make BE=ED. Measure CD=AB [fig.(e)].
Method (f):
1. Select any suitable point E and measure AE and BE. Mark C and D on
𝐴𝐸 𝐵𝐸
AE and BE such that CE= and DE = .
𝑛 𝑛
2. Measure CD. AB= nXCD [fig.(f)].

B. When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle

Method (a):
1. Select point B on one side and A and C on the other side. Erect AD and
CE as perpendiculars to AB and range B, D and E in one line.
2. Measure AC, AD and CE [fig.(a)].

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3. If a line DF is drawn parallel to AB, cutting CE in F perpendicularly. The

triangles ABD and FDE will be similar.
𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐵 =
𝐶𝐸 − 𝐴𝐷
Method (b):
1. Erect a perpendicular AC and bisect it at D.
2. Erect perpendicular CE at C and range E in line with BD.
3. Measure CE=AB [fig.(b)].
Method (c):
1. Erect a perpendicular AC at A and choose any convenient point C.
2. With the help of an optical square, fix a point D on the chain line in such a
way that BCD is a right angle [fig.(c)].
3. Measure AC and AD.
4. The triangles ABC and DAC will be similar.
𝐴𝐶 2
𝐴𝐵 =
𝐴𝐷
Method (d):
1. Fix point C in such a way that it subtends 90º with AB.
2. Range D in line with AC and make AD=AC.
3. At D, erect a perpendicular DE to cut the line in E [fig.(d)]. Then AB=AE.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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c) OBSTACLE TO BOTH CHAINING AND RANGING

AIM
To range and measure the distance between two points which is having
obstacle to both chaining and ranging.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows, Cross staff.

THEORY
A building is the typical example of this type of obstacle. The problem lies in
prolonging the line beyond the obstacle and determining the distance across it.

DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
Method (a):
1. Choose two points A and B to one side and erect perpendiculars AC and
BD of equal length.
2. Join CD and prolong it. Choose two points E and F on CD and erect
perpendiculars EG and FH equal to that of AC.
3. Join GH and prolong it. Measure DE=BG [fig.(a)].

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Method (b):
1. Select a point A and erect a perpendicular AC of any convenient length.
2. Select another point B on the chain line such that AB=AC. Join B and C
and prolong it to any convenient point D. At D set right angle DE such that
DE=DB.
3. Choose another point F on DE such that DF=DC. With F as centre and AB
as radius, draw an arc. With E as centre, draw another arc of s ame radius
to cut the previous arc in G.
4. Join GE which will be in range with the chain line. Measure CF. the
AG=CF [fig.(b)].
Method (c):
1. Select two points A and B on the chain line and construct an equilateral
triangle ABE by swinging arcs. Join AE and produce it to any point F.
2. On AF, choose any point H and construct an equilateral triangle FHK.
3. Join F and K and produce it to D such that FD=FA.
4. Choose a point G on FD and construct an equilateral triangle CDG.
5. The direction CD is in range with the chain line [fig.(c)].
6. The length BC is given by
BC=AD-AB-CD=AF-AB-CD
3. Method (d):
1. Select two points A and B on the chain line and set a line CBD at any
angle.
2. Join A and C and produce it to F such that AF =nXAC.
3. Similarly join A and D and produce it to G such that AG=nXAD.
4. Join F and G and mark point E on it such that FE=nXBC.
5. Similarly, produce AF and AG to H and K respectively such that
AH=nlXAC and AK=nlXAD.
6. Join H and K and mark J on it in such a way that HJ=n lXCB.
7. Join EJ, which be in range with chain line.
8. The obstructed distance BE [fig.(d)].is given by
BE= (n-1)AB

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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EXERCISE NO. 3
SETTING OF GEOMETRICAL FIGURES USING PRISMATIC
COMPASS

AIM
To set out rectangle, pentagon, hexagon using tape and compass.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Prismatic compass with stand, Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows.

THEORY
Meridian is a fixed direction. Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given
meridian. A compass measures bearing of a line with reference to magnetic
meridian.In whole circle bearing (WCB) system the bearing of a line is measured
from magnetic north in clockwise direction. The value of bearing may vary from 0 º to
360º. In quadrantal bearing (QB) system the bearing of a line is measured in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction either from magnetic north or from south
whichever is nearer. The value of bearing may vary from 0 º to 90º.The bearing of the
line measured in the direction of the progress of survey is called fore bearing (FB).
The bearing of the line measured in the direction opposite to the survey is called
back bearing (BB).

DIAGRAM

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FORMULAE:
(𝟐𝒏−𝟒)𝟗𝟎
 𝑰𝑨 =
𝒏
WhereIA= Internal included angle
n= Number of sides of polygon.
 For clockwise traverse,
IA= Bearing of previous line – Bearing of next line.
 For anticlockwise traverse,
IA= Bearing of next line – Bearing of previous line.

PROCEDURE:
1. The bearings for various sides of regular geometrical figure are tabulated.
2. The prismatic compass is setup at first station and carry out temporary
adjustment s.
3. The fore bearing of first line is set out and the next station is located by
measuring the distance in that direction.
4. Now the instrument is shifted to the next station and the fore bearing for the
next line is set out. The next station is located by measuring the distance
along that direction.
5. The procedure is repeated for all the lines.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

PROBLEM

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SL.
NO. Line FB BB
1
2
3
4
5
6

RESULT:

COMMENT:

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EXERCISE NO. 4
COMPASS TRAVERSING
AIM
To measure the bearings of the sides of the closed traverse and adjustment
of the closing error by Bowditch method.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Prismatic compass with stand, Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows.

THEORY
A ‘traverse’ is a frame formed by a series of connected straight lines none of
which is connected at each of its ends to lines more than one. The points defining
the ends of the traverse line are called traverse stations or traverse points. When the
lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point is known as a closed traverse. If
the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse. The closed traverse is
suitable for locating boundaries of lakes, forests etc. The open traverse is suitable
for surveying along long narrow strip of land required for a road or canal or pipeline
or the coast line.

In compass traversing, the magnetic bearing of the survey lines are measured
by a compass and the length of the survey lines are measured either with a chain or
with a tape. The direction of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse
station independently. The method is also known as free or loose needle method.
The latitude (L) of survey line may be defined as its coordinate length measured
parallel to the assumed meridian direction. The latitude of the line is positive when
measured northward (upward) and is termed as northing. The latitude of the line is
negative when measured southward (downward) and is termed as southing. The
departure (D) of survey line may be defined as its coordinate length measured right
angles to the assumed meridian direction. The departure of the line is positive when
measured eastward and is termed as easting. The departure of the line is negative
when measured westward and is termed as westing.

Closing error or error of closure is the actual distance by which the traverse
fails to close. Bowditch method is also known as compass rule. In this method the
total error in latitude and departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the
traverse lines. It is used to balance the traverse when the angular and linear
measurements are equally precise.

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DIAGRAM

FORMULAE
 Bowditch method:
𝒍
CL= ∑𝑳𝑿 ∑
𝒍
𝒍
CD= ∑𝑫𝑿 ∑
𝒍

Where CL= Correction to latitude of any side

CD= Correction to departure of any side
𝑙 = Length of that side
∑ 𝑙 = Perimeter of traverse

PROCEDURE
1. Let A, B, C, D, E are the traverse stations.
2. Set the compass at station ‘A’ and take the fore bearing of the line AB.
Measure the distance AB.
3. Now shift the instrument to the station ‘B’, take the bearing of the line BC.
Also take the back bearing of line AB, measure the distance BC.
4. Similarly the length and bearing of each line of the traverse is to be
measured.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Bowditch method
SL. Line Length Bearing Latitude Departure Corrections Corrected
NO. (𝑙)in m L= 𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 D= 𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 Latitude Departure Latitude Departure
1
2
3
4
5
6

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∑ 𝑙 = …………….
∑ 𝐿 = ……………
∑ 𝐷= ……………

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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EXERCISE NO. 5
DISTANCE BETWEEN INACCESSIBLE STATIONS

AIM
To determine the distance between two inaccessible stations using tape and
compass.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Prismatic compass with stand, Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows.

THEORY
The stations are said to be inaccessible, if the distance between two stations
cannot be measured due to obstacles like pond, lake, or marshy land. A triangle is
said to be well-conditioned when no angle in it is less than 30º and greater than 120º.
An equilateral triangle is considered to be best-condition or ideal triangle. A triangle
in which angle is less than 30º or greater than 120 º is said to be ill condition triangle.

DIAGRAM

FORMULAE

 Sine rule for ∆lePQA is

𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝐴 𝑄𝐴
= =
sin 𝜃5 sin 𝜃3 sin (𝜃1 + 𝜃2)

 Sine rule for ∆lePQB is

𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝐵 𝑃𝐵
= =
sin 𝜃6 sin 𝜃2 sin (𝜃3 + 𝜃4)

 Cosine(Cos) rule for ∆leABP is

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AB2 = PA 2+PB2 – 2XPAXPBXcos𝜃1

 Cosine(Cos) rule for ∆leABQ is
AB2 = QA2+QB2 – 2XQAXQBXcos𝜃4

PROCEDURE
1. Let it be required to determine the distance between two inaccessible stations
A and B.
2. Select a line PQ approximately parallel to AB.
3. Set the compass at P and take the bearings of the lines PA, PB and PQ.
4. Now shift the instrument to station Q. Level it. Now take the fore bearings of
the lines QP, QA and QB.
5. Measure the distance PQ.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Instrumentat Line Bearing

PA
P PB
PQ
QP
Q QA
QB

Distance PQ=…………….m

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RESULTS

COMMENTS

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EXERCISE NO. 6
SIMPLE LEVELLING

AIM
To determine the reduced level of point using dumpy level or auto level
(Simple leveling)

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/Auto level with tripod, Levelling staff.

THEORY
Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is
 To find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum.
 To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect
to a given or assumed datum.
The instruments commonly used in direct levelling are; a level and levelling staff.
Level: The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a
level consists of the following four parts:
1. A telescope to provide line of sight
2. A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
3. A levelling head to bring the bubble in its centre of run
4. A tripod to support the instrument.
There are various types of levels, viz. Dumpy level, Wye level or Y level, Cooke’s
reversible level, Cushing’s level, Modern tilting level. The temporary
adjustments of dumpy level are setting up, levelling up, focussing the eye piece and
focussing object glass.
Levelling staff: A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the
foot of the staff representing zero reading. The levelling staff may be target staff or
self reading staff.

DIAGRAM

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 Surveying Practice

FORMULAE
Height of instrument method or Plane of collimation method:
 HI or PC= RL+BS
 RL= HI- IS or FS
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆= Last RL – First RL
Rise and fall method:
 Rise: Previous reading – Present reading is positive
 Fall: Previous reading – Present reading is negative
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆=∑ 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒-∑ 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙= Last RL – First RL

PROCEDURE
1. Set up dumpy level at suitable place and carry out temporary adjustments.
2. Hold the staff on bench mark, take BS.
3. Determine plane of collimation by adding back sight to the reduced level of
the bench mark.
4. Hold the staff on point B, take FS.
5. The elevation or RL of change point is calculated by subtracting the fore sight
from plane of collimation.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

Height of instrument method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Rise and fall method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Check

RESULTS

COMMENTS
Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 31
 Surveying Practice

EXERCISE NO. 7
a) DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

AIM
To determine the reduced level of points using differential levelling technique.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/Auto level with tripod, Levelling staff.

THEORY

Station is the point, the elevation of which is to be determined or the point to

be established at a given elevation. In other words station is the point where leveling
staff is held and not the point where level is kept. For any setup of the level, the
Height of instrument is the elevation of the line of sight with respect to the
assumed datum. This is also known as Plane of collimation. Reduced level of a
point is the level of a point with respect to assumed datum. Back sight (BS) is the
sight taken on a level staff held at a point of known elevation with an intention of
determining the plane of collimation. It is always first reading after setting the
instrument. It is also known as a plus sight as this reading is always added to the
reduced level of the point to get plane of collimation. Intermediate sight (IS) is the
sight taken on stations after taking back sight and before taking the last sight from
an instrument station. The intension is to get reduced levels of the points where staff
is held. These are also known as minus sights, since these reading are to be
subtracted from plane of collimation to get reduced levels of the points. Fore sight
(FS) is the last staff reading taken from an instrument station. This is also a minus
sight. Change point (CP) or Turning point (TP) is a point on which both foresight
and back sight are taken. The staff held at this point first fore sight is taken, then
instrument is shifted to new point and back sight is taken on the same point.

DIAGRAM

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 Surveying Practice

FORMULAE
Height of instrument method or Plane of collimation method:
 HI or PC= RL+BS
 RL= HI- IS or FS
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆= Last RL – First RL
Rise and fall method:
 Rise: Previous reading – Present reading is positive
 Fall: Previous reading – Present reading is negative
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆=∑ 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒-∑ 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙= Last RL – First RL

PROCEDURE
1. Set up dumpy level at suitable place and carry out temporary adjustments.
2. Hold the staff on bench mark, take BS.
3. Determine plane of collimation by adding back sight to the reduced level of
the bench mark.
4. Hold the staff on change point, take FS.
5. The elevation or RL of change point is calculated by subtracting the fore sight
from plane of collimation.
6. The instrument is shifted to new point and back sight is taken on the same
point.
7. Repeat the step 4, 5, 6 to get elevation of required point.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 33

 Surveying Practice

Height of instrument method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Rise and fall method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Check

RESULTS

COMMENTS

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 34

 Surveying Practice

b) INVERTED LEVELLING

AIM
To determine the reduced level of an object above the plane of collimation
using inverted levelling.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/ Auto level with tripod, Levelling staff.

THEORY

If level of an overhead point like chejja of a window is required , the staff can
be inverted( the foot of the staff touching the overhead point) and read. This reading
is entered as a negative reading and in remarks column noted as inverted reading.

DIAGRAM

FORMULAE
Height of instrument method or Plane of collimation method:
 HI or PC= RL+BS
 RL= HI- IS or FS
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆= Last RL – First RL

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 Surveying Practice

PROCEDURE
1. Set up dumpy level at suitable place and carry out temporary adjustments.
2. Hold the staff (inverted) on bench mark, take BS (enter with negative).
3. Determine plane of collimation by adding back sight to the reduced level of
the bench mark.
4. Hold the staff on change point, take FS.
5. The elevation or RL of change point is calculated by subtracting the fore sight
from plane of collimation.
6. The instrument is shifted to new point and back sight is taken on the same
point.
7. Repeat the procedure to get elevation of required point.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

Height of instrument method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Rise and fall method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Check

RESULTS

COMMENTS

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 36

 Surveying Practice

EXERCISE NO.8
RECIPROCAL LEVELLING

AIM
To determine difference in elevation between two points using reciprocal
levelling and to determine the collimation error.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/ Auto level with tripod stand, Levelling staff.

THEORY
Reciprocal levelling is the method of levelling in which the difference in
elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets of observations
when it is not possible to set up the level midway between the two points. In case of
a river or valley, it is not possible to set up the level midway between two points on
opposite banks. In such cases, the method of reciprocal levelling is adapted.
The errors eliminated by using reciprocal levelling are:
1. Error in instrument adjustment
2. Combined effect of earth’s curvature and refraction of the atmosphere
3. Variations in the average fraction.

DIAGRAM

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 Surveying Practice

FORMULAE
(ℎ𝑎−ℎ𝑏)+(ℎ𝑎 ′− ℎ𝑏′ )
 H=
2
(ℎ𝑎−ℎ𝑏)−(ℎ𝑎 ′− ℎ𝑏′ )
 e=
2
Where H = Difference in elevation.
e = Collimation error
ha= Staff reading on A when instrument is near A.
hb= Staff reading on B when instrument is near A.
hal= Staff reading on A when instrument is near B.
hbl= Staff reading on B when instrument is near B.

PROCEDURE
1. Let ‘A’ and ‘B’ are two points on the banks of a river.
2. Dumpy level is set up near ‘A’ and after proper temporary adjustment, staff
readings are taken at ‘A’ and ‘B’. Let the readings be ha and hb.
3. The level is shifted and set up near ‘B’ after proper temporary adjustment,
staff readings are taken at ‘A’ and ‘B’. Let the readings be hal and hbl.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

Instrument at Staff reading on A Staff reading on B

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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 Surveying Practice

EXERCISE NO. 9
a) PROFILE LEVELLING
AIM
To conduct profile levelling for water supply/sewage line and to draw the
longitudinal section to determine depth of cut and depth of filling for a given
formation level.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/Auto level with Tripod stand, Levelling staff, Tape, Arrows.

THEORY
Profile levelling is also called as longitudinal sectioning or longitudinal
levelling. The object of profile levelling is to determine elevations of points at regular
interval along a predetermined line, which is usually the centre line of a road,
railway, canal, pipe line. The predetermined line may be a single straight line or may
consist of a series of straight lines changing directions, or connected by curves.
Profile levelling requires the establishment of turning points on which both
back sight and fore sights are taken. In addition any number of intermediate sights
may be obtained on points along the line from each setup of the instrument. In fact,
points on the profile line are merely intermediate stations. It is generally best to set
up the level to one side of the profile line.
After getting reduced level of various points along the line, profile of the
ground is plotted. Normally, vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal scale to
clearly view the profile. Then engineers decide the formation level of the proposed
project. The decision is mainly based on balancing cutting and embanking so that
the transportation of earth is minimum.

DIAGRAM

FORMULAE
 Depth of fill (DOF), if Formation level – Reduced level is positive.
 Depth of cut (DOC), if Formation level – Reduced level is negative.
 HI or PC= RL+BS
 RL= HI- IS or FS
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆= Last RL – First RL

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 Surveying Practice

PROCEDURE
1. The dumpy level is placed at suitable positions and after temporary
adjustment the staff readings are taken.
2. The first staff reading of any set up is entered in the BS column and the last in
the FS column. The other readings are entered in the IS column.
3. Calculate the RL’s of the stations and plot a graph.
4. The plotted points are joined to obtain the profile of the ground.
5. The formation level of the water supply or sewage line is to be mentioned and
the depth of cut or depth of fill may be ascertained.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

BS IS FS HI RL Distance FL DOF DOC Station Remarks

RESULTS

COMMENTS

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 40

 Surveying Practice

b) CROSS SECTIONING
AIM
To conduct cross sectioning for water supply/sewage line.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/Auto level with Tripod stand, Levelling staff, Tape, Arrows.

THEORY
In many engineering projects, to calculate earth work involved, not only
longitudinal but also profile of cross sectioning is required at regular intervals. The
distances on cross sectioning are treated as left or right of the line as they are found
while facing forward point of surveying. The length of cross section depends on
nature of work.

DIAGRAM

FORMULAE
 Depth of fill (DOF), if Formation level – Reduced level is positive.
 Depth of cut (DOC), if Formation level – Reduced level is negative.
 HI or PC= RL+BS
 RL= HI- IS or FS
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆= Last RL – First RL

PROCEDURE
1. The dumpy level is placed at suitable positions and after temporary
adjustment the staff readings are taken.
2. The first staff reading of any set up is entered in the BS column and the last in
the FS column. The other readings are entered in the IS column.
3. Calculate the RL’s of the stations and plot a graph.
4. The plotted points are joined to obtain the cross sectioning profile of the
ground.

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 Surveying Practice

5. The formation level of the water supply or sewage line is to be mentioned and
the depth of cut or depth of fill may be ascertained.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

BS IS FS HI RL Distance FL DOF DOC Station Remarks

RESULTS

COMMENTS

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 Surveying Practice

c) BLOCK LEVELLING

AIM
To conduct block levelling and preparation of contours.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Dumpy level/Auto level with Tripod stand, Levelling staff, Tape, Arrows.

THEORY

This method is suitable, if the area to be surveyed is not very large and
undulation of the ground is not much. A contour is an imaginary line on the ground
joining the points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between any two
consecutive contours is called contour interval.

DIAGRAM

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 Surveying Practice

FORMULAE
Height of instrument method or Plane of collimation method:
 HI or PC= RL+BS
 RL= HI- IS or FS
 Check: ∑ 𝐵𝑆-∑ 𝐹𝑆= Last RL – First RL

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑅 𝐿−𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝐿
Require contour RL from small RL point= 𝑋 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝐿−𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝐿

PROCEDURE
1. Area is divided into a number of squares and all grid points are marked.
2. By levelling reduced levels of all the grid points are obtained.
3. The grid of squares is plotted, reduced levels of all grid points marked and
contour lines interpolated.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Problem

Height of instrument method:

BS IS FS HI RL STATION REMARKS

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 44

 Surveying Practice

Check

RESULTS

COMMENTS

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 45

 Surveying Practice

EXERCISE NO. 10
a) HORIZONTAL ANGLE – Repetition method

AIM
To determine the horizontal angle PQR with respect to the station Q by
repetition method.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Theodolite, Arrow, Ranging rods.

THEORY
The method of repetition is used to measure a horizontal angle to a finer
degree of accuracy than that obtainable with the least count of vernier.

The following errors are eliminated by method of repetition:

a. Error due to inaccurate graduations are eliminated by taking readings
at different parts of the circle.
b. Errors due to eccentricity of verniers and centres are eliminated by
taking both vernier readings.
c. Error due to inadjustments of line of collimation and the trunnion axis
are eliminated by taking both face readings.
d. Errors due to inaccurate bisection of the object, eccentric centring ect.,
may be to some extent counter balanced by taking many observations.
Limitations of method of Repetition:
The following errors are not eliminated:
a. Error due to slip.
b. Error due to displacement of signal.
c. Error due to non verticality of vertical axis when the bubble is out of
centre.
If the sighting distances are less than 100m, the errors in sighting and
centring are more significant. They upset the increased precision
achieved by the method of repetition. Hence, there is not much
advantage for going to this method when sight distances are small, say
less than 100m.

DIAGRAM

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 Surveying Practice

PROCEDURE

1. Set the instrument at Q and level it. With the help of upper clamp and
upper tangent set vernier A to 0º00´00´´. Note the reading of vernier B.
2. Loose the lower clamp and direct the telescope towards the point P.
Clamp the lower clamp and bisect point P accurately by lower tangent
screw.
3. Unclamp the upper clamp and turn the instrument in clockwise
direction towards R. Clamp the upper clamp and bisect R accurately
with the upper tangent screw. Note the reading of verniers A and B.
4. Unclamp the lower clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to sight P
again. Bisect P accurately by using the lower tangent screw. It should
be noted that the vernier readings will not be changed in this operation.
5. Unclamp the upper clamp, turn the telescope clockwise and sight R.
Bisect R accurately by upper tangent screw.
6. Repeat the process until the angle is repeated the required number of
times (usually 3). The average angle with face left will be equal to final
reading divide by three (number of repetitions).
7. Change face and make three more repetitions as described above.
Find the average angle with face right, by dividing the final reading by
three (number of repetitions).
8. The average horizontal angle is then obtained by taking the average of
the two angles obtained with face left and face right.

Any number of repetitions may be made. However, three repetitions

with the telescope normal and the three with the telescope inverted are
quite sufficient for anything, except very precise work.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

1 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

1 𝑀𝑆𝑅
𝐿. 𝐶. =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝐷

L.C. =

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Face: Left Swing: Right Face: Right Swing: Right Average
Horizontal
Instrument at

Angle
Repetitions

Repetitions
A B Mean Horizontal A B Mean Horizontal
Sighted to

angle angle
No. of

No. of
o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″
P
R
Surveying Practice

Q
R
R

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT

RESULTS
The average horizontal angle PQR =
COMMENTS
 Surveying Practice

b) HORIZONTAL ANGLE – Reiteration method

AIM
To determine the horizontal included angles with respect to station O by the
reiteration method.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

Theodolite, Arrow, Ranging rods.

THEORY

The method of reiteration or direction method or method of series is generally

used when several angles are to be measured at the same station. All the angles
are measured successively starting from the initial station. The angle between the
last station and initial station is also measured and thus horizon is closed (Closing
the horizon is the process of measuring the angle at an instrument station round the
point to obtain a check on their sum, which should be equal to 360 0). The final
reading of the vernier should be the same as its initial reading. If the discrepancy is
small, the error is equally distributed among all the angles measured. If it is large,
the readings should be cancelled and new sets taken.

DIAGRAM

Where,
O = Instrument station
P, Q, R and S = Objects

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 Surveying Practice

PROCEDURE

1. Set the instrument at O and level it. With the help of upper clamp and upper
tangent screw set the vernier A to 0 000′00″.
2. Unclamp the lower clamp and direct the telescope to the ranging rod at P.
Tighten the lower clamp screw. Bisect P accurately using the lower tangent
screw. (Generally the object at P is called ‘Reference object’).
3. Loosen the upper clamp screw and turn the telescope clockwise until the
ranging rod at Q is bisected. Tighten the upper clamp. Use the upper tangent
screw for exact bisection. Read both the verniers. The mean of the vernier
readings gives the horizontal angle POQ.
4. Unclamp the upper clamp screw and turn the telescope clockwise until R is
bisected. Tighten the upper clamp. Use the upper tangent screw for exact
bisection. Read both the verniers. The angle QOR is obtained by taking the
difference between the reading on R and Q.
5. Similarly determine the angle ROS.
6. Finally close the horizon by sighting the reference object P again. The vernier
A should now read 3600 (or 00). If not, note the vernier reading and find the
error.
7. If the error is small, distribute it equally to all the angles. If the error is large,
discard the readings and take a fresh set of readings.
8. Now change the face of the instrument to right by transiting the telescope.
Measure the angles in the same manner by swinging in anticlockwise
direction (Left).

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

POQ = Ө1
QOR = Ө2 - Ө1
ROS = Ө3 – Ө 2
SOP = Ө 4 – Ө3

Check: POQ+QOR+ROS+SOP=360 0

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Face: Left Swing: Right Face: Right Swing: Left Average
Instrument at

horizontal
Sighted to

A B Mean Horizontal A B Mean Horizontal Included

Included Included angle
angle angle
o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″
P
Q
Surveying Practice

O R
S
P

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT

RESULTS
The average horizontal included angles:
POQ=
QOR=
ROS=
SOP=
COMMENTS
 Surveying Practice

c) VERTICAL ANGLE
AIM
a) To measure the vertical angles of the objects A and B shown in figure with
respect to the station P.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Theodolite, Arrow.

THEORY

A vertical angle is defined as the angle of inclined line of sight to an object

makes with the horizontal. The vertical angle is the angle of elevation when the line
of sight is inclined upwards from the horizontal line. It is the angle of depression
when the line of sight is inclined downwards from the horizontal line. The angle of
elevation is noted as positive angle and the angle of depression as negative angle.

DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the theodolite over the station P and level it accurately with reference
to the altitude bubble.
2. Unclamp the vertical circle clamp and direct the telescope towards the object
A. clamp the vertical circle. Bisect A exactly by turning the vertical tangent
screw.
3. Read both the verniers C and D. The mean of the two readings gives the
value of required angle.
4. Change the face of the instrument and repeat the same procedure. The mean
of the two readings gives the second value of the required angle.
5. The average of the two values thus obtained gives the value of the required
vertical angle.
6. Similarly measure the angle of depression by bisecting object B.

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Face: Left Face: Right Average
Instrument at

Vertical
Sighted to

C D Mean Vertical C D Mean Vertical angle

angle angle
o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″
A
P
B
Surveying Practice

RESULTS
The angle of Elevation = ………………
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

The angle of depression=……………..

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT

COMMENTS
 Surveying Practice

EXERCISE NO. 11

a) SINGLE PLANE METHOD

AIM
To find the reduced level of the top of an object when the base is inaccessible
by Single plane method. Given the R.L. of the B.M.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Theodolite with tripod, Leveling staff, Tape, Ranging rod, Arrow.

DIGRAM

Where
α1= Angle of elevation from A to Q. α2= Angle of elevation from B to Q.
b= Horizontal distance between the instrument stations.
D= Horizontal distance between P and Q.
S1= Staff reading on B.M. from instrument station P.
S2= Staff reading on B.M. from instrument station R.

PROCEDURE
1. Set up theodolite at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude
bubble.
2. Direct the telescope towards Q and bisect it accurately. Clamp both the
plates. Read the vertical angle.
3. Transit the telescope so that line of sight is reversed. Mark the second
instrument station R on the ground. Measure the distance PR accurately.
4. Repeat step 2 and step 3 for both face observations. The mean value should
be adopted (α1).
5. With the vertical vernier set to zero reading (line of sight horizontal), and the
altitude bubble in the centre of its run, take the reading on staff (S1) kept at
B.M.
6. Set up theodolite at R. Measure the vertical angle α2 to Q with both face
observations. Take staff reading on B.M. when line of sight is horizontal (S 2).
Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 54
 Page 55
Face: Left Face: Right Average
Instrument at

Vertical
Sighted to

C D Mean Vertical C D Mean Vertical angle

angle angle
o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″
P Q
Q
R
Surveying Practice

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT

Instrument Staff Vertical Remarks
station Reading on angle
B.M. in m
P S1= α1= The horizontal distance between
instrument stations=b=……………..m
R S2= α2= The R.L. of B.M.=…………………m
 Surveying Practice

RESULT
The R.L. of the top of the object is………………..m

COMMENT

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT Page 56

 Surveying Practice

b) DOUBLE PLANE METHOD

AIM
To find the reduced level of the top of an object when the base is
inaccessible by Double plane method. Given the R.L. of the B.M.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Theodolite with tripod, Levelling staff, Tape, Ranging rod, Arrow.

DIGRAM

Where
α1= Angle of elevation from A to Q.
α2= Angle of elevation from B to Q.
b= Horizontal distance between the instrument stations.
D= Horizontal distance between P and Q.
S1= Staff reading on B.M. from instrument station P.
S2= Staff reading on B.M. from instrument station R.

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 Surveying Practice

PROCEDURE
1. Set up theodolite at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude
bubble.
2. Direct the telescope towards Q and bisect it accurately. Clamp both the
plates. Read the vertical angle.
3. Transit the telescope so that line of sight is reversed. Mark the second
instrument station R on the ground. Measure the distance PR accurately.
4. Repeat step 2 and step 3 for both face observations. The mean value should
be adopted (α1).
5. With the vertical vernier set to zero reading (line of sight horizontal), and the
altitude bubble in the centre of its run, take the reading on staff (S1) kept at
B.M.
6. Sight the point R with reading on horizontal circle as zero, and measure the
angle RPQ1 i.e., the horizontal angle Ө1 at P.
7. Set up theodolite at R. Measure the vertical angle α2 to Q with both face
observations. Take staff reading on B.M. when line of sight is horizontal (S 2).
Measure horizontal angle Ө2.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Measurement of Horizontal angle:

Instrument at

Face : Left Swing : Right

Sighted to

A B Mean

o o
′ ″ ′ ″ ′ ″

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 Page 59
Face: Left Face: Right Average
Instrument at

Vertical
Sighted to

C D Mean Vertical C D Mean Vertical angle

angle angle
o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″ o ′ ″
P Q
Q
R
Surveying Practice

Civil Engineering department, SJCIT

Instrument Staff Vertical Horizontal Remarks
station Reading on angle angle
B.M. in m
P S1= α1= Ө1= The horizontal distance between
instrument stations=b=……………..m
R S2= α2= Ө2= The R.L. of B.M.=…………………m
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From the ∆𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑅𝑄1

Ө1+ Ө2+ Ө3=1800
Ө3=1800- (Ө1+ Ө2) =…………

Applying Sine rule to the ∆𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑅𝑄1

𝑷𝑹 𝑹𝑸𝟏 𝑷𝑸𝟏
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐
𝒃 𝑹𝑸𝟏 𝑷𝑸𝟏
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐

𝑏 sin 𝜃1
𝑅𝑄1 = =
sin 𝜃3

𝑏 sin 𝜃2
𝑃𝑄1 = =
sin 𝜃3

h1= PQ1 X tanα 1

=

h2= RQ1 X tanα 2

=

R.L. of top of object = R.L. of B.M. + S 1+ h1

=

OR

R.L. of top of object = R.L. of B.M. + S 2+ h2

=

Note: Adopt the mean value as the R.L. of Q

RESULT
The R.L. of the top of the object is………………..m

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EXERCISE NO. 12
a) TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING HORIZONTAL LOS

AIM: To determine the tacheometric constants when the line of sight is horizontal.
Determine the unknown horizontal distance.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED: Tacheometer with tripod, Levelling staff, Arrows.

THEORY:
Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical
distance of points are obtained by optical means. An ordinary theodolite fitted with a
stadia diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric survey. The stadia diaphragm
essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the other an equal distance below
the horizontal cross hair.

DIAGRAM:

Where
P=Instrument station.
Q and R= Staff station.

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FORMULA:
 D= KS+C
Where
D= Distance measured from tacheomter to the point sighted in m.
S= Staff intercept in m.
K= Multiplying Constant.
C= Additive Constant.

PROCEDURE:
6. Set up the tacheometer, at P and level it.
7. The line of sight of a telescope is made horizontal by setting verniers C and D
to zero.
8. Keep the levelling staff at 20m from P. Read out the staff readings
corresponding to the top and bottom Stadia hairs. The staff intercept S 1 is
obtained by the algebraic difference of both the readings.
9. Keep the levelling staff at 30m from P. Read out the staff readings
corresponding to the top and bottom Stadia hairs. The staff intercept S 2 is
obtained by the algebraic difference of both the readings.
10. The leveling staff is held at the point whose horizontal distance is to be
measured. Read out the staff readings corresponding to the top and bottom
Stadia hairs. Let the staff intercept S is obtained by the algebraic difference of
both the readings.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Instrument Staff Station Staff reading Staff intercept Distance

Station in m in m
A
P
B

D1= KS1+C
20=K ( )+C…………1

D2= KS 2+C
30=K ( )+C…………2

By solving equation 1 and 2

K=............ and C=……….

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D= KS+C

RESULT:
The tacheometric constants when the line of sight is horizontal are K=……….. and
C=……….. and the horizontal distance is…………………

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b) TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING INCLINED LOS

AIM: To determine the distance and elevation using tacheometric surveying with
inclined line of sight

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED: Tacheometer with tripod, Levelling staff, Arrows.

DIAGRAM:

a) staff station for angle of elevation

b) staff station for angle of depression

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FORMULA:
 D= KS𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽 + Ccos𝜽
Where
D = Distance measured from tacheomter to the point sighted in m.
S = Staff intercept in m.
𝜽 = Vertical angle.
K= Multiplying Constant.
C= Additive Constant.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
 V= KS + C𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐
 Elevation of staff station for angle of elevation = elevation of instrument
station + h+V-r
 Elevation of staff station for angle of depression = elevation of
instrument station + h-V-r
Where
h= Height of instrument in m.
r = Central hair reading

PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the tacheometric constants.
2. Set up the tacheometer, at P and level it.
3. Make the line of sight incline and bisect the point whose elevation is to be
ascertained. Clamp the vertical circle clamp. Read both the verniers C and D.
The mean of the two readings gives the value of 𝜃.
4. Keep the levelling staff at Q. Read out the staff readings corresponding to the
top and bottom Stadia hairs. The staff intercept S is obtained by the algebraic
difference of both the readings.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Instrument Staff Staff reading Staff intercept Vertical

Station Station in m angle
Q
P
R

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RESULT:
The tacheometric constants are K=……….. and C=………..
The Horizontal distance= D= …………………..
Elevation of staff station=………………….

COMMENT:

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EXERCISE NO. 13
TRANSIT RULE

AIM:
To measure the angles of the sides of the closed traverse and adjustment of
the closing error by Transit method.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
Theodolite with stand, Tape, Ranging rods, Arrows.

THEORY:
A ‘traverse’ is a frame formed by a series of connected straight lines none of
which is connected at each of its ends to lines more than one. The points defining
the ends of the traverse line are called traverse stations or traverse points. When the
lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point is known as a closed traverse. If
the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse. The closed traverse is
suitable for locating boundaries of lakes, forests etc. The open traverse is suitable
for surveying along long narrow strip of land required for a road or canal or pipeline
or the coast line.

Closing error or error of closure is the actual distance by which the traverse
fails to close. Transit method may be employed to balance the traverse when the
angular measurements are more precise than the linear measurements. In this
method the total error in latitude and departure is distributed in proportion to the
latitude and departure of the traverse lines.

DIAGRAM:

FORMULAE:

 Transit method:
𝑳
CL= ∑𝑳𝑿
𝑳𝑻
𝑫
CD= ∑𝑫𝑿
𝑫𝑻

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Where CL= Correction to latitude of any side

CD= Correction to departure of any side
∑ 𝐿 = Total error in latitude
∑ 𝐷= Total error in departure
L= Latitude of that side
LT= Arithmetic sum of latitudes (Ignoring the signs)
D= Departure of that side
DT= Arithmetic sum of departures (Ignoring the signs).

PROCEDURE:
5. Let A, B, C, D, E are the traverse stations.
6. Set the theodolite at station ‘A’ and take the angle of the line AB. Measure the
distance AB.
7. Now shift the instrument to the station ‘B’ orient and take the angle of the line
BC. Measure the distance BC.
8. Similarly the length and angle of each line of the traverse is to be measured.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Transit method:
SL. Line Length Bearing Latitude Departure Corrections Corrected
NO. (𝑙)in m L= 𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 D= 𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 Latitude Departure Latitude Departure
1
2
3
4
5
6

DT=……………..
LT=……………...

RESULT:

COMMENT:

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EXERCISE NO. 14

DEMONSTRATION OF MINOR INSTRUMENTS

 Clinometer
The clinometers are light compact hand instruments commonly used
for the measurement of slopes, tracing contours, setting grades, to determine
the difference in elevation. They are adapted for rough and rapid work. The
simplest form of clinometers consists of i) a semicircle graduated in degrees
in both directions with zero placed at the middle of the arc, ii) a light plumb
bob suspended from the centre. The various types of clinometersare: Abney
clinometers or Abney level, Indian pattern clinometers or tangent clinometers,
De lisle’s clinometer, Watkin’s mirror clinometers, f oot rule clinometers.

 Ceylonghat tracer
This instrument is used for setting out a grade contour, i.e. locating
points of a given gradient in the preliminary survey of a hill road, and alsofor
measuring the angles of slope. It essentially consists of a long circular tube
having a peephole at one end and cross wires at the other ends. The tube is
supported by aA- frame having a hole at its top to fix the instrument to a
straight rod or stand. The tube is also engraved to give readings of gradient.
A heavy weight slides along the tube by a suitable rack and pinion
arrangement. The weight at its top contains one bevelled edge which slides
along the graduations of the bar, and serves as an index. The line of sight is
defined by the line joining the hole to the intersection of the cross wires and
its prolongation. When the beveled edge of the weight is against the zero
reading, the line of sight is horizontal. For the elevated gradients, the weight
slided towards the observer. For falling gradients, the weight is slided away
from the observer.
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 Handlevel
It is a simple compact instrument used for reconnaissance and
preliminary survey, for locating contours on the ground and for taking short
cross-sections. It consists of a rectangular or circular tube, 10 to 15cm long,
provided with a small bubble tube at the top.

 Boxbsextant
It is a small pocket instrument used for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles, measuring chain angles and locating inaccessible points. By
setting the vernier to 90º, it may be used as an optical square.

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 Planimeter
It is an instrument which measures the area of plan of any shape very
accurately. There are two typesofplanimeters: 1) Amsler polar planimeter, and
2) Roller planimeter.

 Pantagraph
It is an instrument used for reproducing, enlarging or reducing the maps. It is
based on the principle of similar triangles.

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is surveying?
2. What is reconnaissance survey?
3. What is an index sketch?
4. What is base line of survey?
5. How the north line of the chain survey map is fixed?
6. Suppose you are asked to conduct a chain survey in a crowded town. What
would you say?
7. What should be the maximum length of offset?
8. How is a station marked on the ground?
9. What is the need of reference sketch?
10. How will you set up a perpendicular with the help of only a chain or a tape?
11. Who are ‘leader’ and ‘follower’, when a line is being chained?
12. Why does the field book open lengthwise?
13. Why is the scale always drawn in the map?
14. What is the necessity to provide tallies in the chain?
15. What do you mean by the ideal triangle?
16. What is the principle of compass surveying?
17. What is the difference between triangulation and traversing?
18. What does the term ‘chain angle’ means?
19. What is a 12cm compass?
20. What is the fundamental difference between the prismatic compass and
Surveyor’s compass?
21. How would you detect the presence of local attraction?
22. The FB of the line is 96º30´ and BB is 276º 00´. How will you adjust the
bearing?
23. What is local attraction?
24. What is declination?
25. What are isogonic and agonic lines?
26. What do you mean by azimuth?
27. The FB of line is 145º30´. What is its BB?
28. What are the precautions to be taken while shifting an prismatic compass
from one station to another?
29. A compass was properly balanced at the equator. What will be the effect on
the needle if it is taken to the northern hemisphere?
30. What is the angular check of a closed traverse?
31. How would you check the accuracy of open traverse?
32. What does traverse surveying mean?
33. Distinguish between closed and open traverse?

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34. What is the datum surface?

35. What does the term GTS mean?
36. What is bench mark?
37. What is the datum adopted for GTS bench mark?
38. What are the types of bench marks that you know of?
39. For any engineering work, how will you get the RL of the starting point?
40. What is the difference between a level surface and a horizontal surface?
41. What is the difference between the line of collimation and axis of the
telescope?
42. In a particular set up of the level, suppose four readings are taken. How
should they be entered in the level book?
43. What is a change point?
44. The staff readings on A and B are 1.735 and 0.965 respectively. Which point
is higher?
45. What is the procedure of levelling foot screws?
46. Suppose a level is given to you whose line of collimation is not in adjustment.
What is the procedure that you would follow in order to work with this
instrument?
47. How will you continue levelling across a river?
48. How will you continue levelling across a lake or pond?
49. What are the arithmetical checks for the HI method?
50. What are the arithmetical checks for the rise and fall method?
51. What is fly levelling?
52. What is temporary bench mark?
53. Why is datum assumed for plotting a levelling operation?
54. What is the difference between temporary and permanent adjustment?
55. What would you mean by positive RL and negative RL?
56. How will you measure the distance between two points with only a level and
staff?
57. What is contour line?
58. Define the terms contour interval and horizontal equivalent?
59. Why is the horizontal equivalent not constant?
60. In some places consecutive contours run close together and in some places
they are wide apart. What does this mean?
61. How will you distinguish between a valley line and a ridgeline?
62. How will you distinguish between a depression and summit by studying the
nature of the contour?
63. In a map, it is found that two consecutive contours cross each other. What
would you comment?
64. What is a contour gradient?
65. What is the object of preparing a contour map?

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66. Define the terms ‘contour line’.

67. What are the characteristics of contour lines?
68. Show with neat sketches the characteristic features of contour lines of the
following: a) a pond b) a hill c) a ridge d) a valley e) a vertical cliff.
69. State the uses of contour map.
70. What are the different methods of contouring? Describe any method along
with sketch?
71. What is a grade contour? Describe along with sketch how you would locate
one in the field.
72. Explain repetition and reiteration method of measuring horizontal angle using
theodolite.
73. Explain the procedure for measurement of vertical angle using theodolite.
74. What are face left and face right observations? Why it is necessary to take
both face observations?
75. Define the terms:
i) Swinging the telescope.
ii) Transiting the telescope.
iii) Telescope normal.
76. Explain repetition and reiteration method of measuring horizontal angle using
theodolite.
77. Explain the procedure for measurement of vertical angle using theodolite.
78. What are face left and face right observations? Why it is necess ary to take
both face observations?
79. Define the terms:
i) Swinging the telescope.
ii) Transiting the telescope.
iii) Telescope normal.
80. Define latitude and departure.
81. Briefly explain trigonometrical surveying.
82. Explain single plane method determining distance and elevation.
83. Explain double plane method determining distance and elevation.
84. Define tacheometry.
85. What are the different systems of tacheometric measurements?
86. What is anallatic lens? What are its advantages.
87. What is substance bar?
88. Explain the tangential method of tacheometry.
89. What are the advantages of tacheometry?
90. What are direct reading tacheometers? Give examples.
91. How do you determine tacheometric constants in the field.
92. Distinguish between a theodolite and a tacheometer.

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Course objectives:

The objectives of this course are to make students to learn:

1. Apply the basic principles of engineering surveying and measurements
2. Follow effectively field procedures required for a professional surveyor
3. Use techniques, skills and conventional surveying instruments necessary for engineering
practice.

Course outcomes:
After a successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Apply the basic principles of engineering surveying and for linear and angular
measurements.
2. Comprehend effectively field procedures required for a professional surveyor.
3. Use techniques, skills and conventional surveying instruments necessary for engineering
practice.

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