RELATIONAL DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS)

DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

AHMEDABAD
Editorial Panel

Author : Dr. Bhavik Pandya

Assistant Professor,
Navgujarat College of Computer Application,
Ahmedabad

&

Prof. Tejas B. Modi

Head & Associate Professor,
Kalol Institute of Management (MCA),
Kalol

Editor : Prof. (Dr.) Nilesh K. Modi

Professor & Director,
School of Computer Science,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University,
Ahmedabad

Language Editor : Jagdish Vinayakrao Anerao,

Associate Professor of English at
Smt AP Patel Arts & NP Patel Commerce
College Naroda, Ahmedabad.

ISBN 978-93-91071-03-5

Edition : 2021

Copyright © 2020 Knowledge Management and Research

Organisation.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

transmitted or utilized in any form or by a means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage or retrieval system without written permission from us.

Acknowledgment

Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of

material reproduced in this book. Should an infringement have
occurred, we apologize for the same and will be pleased to make
necessary correction/amendment in future edition of this book.
ROLE OF SELF–INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN DISTANCE LEARNING
The need to plan effective instruction is imperative for a
successful distance teaching repertoire. This is due to the fact that
the instructional designer, the tutor, the author (s) and the
student are often separated by distance and may never meet in
person. This is an increasingly common scenario in distance
education instruction. As much as possible, teaching by distance
should stimulate the student's intellectual involvement and contain
all the necessary learning instructional activities that are capable
of guiding the student through the course objectives. Therefore,
the course / self–instructional material is completely equipped
with everything that the syllabus prescribes.

To ensure effective instruction, a number of instructional

design ideas are used and these help students to acquire knowledge,
intellectual skills, motor skills and necessary attitudinal changes.
In this respect, students' assessment and course evaluation are
incorporated in the text.

The nature of instructional activities used in distance

education self–instructional materials depends on the domain of
learning that they reinforce in the text, that is, the cognitive,
psychomotor and affective. These are further interpreted in the
acquisition of knowledge, intellectual skills and motor skills.
Students may be encouraged to gain, apply and communicate
(orally or in writing) the knowledge acquired. Intellectual–skills
objectives may be met by designing instructions that make use of
students' prior knowledge and experiences in the discourse as the
foundation on which newly acquired knowledge is built.

The provision of exercises in the form of assignments,

projects and tutorial feedback is necessary. Instructional activities
that teach motor skills need to be graphically demonstrated and
the correct practices provided during tutorials. Instructional
activities for inculcating change in attitude and behaviour should
create interest and demonstrate need and benefits gained by
adopting the required change. Information on the adoption and
procedures for practice of new attitudes may then be introduced.

Teaching and learning at a distance eliminate interactive

communication cues, such as pauses, intonation and gestures,
associated with the face–to–face method of teaching. This is
particularly so with the exclusive use of print media. Instructional
activities built into the instructional repertoire provide this missing
interaction between the student and the teacher. Therefore, the
use of instructional activities to affect better distance teaching is
not optional, but mandatory.

Our team of successful writers and authors has tried to

reduce this.

Divide and to bring this Self–Instructional Material as the

best teaching and communication tool. Instructional activities are
varied in order to assess the different facets of the domains of
learning.

Distance education teaching repertoire involves extensive use

of self–instructional materials, be they print or otherwise. These
materials are designed to achieve certain pre–determined learning
outcomes, namely goals and objectives that are contained in an
instructional plan. Since the teaching process is affected over a
distance, there is need to ensure that students actively participate
in their learning by performing specific tasks that help them to
understand the relevant concepts. Therefore, a set of exercises is
built into the teaching repertoire in order to link what students
and tutors do in the framework of the course outline. These could
be in the form of students' assignments, a research project or a
science practical exercise. Examples of instructional activities in
distance education are too numerous to list. Instructional activities,
when used in this context, help to motivate students, guide and
measure students' performance (continuous assessment)
 PREFACE
We have put in lots of hard work to make this book as user–
friendly as possible, but we have not sacrificed quality. Experts
were involved in preparing the materials. However, concepts are
explained in easy language for you. We have included many tables
and examples for easy understanding.

We sincerely hope this book will help you in every way you
expect.

All the best for your studies from our team!

 RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS)
Contents

BLOCK 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS AND SQL* PLUS

Unit 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Introduction, Data Base Management System, Various

Types of Keys, Normalization and Relational Algebra,

Components of RDBMS

Unit 2 INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE TOOLS/SQL* PLUS

Introduction, Evolution of SQL* Plus, Significant Features

of SQL* Plus, SQL* Plus Commands, Reporting

Techniques

Unit 3 SQL DBA

Introduction to SQL DBA, SQL DBA Command Reference

BLOCK 2 : INTERACTIVE SQL AND ORACLE

Unit 4 QUERY WRITING AND SUB QUERIES

Introduction, The Create Statement, Writing Queries,

Tables and Views

Unit 5 QUERY WRITING

Introduction, The Decode Statement, Insert, Update,

Delete

Unit 6 INTERACTIVE SQL

Introduction, Data Types

Unit 7 ORACLE FUNCTIONS

Introduction, Library Functions, Use of SQL Functions

BLOCK 3 : PL/SQL–I

Unit 8 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

Introduction, Advantages of PL/SQl, Variable, Constant,

Datatypes & Array, Declare Statement

Unit 9 CONTROL STATEMENT & INTERNAL FUNCTION

Introduction, Control Statements, Naming Convention,

Internal Function

Unit 10 STORED PROCEDURE

Introduction, Stored Procedure, Stored Procedure Types,

SQL Stored Procedures, External Stored Procedure,

Java Stored Procedures, Registering Stored Procedures,

Overloading, Commit Statement

Unit 11 DATABSE TRIGGER & PACKAGES

Introduction, Database Trigger, Creation of Database

Trigger, Implementation of Trigger, Package Creation,

Package Subprogram

BLOCK 4 : PL/SQL

Unit 12 CURSOR MANAGEMENT AND EXCEPTION HANDLING

IN PL/SQL AND PACKAGES

Introduction, Cursors, Explicit Cursor Attributes,

Creation of Cursor Packages

Unit 13 PACKAGE AND EXCEPTIONS

Introduction, Exception Handling, More on Exceptions

Unit 14 PRACTICAL SOLVING OF SQL

Introduction, Examples, Example 1 – Simple SQL* Plus

Report Code, Example 2 – Cross–Tabular SQL* Plus

Report Code, Example 3 – Master/Detail SQL* Plus

Report Code, Example 4 – Multitable SQL* Plus Report

Code, Example 5 & 6 – Fixed Position Formatting SQL*

Plus Report Code

Unit 15 PRACTICAL SOLVING OF SQL

Introduction, Practical Solving of SQL, Example 1 –

Customer Contact Survey, Example 2 – SQL Creating

SQL, Example 3 – SQL Creating Database Triggers,

Example 4 – SQL Creating Command Language Scripts,

Example 5 – MS–DOS Batch Command File, Example

6 – SQL* Plus Command File LIST6_16.SQL, Master/

Detail or Parent/Child SQL

 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR 302
Open University Ahmedabad

RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS)
BLOCK 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS AND SQL* PLUS

UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE TOOLS/SQL* PLUS

UNIT 3 SQL DBA

 BASIC CONCEPTS AND
SQL* PLUS
Block Introduction :
This block provides an introduction to SQL* Plus. It provides an overview
of how to run SQL* Plus and demonstrates this with various examples.
You can use the SQL*Plus program in conjunction with the SQL database
language and its procedural language extension, PL/SQL. The SQL database
language allows you to store and retrieve data in Oracle. PL/SQL allows you to
link several SQL commands through procedural logic. SQL* Plus enables you
to execute SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks, and to perform many additional
tasks as well. The aim of this block is to give a basic introduction to the students
of computers science about sql. This block is going to lay the foundation of SQL
and database management system in the mind of the students. Every basic thing
associated with SQL has been explained in this topic. The whole topic has been
divided into two units.
First unit gives an introduction on SQL, it even discusses about the role
of SQL in database management system. The unit further discusses about
RDBMS and its various components. Second unit discusses further about the
evolution of SQL* Plus and its various features. The students will also get a
detailed insight a?out the various commands used in SQL along with the various
reporting techniques. At last, the discussion has been made on SQL DBA which
has even been discussed in very detail.

Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to understand :

• Database management system and Various types of key

• RDBMS and ORDBMS

• Database and Database model

• Evolution and SQL* Plus commands

• SQL DBA

Block Structure :
Unit 1 : Basic Concepts
Unit 2 : Introduction to Oracle Tools/SQL* Plus
Unit 3 : SQL DBA
 Unit
01 BASIC CONCEPTS

UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0 Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data Base Management System
1.3 Various Types of Keys
1.4 Normalization and Relational Algebra
1.5 Components of RDBMS
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Answers for Check Your Progress
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Assignment
1.10 Activities
1.11 Case Study
1.12 Further Readings

1.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The theoretical and physical aspects of a relational database
• Oracle implementation of the RDBMS and ORDBMS
• New features of Oracle8I
• About Database and Database model
• The use and user of database

1.1 Introduction :
A Database is a collection of related information stored to provide the
availability to many users for different purposes. The content of database is
obtained by combining data from various sources in an organization. So that
data are available to all users and redundant data can be minimized or eliminated.
Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information. The
management of data involves both definition of structure for storage of
information.
 Database Management System :
A database can be of any size and of varying complexity. For example
a data consists of only a few hundred records, each with a simple structure.
On the other hand, the card catalog of a large library may contain half a million
cards stored under different categories – by primary author's last name, by
subject, by book title–with each category organized in alphabetic order. A
database of even greater size and complexity is maintained by the Internal
Revenue Service to keep track of the tax forms filed by U.S. taxpayers. If
1
 Relational Database we assume that there are 100 million taxpayers and if each taxpayer files an
Management System average of five form with approximately 200 characters of information per form,
(RDBMS) we would get a database of 10*(106)*200*5 characters (bytes) of information.
If the IRS keeps the past three returns for each taxpayer in addition to the
current return, we would get a database of 4*(10U) bytes (400 gigabytes). This
huge amount of information must be organized and managed so that users can
search for, retrieve, and update the data as needed. Creation of files, Addition
of data, deletion of data, modification of data; Creation, addition and deletion
of entire files.
• The data can be retrieved collectively and selectively.
• Stored data can be sorted or indexed according to Users direction and
desecration.
• System can generate various reports. Thus report may be either standardized
or generated according to user definition.
• Mathematical function can be performed and stored data can be manipulated
with these functions to perform desired calculations. To maintain data
integrity and Database use.
The DBMS process and interprets users request to retrieve information
from database. These requests may be keyed directly from a terminal or coded
as high level language programs to be submitted for either processing or
interactive.
A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called
the mini–world or the Universe of Discourse (UOD). Changes to the mini–
world is reflected in the database. A database is a logically coherent collection
of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot
correctly be referred to as a Database.
A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a Specific
purpose. It has an intended group of users and some preconceived applications
in which these users are interested.
 Schemas, Instances, and Database State :
In any data model it is important to distinguish between the description
of the database and the database itself. The description of database is called
the database schema, which is specified during database design and is not
expected to change frequently Most data models have certain conventions for
displaying the schemas as diagrams A displayed schema is called a schema
diagram for the database shown in the diagram That displays the structure of
each record type but not the actual instances of records. The data inside the
database at a particular moment in time is called a database state or snapshot.
It is also called the current set of occurrences or instances.
 Relational Database Management System :
A relationship is a logical linkage between two entities that describes
how the entities are associated with each other. Creating a relationship explicitly
defines an association between entities in the data model. RDBMS is an
acronym for Relational Database Management System. The data in RDBMS
is stored in database objects called tables. The database tables are the primary
data storage for every RDBMS and essentially, they are collections of related
data entries. For example, a table called Users might store information about
many persons, and each entry in this table will represent one unique user. Even
2
though all user entries in the Users table are unique, they are related in the Basic Concepts
sense that they describe similar objects. Each database table consists of columns
and rows. Each table column defines the type of data stored in it, and this
data type is valid for all rows in this table. A table row is a collection of
data having 1 entry for each column in this particular table. RDBMS store
the data into group of tables, which might or might not be related by common
fields (database table columns).
 Degree of Relationship :
• One to One (1 : 1)
• One to Many (1 : N)
• Many to Many (M : N)
 Attributes and Entities :
This is second important data–modeling concept, which is to be understood.
Attributes are additional characteristics or information defined for an entity.
An entity's attributes do not define an entity, but they provide additional
information about an entity' that may be useful elsewhere. Entities and Attributes
enable to explicitly define what information is being stored in the database.
The following should be kept in mind while implementing Entities and Attributes,
• Entities are modeled as tables.
• In a table, each instance of an entity is called a row.
• Attributes are modeled as columns in a table.
• Programmers often refer to rows and columns as records and fields.
Tables and columns are usually singular, this is relational modeling
convention. Tables are almost always named after the entity they represent.
 Primary key and Foreign Key :
The primary key is special column in the table that can be used to
identifying any one row. The important thing is that the value in the primary
key column must be unique in the table, in which it resides. The primary key
may be chosen out of the existing fields in a table, or a new field can be
created expressly for this purpose. The easiest way to create a primary key
is to create a special column called as identity column.

1.2 Data Base Management System :

Data is one of the most important assets of a company. It is very important
to make sure that data is stored and maintained accurately and quickly. DBMS
(Database Management System) is a system that is used to store and manage
data.
A DBMS is a set of programs that is used to store and manipulation
data.
Manipulation of data includes the following :
• Adding new data, for example adding details of new student.
• Deleting unwanted data, for example deleting the details of students who
have completed course.
• Changing existing data, for example modifying the fee paid by the
student.

3
 Relational Database A DBMS provides various functions like data security, data integrity, data
Management System sharing, data concurrence, data independence, data recovery etc. However, all
(RDBMS) data base management systems that are now available in the market like Sybase,
Oracle, and MS–Access do not provide the same set of functions, though all
are meant for data management.
Database managements systems like Oracle, DB2 are more powerful and
meant for bigger companies. Whereas, database management systems like MS–
Access are meant for small companies. So one has to choose the DBMS
depending upon the requirement.
 Features of DBMS :
The following are main features offered by DBMS. Apart from these
features different database management systems may offer different features.
For instance, Oracle is increasing being fine–tuned to be the database for
Internet applications. This may not be found in other database management
systems. These are the general features of database management systems. Each
DBMS has its own way of implementing it. ADBMS may have more features
the features discussed here and may also enhance these features.
A. Support for Large Amount of Data :
Each DBMS is designed to support large amount of data. They provide
special ways and means to store and manipulate large amount of data. Companies
are trying to store more and more amount of data. Some of this data will have
to be online (available every time).
In most of the cases the amount of data that can be stored is not actually
constrained by DBSM and instead constrained by the availability of the hardware.
For example, Oracle can store terabytes of data.
B. Data Sharing, Concurrency and Locking :
DBMS also allows data to be shared by two or more users. The same
data can be accessed by multiple users at the same time – which is known
as data concurrency. However when same data is being manipulated at the same
time by multiple users certain problems arise. To avoid these problems, DBMS
locks data that is being manipulated to avoid two users from modifying the
same data at the same time. The locking mechanism is transparent and automatic.
Neither we have to inform to DBMS about locking nor need we to know how
and when DBMS is locking the data. However, as a programmer, if we can
know intricacies of locking mechanism used by DBMS, we will be better
programmers.
C. Data Security :
While DBMS allowing data to be shared, it also ensures that data in
only accessed by authorized users. DBMS provides features needed to implement
security at the enterprise level. By default, the data of a user cannot be accessed
by other users unless the owner gives explicit permissions to other users to
do so.
D. Data Integrity :
Maintaining integrity of the data is an import process. If data loses
integrity, it becomes unusable and garbage. DBMS provides means to implement
rules to maintain integrity of the data. Once we specify which rules are to
be implemented, then DBMS can make sure that these rules are implemented
4
always. Three integrity rules – domain, entity and referential are always Basic Concepts
supported by DBMS.
E. Fault Tolerance and Recovery :
DBMS provides great deal of fault tolerance. They continue to run in
spite of errors, if possible, allowing users to rectify the mistake in the meantime.
DBSM also allows recovery in the event of failure. For instance, if data on
the disk is completely lost due to disk failure, then also data can be recovered
to the point of failure if proper back up of the data is available.
F. Support for Languages :
DBMS supports a data access and manipulation language. The most
widely used data access language for RDBMS (relational database management
systems) is SQL. DBMS implementations of SQL will be compliant with SQL
standards set by ANSI. Apart from supporting a non–procedural language like
SQL to access and manipulate data DBMS now a day also provides a procedural
language for data processing. Oracle supports PL/SQL and SQL Server provides
T–SQL.
G. Entity and Attribute :
An entity is any object that is stored in the database. Each entity is
associated with a collection of attributes. For example, if you take a data of
a training institute, student is an entity as we store information about each
student in the database. Each student is associated with certain values such
as roll number, name and course etc., which are called as attributes of the
entity.
 RDBMS Definitions :
 Database Management Largely Involves :
• Storage of Data
• Manipulation of the data
• Access restriction for unauthorized users.
 Functions of a DBMS :
Some of the functions of DBMS are :
• Database Definition – how data is to be stored and organized.
• Database Creation – Storing data in a defined database
• Data Retrieval – Querying and reporting
• Updating – changing the contents of the database.
• Programming user facilities for system development.
• Database revision and restructuring
• Database Integrity control
• Performance monitoring.
 Characteristics of DBMS :
• Control of data redundancy
• Sharing data
• Maintenance of integrity
• Support for transaction control and recovery
5
 Relational Database • Data independence
Management System
• Availability of productivity tools
(RDBMS)
• Security
• Processing speeds
• Hardware independence
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. is one of the most important assets of a company..
a. Data b. Database
2. A is a set of programs that is used to store and manipulation
data.
a. DBMS b. data
3. Database managements systems like Oracle, DB2 are more powerful and
meant for companies.
a. Bigger b. small
4. DBMS also allows data to be by two or more users.
a. shared b. transferred
5. DBMS provides deal of fault tolerance.
a. Great b. low

1.3 Various Types of Keys :

Keys are the key part of a relational database and a vital part of the
structure of a table. They ensure each record within a table can be uniquely
identified by one or a combination of fields within the table. They help enforce
integrity and help identify the relationship between tables. There are three main
types of keys, candidate keys, primary keys and foreign keys. There is also
an alternative key or secondary key that can be used, as the name suggests,
as a secondary or alternative key to the primary key.
 Super Key :
A Super key is any combination of fields within a table that uniquely
identifies each record within that table.
 Candidate Key :
A candidate is a subset of a super key. A candidate key is a single field
or the least combination of fields that uniquely identifies each record in the
table. The least combination of fields distinguishes a candidate key from a
super key. Every table must have at least one candidate key but at the same
time can have several.

Fig 1.1 Candidate Keys

6
 As an example we might have a student_id that uniquely identifies the Basic Concepts
students in a student table. This would be a candidate key. But in the same
table we might have the student's first name and last name that also, when
combined, uniquely identify the student in a student table. These would both
be candidate keys.
In order to be eligible for a candidate key it must pass certain criteria.
• It must contain unique values
• It must not contain null values
• It contains the minimum number of fields to ensure uniqueness
• It must uniquely identify each record in the table
Once your candidate keys have been identified you can now select one
to be your primary key.
 Primary Key :
A primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to be the main
reference key for the table. As its name suggests, it is the primary key of
reference for the table and is used throughout the database to help establish
relationships with other tables. As with any candidate key the primary key must
contain unique values, must never be null and uniquely identify each record
in the table.
As an example, a student id might be a primary key in a student table,
a department code in a table of all departments in an organisation. This module
has the code DH3D 35 that is no doubt used in a database somewhere to identify
RDBMS as a unit in a table of modules. In the table below we have selected
the candidate key student_id to be our most appropriate primary key.

Fig 1.2 Primary Key

Primary keys are mandatory for every table each record must have a
value for its primary key. When choosing a primary key from the pool of
candidate keys always choose a single simple key over a composite key.
 Foreign Key :
A foreign key is generally a primary key from one table that appears
as a field in another where the first table has a relationship to the second.
In other words, if we had a table A with a primary key X that linked to a
table B where X was a field in B, then X would be a foreign key in B.
An example might be a student table that contains the course_id the
student is attending. Another table lists the courses on offer with course_id

7
 Relational Database being the primary key. The 2 tables are linked through course_id and as such
Management System course_id would be a foreign key in the student table.
(RDBMS)

Fig 1.3 Foreign Key

 Secondary Key or Alternative Key :
A table may have one or more choices for the primary key. Collectively
these are known as candidate keys as discuss earlier. One is selected as the
primary key. Those not selected are known as secondary keys or alternative
keys.
For example, in the table showing candidate keys above we identified
two candidate keys, student Id and first Name + last Name. The student Id
would be the most appropriate for a primary key leaving the other candidate
key as secondary or alternative key. It should be noted for the other key to
be candidate keys, we are assuming you will never have a person with the
same first and last name combination. As this is unlikely, we might consider
fist Name + last Name to be a suspect candidate key as it would be restrictive
of the data you might enter. It would seem a shame to not allow John Smith
onto a course just because there was already another John Smith.
 Simple Key :
Any of the keys described before (i.e., primary, secondary or foreign)
may comprise one or more fields, for example if first Name and last Name
was our key this would be a key of two fields where as studentId is only
one. A simple key consists of a single field to uniquely identify a record. In
addition, the field in itself cannot be broken down into other fields, for example,
studentId, which uniquely identifies a particular student, is a single field and
therefore is a simple key. No two students would have the same student number.
 Compound Key :
A compound key consists of more than one field to uniquely identify
a record. A compound key is distinguished from a composite key because each
field, which makes up the primary key, is also a simple key in its own right.
An example might be a table that represents the modules a student is attending.
This table has a studentId and a module Code as its primary key. Each of
the fields that make up the primary key are simple keys because each represents
a unique reference when identifying a student in one instance and a module
in the other.

8
 Composite Key : Basic Concepts
A composite key consists of more than one field to uniquely identify
a record. This differs from a compound key in that one or more of the attributes,
which make up the key, are not simple keys in their own right. Taking the
example from compound key, imagine we identified a student by their first
Name + last Name. In our table representing students on modules our primary
key would now be first Name + last Name + module Code. Because firstName
+ lastName represent a unique reference to a student, they are not each simple
keys, they have to be combined in order to uniquely identify the student.
Therefore, the key for this table is a composite key.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. are, as their name suggests, a key part of a relational database
and a vital part of the structure of a table.
a. Keys b. lock
2. A is any combination of fields within a table that uniquely
identifies each record within that table.
a. Super key b. Supreme key
3. A candidate is a of a super key. A candidate key is a single
field or the least combination of fields that uniquely identifies each record
in the table.
a. Subset b. Superset
4. A key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to be the
main reference key for the table.
a. Primary b. Secondary
5. A key is generally a primary key from one table that appears
as a field in another where the first table has a relationship to the second.
a. Foreign b. Primary

1.4 Normalization and Relational Algebra :

 Normalization :
 Functional dependency :
Functional dependency (FD) is a set of constraints between two attributes
in a relation. Functional dependency says that if two tuples have same values
for attributes A1, A2, ..., An, then those two tuples must have to have same
values for attributes B1, B2, ..., Bn.
Functional dependency is represented by an arrow sign ( ) that is,
X Y, where X functionally determines Y. The left–hand side attributes
determine the values of attributes on the right–hand side.
 Axioms Armstrong's :
If F is a set of functional dependencies then the closure of F, denoted
as F+, is the set of all functional dependencies logically implied by F. Armstrong's
Axioms are a set of rules that, when applied repeatedly, generates a closure
of functional dependencies.
• Reflexive rule – If alpha is a set of attributes and beta is_subset_of
alpha, then alpha holds beta.

9
 Relational Database • Augmentation rule – If a b holds and y is attribute set, then
Management System ay by also holds. That is adding attributes in dependencies, does not
(RDBMS) change the basic dependencies.
• Transitivity rule – Same as transitive rule in algebra, if a b holds
and b c holds, then a c also holds. a b is called as a functionally
that determines b.
 Trivial Functional Dependency :
• Trivial – If a functional dependency (FD) X Y holds, where Y is
a subset of X, then it is called a trivial FD. Trivial FDs always hold.
• Non–trivial – If an FD X Y holds, where Y is not a subset of X,
then it is called a non–trivial FD.
• Completely non–trivial – If an FD X Y holds, where x intersect
Y = , it is said to be a completely non–trivial FD.
 Normalization :
If a database design is not perfect, it may contain anomalies, which are
like a bad dream for any database administrator. Managing a database with
anomalies is next to impossible.
• Update anomalies : If data items are scattered and are not linked to
each other properly, then it could lead to strange situations. For example,
when we try to update one data item having its copies scattered over
several places, a few instances get updated properly while a few others
are left with old values. Such instances leave the database in an inconsistent
state.
• Deletion anomalies : We tried to delete a record, but parts of it were
left undeleted because of unawareness and the data is also saved somewhere
else.
• Insert anomalies : We tried to insert data in a record that does not exist
at all.
Normalization is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring the
database to a consistent state.
 First Normal Form :
First Normal Form is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself.
This rule defines that all the attributes in a relation must have atomic
domains.
The values in an atomic domain are indivisible units.
Table First Normal Form
Course Content
Programming Java, c++
Web Html, PHP, ASP
We re–arrange the relation (table) as below, to convert it to First Normal
Form.

10
 Table First Normal Form Basic Concepts
Course Content
Programming Java
Programming C++
Web HTML
Web PHP
Web ASP
Each attribute must contain only a single value from its predefined
domain.
 Second Normal Form :
Before we learn about the second normal form, we need to understand
the following :
• Prime attribute – An attribute, which is a part of the prime–key, is
known as a prime attribute.
• Non–prime attribute – An attribute, which is not a part of the prime–
key, is said to be a non–prime attribute.
If we follow second normal form, then every non–prime attribute should
be fully functionally dependent on prime key attribute. That is, if X A holds,
then there should not be any proper subset Y of X for which Y A also
holds true.

Fig 1.4 Relation not in 2NF

We see here in Student_Project relation that the prime key attributes are
Stu_ID and Proj_ID. According to the rule, non–key attributes, i.e., Stu_Name
and Proj_Name must be dependent upon both and not on any of the prime
key attribute individually. But we find that Stu_Name can be identified by
Stu_ID and Proj_Name can be identified by Proj_ID independently. This is
called partial dependency, which is not allowed in Second Normal Form.

Fig 1.5 Relations in 2NF

We broke the relation in two as depicted in the above picture. So there
exists no partial dependency.

11
 Relational Database  Third Normal :
Management System
For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal
(RDBMS)
form and the following must satisfy:
• No non–prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute.
• For any non–trivial functional dependency, X A, then either:
• X is a superkey or,
• A is prime attribute.

Fig 1.6 Relations not in 3NF

We find that in the above Student_detail relation, Stu_ID is the key and
only prime key attribute. We find that City can be identified by Stu_ID as
well as Zip itself. Neither Zip neither is a superkey nor is City a prime attribute.
Additionally, Stu_ID Zip City, so there exists transitive dependency.
To bring this relation into third normal form, we break the relation into
two relations as follows :

Fig 1.7 Relations in 3NF

 Boyce–Codd Normal Form :
Boyce–Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is an extension of Third Normal Form
on strict terms. BCNF states that –
• For any non–trivial functional dependency, X A,
• X must be a super–key.
In the above image, Stu_ID is the super–key in the relation Student_Detail
and Zip is the super–key in the relation ZipCodes. So,
Stu_ID Stu_Name, Zip
and
Zip City
Which confirms that both the relations are in BCNF?
 Relational Algebra :
Relational database systems are expected to be equipped with a query
language that can assist its users to query the database instances. There are
two kinds of query languages: relational algebra and relational calculus.
Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes instances
of relations as input and yields instances of relations as output. It uses operators
to perform queries. An operator can be either unary or binary.They accept

12
relations as their input and yield relations as their output. Relational algebra Basic Concepts
is performed recursively on a relation and intermediate results are also considered
relations.
The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as follows :
• Select
• Project
• Union
• Set different
• Cartesian product
• Rename
We will discuss all these operations in the following sections.
 Select Operation ( )
It selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate from a relation.
Notation : p(r)
Where stands for selection predicate and r stands for relation.p is
prepositional logic formula which may use connectors like and, or, and not.
These terms may use relational operators like: =, , , <, >, .
For example : subject=—database||(Books)
Output : Selects tuples from books where subject is =database‘.
subject=—database|| and price=—450||(Books)
Output : Selects tuples from books where subject is =database‘ and
=price‘ is 450.
subject=—database|| and price < —450|| or year > —2010||(Books)
Output : Selects tuples from books where subject is =database‘ and
=price‘ is 450 or those books Published after 2010.
 Project Operation ( )
It projects column(s) that satisfy a given predicate.
Notation : A1, A2, An (r)
Where A1, A2, An are attribute names of relation r.
Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated, as relation is a set.
For example : subject, author (Books)
Selects and projects columns named as subject and author from the
relation Books.
 Union Operation ( )
It performs binary union between two given relations and is defined as :
r s = { t | t r or t s}
Notion : r s
Where r and s are either database relations or relation result set (temporary
relation).

13
 Relational Database For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold :
Management System
• Rand s must have the same number of attributes.
(RDBMS)
• Attribute domains must be compatible.
• Duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated.
author (Books) author (Articles)
Output : Projects the names of the authors who have either written a
book or an article or both.
 Set Difference (–)
The result of set difference operation is tuples, which are present in one
relation but are not in the second relation.
Notation : r – s
Finds all the tuples that are present in r but not in s.
author (Books) – author (Articles)
Output : Provides the name of authors who have written books but not
articles.
Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X)
Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian
Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product
(X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian
Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product
(X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian Product (X) Cartesian
Product (X)
Combines information of two different relations into one.
Notation : r X s
Where r and s are relations and their output will be defined as :
r X s = { q t | q r and t s}
author = =tutorialspoint‘ (Books X Articles)
Output – Yields a relation, which shows all the books and articles written
by tutorialspoint
Rename Operation – The results of relational algebra are also relations
but without any name. The rename operation allows us to rename the output
relation. =rename‘ operation is denoted with small Greek letter rho .
Notation – x (E)
Where, the result of expression E is saved with name of x.
Additional operations are:
• Set intersection
• Assignment
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. is a set of constraints between two attributes in a relation.
a. Functional dependency b. database
2. Functional dependency is represented by sign.
a. An Arrow b. A Bow
14
3. If F is a set of functional dependencies then the closure of F, denoted Basic Concepts
as .
a. F+ b. F++
4. are a set of rules that, when applied repeatedly, generates a
closure of functional dependencies.
a. Axioms b. Arrows
5. If a design is not perfect, it may contain anomalies.
a. Database b. Data structure

1.5 Components of RDBMS :

A relational database is an electronic structure for storing information.
It consists primarily of tables of related information. The tables include rows
and columns, also known as records and variables. The relational databases
are defined by schema, which indicate the relationship among the tables. The
tables include primary keys that identify specific records within a single table
and foreign keys that are used to connect tables with each other.
 Schema :
A database schema explains the structure and relationship of tables and
other elements within a single relational database. The most common type of
schema is a logical schema, which displays those relationships, as well as
specific attributes of variables within the related tables.
 Tables :
Tables are composed of rows and columns, or records and variables. The
records contain specific information about a unique characteristic. Variables
display the type of information contained within each row. An individual record,
for example, might include information about a customer named —James
Jones.|| The corresponding variable for the customer might be —Name.||
 Keys :
Primary keys are variables that are used to identify unique records within
a table. Each record in a relational database table should have a unique primary
key composed of one or more variables. Foreign keys are variables used to
join related tables.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. A is an electronic structure for storing information.
a. relational database b. database
2. The include rows and columns, also known as records and
variables.
a. Tables b. Data
3. The relational databases are defined by , which indicate the
relationship among the tables.
a. Schema b. Table
4. A explains the structure and relationship of tables and other
elements within a single relational database.
a. database schema b. table

15
 Relational Database 5. are composed of rows and columns, or records and variables.
Management System
a. Tables b. schema
(RDBMS)
1.6 Let Us Sum Up :
This unit gives unique learning on Structured Query Language and it
helps to make practice on SQL commands which provides immediate results.
SQL is a language of database, it includes database creation, deletion, fetching
rows and modifying rows etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) standard but there are many different versions of the SQL language.
Data is one of the most important assets of a company. It is very important
to make sure data is stored and maintained accurately and quickly. On the other
hand a DBMS provides various functions like data security, data integrity, data
sharing, data concurrence, data independence, data recovery etc. Database
managements systems like Oracle, DB2 are more powerful and meant for bigger
companies.
Keys are, as their name suggests, a key part of a relational database
and a vital part of the structure of a table. They ensure each record within
a table can be uniquely identified by one or a combination of fields within
the table. They help enforce integrity and help identify the relationship between
tables.
A relational database is an electronic structure for storing information.
It consists primarily of tables of related information. The relational databases
are defined by schema, which indicate the relationship among the tables.

1.7 Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 4 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a

1.8 Glossary :
1. Keys : They are, as their name suggests, a key part of a relational database
and a vital part of the structure of a table.
2. DBMS : It is a set of programs that is used to store and manipulation
data.

1.9 Assignment :
Explain DBMS and its features.

1.10 Activities :
Write a note on various keys on RDBMS.

16
 1.11 Case Study : Basic Concepts

Explain the benefits of studying Relational algebra.

1.12 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.

17
 Relational Database
Unit
Management System INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE
(RDBMS)
02 TOOLS /SQL* PLUS
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.0 Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Evolution of SQL* Plus
2.2.1 Significant Features of SQL* Plus
2.2.2 SQL* Plus Commands
2.3 Reporting Techniques
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Answers for Check Your Progress
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Assignment
2.8 Activities
2.9 Case Study
2.10 Further Readings

2.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this block, you will be able to understand :
• Evolution of SQL* Plus.
• Various SQL* Plus commands
• About SQL DBA
• Command reference under SQL DBA

2.1 Introduction :
SQL* Plus is the command–line interface to the Oracle database. Its
fundamental reason for existence is to allow you to enter and execute ad hoc
SQL statements and PL/SQL code blocks. This unit explains what SQL* Plus
is, how it relates to other Oracle tools (as well as the database), and why you
should master it. At the end of the unit I‘ll introduce you to the sample data,
which is used for many of the examples in this book. If you like, you can
load that data into your database and test out each example as you go through
this book.
SQL* Plus is essentially an interactive query tool, with some scripting
capabilities. It is a non–GUI, character–based tool that has been around since
the dawn of the Oracle age. Using SQL* Plus, you can enter an SQL statement,
such as a SELECT query, and view the results. You can also execute Data
Definition Language (DDL) commands that allow you to maintain and modify
your database. You can even enter and execute PL/SQL code. In spite of SQL*
Plus's age and lack of —flash,|| it is a workhorse tool used day in and day
out by database administrators, developers, and yes, even end users.

18
 2.2 Evolution of SQL* Plus : Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
SQL* Plus has been around for a long time, pretty much since the
beginning of Oracle. In fact, the original author was Bruce Scott. Any DBA
will recognize the name Scott. It lives on, immortalized as the owner of a
set of example tables that used to be installed with every version of Oracle
and that you still can install even today. The original purpose of SQL* Plus
can be summed up in the succinct words of Kirk Bradley, another early author
of SQL* Plus, who told me, —We needed a way to enter statements into the
database and get results.||
Kirk‘s reason is still arguably the major reason most people use SQL*
Plus today, more than 15 years after it was originally written. SQL* Plus
certainly satisfies a compelling and enduring need.
The original name of the product was not SQL* Plus. The original name
was UFI, which stands for User Friendly Interface. This name has its roots
in one of the first relational database systems ever developed, IBM‘s System
R, the product of a research effort by IBM. Some of IBM's documents referred
to the command–line interface as the UFI, and that name was adopted by Oracle
for its interactive SQL utility.
One of the more interesting uses of Oracle for UFI was as a tool to
produce its documentation. The SQL* Plus DOCUMENT command, now
considered obsolete, was used for this purpose. Script files were created that
contained the manual text, interspersed with the SQL statements needed for
the examples. The DOCUMENT command was used to set off the manual text
so it would just be copied to the output file. When these scripts were run,
the text was copied, the SQL statements were executed, and the result was
documentation complete with examples.
SQL* Plus maintains a fascinating relic from the old days in the form
of the SET TRIMOUT, SET TRIMSPOOL, and SET TAB commands. These
commands control the printing of trailing spaces and the use of tabs to format
columnar output. To understand why these commands even exist, you have to
realize that when SQL* Plus first made its appearance, people thought that
a dialup speed of 1200 bits per second (bps) was fast. In those days you could
get your results much faster by avoiding the need to transmit large numbers
of space characters across a dialup connection.
If you had a lot of whitespaces in your report, you spent a lot of time
watching spaces print across your screen. In that environment, trimming spaces
and using tabs to format columns provided a huge gain in throughput. Today,
with our 10–megabit–per–second (10 Mbps) LAN connections and our 56–KB
modems, we hardly give this a thought.
During the mid–1980s, Oracle experimented with efforts to add procedural
capabilities to UFI. The result of this effort was AUFI, which stood for
Advanced User Friendly Interface. AUFI implemented such things as IF statements
and looping constructs, and was demonstrated publicly at an International Oracle
User Group meeting in 1986 by Ken Jacobs, who is now Oracle's Vice President,
Product Strategy, Oracle Server Technologies.
In spite of the public demos, whether or not to release AUFI as a shipping
product was the subject of some debate within Oracle. Layering a procedural
language on top of the existing UFI command set was proving difficult. It was
19
 Relational Database made more difficult by the need to maintain full, backward compatibility so
Management System existing scripts written by Oracle's clients would not suddenly break when those
(RDBMS) clients upgraded. Because of these issues, the code to support the procedural
enhancements became complex and somewhat unreliable. The issues of reliability
and complexity led to Oracle's ultimate decision to kill the product, so AUFI
never shipped. With the later advent of PL/SQL, procedural logic was supported
within the database, and efforts to support a procedural scripting language were
then seen as unnecessary. The name AUFI lives on in the name of the temporary
file created when you use the SQL* Plus EDIT command. That file is named
afiedt.buf. Even today, AFI is the prefix used for all the source code.
With the release of Oracle 5.0 in 1985, the name of the interactive query
utility was changed from UFI to SQL* Plus. Most changes since then have
been evolutionary. Each new release brings with it a few new commands and
new options on existing commands. Some commands have been made obsolete,
but many of these obsolete commands are still supported for purposes of
backward compatibility.
Only a couple of truly significant changes to SQL* Plus have occurred
over the years. In 1988, with the release of Oracle8i Database, Server Manager's
STARTUP, SHUTDOWN, and RECOVER commands were implemented in
SQL* Plus, which was designated the primary, command–line interface into
the Oracle database. Server Manager was deprecated, and by the time Oracle
9i Database came along, Server Manager no longer existed.
By far the most significant and visible change to SQL* Plus in recent
years has been the introduction of iSQL* Plus, a three–tier application that
gives you access to SQL* Plus functionality via any standard we? browser.
As a prelude to iSQL* Plus, it was first necessary to give SQL* Plus
the ability to generate output in HTML form. This took place in Release 8.1.7,
which introduced the SET MARKUP command.
iSQL* Plus was first released in 2001 as a Windows–only application
(part of Oracle9i Database Release
1. iSQL* Plus was expanded to most other operating systems in 2002 with
the release of Oracle9i Database Release
2. Beginning with the release of Oracle Database 10g, iSQL* Plus is
supported across all platforms.
2.2.1 Significant Features of SQL* Plus :
Some of the following significant features of SQL* Plus make it possible
for you to set up command files that allow end–user input:
1. Defining user Variables
2. Substituting Values in Commands
3. Using the START Command to Provide Values
4. Prompting for Values
1. Defining user Variables :
You can define variables, called user variables, for repeated use in a
single command file by using the SQL* Plus command DEFINE. Note that
you can also define user variables to use in titles and to save you key strokes
(by defining a long string as the value for a variable with a short name).
20
 To define a user variable EMPLOYEE and give it the value —SMITH||, Introduction to Oracle
enter the following command : Tools/SQL* Plus

SQL> DEFINE EMPLOYEE = SMITH

To confirm the definition of the variable, enter DEFINE followed by
the variable name:
SQL> DEFINE EMPLOYEE
SQL* Plus lists the definition :
DEFINE EMPLOYEE = —SMITH|| (CHAR)
To list all user variable definitions, enter DEFINE by itself at the
command prompt. Note that any user variable you define explicitly through
DEFINE takes only CHAR values (that is, the value you assignto the variable
is always treated as a CHAR datatype). You can define a user variable of
datatype NUMBER implicitly through the ACCEPT command. To delete a user
variable, use the SQL* Plus command UNDEFINE followed by the variable
name.
2. Substituting Values in Commands :
If you want to write a query like the one in SALES to list the employees
with various jobs, not just those whose job is SALESMAN. You could do that
by editing a different CHAR value into the WHERE clause each time you run
the command, but there is an easier way. By using a substitution variable in
place of the value SALESMAN in the WHERE clause, you can get the same
results you would get if you had written the values into the command itself.
A substitution variable is a user variable name preceded by one or two
ampersands (&). When SQL* Plus encounters a substitution variable in a
command, SQL* Plus executes the command as though it contained the value
of the substitution variable, rather than the variable itself.
For example, if the variable SORTCOL has the value JOB and the
variable
MYTABLE has the value EMP, SQL* Plus executes the commands:
SQL> BREAK ON & SORTCOL
SQL> SELECT & SORTCOL, SAL
2 FROM & MYTABLE
3 ORDER BY & SORTCOL;
as if they were
SQL> BREAK ON JOB
SQL> SELECT JOB, SAL
2 FROM EMP
3 ORDER BY JOB;
The BREAK command suppresses duplicate values of the column
named in SORTCOL.
3. Using the START Command to Provide Values :
You can use substitution variables anywhere in SQL and SQL* Plus
commands, except as the first word entered at the command prompt. When
SQL* Plus encounters an undefined substitution variable in a command, SQL*
21
 Relational Database Plus prompts you for the value. You can enter any string at the prompt, even
Management System one containing blanks and punctuation. If the SQL command containing the
(RDBMS) reference should have quote marks around the variable and you do not include
them there, the user must include the quotes when prompted.
SQL* Plus reads your response from the keyboard, even if you have
redirected terminal input or output to a file. If a terminal is not available (if,
for example, you run the command file in batch mode), SQL* Plus uses the
redirected file.
After you enter a value at the prompt, SQL* Plus lists the line containing
the substitution variable twice: once before substituting the value you enter
and once after substitution. You can suppress this listing by setting the SET
command variable VERIFY to OFF.
Create a command file named STATS, to be used to calculate a subgroup
statistic (the maximum value) on a numeric column :
SQL> CLEAR BUFFER
SQL> INPUT
SELECT &GROUP_COL,
MAX(&NUMBER_COL) MAXIMUM
FROM &TABLE
GROUP BY &GROUP_COL
SQL> SAVE STATS
Created file STATS
Avoiding Unnecessary
Prompts for Values
3–20 SQL* Plus User's Guide and Reference
Now run the commands file STATS and respond as shown below to the
prompts for values:
SQL> @STATS
Enter value for group_col: JOB
old 1: SELECT &GROUP_COL,
new 1: SELECT JOB,
Enter value for number_col: SAL
old 2: MAX(&NUMBER_COL) MAXIMUM
new 2: MAX(SAL) MAXIMUM
Enter value for table: EMP
old 3: FROM &TABLE
new 3: FROM EMP
Enter value for group_col: JOB
old 4: GROUP BY &GROUP_COL
new 4: GROUP BY JOB

22
 SQL* Plus displays the following output : Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
JOB MAXIMUM
ANALYST 3000
CLERK 1300
MANAGER 2975
PRESIDENT 5000
SALESMAN 1600
If you wish to append characters immediately after a substitution variable,
use a period to separate the variable from the character. For example :
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO==&X.01‘;
Enter value for X: 123will be interpreted as
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO==12301‘;
4. Prompting for Values :
Suppose you wanted to expand the file STATS to include the minimum,
sum, and average of the —number|| column. You may have noticed that SQL*
Plus prompted you twice for the value of GROUP_COL and once for the value
of NUMBER_COL in Example 3–12, and that each GROUP_COL or
NUMBER_COL had a single ampersand in front of it. If you were to add
three more functions–using a single ampersand before each—to the command
file, SQL* Plus would prompt you a total of four times for the value of the
number column.
You can avoid being re–prompted for the group and number columns
by adding a second ampersand in front of each GROUP_COL and
NUMBER_COL in STATS. SQL* Plus automatically DEFINEs any substitution
variable preceded by two ampersands; but does not DEFINE those preceded
by only one ampersand. When you have DEFINED a variable, SQL* Plus
substitutes the value of variable for each substitution variable referencing
variable (in the form and variable or &variable). SQL* Plus will not prompt
you for the value of variable in this session until you UNDEFINE variable.
2.2.2 SQL* Plus Commands :
SQL* Plus is a command–line tool that provides access to the Oracle
RDBMS. SQL* Plus which makes you to :
• Enter SQL* Plus commands to configure the SQL* Plus environment
• Startup and shutdown an Oracle database
• Connect to an Oracle database
• Enter and execute SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks
• Format and print query results
SQL* Plus is available on several platforms. In addition, it has a web–
based user interface, iSQL* Plus.
The commands shown in Table A–1 are SQL* Plus commands available
in the command–line interface. Not all commands or command parameters are
shown.

23
 Relational Database Table A–1 Basic SQL* Plus Commands
Management System
How To... SQL* Plus Command
(RDBMS)
Log in to SQL* Plus SQLPLUS
[ { username[/password][@connect_identifier]
| / } [ AS { SYSDBA | SYSOPER } ] |
/NOLOG ]
List help topics available HELP [ INDEX | topic ]
in SQL* Plus
Execute host commands HOST [ command ]
Show SQL* Plus system SHOW { ALL | ERRORS | USER |
variables or environment system_variable | ... }
settings
Alter SQL* Plus system SET system_variablevalue
variables or environment
settings
Start up a database STARTUP PFILE = filename
[ MOUNT [ dbname ] | NOMOUNT | ... ]
Connect to a database CONNECT [ [ username [ /password ] [
@connect_identifier ]
[ / AS { SYSOPER | SYSDBA } ]
]
List column definitions DESCRIBE [ schema. ] object
for a table, view, or
synonym, or specifications
for a function or procedure
Edit contents of the SQL EDIT [ filename [ .ext ] ]
buffer or a file
Get a file and load its GET filename [ .ext ] [ LIST | NOLLIST ]
contents into the SQL
buffer
Save contents of the SQL SAVE filename [ .ext ] [ CREATE |
buffer to a file REPLACE | APPEND ]
List contents of the SQL LIST [ n | nm | n LAST | ... ]
buffer
Delete contents of the DEL [ n | nm | n LAST | ... ]
SQL buffer
Add new lines following INPUT [ text ]
current line in the SQL
buffer
Append text to end of APPEND text
current line in the SQL
buffer

24
 Find and replace first CHANGE sepcharold [ sepchar [ new [ sepchar Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
occurrence of a text string in ]]]
current line of the SQL sepchar can be any non–alphanumeric character
buffer such as —/|| or —!||
Capture query results in a SPOOL [ filename [ .ext ]
file and, optionally, send [ CREATE | REPLACE | APPEND | OFF |
contents of file to default OUT ]
printer
Run SQL* Plus statements @ { url | filename [ .ext ] } [ arg... ]
stored in a file START filename [ .ext ] [ arg... ]
.ext can be omitted if the filename
extension is .sql
Execute commands stored /
in the SQL buffer
List and execute commands RUN
stored in the SQL buffer
Execute a single PL/SQL EXECUTE statement
statement or run a stored
procedure
Disconnect from a database DISCONNECT
Shut down a database SHUTDOWN [ ABORT | IMMEDIATE |
NORMAL | ... ]
Log out of SQL* Plus { EXIT | QUIT }
[ SUCCESS | FAILURE | WARNING | ... ]
[ COMMIT | ROLLBACK ]

 Check Your Progress – 1 :

1. The original author of SQL was .
a. Bruce Scott b. Kirk Bradley
2. The original purpose of SQL* Plus can be summed up in the succinct
words of .
a. Kirk Bradley b. Bruce Scott
3. You can use variables anywhere in SQL and SQL* Plus
commands.
a. Substitution b. Complimentary
4. You can define variables, called , for repeated use in a single
command file by using the SQL* Plus command DEFINE.
a. user variables b. substitution

2.3 Reporting Techniques :

A report is information provided in a neat and understandable format.
Report contains details as well as summary information. We have so far seen
different clauses of SELECT command. But no clause allows you to display
details as well as summary information. For instance, GROUP BY can be used

25
 Relational Database to get summary information but it cannot display details. Simple SELECT can
Management System display details but cannot display summary information.
(RDBMS)
SQL* PLUS is a tool that is used to send SQL command to Oracle
Instance. It is an environment in which you enter SQL commands. It also
provides some extra commands such as DESCRIBE, EDIT etc., which are called
as SQL* PLUS commands. SQL* PLUS environment also provides a set of
commands which can be used to generate report.
The following is a sample report that we are going to generate in this
unit. This report is generated with SQL* PLUS commands that are specifically
meant for this purpose and SELECT command, which is used to retrieve data
from database.
 Report Script :
The following is the report script. The script is used to generate the report
shown above. The following sections will explain the commands used in the
script.
Type the script in any text editor under the name like payreport.sql and
then run it from SQL prompt of SQL* Plus as follows.
SQL>>start c:\orabook\payreport.sql
rem ***********************************************
rem Purpose : Script to generate Payments Report
rem AUthor : P.Srikanth
rem Date : 10–Oct–2001
rem Place : Visakhapatanam
rem ***********************************************
rem set break and compute settings
break on report on course skip page on batch skip 2
compute sum of amount on batch course report
set pagesize 24
set linesize 90
set feedback off
column amount format 99,999
column name format a20 heading =Student
Name‘ column dj heading =Date of|Joining‘
column dp heading =Date of|Payment‘
title skip 1 right =Page:‘ format 99 sql.pno skip 1 center =Payments
Report‘ skip 2
spool payreport.lst
select c.ccode course, b.bcode batch, p.rollno, s.name name, phone, dj,
dp, amount
from batches b, students s, payments p, courses c
whereb.ccode = c.ccode and b.bcode = s.bcode and s.rollno = p.rollno
order by course, batch;
26
 spool off Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
set feedback on
rem clear settings
clear compute
clear break
clear column
ttitle off
 BREAK Command :
Specifies how which column(s) the data selected by SELECT command
is to be grouped (broken). This is also used to specify what should be done
when break is given.
BRE[AK] [ON expression [action]] . . .
Expression is the column on which the data is to be grouped or ROW
or REPORT keyword.
Action specifies what action should be taken when break is issued. The
following are the possible actions.
SKI[P] n Prints specified number of empty lines.
SKI[P] page Issues a page break at break.
DUP[LICATE] Prints the value of a break column in every selected row.
NODUP[LICATE] Prints blanks instead of the value of a break column
when the value
isa duplicate of the column's value in the preceding row.
Note : BREAK command alone displays the current break settings
The following BREAK command issues break whenever it detects a
change in BCODE column
and starts a new page.
break on bcode skip page
Note : It is important to give ORDER BY clause on the columns that
are used in BREAK command.
When multiple columns are used in BREAK, SQL* PLUS issues break
starting from right most column to left most.
break on country skip page on city skip 2
First it issues break on CITY and then issues break on COUNTRY. You
need to makes sure the order is right.
BREAK command in script
The script above used the following break.
break on report on course skip page on batch skip 2
The above BREAK issues break on three different levels. First whenever
there is a change in BATCH column, second whenever there is a change in
COURSE column and finally at the end of the report.
It is important to know the order in which columns are to be given –
most specific to most common.

27
 Relational Database For this break to work properly the ORDER BY clause of the SELECT
Management System must be given as follows :
(RDBMS)
Order by course, batch
 COMPUTE Command :
This is used to compute and print summary information. The
COMP[UTE] [function [ LABEL text] OF {column}...
ON {column | REPORT | ROW} . . .]
FUNCTION is any of the functions listed in Table 1.
If you give more than one function, use spaces to separate the functions.
Table List of functions used in COMPUTE
FUNCTION COMPUTES COMPUTES
AVG Average of non–null NUMBER
values
COU[NT] Count of non–null values all types
MAX[IMUM] Maximum value NUMBER, CHAR,
VARCHAR, VARCHAR2
MIN[IMUM] Minimum value NUMBER, CHAR,
VARCHAR, VARCHAR2
NUM[BER] Count of rows all types
STD Standard deviation of NUMBER
non–null values
SUM Sum of non–null values NUMBER
VAR[IANCE] Sum of non–null values NUMBER
Note : Every COMPUTE requires a corresponding BREAK. COMPUTE
displays summary information, only when there is abreak on the given level.
The following COMPUTE will display the su?total and grand total of amount.
Compute sum of amount on bcode report
For the above COMPUTE to function there must be a corresponding
BREAK as follows.
break on ?code skip page on report
LABEL keyword specifies the text to be displayed as label for the
computed value. The maximum length of the label is 500 characters.
compute sum label ?Grand Total' of amount on report
NOTE : The label is truncated to the size of first column in the SELECT
 COMPUTE Command in Script :
The following compute command is used in the script to generate the
report.
compute sum of amount on batch course report
It will display the sum of AMOUNT column at the end of each batch,
course and at the end of report.

28
 COLUMN Command : Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
Specifies the display attributes of a column. The following are the
possible options :
Text for the column heading
Alignment of the column heading
Format of NUMBER type columns
Wrapping of text
COL[UMN] [{column|expr} [option ...]]
The following is the list of a few commonly used options of COLUMN
command.
FOR[MAT] format
HEA[DING] text
JUS[TIFY] {L[EFT]|C[ENTER]|C[ENTRE]|R[IGHT]}
NUL[L] char
WRA[PPED]|WOR[D_WRAPPED]|TRU[NCATED]
 HEADING :
Specifies the heading to be displayed. If no heading is given, the name
of the column is displayed as heading.
If heading separator (|) is used then heading is split into multiple lines.
JUSTIFY is used to align heading either to LEFT, CENTER or RIGHT.
column ccode heading =Course|Code‘ justify center NULL
Substitutes null values with the given value in the display. If not given
then null is displayed as blank.
COLUMN command may also be used to show display attributes of a
particular column as follows :
SQL> column name
COLUMN name ON
HEADING =Student | Name = headsep =|'
JUSTIFY center
COLUMN command in script
The following COLUMN commands in the script are used to format
columns.
Column amount format 99,999
column name format a20 heading =Student
Name‘ column dj heading =Date of|Joining‘
column dp heading =Date of|Payment‘
AMOUNT column is formatted as 99,999.
NAME column is displayed with a width of 20 columns and heading
is set to —Student Name||.
DJ's heading is set to two lines heading where first line is —Date of||
and second line is —Joining||. The same is the case with DP column.

29
 Relational Database TTITLE and BTITLE Commands
Management System
TTITLE specifies the text to be displayed at the top of each printed
(RDBMS)
page.
BTITILE displays
textat the bottom of the printed page.
TTI[TLE] [options [text]] [ON | OFF]
BTI[TLE] [options [text]] [ON | OFF]
The following is the list of options:
Option Meaning
BOLD Prints text in bold print.
COL n Prints title after n columns in the current line.
ENTER Aligns title to center.
LEFT Aligns title to left.
RIGHT Aligns title to right.
SKIP n Skips n number of lines before printing title.
TTITLE center =First line =skip 1 center =Second line‘
Prints the text First Line in the first line and after skipping one line
then displays text Second Line.
TTITLE left =Payments Report' right sql.pno
Prints the text Payments Report on the left and current page number
on the right.
SQL.PNO
returns the current page number. The other variables that you can use
are :
SQL.USER –
current username, SQL.RELEASE – current Oracle release number.
TTITLE off
Will turn off display of top title.
TTITLE command in script
The following TTITLE command is used to display the top title for
payments report.
ttitle skip 1 right =Page:‘ format 99 sql.pno skip 1 center =Payments
Report' skip 2
Oracle For Beginners Page : 11
srikanthtechnologies.com
First string —Page:|| is displayed followed by the page number of the
current page. These two are right justified to the page. Then one line is skipped
and then at the center of the line title
—Payments Report|| is displayed. Then two lines are skipped before the
data of the page is displayed.

30
 SPOOL Command : Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
Stores the result of query into an operating system file. It can be used
to send the content of the file to printer.
Once spooling is turned on whatever that is displayed on the screen,
a copy of that is copied
into spool file.
SPO[OL ] [ filename | OUT | OFF ]
Filename Specifies the name of the file into which output is to be stored.
It begins spooling.
OFF Stops spooling.
OUT Stops spooling and sends the contents of the spool file to default
printer.
The following SPOOL command sends subsequent output to file
REPORT.LST. SPOOL report.lst
SPOOL command in the script
SPOOL command is used in the script to capture the output into file
PAYREPORT.LST as
follows.
spool payreport.lst
Then after the SELECT command SPOOL command is used again to
stop capturing the output
using :
spool off
Oracle For Beginners Page : 12
srikanthtechnologies.com
CLEAR Command
Resets the current value of the specified option.
CLEAR option
Where option may be any of the following.
Option what it clears?
BRE[AKS] Break settings set by BREAK.
COMP[UTES] Compute setting set by COMPUTE.
SCR[EEN] Content of SQL* PLUS window.
COL[UMNS] Column setting set by COLUMN.
BUFF[ER] Text in the current buffer.
The following CLEAR command will rest all summary information
specified by COMPUTE.
 Clear Computes :
 SET Variables :
Set variables/system variables are used to configure SQL* PLUS
environment. For instance, system variables can be used to set page pause,
the length of page, size of line and so on.
31
 Relational Database SET command is used to change the value of system variables.
Management System
SET system_variable value
(RDBMS)
The following is a list of a few system variables. For the complete list
of system variables and all the possible options, please see on–line help.
Some of the system variables can store more than one value. For instance,
FEEDBACK stores a number and ON/OFF state.
System variable Meaning
AUTOCOMMIT If set to ON, automatically commits changes made by
SQL command.
FEEDBACK If set to ON, displays the number of rows selected by
SELECT, if number of rows is >= the number specified by FEEDBACK
variable.
LINESIZE Specifies the number of characters that can be displayed in
a singleline.
PAGESIZE Specifies the number of lines to be displayed in a single
page.
NUMFORMAT Specifies the default numeric format for numbers.
PAUSE If set to ON, gives pause at the end of each page. Also contains
the text to be displayed when pause is issued.
SERVEROUTPUT If set to ON, enables the display of output by
DBMS_OUTPUT package.
TERMOUT If set to OFF, suppresses the display of output of start file.
Table 3 : SET Variables.
The following SET commands will configure SQL* Plus for report.
set pagesize 50
set linesize 132
set feedback off
set pause off
Displaying Information Using SHOW Command
You can display the current values of system variables and other options
using SHOW command.
SHO[W] option
Where option may be any of the following.
Option Meaning
System_variable Any system variable.
ERR[ORS] Compilation error of procedures, functions.
REL[EASE] The current release of Oracle.
TTI[TLE] and BTI[TLE] Current setting of title.
USER The name of the current user.
ALL Displays the values of all show options.
For the complete list of options, please see on–line help.

32
 To get the name of the current user, enter : Introduction to Oracle
Tools/SQL* Plus
SQL> show user
user is –SRIKANTH||
To display the current value of PAGESIZE variable, enter :
SQL> show pagesize
pagesize 24
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. A is information provided in a neat and understandable format.
a. Report b. Command
2. SQL* PLUS is a tool that is used to send SQL command to
Instance.
a. Oracle b. Command
3. Command specifies how which column(s) the data selected
by SELECT command is to be grouped (broken).
a. BREAK b. Stop

2.4 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit, we have learnt that Although SQL* Plus has been around
for a long time, pretty much since the beginning of Oracle. It lives on,
immortalized as the owner of a set of example tables that used to be installed
with every version of Oracle and that you still can install even today. The
original purpose of SQL* Plus can be summed up in the following words.?
We even learnt some of the significant features of SQL* Plus are defining
user variables, substituting values in commands, using the START command
to provide values and prompting for values
A report is information provided in a neat and understandable format.
Report contains details as well as summary information. In the above discussion
even the various SQL* DBA commands have been discussed in very detail.

2.5 Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a

2.6 Glossary :
1. SQL* Plus : It is the command–line interface to the Oracle database.
2. Report : It is information provided in a neat and understandable format.

2.7 Assignment :
Throw some light on the evolution of SQL * Plus took place.

2.8 Activities :
Discuss in detail the various significant features of SQL* Plus.

33
 Relational Database 2.9 Case Study :
Management System
(RDBMS) Discuss the role of reporting techniques.

2.10 Furthers Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.

34
 Unit
03 SQL DBA

UNIT STRUCTURE
3.0 Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction to SQL DBA
3.2 SQL DBA Command Reference
3.3 Let Us Sum Up
3.4 Answers for Check Your Progress
3.5 Glossary
3.6 Assignment
3.7 Activities
3.8 Case Study
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this block, you will be able to understand :
• About SQL DBA
• Command reference under SQL DBA

3.1 Introduction to SQL DBA :

Every organization using a database management system (DBMS) to
manage data requires a database administration group to ensure the effective
use and deployment of the company's databases. Since most modern organizations
of any size use a DBMS, the need for a database administrator (DBA) is greater
today than ever before. However, the discipline of database administration is
neither well understood nor universally practiced in a coherent and easily
replicated manner.
A DBA is the information technician responsi?le for ensuring the ongoing
operational functionality and efficiency of an organization's databases and the
applications that access those databases. The long answer to that question
requires a book to answer–this book. This text will define the management
discipline of database administration and provide practical guidelines for the
proper implementation of the DBA function.
 Why learn DBA ?
Data is at the center of today's applications; today's organizations simply
cannot operate without data. In many ways, business today is data. Without
data, businesses would not have the ability to manage finances, conduct
transactions, or contact their customers. Databases are created to store and
organize this data. The better the design and utility of the database, the better
the organization will be positioned to compete for business.
Indeed, one of the largest problems faced by IT organizations is ensuring
quality database administration. A survey of IT managers conducted by Information

35
 Relational Database Week in December 2000 showed that the top two database management execution
Management System issues faced by companies are ease of administration and availability of qualified
(RDBMS) administrators.
Both of these issues were cited by 58% of survey respondents. Additionally,
the 1999 Market Compensation Survey conducted by people3, a Gartner Company,
shows that DBA positions take longer to fill than any other position. Clearly,
there is no lack of demand for DBA skills in today's job market.
 Data Administration :
Data administration separates the business aspects of data resource
management from the technology used to manage data; it is more closely aligned
with the actual business users of data. The data administrator (DA) is responsible
for understanding the business lexicon and translating it into a logical data
model.
Referring back to the ADLC, the DA would be involved more in the
requirements gathering, analysis, and design phase, the DBA in the design,
development, testing, and operational phases.
Another difference between a DA and a DBA is the focus of effort. The
DA is responsible for the following tasks:
• Identifying and cataloguing the data required by business users.
• Producing conceptual and logical data models to accurately depict the
relationship among data elements for business processes.
• Creating an enterprise data model that incorporates all of the data used
by all of the organization's business processes.
• Setting data policies for the organization.
• Identifying data owners and stewards.
• Setting standards for control and usage of data.
In short, the DA can be thought of as the Chief Data Officer of the
corporation. However, in my experience, the DA is never given an executive
position, which is unfortunate. Many IT organizations state that they treat data
as a corporate as set, a statement that is believed by their actions. Responsibility
for data policy is often relegated to technicians who fail to concentrate on
the non–technical business aspects of data management. Technicians do a good
job of ensuring availability, performance, and recoverability, but are not usually
capable of ensuring data quality and setting corporate policies.
In fact, data is rarely treated as a true corporate asset. Think about the
assets that every company has in common: capital, human resources, facilities,
and materials. Each of these assets is modelled: charts of account, organization
charts, reporting hierarchies, building blueprints, office layouts, and bills of
material. Each is tracked and protected. Professional auditors are employed to
ensure that no discrepancies exist in a company's accounting of its assets. Can
we say the same thing about data?
A mature DA organization is responsible for planning and guiding the
data usage requirements throughout the organization. This role encompasses
how data is documented, shared, and implemented company wide. A large
responsibility of the DA staff is to ensure that data elements are documented
properly, usually in a data dictionary or repository. This is another key

36
differentiation between a DA and a DBA. The DA focuses on the repository, SQL DBA
whereas the DBA focuses on the physical databases and DBMS.
Furthermore, the DA deals with metadata, as opposed to the DBA, who
deals with data. Metadata is often described as data about data; more accurately,
metadata is the description of the data and data interfaces required by the
business.
Data administration is responsible for the business's metadata strategy.
Examples of metadata include the definition of a data element, business names
for a data element, any abbreviations used for that element, and the data type
and length of the element. Data without metadata is difficult to use. For
example, the number 12 is data, but what kind of data? In other words, what
does that 12 mean?
Without metadata, we have no idea. Consider this : Is the number 12
• A date representing December, the twelfth month of the year?
• A date representing the twelfth day of some month?
• An age?
• A shoe size?
• Or, heaven forbid, an IQ?
And so on. However, there are other, more technical aspects of metadata,
too.
Think about the number 12 again.
• Is 12 a large number or a small one?
• What is its domain (that is, what is the universe of possible values of
Which 12 is but a single value)?
• What is its data type? Is it an integer or a decimal number with a 0
scale?
Metadata provides the context by which data can be understood and
therefore become information. In many organizations, metadata is not methodically
captured and catalogued; instead, it exists mostly in the minds of the business
users. Where it has been captured in systems; it is spread throughout multiple
programs in file definitions, documentation in various states of accuracy, or
in long lost program specifications. Some of it, of course, is in the system
catalog of the DBMS. A comprehensive metadata strategy enables an organization
to understand the information assets under its control and to measure the value
of those assets.
One of the biggest contributions of data administration to the corporate
data asset is the creation of data models. A conceptual data model outlines
data requirement at a very high level. A logical data model provides in–depth
details of data types, lengths, relationships, and cardinality. The DA uses
normalization techniques to deliver sound data models that accurately depict
the data requirements of an organization.
Many DBAs dismiss data administration as mere data modelling, required
only because someone needs to talk to the end users to get the databases
requirements. However, a true DA function is much more than mere data
modelling. It is a business–oriented management discipline responsible for the
data asset of the organization.
37
 Relational Database • Planning Database Creation
Management System
• Plan the tables and indexes – no of tables, indexes, normalization,
(RDBMS)
data–types, constraints, block size, location and storage parameters
• Layout of the operating system – location of redolog files, data
files, specifying the number of rows in data–block, storage
requirements
• Using oracle managed files
Operating system files managed by oracle, manage disk space allocation
• Determining Global database name
• To be used by all users within network
• Considering parameter file
• Oracle provides parameter file init.ora that contains various
initialization parameters
• Selecting Database character set
• Specifying the time zone
• Specifying block size
• Backup strategy
• Operating the database
When you create a database, Oracle create two user accounts by default:
• SYS :
The SYS user account is automatically assigned the DBA role.
When the database is created, Oracle creates data dictionary, tables, and
views for the database in the SYS schema. You cannot manipulate the tables
and views in the SYS schema.
• SYSTEM :
The SYSTEM user account is automatically assigned the DBA role. The
default password for using the SYSTEM account is MANAGER.
Oracle stores the additional tables and views, which stores the information
for administrative task in the SYSTEM schema. The database users should
not be allowed to create tables and views in the SYSTEM schema.
• Oracle creates a role called DBA when database is created. The DBA role
has all administrative privileges.
• This role should be granted to a single DBA who is responsible for
administering and managing the database.
• DBA Privileges
• An administrator requires specific privileges to perform database
operations. Oracle provides two system privileges for administrators:
• SYSDBA
• SYSOPER
• Managing Profiles and Users
Profile : It specifies system resources that are available to a database
user while working with a database.

38
 • System resources include CPU time available for processing in user SQL DBA
session, logical IO operations, simultaneous sessions that can be
established with the oracle server.
• You can specify a default profile that is used when no profile is
assigned to the user.
The Database Administration consists of managing three important
files namely Control Files, Data Files and Redo–Log files
 Control Files :
• A control file stores information about the physical structure of
a database.
• It includes information about all the files within the database.
• A control file stores the content in binary format.
• Every database should have one control file in any case.
• Control file initialization parameter is defined in init.ora
• Control files are generated automatically when database is created.
• If control file name is not specified then default name is used
• Default is creation of control files during database creation
• By default only one control file is created
• More than two control files should be created because these files
are needed in recovery operations
• It restores database in consistent state in case of failure
• If we are using a single control file and it gets corrupted, recovery
is not possible
• Multiple copies of control files must be created on several drives
 Data Files :
• Data files are those files that store logical structures of the database.
• The data files are stores in a tablespace
• After assigning the data files to a tablespace you cannot remove
it but can resize them.
• A tablespace is logical division of a database which contains many
datafiles.
• Each database has atleast one tablespace (default is SYSTEM)
• Each tablespace can be associated with only one database
 Online Redo Log Files :
• Oracle records all the changes in the database in redo log files.
• Each database must have atleast two redo log files
• Redo Log files contains Redo Records
• Redo records contains set of change vectors
• Change vector describes the changes made to a single block in
database
• Oracle reads the change vectors and automatically applies those
changes in the pertinent blocks
39
 Relational Database • Transaction occurs in database
Management System
• Transactions are written to redo log buffers
(RDBMS)
• Log Writer (LGWR) writes the contents of the redo log buffers
to online redo log files in batches.
• LGWR writes the redo records from log buffer to the first file
in database.
• Then a System Change Number (SCN) is assigned to the redo
records to recognize them. When all records are written on redo
log files then transaction is declared as committed.
• When log files are filled completely LGWR returns to first redo
log file and overwrites it with new data.
• If database is running in ARCHIVELOG mode, the database
duplicates the online redo log files before overwriting them.
• This files would later used to recover the data.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. The discipline of is neither well understood nor universally
practiced in a coherent and easily replicated manner.
a. database administration b. DBMS
2. A is the information technician responsible for ensuring the
ongoing operational functionality and efficiency of an organization's
databases and the applications that access those databases.
a. DBA b. DBMS
3. is at the center of today's applications.
a. Data b. DBMS
4. Data is rarely treated as a true corporate
a. Asset b. Liability
5. A mature organization is responsible for planning and guiding
the data usage requirements throughout the organization.
a. DA b. DBMS

3.3 SQL* DBA Command Reference :

Command Function
ALTER DATABASE Changes storage group or log for database
ALTER DBAREA Changes the size of a database area.
ALTER EXTERNAL Changes an external function definition
FUNCTION
ALTER PASSWORD Changes a password.
ALTER STOGROUP Adds or drops a database area from a storage
group.
ALTER TABLE Modifies the definition of a tale.
ALTER TABLE Makes error messages specific to a particular
(error messages) referential integrity violation.
40
ALTER TABLE Adds or drops primary and foreign keys. SQL DBA
(referential integrity)
ALTER TRIGGER Enables and disables triggers defined on tables.
AUDIT MESSAGE Writes a message string to an audit file.
CHECK DATABASE Checks database for integrity.
CHECK INDEX Checks specified index for integrity.
CHECK TABLE Checks specified table for integrity.
COMMENT ON. Replaces or adds a comment to the description
of a table, view, column, or external function
in the system catalog
COMMIT Ends a logical unit of work and commits
database changes made by it.
CREATE DATABASE Physically creates a database.
CREATE DBAREA Creates a database area.
CREATE EXTERNAL Creates an external function.
FUNCTION
CREATE INDEX Creates an index on a table.
CREATE STOGROUP Creates a storage group.
CREATE SYNONYM An alternate name for a table, view, or external
Defines function.
CREATE TABLE Defines a table.
CREATE TRIGGER Creates a trigger.
CREATE VIEW Defines a view of one or more tables or views.
DBATTRIBUTE Sets database–specific attributes
DEINSTALL DATABASE Takes a database off the network, making it
unavailable to users.
DELETE Deletes one or more rows from a table.
DROP DATABASE Physically deletes a database.
DROP DBAREA Physically deletes a database area.
DROP EXTERNAL Deletes an external function.
FUNCTION
DROP INDEX Removes an index.
DROP STOGROUP Deletes a storage group.
DROP SYNONYM Deletes a synonym
DROP TABLE Physically deletes table from the database.
DROP TRIGGER Deletes a trigger.
DROP VIEW Deletes a view.

41
 Relational Database GRANT Grants database authority or privileges
Management System
(database authority)
(RDBMS)
GRANT (table privileges) Grants one or more specified privileges for a
table or view.
GRANT EXECUTE ON Grants execute privilege on stored procedures
and external functions to other users.
INSERT . Inserts one or more rows into an existing table
INSTALL DATABASE Puts a database on the network, making it
accessible to users.
LABEL Adds or changes labels in catalog descriptions
LOAD Loads one or more tables into a database.
LOCK DATABASE Places an exclusive lock on the database,
preventing connections from other users.
PROCEDURE : Creates a procedure
REVOKE Revokes database authority or privileges.
REVOKE EXECUTE ON Revokes users execute privilege on a stored
procedure or external function.
ROLLBACK Terminates a logical unit of work and backs
out database changes made during the last
transaction.
ROWCOUNT Obtains the number of rows in a table.
SAVEPOINT Assigns a checkpoint within a transaction.
SELECT Queries tables or views.
SET DEFAULT Specifies the default storage group.
STOGROUP
START AUDIT Starts a database audit.
STOP AUDIT Stops a database audit.
UNLOAD Unloads a database to an external file.
UNLOCK DATABASE Releases the exclusive lock on the database
from the LOCK DATABASE command
UPDATE Updates the values of columns in a table or
view.
UPDATE STATISTICS Updates the statistics for a database, table, or
index

 Check Your Progress – 2 :

1. Changes an external function definition.
a. ALTER EXTERNAL FUNCTION
b. ALTER TRIGGER

42
2. Enables and disables triggers defined on tables. SQL DBA
a. ALTER TRIGGER b. ALTER EXTERNAL FUNCTION
3. Creates a storage group.
a. CREATE STOGROUP b. GENERATE STOGROU
4. Physically deletes a database area.
a. DROP DBAREA b. DOWN DBAREA
5. Starts a database audit.
a. START AUDIT b. AUDIT START

3.3 Let Us Sum Up :

In the above discussion even the various SQL* DBA commands have
been discussed in very detail.

3.4 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a

3.5 Glossary :
DBA : Database Administration

3.6 Assignment :
Throw some light on the functions of a database administrator

3.7 Activities :
Discuss in detail the role of a database administrator in an organisation

3.8 Case Study :

Discuss the role of database administrator when the database is corrupted.

3.9 Furthers Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

43
 Relational Database BLOCK SUMMARY :
Management System
(RDBMS) In this block in very detail about SQL* Plus, we learnt about on how
can we use the SQL* Plus program in conjunction with the SQL database
language and its procedural language extension, PL/SQL, This block has taught
us that the SQL database language allows to store and retrieve data in Oracle.
PL/SQL allows you to link several SQL commands through procedural logic.
SQL* Plus enables you to execute SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks, and
to perform many additional tasks as well. This ?lock has taught us that the
SQL database language allows storing and retrieving data in Oracle. PL/SQL
allows you to link several SQL commands through procedural logic. SQL* Plus
enables you to execute SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks, and to perform
many additional tasks as well.

The main aim of this block was to give a basic introduction to the students
of computers science about SQL.

44
 BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :

Write short notes on :

1. DBA

2. SQL DBA Commands reference for

(1) Create (2) Alter (3) Drop

 Long Questions :

1. Give a brief note on SQL DBA.

45
 Relational Database  Enrolment No. :
Management System
(RDBMS) 1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 1 2 3

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

46
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR 302
Open University Ahmedabad

RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS)
BLOCK 2 : INTERACTIVE SQL AND ORACLE

UNIT 3 QUERY WRITING AND SUB QUERIES

UNIT 4 QUERY WRITING

UNIT 5 INTERACTIVE SQL

UNIT 6 ORACLE FUNCTIONS

 INTERACTIVE
SQL AND ORACLE
Block Introduction :
This unit provides an introduction to Interactive SQL & Oracle. It provides
an overview of how use Oracle and demonstrates this with the help of various
examples.
This block will give the students a basic idea of what SQL and Oracle are.
Various functions and commands have been discussed here in this block in a very
brief and interesting way. The main topics that have been covered in this block
are queries writing, tables and view options, decode statement and insert, update
and delete commands. Apart from this the block will even throw some light on
the limited portion of interactive SQL and the uses of various SQL functions The
writer has tried his best to concise the topics using the most easy language to
help the student to understand the topic.
The aim of this block is to enable the reader understand the basic concepts
of query writing and sub queries. The writer has tried his best to detail the create
statement, apart from this the writing queries has even been discussed by him
in detail. On the other hand he has even disucussed the table and view option.
The decode statement, insert, update and delete commands have been discussed
in detail with sufficient examples. The interactive SQL portion has even been
discussed here in this block in a very detail in unit 2. The author has explained
the various data types briefly. Apart from this the objective of this block includes
detailing the student's about the various Oracle functions which has been
discussed in unit 3. Here under oracle functions the topics covered are the library
functions as well as the uses of various SQL functions in a very detail with the
help of sufficient and suitable examples.

Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to understand :
• The process of Query writing.
• The functions of various commands
• Interactive SQL and various types of data in SQL
• Oracle and its functions
• Library functions of oracle

Block Structure :
Unit 4 : Query Writing and Sub Queries
Unit 5 : Query Writing
Unit 6 : Interactive SQL
Unit 7 : Oracle Functions
 Unit
QUERY WRITING AND
04 SUB QUERIES
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.0 Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Create Statement
4.3 Writing Queries
4.4 Tables and Views
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Answers For Check Your Progress
4.7 Glossary
4.8 Assignment
4.9 Activities
4.10 Case Study
4.11 Further Readings

4.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Query writing.
• The decode statement
• Insert, Update and delete commands

4.1 Introduction :
A query is a request for data results, for action on data, or for both.
You can use a query to answer a simple question, to perform calculations, to
combine data from different tables, or even to add, change, or delete table
data. Queries that you use to retrieve data from a table or to make calculations
are called select queries. Queries that add, change, or delete data are called
action queries.
Subqueries provide a powerful means to combine data from two tables
in to a single result. Subqueries are sometimes called nested queries. As the
name implies, subqueries contain one or more queries, one inside the other.
Subqueries are very versatile and that can make them some what hard
to understand. For most cases a subquery can be used anywhere you can use
an expression or table specification.
For example, you can use subqueries in the SELECT, FROM, WHERE,
or HAVING clauses. Depending on its use, a subquery may return one or more
rows, or in other cases, such as when used in a SELECT clause, be restricted
to returning a single value.

47
 Relational Database 4.2 The Create Statements :
Management System
(RDBMS) CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you
want to do. In this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name
or identifier for the table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.
Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and
what sort of data type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with an example below.
A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the
CREATE TABLE statement and the SELECT statement. You can check complete
details at Create Table Using another Table.
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
Tables are organized into rows and columns; and each table must have
a name.
 SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax :
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type(size),
column_name2 data_type(size),
column_name3 data_type(size),
....
);
The column_name parameters specify the names of the columns of the
table.
The data_type parameter specifies what type of data the column can hold
(e.g. varchar, integer, decimal, date, etc.).
The size parameter specifies the maximum length of the column of the
table. Illustration
Now we want to create a table called ?Persons? that contains five
columns:
PersonID, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City.
We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
Example
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
PersonIDint,
LastNamevarchar(255),
FirstNamevarchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);

48
 Check Your Progress – 1 : Query Writing and
Sub Queries
1. TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you
want to do.
a. CREATE b. SHOW
2. In comes the list defining each column in the table and what
sort of data types it is.
a. brackets b. semi colons
3. A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the
CREATE TABLE statement and the statement.
a. SELECT b. SHOW
4. The TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
a. CREATE b. SHOW
5. The parameter specifies the maximum length of the column
of the table.
a. Size b. scope

4.3 Writing Queries :

Before you get started, it's important to become accustomed to your
database and its hierarchy. If you have multiple databases of data, you'll need
to zero in on the location of the data you want to work with.
For example, let's pretend we're working with multiple databases about
people in the United States. Type in the query —SHOW DATABASES;||. Our
results may show that you have a couple of databases for different locations,
including one for New England.
Within your database, you'll have different tables containing the data you
want to work with. Using the same example above, let's say we want to find
out which information is contained in one of the databases. If we use the query
—SHOW TABLES in NewEngland;||, we'll find that we have tables for each
state in New England: people_connecticut, people_maine, people_massachusetts,
people_newhampshire, people_rhodeisland, and people_vermont.
Finally, you need to find out which fields are in the tables. Fields are
the specific pieces of data that you can pull from your database. For example,
if you want to pull someone's address, the field name may not just be —address||
--it may be separated into address_city, address_state, address_zip. In order to
figure this out, use the query —Describe people_massachusetts;||. That will
provide a list of all of the data that you can pull using SQL.
Let's do a quick review of the hierarchy using our New England example :
Our database is : NewEngland.
Our tables within that database are : people_connecticut, people_maine,
people_massachusetts, people_newhampshire, people_rhodeisland, and
people_vermont.
Our fields within the people_massachusetts table include : address_city,
address_state, address_zip, hair_color, first_name, and last_name.
Now, to learn how to write a simple SQL query, let's use the following
example :

49
 Relational Database Who are the people who have red hair in Massachusetts and were born
Management System in 2003 organized in alphabetical order ?
(RDBMS)
 SELECT :
SELECT chooses the fields that you want displayed in your chart. This
is the specific piece of information that you want to pull from your database.
In the example above, we want to find the people who fit the rest of the criteria.
Here is our SQL query :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
 FROM :
FROM pinpoints the table that you want to pull the data from. In the
earlier section, we found that there were six tables for each of the six states
in NewEngland : people_connecticut, people_maine, people_massachusetts,
people_newhampshire, people_rhodeisland, and people_vermont. Because we're
looking for people in Massachusetts specifically, we'll pull data from that
specific table
Here is our SQL query :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
 WHERE :
WHERE allows you to filter your query to be more specific. In our
example, we want to filter our query to include only people with red hair who
were born in 2003. Let's start with the red hair filter.
Here is our SQL query :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
hair_color could have been part of your initial SELECT statement if you'd
wanted to look at all of the people in Massachusetts along with their specific
hair color. But if you want to filter to see only people with red hair, you can
do so in the WHERE statement.
 AND :
AND allows you to add additional criteria to your WHERE statement.
Remember, we want to filter by people who had red hair in addition to people

50
who were born in 2003. Since our WHERE statement is taken up by the red Query Writing and
hair criteria, how can we filter by a specific year of birth as well ? Sub Queries

That's where the AND statement comes in. In this case, the AND
statement is a date property -- but it doesn't necessary have to be. (Note :
Be to check the format of your dates with your product team to make sure
it is in the correct format.)
Here is our SQL query :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
 ORDER BY :
When you create SQL queries, you shouldn't have to export the data
to Excel. The calculation and organization should be done within the query.
That's where the —ORDER BY|| and —GROUP BY|| functions come in. First,
we'll look at our SQL queries with the ORDER BY and then GROUP BY
functions, respectively. Then, we'll take abrief look at the difference between
the two.
Your ORDER BY clause will allow you to sort by any of the fields
that you have specified in the SELECT statement. In this case, let's order by
last name.
Here is our SQL query :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
ORDER BY
last_name
;
 GROUP BY :
—GROUP BY|| is similar to —ORDER BY,|| but it will aggregate data
that has similarities. For example, if you have any duplicates in your data,
iyou can use —GROUP BY|| to count the number of duplicates in your fields.
51
 Relational Database Here is your SQL query :
Management System
SELECT
(RDBMS)
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
GROUP BY
last_name
;
 ORDER BY VS. GROUP BY :
To clearly show you the difference between an —ORDER BY|| statement
and a —GROUP BY|| statement, let's step outside our Massachusetts example
briefly to look at a very simple dataset. Below is a list of four employees'
ID numbers and names.
order by group by
If we were to use an ORDER BY statement on this list, the names of
the employees would get sorted in alphabetical order. The results would look
like this:
order by
If we were to use a GROUP BY statement, the employees would be
counted based on the number of times they appeared in the initial table.
Group by
With me so far ? Okay. Let's return to the SQL query we've been creating
about red–haired people in Massachusetts who were born in 2003.
 LIMIT :
Depending on the amount of data you have in your database, it may
take a long time to run the queries. It can be frustrating if you find yourself
waiting a long time to run a query that you didn't really want to begin with.
If you want to test our query, the LIMIT function is a great one to use because
it allows you to limit the number of results you get.
For example, if we suspect there are millions of people who have red
hair in Massachusetts, we may want to test out our query using LIMIT before
we run it in full to make sure we're getting the information we want. Let's
say, for instance, we only want to see the first 100 people.
Here is our SQL query :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name

52
 FROM Query Writing and
Sub Queries
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
ORDER BY
last_name
LIMIT
100
;
That's it for the basics !
Feeling good ? Here are a few other ways to take your SQL queries
up a notch.
Bonus : Advanced SQL Tips
Now that you have mastered how to create a SQL query, let's walk through
some other tricks that you can use to take it up a notch, starting with the
asterisk.
*
When you add an asterisk to one of your SQL queries, it tells the query
that you want to include all the columns of data in your results. In the example
we've been using, we've only had two column names: first_name and last_name.
But let's say we had 15 columns' worth of data that we want to see in our
results -- it would be kind of a pain to type out all 15 column names in the
SELECT statement.
Instead, if you replace the names of those columns with an asterisk, the
query will know to pull all of the columns in to the results.
Here's what the SQL query would look like :
SELECT *FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
ORDER BY
last_name
LIMIT
100
;
 LAST 30 DAYS :
Once I started using SQL regularly, I found that one of my go–to queries
involved trying to find which people took an action or fulfilled a certain set
53
 Relational Database of criteria within the last 30 days. Since this type of query was so useful for
Management System me, I wanted to share that capa?ility with you.
(RDBMS)
Let's pretend today is December 1, 2014. You could create these parameters
by making the birth_date span between November 1, 2014 and November 30,
2014. That SQL query would look like this:
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2014–11–01' AND =2014–11–30'
ORDER BY
last_name
LIMIT
100
;
But that would require thinking about which dates cover the last 30 days,
and it would mean you'd have to constantly update this query. Instead, to make
the dates automatically span the last 30 days no matter which day it is, you
can type this under AND : birth_date>= (DATE_SUB(CURDATE(),INTERVAL
30.
(Note : You'll want to double–check this syntax with your product team
because it may differ based on the software you use to pull your SQL queries.)
Your SQL query would therefore look like this :
SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
people_massachusetts
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date>= (DATE_SUB(CURDATE(),INTERVAL 30))
ORDER BY
last_name
LIMIT
100
;

54
 COUNT : Query Writing and
Sub Queries
In some cases, you may want to count the number of times that a criterium
of a field appears. For example, let's say you want to count the number of
times the different hair colors appear for the people you are tallying up from
Massachusetts. In this case, COUNT will come in handy so you don't have
to manually add up the number of people who have different hair colors or
export that information to Excel.
Here's what that SQL query would look like :
SELECT
hair_color,
COUNT(hair_color)
FROM
people_massachusetts
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
GROUP BY
hair_color
;
 JOIN :
There may be a time where you need to access information from two
different tables in one SQL query. In SQL, you can use a JOIN clause to do
this. (For those of you familiar with Excel formulas, this is similar to how
you would use the VLOOKUP formula when you need to combine information
from two different sheets in Excel.)
For example, let's say we have one table that has data of all Massachusetts
residents' user IDs and their birthdates. Let's say we also have an entirely
separate table that has data of all Masachusetts residents' user IDs and their
hair color. If we want to figure out the hair color of Massachusetts residents
born in the year 2003, we'd need to access information from both tables and
combine them. This works because both tables share a matching column: the
Massachusetts residents' user IDs.
Because we're calling out fields from two different tables, our SELECT
statement is also going to change slightly. Instead of just listing out the fields
we want to include in our results, we'll need to specify which table they're
coming from. (Note: The asterisk function may come in handy here so your
query includes both tables in your results.)
To specify a field from a specific table, all we'd have to do is combine
the name of the table with the name of the field. For example, our SELECT
statement would say —table.field|| -- with the period separating the table name
and the field name.
Let's take a look at what this looks like in action.
We're assuming a few things in this case :
The Massachusetts birthdate table includes the following fields : first_name,
last_name, user_id, birthdate

55
 Relational Database The Massachusetts hair color table includes the following fields: user_id,
Management System hair_color
(RDBMS)
Your SQL query would therefore look like :
SELECT
birthdate_massachusetts.first_name,
birthdate_massachusetts.last_name
FROM
birthdate_massachusetts JOIN haircolor_massachusetts USING (user_id)
WHERE
hair_color = —red||
AND
birth_date BETWEEN =2003–01–01' AND =2003–12–31'
ORDER BY
last_name
;
This query would join the two tables using the field —user_id|| which
appears in both the birthdate_massachusetts table and the haircolor_massachusetts
table. You would then be able to see a table of people born in 2003 that have
red hair.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. chooses the fields that you want displayed in your chart.
a. SELECT b. FROM
2. pinpoints the table that you want to pull the data from.
a. FROM b. SELECT
3. allows you to filter your query to be more specific.
a. WHERE b. FROM
4. allows you to add additional criteria to your WHERE statement.
a. AND b. FROM
5. Depending on the amount of you have in your database, it
may take a long time to run the queries.
a. Data b. Table

4.4 Tables and Views :

 Views :
A view is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database
with an associated name. A view is actually a composition of a table in the
form of a predefined SQL query.
A view can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table. A
view can be created from one or many tables which depends on the written
SQL query to create a view.

56
 Views, which are kind of virtual tables, allow users to do the following : Query Writing and
Sub Queries
Structure data in a way that users or classes of users find natural or
intuitive.
Restrict access to the data such that a user can see and (sometimes)
modify exactly what they need and no more.
Summarize data from various tables which can be used to generate
reports.
 Creating Views :
Database views are created using the CREATE VIEW statement. Views
can be created from a single table, multiple tables, or another view.
To create a view, a user must have the appropriate system privilege
according to the specific implementation.
The basic CREATE VIEW syntax is as follows :
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
You can include multiple tables in your SELECT statement in very similar
way as you use them in normal SQL SELECT query.
Example :
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
1 Ramesh 32 Ahmedabad 2000.00
2 Khilan 25 Delhi 1500.00
3 kaushik 23 Kota 2000.00
4 Chaitali 25 Mumbai 6500.00
5 Hardik 27 Bhopal 8500.00
6 Komal 22 MP 4500.00
7 Muffy 24 Indore 10000.00
Now, following is the example to create a view from CUSTOMERS table.
This view would be used to have customer name and age from CUSTOMERS
table:
SQL > CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS;
Now, you can query CUSTOMERS_VIEW in similar way as you query
an actual table. Following is the example:
SQL > SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW;

57
 Relational Database This would produce the following result :
Management System
Name Age
(RDBMS)
Ramesh 32
Khilan 25
Kaushik 23
Chaitali 25
Hardik 27
Komal 22
Muffy 24
The WITH CHECK OPTION :
The WITH CHECK OPTION is a CREATE VIEW statement option. The
purpose of the WITH CHECK OPTION is to ensure that all UPDATE and
INSERTs satisfy the condition(s) in the view definition.
If they do not satisfy the condition(s), the UPDATE or INSERT returns
an error.
The following is an example of creating same view CUSTOMERS_VIEW
with the WITH CHECK OPTION :
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE age IS NOT NULL
WITH CHECK OPTION;
The WITH CHECK OPTION in this case should deny the entry of any
NULL values in the view's AGE column, because the view is defined by data
that does not have a NULL value in the AGE column.
Updating a View :
A view can be updated under certain conditions :
The SELECT clause may not contain the keyword DISTINCT.
The SELECT clause may not contain summary functions.
The SELECT clause may not contain set functions.
The SELECT clause may not contain set operators.
The SELECT clause may not contain an ORDER BY clause.
The FROM clause may not contain multiple tables.
The WHERE clause may not contain subqueries.
The query may not contain GROUP BY or HAVING.
Calculated columns may not be updated.
All NOT NULL columns from the base table must be included in the
view in order for the INSERT query to function.
So if a view satisfies all the above–mentioned rules then you can update
a view. Following is an example to update the age of Ramesh :

58
 SQL > UPDATE CUSTOMERS_VIEW Query Writing and
Sub Queries
SET AGE = 35
WHERE name==Ramesh';
This would ultimately update the base table CUSTOMERS and same
would reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query base table, and SELECT
statement would produce the following result :
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
1 Ramesh 35 Ahmedabad 2000.00
2 Khilan 25 Delhi 1500.00
3 Kaushik 23 Kota 2000.00
4 Chaitali 25 Mumbai 6500.00
5 Hardik 27 Bhopal 8500.00
6 Komal 22 MP 4500.00
7 Muffy 24 Indore 10000.00
Inserting Rows into a View :
Rows of data can be inserted into a view. The same rules that apply
to the UPDATE command also apply to the INSERT command.
Here we can not insert rows in CUSTOMERS_VIEW because we have
not included all the NOT NULL columns in this view; otherwise you can insert
rows in a view in similar way as you insert them in a table.
Deleting Rows into a View :
Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply
to the UPDATE and INSERT commands apply to the DELETE command.
Following is an example to delete a record having AGE= 22.
SQL > DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW
WHERE age = 22;
This would ultimately delete a row from the base table CUSTOMERS
and same would reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query base table, and
SELECT statement would produce the following result :
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
1 Ramesh 35 Ahmedabad 2000.00
2 Khilan 25 Delhi 1500.00
3 Kaushik 23 Kota 2000.00
4 Chaitali 25 Mumbai 6500.00
5 Hardik 27 Bhopal 8500.00
6 Muffy 24 Indore 10000.00
Dropping Views :
Obviously, where you have a view, you need a way to drop the view
if it is no longer needed. The syntax is very simple as given below :

59
 Relational Database DROP VIEW view_name;
Management System
Following is an example to drop CUSTOMERS_VIEW from CUSTOMERS
(RDBMS)
table :
DROP VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. A is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the
database with an associated name.
a. view b. file
2. Database views are created using the statement.
a. CREATE VIEW b. DROP VIEW
3. of data can be inserted into a view
a. Rows b. Column

4.5 Let Us Sum Up :

In the above unit we discussed the various query writing techniques. A
detailed discussion was made and the various techniques studied are
CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you
want to do. In this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name
or identifier for the table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.A view is
nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database with an
associated name. It can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table.
The DECODE function is a typical remnant from the days that Oracle SQL
did not yet support CASE expressions. The INSERT command is used to add
rows to a table. The column values of existing rows in your tables with the
UPDATE command.
The simplest data manipulation command is DELETE, It operates at the
table level, and you use the WHERE clause to restrict the set of rows you
want to delete from the table.The DROP TABLE command not only removes
the contents of the table, but also the table itself.

4.6 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a

4.7 Glossary :
1. SQL : Structured Query Language.

4.8 Assignment :
Explain the Create Statement using suitable example.

60
 4.9 Activities : Query Writing and
Sub Queries
What do you understand by query and subqueries ? Explain its utility ?

4.10 Case Study :

Discuss the creation of views by giving suitable example.

4.11 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.

61
 Relational Database
Management System
Unit
(RDBMS)
05 QUERY WRITING

UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0 Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Decode Statement
5.3 Insert
5.4 Update
5.5 Delete
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Answers For Check Your Progress
5.8 Glossary
5.9 Assignment
5.10 Activities
5.11 Case Study
5.12 Further Readings

5.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Query writing.
• The decode statement
• Insert, Update and delete commands

5.1 Introduction :
A lengthy conversation was held, and the many strategies examined were
discussed in detail. The keyword CREATE TABLE tells the database system
what you want to accomplish. You want to make a new table in this scenario.
The CREATE TABLE statement is followed by the table's unique name or
identifier. A view is nothing more than a SQL statement with a name that is
stored in the database. It can contain all of a table's rows or only a few of
them. The DECODE function is a holdover from the days before Oracle SQL
supported CASE expressions. To add rows to a table, use the INSERT command.
With the UPDATE command, you can change the column values of existing
rows in your tables.

5.2 The Decode Statement :

The DECODE function is a typical remnant from the days that Oracle
SQL did not yet support CASE expressions. There are three good reasons not
to use DECODE anymore :
• DECODE function expressions are quite difficult to read.
• DECODE is not part of the ANSI/ISO SQL standard.
• CASE expressions are much more powerful.
62
 For completeness, and because you may encounter the DECODE function Query Writing
in legacy OracleSQL programs, illustration shows a query where the DECODE
function is used in the SELECTclause and in the ORDER BY clause.
Illustration : Using the DECODE Function
SQL> select job, ename
decode(greatest(msal,2500)
2500,'cheap','expensive') as class
from employees
where bdate< date =1964–01–01'
order by decode(job,'DIRECTOR',1,'MANAGER',2,3);
JOB ENAME CLASS
---------- ---------- ----------
DIRECTOR KING expensive
MANAGER BLAKE expensive
SALESREP ALLEN cheap
SALESREP WARD cheap
ADMIN MILLER cheap
TRAINER FORD expensive
TRAINER SCOTT expensive
SALESREP MARTIN cheap
SQL>
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. function expressions are quite difficult to read.
a. DECODE b. ENCODE
2. DECODE is part of the ANSI/ISO SQL standard.
a. Not a b. a
3. CASE expressions are much powerful.
a. More b. less

5.3 Insert :
You can use the INSERT command to add rows to a table. Along with
the standard INSERTcommand, Oracle SQL also supports a multitable version.
 Standard INSERT Commands :
The standard INSERT command supports the following two ways to insert
rows :
• Use the VALUES clause, followed by a list of column values
(betweenparentheses).
This method allows you to insert only one row at a time per execution
of the INSERTcommand.
• Formulate a subquery, thus using existing data to generate new rows.
Both alternatives are shown in the syntax diagram in Figure 1.1

63
 Relational Database
Management System
(RDBMS)

Fig. 5.1 INSERT Command Syntax Diagram

If you know all of the table columns, including the internal physical order
in which theyare presented by the SQL* Plus DESCRIBE command, you don't
need to specify column namesafter the table name in the INSERT command.
If you omit column names, you must provideprecisely enough values and specify
them in the correct order.
In the VALUES clause, you can specify a comma–separated list of literals
or an expression.
You can use the reserved word NULL to specify a null value for a specific
column. You can alsospecify the reserved word DEFAULT to instruct the Oracle
DBMS to insert the default value associatedwith the corresponding column.
These default values are part of the table definition, stored in the data dictionary.
If you don't specify a value for a specific column in your INSERTstatement,
there are two possibilities:
• If the column has an associated DEFAULT value, the Oracle DBMS will
insert that value.
• If you did not define a DEFAULT value for the column, the Oracle DBMS
inserts a nullvalue (provided, of course, that the column allows null
values).
The second way of using the INSERT command fills a table with a
subquery. There areno special constraints for these subqueries, as long as you
make sure they produce the rightnumber of values of the right datatype. You
can even use a subquery against the table intowhich you are inserting rows.
This sound like a strange approach; however, INSERT INTO XSELECT *
FROM X is one of the fastest methods to fill a table, provided you don't have
unique orprimary key constraints.
Listing 5.1 shows four INSERT statement examples: three using the
VALUES clause and oneusing the subquery method.
Listing 5.1 Four INSERT Command Examples
SQL> insert into departments -- Example 1
2 values (90,'SUPPORT','SEATTLE', NULL);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into employees (empno, ename, init, ?date, msal, deptno)
-- Example 2
2 values (7001,'ZOMBIE','ZZ', trunk (sysdate), 0, DEFAULT);

64
 1 row created. Query Writing
SQL> select * from employees where empno = 7001;
EMPNO ENAME INIT JOB MGR BDATE MSAL COMM DEPTNO
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
7001 ZOMBIE ZZ 15–SEP–2004 0 10
SQL> insert into departments (dname, location, deptno) –– Example 3
2 values (=CATERING','ORLANDO', 10);
insert into departments(dname,location,deptno)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA–00001: unique constraint (BOOK.D_PK)
violated SQL> insert into salgrades -- Example 4
2 select grade + 5
3 , lowerlimit + 2300
4 , least(9999, upperlimit + 2300)
5,500
6 from salgrades;
5 rows created.
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.
SQL>
The examples work as follows :
• The first example inserts a new department 90 without specifying column
names.
• It also shows how you can insert a null value with the reserved word
NULL.
• The second example shows how you can use DEFAULT to assign the
default department number to a new employee. The default value for
the DEPTNO column of the EMPLOYEES table is 10, as you can see
inListing 6–1.
• The third example shows a violation of a primary key constraint; department
10 already exists.
• The fourth example shows how you can use a subquery to insert rows
with the INSERT command. It uses the LEAST to avoid constraint
violations. The first argument (9999) ensures that the upper limits will
never become greater than 9999.
At the end of Listing 1.1, we use ROLLBACK to undo our changes.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. You can use the command to add rows to a table.
a. INSERT b. DELETE

65
 Relational Database 2. The second way of using the INSERT command fills a table with a
Management System .
(RDBMS)
a. Subquery b. query

5.4 Update :
You can change column values of existing rows in your tables with the
UPDATE command. As shown in the syntax diagram in Figure 1.2, the UPDATE
command has three main components:
• UPDATE : The table you want to update
• SET : The change you want to apply
• WHERE : The rows to which you want to apply the change

Fig. 5.2 UPDATE Command Syntax Diagram

If you omit the optional WHERE clause, the change is applied to all
rows of the table.This illustrates the fact that the UPDATE command operates
at the table level, so you need the WHERE clause as the relational restriction
operator to limit the scope of the UPDATE command toa subset of the table.
As you can see from Figure 5.2 the SET clause offers two alternatives :
• You can specify a comma–separated list of single–column changes. With
this approach, you can use the DEFAULT keyword as an expression.
This allows you to change columndefault values in the data dictionary
at any point in time without the need to changethe UPDATE commands
in your applications.
• You can drive the change with a subquery. The subquery must provide
the right numberof values for the list of column names specified between
the parentheses. Of course, the data types should also match, or the Oracle
DBMS should at least be able to convertvalues to the appropriate datatypes
on the fly.
The first approach is illustrated in Listing 5.2, and the second approach
is shown in Listing 5.2
Listing 5.2 UPDATE Command Example
SQL> update employees
2 set job = ?SALESREP'
3 , msal = msal – 500
4 , comm = 0
5 , deptno = 30

66
 6 where empno = 7876; Query Writing
1 row updated. SQL> rollback; Rollback complete. SQL>
Listing 5.2 UPDATE Command Example Using a Subquery SQL> update
registrations
2 set evaluation = 1
3 where (course, begindate)
4 in (select course, begindate
5 from offerings
6 where location = =CHICAGO');
3 rows updated.
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.
SQL>
As with the INSERT examples in Listing 5.6–1, in both of these listings,
we use the ROLLBACKcommand to undo any changes made.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. You can change column values of existing rows in your tables with the
command.
a. UPDATE b. EDIT
2. You can specify a –separated list of single–column changes.
a. comma b. Colon
3. The must provide the right number of values for the list of
column names specified between the parentheses.
a. Subquery b. Query

5.5 Delete :
The simplest data manipulation command is DELETE, as shown in the
syntax diagram in Figure 5.3 This command also operates at the table level,
and you use the WHERE clause torestrict the set of rows you want to delete
from the table. If you omit the WHERE clause, the DELETE command results
in an empty table.

Fig. 5.3 DELETE Command Syntax Diagram

Note the difference between the following two commands:
SQL> drop table departments;
SQL> delete from departments;
The DROP TABLE command not only removes the contents of the table,
but also the tableitself, including all dependent objects/structures such as
67
 Relational Database indexes and privileges. DROP TABLE is adata definition (DDL) command.
Management System The DELETE command does not change the database structure, but only the
(RDBMS) contents–it is a data manipulation (DML) command. Moreover, the effects of
a DROP TABLE command cannot be undone with a ROLLBACK command,
as opposed to the effects ofa DELETE command, which can. Listing 5.8–1
shows how you can delete a salary grade.
Listing 5.3 Example of a DELETE Command
SQL> delete from salgrades
2 where grade = 5;
1 row deleted.
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.
SQL>
To illustrate the fact that you can also use subqueries in the FROM clause
of the DELETE statement, Listing 5.3 shows an alternative formulation for
the same DELETE statement. Again, we use the ROLLBACK command to
undo our changes.
Listing 5.3 Alternative DELETE Command, Using a Subquery
SQL> delete from (select *
2 from salgrades
3 where grade = 5);
1 row deleted.
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.
SQL>
In this case, there are no obvious advantages to using a subquery over
using a regular DELETE statement. However, the subquery syntax also works
(under certain conditions) with more complicated subqueries, opening up some
very interesting possibilities. Deleting rows may seem rather straight forward,
but you might encounter complications due to constraint violations. The same
is true for the UPDATE and INSERT commands, by theway.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. The simplest data manipulation command is .
a. DELETE b. ROLL BACK
2. The command not only removes the contents of the table,
but also the table itself.
a. DROP TABLE b. ROLL BACK
3. DROP TABLE command cannot be undone with a command.
a. ROLLBACK b. DELETE

5.6 Let Us Sum Up :

In the above unit we discussed the various query writing techniques. A
detailed discussion was made and the various techniques studied are CREATE
TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do. In
68
this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name or identifier for Query Writing
the table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.A view is nothing more than
a SQL statement that is stored in the database with an associated name. It
can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table. The DECODE
function is a typical remnant from the days that Oracle SQL did not yet support
CASE expressions. The INSERT command is used to add rows to a table. The
column values of existing rows in your tables with the UPDATE command.
The simplest data manipulation command is DELETE, It operates at the
table level, and you use the WHERE clause to restrict the set of rows you
want to delete from the table.The DROP TABLE command not only removes
the contents of the table, but also the table itself.

5.7 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a
 Check Your Progress 4 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a

5.8 Glossary :
1. SQL : Structured Query Language.

5.9 Assignment :
Explain the DELETE Statement using suitable example.

5.10 Activities :
What do you understand by INSERT and UPDATE Query ? Explain its
utility ?

5.11 Case Study :

Discuss the decode statement by giving suitable example.

5.12 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

69
 Relational Database
Management System
Unit
(RDBMS)
06 INTERACTIVE SQL

UNIT STRUCTURE
6.0 Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Data Types
6.3 Let Us Sum Up
6.4 Answers for Check Your Progress
6.5 Glossary
6.6 Assignment
6.7 Activities
6.8 Case Study
6.9 Further Readings

6.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Interactive SQL and its command file
• The various data types in SQL

6.1 Introduction :
Interactive SQL (dbisql) is a utility for entering SQL statements. If you
use Interactive SQL to work with your database schema, instead of executing
the SQL statements one at a time, build up the set of commands in a dbisql
command file. Then you can execute this file in dbisql to build the database.
The definitions of the database objects form the database schema. You
can think of the schemaas an empty database. The SQL statements for creating
and modifying schemas are called the data definition language (DDL).
Note : Only one user at a time can perform DDL statements on a table.
IQ locks a table during DDL operations on it. Users may, however, perform
DDL on other objects in the same database at the same time.
If you use a tool other than Interactive SQL, all the information in these
topics concerning SQL statements still applies.
Interactive SQL Command File
An Interactive SQL command file is a text file with semicolons placed
at the end of commands as shown below.
CREATE TABLE t1 (..);
CREATE TABLE t2 (..);
CREATE LF INDEX i2 ON t2 (..);
..
An Interactive SQL command file usually carries the extension .sql. To
execute a command file, either paste the contents of the file into the Interactive
70
SQL command window (if the file has less than 500 lines) or enter a command Interactive SQL
that reads the file into the command window. For example, the READ statement:
readmakedb
Reads the Interactive SQL commands in the file makedb.sql.

6.2 Data Types :

SQL data type is an attribute that specifies type of data of any object.
Each column, variable and expression has related data type in SQL. You would
use these data types while creating your tables. You would choose a particular
data type for a table column based on your requirement. SQL Server offers
six categories of data types for your use :
Exact Numeric Data Types :
DATA TYPE FROM TO
Bigint –9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Int –2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647
Smallint –32,768 32,767
Tinyint 0 255
Bit 0 1
Decimal –10^38 +1 10^38 –1
Numeric –10^38 +1 10^38 –1
Money –922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807
Smallmoney –214,748.3648 +214,748.3647
Approximate Numeric Data Types :
DATA TYPE FROM TO
Float –1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308
Real –3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38
Date and Time Data Types :
DATA TYPE FROM TO
Datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999
Smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079
Date Stores a date like June 30, 1991
Time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.
Note : Here, date time has 3.33 milli seconds accuracy where as small
date time has 1 minute accuracy.

71
 Relational Database Character Strings Data Types :
Management System
DATA TYPE FROM TO
(RDBMS)
Char Char Maximum length of 8,000 characters. (Fixed
length non–Unicode characters)
Varchar Varchar Maximum of 8,000 characters. (Variable–
length non–Unicode data).
varchar(max) varchar(max) Maximum length of 231 characters, Variable–
length non–Unicode data (SQL Server 2005
only).
Text text Variable–length non–Unicode data with a
maximum length of 2,147,483,647 characters.
Unicode Character Strings Data Types :
DATA TYPE Description
Nchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters. (Fixed length Unicode)
Nvarchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters. (Variable length
Unicode)
nvarchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server 2005 only).
(Variable length Unicode)
Ntext Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. (Variable
length Unicode)
Binary Data Types :
DATA TYPE Description
Binary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes (Fixed–length binary data)
Varbinary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes. (Variable length binary
data)
varbinary(max) Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only).
(Variable length Binary data)
Image Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. (Variable length
Binary Data)
Misc Data Types :
DATA TYPE Description
sql_variant Stores values of various SQL Server–supported data types,
except text, ntext, and timestamp.
Timestamp Stores a database–wide unique number that gets updated
every time a row gets updated
uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
xml Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column
or a variable (SQL Server 2005 only).
cursor Reference to a cursor object
table Stores a result set for later processing
72
 Check Your Progress – 1 : Interactive SQL

1. Each column, variable and expression has data type in SQL.

a. Related b. Unrelated

6.3 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit, we have learnt that Interactive SQL is a utility for entering
SQL statements. Interactive SQL (dbisql) is a graphical utility included with
SAP Sybase IQ that lets you execute SQL statements, build scripts, and display
database data.
We even learnt much about SQL data type and learnt that it is an attribute
that specifies type of data of any object. Each column, variable and expression
has related data type in SQL. SQL Server offers six categories of data types
for use; they are Exact Numeric Data Types, Approximate Numeric Data Types,
Date and Time Data Types, Character Strings Data Types, Unicode Character
Strings Data Types, Binary Data Types.

6.4 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a

6.5 Glossary :
1. DDL : Data Definition Language
2. SQL : Structured Query Language

6.6 Assignment :
Discuss the various data types in SQL.

6.7 Activities :
What do you understand by Interactive SQL ?

6.8 Case Study :

Explain the interactive SQL command file.

6.9 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.

73
 Relational Database
Management System
Unit
(RDBMS)
07 ORACLE FUNCTIONS

UNIT STRUCTURE
7.0 Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Library Functions
7.3 Use of SQL Functions
7.4 Let Us Sum Up
7.5 Answers for Check Your Progress
7.6 Glossary
7.7 Assignment
7.8 Activities
7.9 Case Study
7.10 Further Readings

7.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The various functions of Oracle.
• The various library functions in Oracle.
• How to use the various SQL functions ?
• The format of various SQL functions.

7.1 Introduction :
Oracle functions operate on —appropriate data|| to transform a value to
another value. For example, using a simple calculator, we commonly use the
square root function to compute the square root of some number. In this case,
the square root key on the calculator calls the square root function and the
number in the display is transformed into its square root value. In the square
root case, —appropriate data|| is a positive number. For the sake of defining
the scope of this discussion, we also consider the square root key on a calculator
as a one–to–one function. By one–to–one we mean that if one positive number
is furnished, then one square root results from pressing the square root key
– a one–to one transformation SQRT, the resulting number as —Answer,|| the
equal sign as meaning —is assigned to,|| and the number to be operated on
as —original_value,|| then the function could be written like this:
Answer = SQRT (original_value)
Where original_value is a positive number. In alge?ra, the allowable
values of original_value are called the domain of the function, which in this
case is the set of non–negative numbers. Answer is called the range of the
function. Original_value in this example is called the argument of the function
SQRT. Often times in computer situations, there is also an upper limit on the
domain and range, but theoretically; there is no upper limit in alge?ra. The
74
lower limit on the domain is zero as the square root of negative numbers is Oracle Functions
undefined unless one ventures into the area of complex numbers, which is
beyond the scope of this discussion. Almost any programming language uses
functions similar to those found on calculators. In fact, most programming
languages go far beyond the calculator functions. Oracle's SQL contains a rich
variety of functions. We can categorize Oracle's SQL functions into simple SQL
functions, numeric functions, statistical functions, string functions, and date
functions. In this chapter, we selectively illustrate several functions in each
of these categories. We start by discussing simple SQL functions.

7.2 Library Functions :

Library functions and procedures are utility operations that you can add
to any service, physical, logical, or library. Library functions and procedures:
• Have a kind of library
• Are not marked as primary or non–primary
• Have a visibility of public, protected or private
A library function can return values, but has no side effects. A library
procedure can return values and can have side effects.
You can declare a library function or procedure visually in Workshop
for WebLogic, but you must still write the function body in the Source tab
using XQuery. Alternatively, you can write the entire function or procedure
and its pragma statement in XQuery.
You can call a library function or procedure from the service, the
dataspace project, or from a client application, depending on the visibility level
you set.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. functions and procedures are utility operations that you can
add to any service, physical, logical, or library.
a. Library b. Oracle
2. A library function return values, but has no side effects.
a. Can b. Cannot

7.3 Use of SQL Functions :

Oracle's SQL contains a rich variety of functions. We can categorize
Oracle's SQL functions into simple SQL functions, numeric functions, statistical
functions, string functions, and date functions. In this portion, we selectively
illustrate several functions in each of these categories. We start by discussing
simple SQL functions.
1. Simple SQL Functions :
Oracle has a large number of simple functions. Wherever a value is used
directly or computed in a SQL statement, a simple SQL function may be used.
To illustrate the above square root function, suppose that a table named
Measurement contained a series of numeric measured values like this :

75
 Relational Database Subject Value
Management System
(RDBMS) First 35.78
Second 22.22
Third 55.55
We could display the table with this SQL query :
SELECT *
FROM measurement
Note : We will not use semicolons at the end of SQL statement illustrations;
to run these statements in Oracle from the command line, a semicolon must
be added. From the editor, a slash (/) is added to execute the statement and
no semicolon is used.
We could also generate the same result set with this SQL query :
SELECT subject, value
FROM measurement
Using the latter query, and adding a square root function to the result
set, the SQL query would look like this:
SELECT subject, value, SQRT(value)
FROM measurement
This would give the following result :
SUBJECT VALUE SQRT(VALUE)
First 35.78 5.98163857
Second 22.22 4.7138095
Third 55.55 7.45318724
2. Numeric Functions :
In this section we present and discuss several useful numeric functions,
which we divide into the following categories: common numerical manipulation
functions, near value functions, null value functions, log and exponential
functions, ordinary trigonometry functions, and hyperbolic trignometrical
functions.
Common Numerical Manipulation Functions
These are functions that are commonly used in numerical manipulations.
Examples of common numerical manipulation functions include:
ABS – Returns the absolute value of a number orvalue.
SQRT – Returns the square root of a number orvalue.
MOD – Returns the remainder of n/m where bothn and m are integers.
SIGN – Returns 1 if the argument is positive; –1 ifthe argument is
negative; and 0 if the argument isnegative
Next we present a discussion on the use of these common numerical
manipulation functions. Suppose we had a table that looked like this:
DESC function_illustrator

76
 Which would give : Oracle Functions
Name Null ? Type
LINENO NUMBER(2)
VALUE NUMBER(6,2)
Now, if we typed :
SELECT *
FROM function_illustrator
ORDER BY lineno
We would get :
LINENO VALUE
0 9
1 3.44
2 3.88
3 –6.27
4 –6.82
5 0
6 2.5
Now, suppose we use our functions to illustrate the transformation for
each value of VALUE :
SELECT lineno, value, ABS(value), SIGN(value), MOD(lineno,3)
FROM function_illustrator
ORDER BY lineno
We would get :
LINENO VALUE ABS(VALUE) SIGN(VALUE) MOD(LINENO,3)
0 9 9 1 0
1 3.44 3.44 1 1
2 3.88 3.88 1 2
3 –6.27 6.27 –1 0
4 –6.82 6.82 –1 1
5 0 0 0 2
6 2.5 2.5 1 0
Notice the ABS returns the absolute value of VALUE.SIGN tells us
whether the value is positive, negative, or zero. MOD gives us the remainder
of LINENO/3.All of the common numerical functions take one argument except
MOD, which requires two.
Had we tried to include SQRT in this example ourquery would look like
this :
SELECT lineno, value, ABS(value), SQRT(value), SIGN(value),

77
 Relational Database MOD(lineno,2)
Management System
FROM function_illustrator
(RDBMS)
This would give us:
ERROR:
ORA–01428: argument =–6.27' is out of range
no rows selected
In this case, the problem is that there are negative numbers in the value
field and SQRT will not accept such values in its domain. Functions can be
nested; we can have a function operate on the value produced by another
function. To illustrate a nested function we can use the ABS function to ensure
that the SQRT function sees only a positive domain. The following query
handles both positive and negative numbers:
SELECT lineno, value, ABS(value), SQRT(ABS(value))
FROM function_illustrator
ORDER BY lineno
This would give us :
LINENO VALUE ABS(VALUE) SQRT(ABS(VALUE))
0 9 9 3
1 3.44 3.44 1.8547237
2 3.88 3.88 1.96977156
3 –6.27 6.27 2.50399681
4 –6.82 6.82 2.61151297
5 0 0 0
6 2.5 2.5 1.5811388
3. Statistical Functions :
Near Value Functions
These are functions that produce values near what you are looking for.
Examples of near value functions include:
CEIL – Returns the ceiling value (next highest integer above a number).
FLOOR – Returns the floor value (next lowest integer below number).
TRUNC – Returns the truncated value (removes decimal part of a number,
precision adjustable).
ROUND – Returns the number rounded to nearest value (precision
adjustable).
Next we present illustrations and a discussion on the use of these near
value functions. The near value functions will round off a value in different
ways. To illustrate with the data in Function_illustrator, consider this query:
SELECT lineno, value, ROUND(value), TRUNC(value), CEIL(value),
FLOOR(value)
FROM function_illustrator

78
 You will get : Oracle Functions
LINE VALUE ROUND TRUNC CEIL FLOOR
NO (VALUE) (VALUE) (VALUE) (VALUE)
0 9 9 9 9 9
1 3.44 3 3 4 3
2 3.88 4 3 4 3
3 –6.27 –6 –6 –6 –7
4 –6.82 –7 –6 –6 –7
5 0 0 0 0 0
6 2.5 3 2 3 2
ROUND will convert a decimal value to the next highest absolute value
if the value is 0.5 or greater. Note the way the value is handled if the value
of VALUE is negative. —Next highest absolute value|| for negative numbers
rounds to the negative value of the appropriate absolute value of the negative
number; e.g.,
ROUND(–6.8) = –7.
TRUNC simply removes decimal values.
CEIL returns the next highest integer value regardless of the fraction.
In this case, —next highest||refers to the actual higher number whether positive
or negative. FLOOR returns the integer below the number, again regardless
of whether positive or negative. The ROUND and TRUNC functions also may
have a second argument to handle precision, which here means the distance
to the right of the decimal point.
So, the following query:
SELECT lineno, value, ROUND(value,1), TRUNC(value,1)
FROM function_illustrator
Will give :
LINENO VALUE ROUND(VALUE,1) TRUNC(VALUE,1)
0 9 9 9
1 3.44 3.4 3.4
2 3.88 3.9 3.8
3 –6.27 –6.3 –6.2
4 –6.82 –6.8 –6.8
5 0 0 0
6 2.5 2.5 2.5
The value 3.88, when viewed from one place to the right of the decimal
point, rounds up to 3.9 and truncates to 3.8. The second argument defaults
to 0 as previously illustrated. The following query may be compared with
previous versions, which have no second argument:
SELECT lineno, value, ROUND(value,0), TRUNC(value,0)
FROM function_illustrator
79
 Relational Database Which will give :
Management System
LINENO VALUE ROUND(VALUE,0) TRUNC(VALUE,0)
(RDBMS)
0 9 9 9
1 3.44 3 3
2 3.88 4 3
3 –6.27 –6 –6
4 –6.82 –7 –6
5 0 0 0
6 2.5 3 2
In additio n, the second argument, precision, may be negative, which
means displacement to the left of the decimal point, as shown in the following
query :
SELECT lineno, value, ROUND(value,–1), TRUNC(value,–1)
FROM function_illustrator
Which will give ?
LINENO VALUE ROUND(VALUE,–1) TRUNC(VALUE,–1)
0 9 10 0
1 3.44 0 0
2 3.88 0 0
3 –6.27 –10 0
4 –6.82 –10 0
5 0 0 0
6 2.5 0 0
In this example, with –1 for the precision argument, values less than
5 will be truncated to 0, and values of 5 or greater will be rounded up to 10.
Null Value Function :
This function is used if there are null values. The nullvalue function
is :
NVL–Returns a substitute (some other value) ifa value is null. NVL takes
two arguments. The first argument is the field or attribute that you would like
to look for the nullvalue in, and the second argument is the value that you
want to replace the null value by. For example, in the statement —NVL (value,
10)||, we are looking for null values in the —value|| column, and would like
to replacethe null value in the —value|| column by 10. To illustrate the null
value function through anexample, let's insert another row into our
Function_illustrator table, as follows :
INSERT INTO function_illustrator values (7, NULL)
Now, if you type :
SELECT *
FROM function_illustrator
80
 You will get : Oracle Functions
LINENO VALUE
0 9
1 3.44
2 3.88
3 –6.27
4 –6.82
5 0
6 2.5
Note that line no 7 has a null value. To give a value of 10 to value
for line no = 7, type :
SELECT lineno, NVL(value, 10)
From function_illustrator
You will get :
LINENO NVL(VALUE,10)
0 9
1 3.44
2 3.88
3 –6.27
4 –6.82
5 0
6 2.5
7 10
Note that a value of 10 has been included for line no 7. But NVL does
not change the actual data in the table. It only allows you to use some number
in place of null in the SELECT statement (for example, if you aredoing some
calculations).
Log and Exponential Functions
SQL's log and exponential functions include :
LN–Returns natural logs, that is, logs with respect to base e.
LOG–Returns base 10 log.
EXP–Returns e raised to a value.
POWER–Returns value raised to some exponential ower.
To illustrate these functions, look at the following examples :
Example 1 : Using the LN function :
SELECT LN(value)
FROM function_illustrator
WHERE lineno = 2

81
 Relational Database This will give :
Management System
LN(VALUE)
(RDBMS)
----------------
1.35583515
Example 2 : Using the LOG function :
The LOG function requires two arguments. The first argument is the base
of the log, and the second argument is the number that you want to take the
log of. In the following example, we are taking the log of 2, base value.
SELECT LOG(value, 2)
FROM function_illustrator
WHERE lineno = 2
This will give:
LOG(VALUE,2)
----------------
.511232637
As another example, you if want to get the log of 8, base 2, you would
type :
SELECT LOG(2,8)
FROM function_illustrator
WHERE rownum = 1
Giving :
LOG(2,8)
----------------
Example 3 : Using the EXP function :
SELECT EXP(value)
FROM function_illustrator
WHERE lineno = 2
Gives :
EXP(VALUE)
----------------
48.4242151
Example 4 : Using the POWER function :
The POWER function requires two arguments. The first argument is the
value that you would like raised to some exponential power, and the second
argument is the power (exponent) that you would like the number raised to.
See the following example :
SELECT POWER(value,2)
FROM function_illustrator
WHERE lineno = 0

82
 Which gives: Oracle Functions
POWER(VALUE,2)
----------------
Ordinary Trigonometry Functions
SQL's ordinary trigonometry functions include :
SIN–Returns the sine of a value.
COS–Returns the cosine of a value.
TAN–Returns the tangent of a value.
The SIN, COS, and TAN functions take arguments in radians where,
radians = (angle * 2 * 3.1416 / 360)
To illustrate the use of the ordinary trigonometric functions, let's suppose
we have a table called Trig with the following description:
DESC trig
Will give :
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------------------------------
VALUE1 NUMBER(3)
VALUE2 NUMBER(3)
VALUE3 NUMBER(3)
14
Common Oracle Functions : A Function Review
And,
SELECT *
FROM trig
Will give :
VALUE1 VALUE2 VALUE3
------------ ------------ ------------
30 60 90
Example 1 : Using the SIN function to find the sine of 30 degrees :
SELECT SIN(value1*2*3.1416/360)
FROM trig
Gives :
SIN(VALUE1*2*3.1416/360)
----------------------
.50000106
Example 2 : Using the COS function to find the cosine of 60 degrees :
SELECT COS(value2*2*3.1416/360)
FROM trig

83
 Relational Database Gives :
Management System
COS(VALUE2*2*3.1416/360)
(RDBMS)
------------------------------------
.499997879
Example 3 : Using the TAN function to find the tangent of 30 degrees :
SELECT TAN(value1*2*3.1416/360)
FROM trig
Gives :
TAN(VALUE1*2*3.1416/360)
------------------------------------
.577351902
Hyperbolic Trig Functions
SQL's hyperbolic trigonometric functions include: SINH–Returns the
hyperbolic sine of a value. COSH–Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a value.
TANH–Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a value.
These hyperbolic trigonometric functions also take arguments in radians
where, radians = (angle * 2 * 3.1416 / 360)
We illustrate the use of these hyperbolic functions with examples :
Example 1 : Using the SINH function to find the hyperbolic sine of
30 degrees:
SELECT SINH(value1*2*3.1416/360)
FROM trig
Gives :
SINH(VALUE1*2*3.1416/360)
------------------------------------
.54785487
Example 2 : Using the COSH function to find the hyperbolic cosine
of 30 degrees :
SELECT COSH(value1*2*3.1416/360)
FROM trig
Gives :
COSH(VALUE1*2*3.1416/360)
------------------------------------
1.14023899
Example 3 : Using the TANH function to find the hyperbolic tangent
of 30 degrees :
SELECT TANH(value1*2*3.1416/360)
FROM trig

84
 Gives : Oracle Functions
TANH(VALUE1*2*3.1416/360)
------------------------------------
.48047372
In terms of usage, the common numerical manipulation functions (ABS,
MOD, SIGN, SQRT), the —near value|| functions (CEIL, FLOOR, ROUND,
TRUNC), andNVL (an Oracle exclusive null handling function) are used often.
An engineer or scientist might use the LOG, POWER, and trig functions.
4. Aggregate Functions :
SQL> SELECT * FROM TEAMSTATS;
 OUTPUT :
NAME POS AB HITS WALKS SINGLES DOUBLES TRIPLES HR SO
------ -- -- --- ----- ----- ------ ------ -- --
JONES 1B 145 45 34 31 8 1 5 10
DONKNOW 3B 175 65 23 50 10 1 4 15
WORLEY LF 157 49 15 35 8 3 3 16
DAVID OF 187 70 24 48 4 0 17 42
HAMHOCKER 3B 50 12 10 10 2 0 0 13
CASEY DH 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
6 rows selected.
 COUNT :
COUNT the number of rows that satisfy the condition in the WHERE
clause. how many ball players were hitting under 350.
 INPUT/OUTPUT :
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM TEAMSTATS WHERE HITS/AB
< .35;
COUNT(*)
––––––––
4
 SUM :
SUM does just that. It returns the sum of all values in a column. To
find out how many singles have been hit, type
SQL> SELECT SUM(SINGLES) TOTAL_SINGLES FROM
TEAMSTATS;
TOTAL_SINGLES
–––––––––––––
174
SQL> SELECT SUM(SINGLES) TOTAL_SINGLES, SUM(DOUBLES)
TOTAL_DOUBLES,
SUM(TRIPLES) TOTAL_TRIPLES, SUM(HR) TOTAL_HR FROM
TEAMSTATS;

85
 Relational Database TOTAL_SINGLES TOTAL_DOUBLES TOTAL_TRIPLES TOTAL_HR
Management System
––––––––––––– ––––––––––––– –––––––––––– –––––––
(RDBMS)
174 32 5 29
To collect similar information on all 300 or better players, type
SQL> SELECT SUM(SINGLES) TOTAL_SINGLES, SUM(DOUBLES)
TOTAL_DOUBLES,
SUM(TRIPLES) TOTAL_TRIPLES, SUM(HR) TOTAL_HR FROM
TEAMSTATS WHERE HITS/AB >=300;
TOTAL_SINGLES TOTAL_DOUBLES TOTAL_TRIPLES TOTAL_HR
––––––––––––– ––––––––––––– –––––––––––– –––––––
164 30 5 29
To compute a team batting average, type
SQL> SELECT SUM(HITS)/SUM(AB) TEAM_AVERAGE FROM
TEAMSTATS;
TEAM_AVERAGE
––––––––––––
.33706294
 AVG :
The AVG function computes the average of a column. To find the average
number of strike outs
SQL> SELECT AVG(SO) AVE_STRIKE_OUTS FROM TEAMSTATS;
AVE_STRIKE_OUTS
–––––––––––––––
16.166667
The following example illustrates the difference between SUM and AVG :
 INPUT/OUTPUT :
SQL> SELECT AVG(HITS/AB) TEAM_AVERAGE FROM
TEAMSTATS;
TEAM_AVERAGE
––––––––––––
.26803448
 MAX :
what is the highest number of hits?
SQL> SELECT MAX(HITS) FROM TEAMSTATS;
MAX(HITS)
–––––––––
70
 MIN :
MIN does the expected thing and works like MAX except it returns the
lowest member of a column. To find out the fewest at bats, type
SQL> SELECT MIN(AB) FROM TEAMSTATS;
86
 MIN(AB) Oracle Functions
–––––––––
1
 INPUT/OUTPUT :
SQL> SELECT MIN(AB), MAX(AB) FROM TEAMSTATS;
MIN(AB) MAX(AB)
–––––––– ––––––––
1 187
 INPUT/OUTPUT :
SQL> SELECT COUNT(AB), AVG(AB), MIN(AB), MAX(AB),
STDDEV(AB), VARIANCE(AB), SUM(AB) FROM TEAMSTATS;
COUNT(AB) AVG(AB) MIN(AB) MAX(AB) STDDEV(AB) VARIANCE(AB) SUM(AB)
–––––– ––––– ––––– ––––– –––––– –––––– ––––––
7 119.167 1 187 75.589 5712.97 715
5. String Functions :
A host of string functions are available in Oracle. String functions refer
to alphanumeric charactertrings. Among the most common string functions are
INSTR, SUBSTR, REPLACE, and TRIM. Here wepresent and discuss these
string functions. INSTR, SUBSTR, and REPLACE,|| Regular Expressions :
String Searching and Oracle10g.||
The INSTR Function the INSTR Function INSTR (—in–string||) is a
function used to find patternsin strings. By patterns we mean a series of
alphanumeric characters. The general syntax of INSTR is : INSTR (string to
search, search pattern [, start [,occurrence]]) The arguments within brackets
([]) are optional. We will illustrate each argument with examples. INSTR returns
a location within the string where search patternegins. Here are some examples
of the use of the INSTR function :
SELECT INSTR(=This is a test','is')
FROM dual
This will give :
INSTR(=THISISATEST','IS')
--------------------------
Common Oracle Functions : A Function Review The first character
of string to search is numbered 1. Since —is|| is the search pattern, it is found
in string to search at position 3. If we had chosen to look for the second
occurrence of —is,|| the query would look like this:
SELECT INSTR(=This is a test','is',1,2)
FROM dual
And the result would be :
INSTR(=THISISATEST','IS',1,2)
------------------------------
In this case, the second occurrence of —is|| is found at position 6 of
the string. To find the second occurrence, we have to tell the function where
87
 Relational Database to start; therefore the third argument starts the search in position 1 of string
Management System to search. If a fourth argument is desired, then the third argument is mandatory.
(RDBMS) If search pattern is not in the string, the INSTR function returns 0, as shown
by the query below :
SELECT INSTR(=This is a test','abc',1,2)
FROM dual
Which would give :
INSTR(=THISISATEST','ABC',1,2)
------------------------------
The SUBSTR function returns part of a string. The general syntax of
the function is as follows :
SUBSTR(original string, begin [,how far])
An original string is to be dissected beginning at the begin character.
If no how far amount is specified, then the rest of the string from the begin
point is retrieved. If begin is negative, then retrieval occurs from the right–
hand side of original string. Below is an example:
SELECT SUBSTR(=My address is 123 Fourth St.',1,12)
FROM dual
Which would give :
SUBSTR(=MYAD)
--------------
My address i
Here, the first 12 characters are returned from original string. The first
12 characters are specified since begin is 1 and how far is 12. Notice that
blanks count as characters. Look at the following query :
SELECT SUBSTR(=My address is 123 Fourth St.',5,12)
From dual
This would give :
SUBSTR(=MYAD)
--------------
address is 12
In this case, the retrieval begins at position 5 and again goes for 12
characters.
Here is an example of retrieval with no third argument, meaning it starts
at begin and retrieves therest of the string :
SELECT SUBSTR (=My address is 123 Fourth St.',6)
FROM dual
This would give :
SUBSTR(=MYADDRESSIS123F
----------------------
dress is 123 Fourth St.

88
 SUBSTR may also retrieve from the right–hand side of original string, Oracle Functions
as shown below :
SELECT SUBSTR(=My address is 123 Fourth St.',–9,5)
FROM dual
This would give :
SUBST
---------
ourth
The result comes from starting at the right end of the string and counting
backward for nine characters, then retrieving five characters from that point.
Often in string handling, SUBSTR and INSTR areused together. For example,
if we had a series ofnames in last name, first name format, e.g., —Harrison,
John Edward,|| and wanted to retrieve first and middlenames, we could use
the commaand space to find the end of the last name. This is particularly useful
sincethe last name is of unknown length and we rely only onthe format of
the names for retrieval, as shown below :
SELECT SUBSTR(=Harrison, John Edward', INSTR(=Harrison, John
Edward',', ?)+2)
FROM dual
This would give :
SUBSTR(=HAR
-------------
John Edward
The original string is —Harrison, John Edward.|| The begin number has
been replaced by the INSTR function, which returns the position of the
command blank space. Since INSTR is using two characters to find the place
to begin retrieval, the actual retriev almust begin two characters to the right
of that point. If we do not move over two spaces, and then we get this :
SELECT SUBSTR(=Harrison, John Edward', INSTR(=Harrison, John
Edward',', =))
FROM dual
This would give :
SUBSTR(=HARRI
---------------
, John Edward
The result includes the command space because retrieval starts where
the INSTR function indicated the position of search pattern occurred. If the
INSTR pattern is not found, then the entirestring would be returned, as shown
by this query : SELECT SUBSTR(=Harrison, John Edward', INSTR(=Harrison,
John Edward','zonk'))
FROM dual

89
 Relational Database This would give :
Management System
SUBSTR(=HARRISON,JOHN
(RDBMS)
---------------------
Harrison, John Edward
which is actually this :
SELECT SUBSTR(=Harrison, John Edward',0)
FROM dual
which would give :
SUBSTR(=HARRISON,JOHN
---------------------
Harrison, John Edward
The REPLACE Function is a common situation to not only find apattern
(INSTR) and perhaps extract it (SUBSTR), but then to replace the value(s)
found. The REPLACE function has the following general syntax:
REPLACE (string, look for, replace with) where all three arguments are
necessary. The look forstring will be replaced with the replace with stringe
very time it occurs.
Here is an example :
SELECT REPLACE (=This is a test',' is =,' may be =)
FROM dual
This gives :
REPLACE(=THISISATE
----------------------
This may be a test
Here the look for string consists of —is||, including the spaces before
and after the word —is.|| It does not matter if the look for and the replace
with strings are of different lengths. If the spaces are not placed around
—is||, then the —is|| in —This|| will be replaced along with the word
—is||, as shown by the following query :
SELECT REPLACE (=This is a test','is',' may be =)
FROM dual
This would give :
REPLACE(=THISISATEST','IS'
----------------------------
This may be a test
If the look for string is not present, then the replacing does not occur,
as shown by the following query :
SELECT REPLACE (=This is a test','glurg',' may be =)
FROM dual

90
 Which would give : Oracle Functions
REPLACE(=THISI
---------------
This is a test
The TRIM Function the TRIM Function TRIM is a function that removes
characters from theleft or right ends of a string or both ends. The TRIM function
was added in Oracle 9. Originally, LTRIM andRTRIM were used for trimming
characters from the left or right ends of strings. TRIM supercedes both ofthese.
The general syntax of TRIM is :
TRIM ([where] [trim character] FROM subject string)
The optional where is one of the keywords
—leading,|| —trailing,|| or —both.||
If the optional trim character is not present, then blanks will be trimmed.
Trim character may be any character. The word FROM is necessary only if
where or trim character is present. Here is an example:
SELECT TRIM (=This string has leading and trailing Spaces')
FROM dual
Which gives :
TRIM(=THISSTRINGHASLEADINGANDTRAILINGSPACES
--------------------------------------------------
This string has leading and trailing spaces
Both the leading and trailing spaces are deleted. This is probably the
most common use of the function. We canbe more explicit in the use of the
function, as shown in the following query :
SELECT TRIM (both = = from = String with blanks =)
FROM dual
Which gives :
TRIM(BOTH''FROM'ST
----------------
String with blanks
In these examples, characters rather than spaces are trimmed :
SELECT TRIM(=F' from =Frogs prefer deep water')
FROM dual
Which would give :
TRIM(=F'FROM'FROGSPREF
---------------------
rogs prefer deep water
Here are some other examples.
Example 1 :
SELECT TRIM(leading =F' from =Frogs prefer deep water')
FROM dual

91
 Relational Database Which would give :
Management System
TRIM(LEADING'F'FROM'FR
(RDBMS)
-----------------------
rogs prefer deep water
Example 2 :
SELECT TRIM(trailing =r' from =Frogs prefer deep water')
FROM dual
Which would give :
TRIM(TRAILING'R'FROM'F
-----------------------
Frogs prefer deep wate
Example 3 :
SELECT TRIM (both =z' from =zzzzz I am asleep zzzzzz')
FROM dual
Which would give :
TRIM(BOTH'Z'F
---------------
I am asleep
In the last example, note that the blank space was preserved because
it was not trimmed. To get rid of the leading/trailing blank(s) we can nest
TRIMs like this :
SELECT TRIM(TRIM (both =z' from =zzzzz I am asleep zzzzzz'))
FROM dual
This would give :
TRIM(TRIM(B
–––––––––––
I am asleep
5. Date functions :
Oracle's date functions allow one to manage and handle dates in a far
easier manner than if one had to actually create calendar tables or use complex
algorithms fordate calculations. First we must note that the date data type is
not a character format. Columns with date data types contain both date and
time. We must format dates to see all of the information contained in a date.
If you type :
SELECT SYSDATE
FROM dual
You will get :
SYSDATE
----------
10–SEP–06

92
 The format of the TO_CHAR function (i.e., convert to acharacter string) Oracle Functions
is full of possibilities. Here is anexample:
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, =dd Mon, yyyy hh24:mi:ss')
FROM dual
This gives:
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDMO
--------------------
10 Sep, 2006 14:04:59
This presentation gives us not only the date in —dd Monyyyy|| format,
but also gives us the time in 24–hours, minutes, and seconds.
We can add months to any date with the ADD_
MONTHS function like this :
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, =ddMONyyyy') Today,
TO_CHAR(ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE, 3), =ddMONyyyy') —+ 3 mon||,
TO_CHAR(ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE, –23), =ddMONyyyy') — -23
mon||
FROM dual
This will give us :
TODAY + 3 mon – 23 mon
---------- ------------ ------------
10SEP2006 10DEC2006 10OCT2004
In this example, note that the ADD_MONTHS function is applied to
SYSDATE, a date data type, and then the result is converted to a character
string with
TO_CHAR.
The LAST_DAY function returns the last day of any month, as shown
in the following query:
SELECT TO_CHAR(LAST_DAY(=23SEP2006'))
FROM dual
This gives us :
TO_CHAR(L
------------
30–SEP–06
This example illustrates that Oracle will convert characterdates to date
data types implicitly. There is also a TO_DATE function to convert from
characters to dates explicitly. It is usually not a good idea to take advantage
of implicit conversion, and therefore a more proper version of the above query
would look like this:
SELECT TO_CHAR(LAST_DAY(TO_DATE( =23SEP2006','ddMON
yyyy')))
FROM dual

93
 Relational Database This would give us :
Management System
TO_CHAR(L
(RDBMS)
----------
30–SEP–06
In the following example, we convert the date'23SEP2006' to a date data
type, perform a date functionon it (LAST_DAY), and then reconvert it to a
character data type. We can change the original date format in the TO_CHAR
function as well, as shown below:
SELECT TO_CHAR(LAST_DAY(TO_DATE( =23SEP2006','ddMON
yyyy')),
=Month dd, yyyy')
FROM dual
This will give us :
TO_CHAR(LAST_DAY(T
-------------------
September 30, 2006
To find the time difference between two dates, use the
MONTHS_BETWEEN function, which returns fractional months. The general
format of the function is:
MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1, date2)
where the result will be date1 – date2.
Here is an example:
SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE(=22SEP2006','ddMONyyyy'),
TO_DATE(=13OCT2001','ddMONyyyy')) —Months difference||
FROM dual
This gives :
Months difference
----------------
59.2903226
Here we explicitly converted our character string dates to date data types
before applying the MONTHS_BETWEEN function.
The NEXT_DAY function tells us the date of the day of the week
following a particular date, where —dayof the week|| is expressed as the day
written out (like Monday, Tuesday, etc.):
SELECT NEXT_DAY(TO_DATE( = 15SEP2006','DDMONYYYY'),
'Monday')
FROM dual
This gives :
NEXT_DAY(
----------
18–SEP–06

94
 The Monday after 15–SEP–06 is 18–SEP–06, which is displayed in the Oracle Functions
default date format.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. Wherever a value is used directly or computed in a SQL statement, a
simple SQL may be used.
a. function b. Relation
2. will convert a decimal value to the next highest absolute value.
a. ROUND b. ROUNDOFF
3. returns the next highest integer value regardless of the fraction.
a. CEIL b. RETURN
4. The Function is a function used to find patterns in strings.
a. INSTR b. CEIL

7.4 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit, we have learnt that Library functions and procedures are
utility operations that you can add to any service, physical, logical, or library.
A library function can return values, but has no side effects. A library procedure
can return values and can have side effects.
Oracle's SQL contains a rich variety of functions. We can categorize
Oracle's SQL functions into simple SQL functions, numeric functions, statistical
functions, string functions, and date functions.

7.5 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a

7.6 Glossary :
1. SQL : Structured Query Language.
2. Oracle : It is an object–relational database management system [3]
produced and marketed by Oracle Corporation.

7.7 Assignment :
Discuss the utility of Oracle SQL functions.

7.8 Activities :
Discuss the numeric functions of Oracle with the help of an illustration.

7.9 Case Study :

With the help of an example discuss the string function in oracle.

95
 Relational Database 7.10 Further Readings :
Management System
(RDBMS) 1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ram Krishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

96
 BLOCK SUMMARY :
In this block we learnt about the basic concepts of query writing and
sub queries. In this block we learnt abou the create statement, apart from this
the writing queries has even been learnt by in very detail in detail. On the
other hand we even learnt about the table and view option. The decode
statement, insert, update and delete commands have been discussed in detail
with sufficient examples.

The interactive SQL portion was even been discussed here under this
block. The author has explained the various data types briefly. Apart from this
the objective of this block includes detailing the studentsabout the various
Oracle functions. Here under oracle functions the topics covered are the library
functions as well as the uses of various SQL functions in a very detail with
the help of sufficient and suitable examples.

BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :

1. Oracle

2. SQL

3. Library functions

4. Update Command

5. Interactive SQL

 Long Questions :

1 Explain the use of Insert command in Oracle SQL with the help of an
example.

2 Explain the various components of Update command.

3 Discuss the Delete command in SQL.

4 Discuss the date function in oracle with the help of a suitable function.

97
 Relational Database  Enrolment No. :
Management System
(RDBMS) 1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 4 5 6 7

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

98
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR 302
Open University Ahmedabad

RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS)
BLOCK 3 : PL/SQL–I

UNIT 8 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

UNIT 9 CONTROL STATEMENT & INTERNAL FUNCTION

UNIT 10 STORED PROCEDURE

UNIT 11 DATABASE TRIGGER & PACKAGES

 PL/SQL–I
Block Introduction :
This block discusses constructs of PL/SQL that enable software developers
to use this procedural language interface to the Oracle RDBMS. Constructs within
PL/SQL are similar to those found in a 3GL and C and provide a flexible method
to manipulate database information. PL/SQL is a mainstay of SQL* Forms, but
writing database procedures outside forms gives you access to common database
manipulation routines by other Oracle development tools while limiting the size
of forms applications.

The aim of this block is to ena?le the reader understand the basic concepts
of PL/SQL and their role. The writer has tried his best to introduce the PL/SQL
with its features and advantages, apart from this the variables and constants have
been discuss in detail. The reader will also get a detailed insight of data types
and arrays. On the other hand the writer has even discussed the declare statement,
apart from this various PL/SQL illustrations and examples have been provided
in this block.

In this block, we will learn about Store procedure, Triggers. It provides an

overview of the above topic with the help of various examples.

You will also get a basic idea of what store procedure. Various functions
and commands have been discussed here in this block in a very brief and
interesting way. The main topics that have been covered in these block are stored
procedures, internal functions and database triggers.

The writer has tried his best to concise the topics using the easiest language
to help the student to understand the topic.

The aim of this block is to enable the reader understand the basic concepts
of these topcis. The writer has tried his best to detail the store procedure; apart
from this the triggers have even been discussed by him in detail sufficient
examples.

The objective of this block includes detailing the student's about the various
above mentioned topics in very detail with the help of sufficient and suitable
examples.
 Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to understand :

• Discuss about PL/SQL

• About the Variables and Constants

• About various Data types and Arrays

• Control Statements

• DECLARE statement and Naming Conventions

• Purpose of stored procedures and their creation

• How to delete and replace a stored procedure

• Procedure overloading

• The triggers and their use

• The process of creation of triggers

• The rule of firing of triggers

• The Package Creation

• Utility of Package Subprograms

Block Structure :
Unit 8 : Introduction to PL/SQL
Unit 9 : Control Statement & Internal Function
Unit 10 : Stored Procedure
Unit 11 : Database Trigger & Packages
 Unit
08 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

UNIT STRUCTURE
8.1 Learning Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Advantages of PL/SQL
8.4 Variable
8.5 Constant
8.6 Datatypes & Array
8.7 Declare Statement
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Answers for Check Your Progress
8.10 Glossary
8.11 Assignment
8.12 Activities
8.13 Case Study
8.14 Further Readings

8.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The Introduction to PL/SQL
• How to describe PL/SQL Architecture
• The Declares Variables

8.1 Introduction :
Oracle's PL/SQL is a procedural language extension of SQL. It is the
standard programming language for Oracle RDBMS and follows the procedural
approach. It also provides conditional constructs like IF. THEN, WHILE LOOP
which is available in other languages like C, Pascal, COBOL. PL/SQL is very
powerful as it combines the flexibility available in SQL with the procedural
constructs. Oracle's PL/SQL adds a lot of additional capabilities to Oracle
programming in order to do validations, customization, include user interfaces
and handling errors effectively.
 What is PL/SQL ?
PL/SQL is a block–structured language. The basic unit of PL/SQL is
called a BLOCK, which contains declarative statements, executable statements
and error handling statements. These blocks can be nested into one or more
blocks.
 Features of PL/SQL :
• Allows users to embed one or more SQL statements together and execute
as asingle SQL unit.
99
 Relational Database • Allows declaration of variables.
Management System
• Allows usage of conditional constructs
(RDBMS)
• Allows programming of error–handling using exceptions
• Allows row–by–Row processing of data using cursors
• Allows triggers to be created and fired.

8.3 Advantages of PL/SQL :

• SQL Support :
SQL has become the standard database language because it is flexible,
powerful and easy to learn. Since it is a non–procedural language, a user need
not know how the statements are processed but just needs to indicate the
requirement.
PL/SQL allows the usage of all kinds of SQL data manipulation, cursor
control and transaction control statements as well as all the SQL functions,
operators and pseudo columns.
• Better Performance :
Without PL/SQL Oracle would process SQL statements one at a time.
Each SQL statement results in another Oracle call to Oracle and higher
performance overhead. Since PL/SQL can contain SQL statements, all the SQL
statements can be placed inside PL/SQL thereby reducing the time taken for
communication between the server and the application. This reduces network
traffic and results in better performance.
• Support for Object Oriented Programming :
Oracle implements the concept of object oriented programming. This
allows the creation of software components that are modular, maintainable and
reusable. Using encapsulation operations with the data object types lets users
to move data–maintenance codes out of SQL scripts and PL/SQL blocks into
methods.
• Portability :
Applications written in PL/SQL provide portability to the operating
system and platform on which they runs. These applications can run wherever
Oracle can run.
• Higher Productivity :
PL/SQL adds functionality to Oracle's non–procedural tools like Forms
and Reports. These tools can help to build applications using familiar procedural
constructs. PL/SQL does not differ in environments. It works the same way
as it works for other built–in tools. Also any scripts written using one tool
can be used by another tool.
• Integration with Oracle :
Oracle and PL/SQL are based on SQL statements. It supports all the
SQL Datatypes. These Datatypes integrate PL/SQL with the Oracle Data
dictionary.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. SQL is a language.
a. Procedural b. Non–procedural
100
2. SQL Stands for . Introduction to PL/SQL
a. Standard Query Language b. Structured Query Language

8.4 Variable :
A PL/SQL variable can have any SQL data type (such as CHAR, DATE,
or NUMBER) or a PL/SQL–only data type (such as BOOLEAN or
PLS_INTEGER).
Example 1–2 declares several PL/SQL variables. One has a PL/SQL–
only data type;the others have SQL data types.
Example 1–2 PL/SQL Variable Declarations
SQL> DECLARE
2 part_numberNUMBER(6); -- SQL data type
3 part_nameVARCHAR2(20); -- SQL data type
4 in_stock BOOLEAN; -- PL/SQL–only data type
5 part_priceNUMBER(6,2); -- SQL data type
6 part_descriptionVARCHAR2(50); -- SQL data type
7 BEGIN
8 NULL;
9 END;
10 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL>
\PL/SQL also lets you declare composite data types, such as nested tables,
variable–sizearrays, and records.
• With the assignment operator (:=), as in Example 1–3.
• By selecting (or fetching) database values into it, as in Example 1–4.
• By passing it as an OUT or IN OUT parameter to a supprogram, and
then assigning the value inside the supprogram, as in Example 1–5
Example 1–3 Assigning Values to Variables with the Assignment Operator
SQL> DECLARE -- You can assign values here
2 wages NUMBER;
3 hours_workedNUMBER := 40;
4 hourly_salaryNUMBER := 22.50;
5 bonus NUMBER := 150;
6 country VARCHAR2(128);
7 counter NUMBER := 0;
8 done BOOLEAN;
9 valid_id BOOLEAN;
10 emp_rec1 employees%ROWTYPE;
11 emp_rec2 employees%ROWTYPE;
12 TYPE commissions IS TABLE OF NUMBER INDEX BY
PLS_INTEGER;
101
 Relational Database 13 comm_tab commissions;
Management System
14
(RDBMS)
15 BEGIN -- You can assign values here too
16 wages := (hours_worked * hourly_salary) + bonus;
17 country := 'France';
18 country := UPPER('Canada');
19 done := (counter > 100);
20 valid_id := TRUE;
21 emp_rec1.first_name := 'Antonio';
22 emp_rec1.last_name := 'Ortiz';
23 emp_rec1 := emp_rec2;
24 comm_tab(5) := 20000 * 0.15;
25 END;
26 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL>
In Example 1–4, 10% of an employee's salary is selected into the bonus
variable. Now you can use the bonus variable in another computation or insert
its value into a database table.
Example 1–4 Using SELECT INTO to Assign Values to Variables
SQL> DECLARE
2 bonus NUMBER(8,2);
3 emp_idNUMBER(6) := 100;
4 BEGIN
5 SELECT salary * 0.10 INTO bonus
6 FROM employees
7 WHERE employee_id = emp_id;
8 END
9 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. PL / SQL
SQL>
Example 1–5 passes the new_sal variable to a supprogram, and the
Supprogram updates the variable.
2 new_salNUMBER(8,2);
3 emp_idNUMBER(6) := 126;
4
5 PROCEDURE adjust_salary (
6 emp_id NUMBER,
7 sal IN OUT NUMBER
8 ) IS
102
 9 emp_jobVARCHAR2(10); Introduction to PL/SQL
10 avg_salNUMBER(8,2);
11 BEGIN
12 SELECT job_id INTO emp_job
13 FROM employees
14 WHERE employee_id = emp_id;
15 SELECT AVG(salary) INTO avg_sal
16 FROM employees
17 WHERE job_id = emp_job;
18 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('The average salary for '
19 || emp_job
20 || ' employees: '
21 || TO_CHAR(avg_sal)
22 );
23
24 sal := (sal + avg_sal)/2;
25
26 END;
27
28 BEGIN
29 SELECT AVG(salary) INTO new_sal
30 FROM employees;
31
32 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('The average salary for all employees:'
33 || TO_CHAR(new_sal)
34 );
35
36 adjust_salary(emp_id, new_sal);
37 END;
38 /
The average salary for all employees: 6461.68
The average salary for ST_CLERK employees: 2785
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL>
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. A PL/SQL can have any SQL data type.
a. Variable b. Constant
2. also lets you declare composite data types, such as nested
tables, variable–size arrays, and records.
a. PL/SQL b. Variable
103
 Relational Database 8.5 Constant :
Management System
(RDBMS) As the name implies a constant is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that
remains unchanged throughout the program. A constant is a user–defined literal
value. You can declare a constant and use it instead of actual value.
For example : If you want to write a program which will increase the
salary of the employees by 25%, you can declare a constant and use it
throughout the program. Next time when you want to increase the salary again
you can change the value of the constant which will be easier than changing
the actual value throughout the program.
constant_name CONSTANT datatype := VALUE;
constant_name is the name of the constant i.e. similar to a variable name.
The word CONSTANT is a reserved word and ensures that the value
does not change.
VALUE – It is a value which must be assigned to a constant when it
is declared.
You cannot assign a value later.
For example, to declare salary_increase, you can write code as follows:
DECLARE
salary_increase CONSTANT number (3) := 10;
You must assign a value to a constant at the time you declare it. If you
do not assign a value to a constant while declaring it and try to assign a value
in the execution section, you will get a error. If you execute the below Pl/
SQL block you will get error.
DECLARE
salary_increase CONSTANT number(3);
BEGIN
salary_increase := 100;
dbms_output.put_line (salary_increase);
END;
To declare a constant, put the keyword CONSTANT before the type
specifier. The following declaration names a constant of type REAL and assigns
an unchangeable value of 5000 to the constant. A constant must be initialized
in its declaration. Constants are initialized every time a block or supprogram
is entered.
Example 2–7 Declaring Constants
SQL> DECLARE
2. credit_limit CONSTANT REAL := 5000.00;
3. max_days_in_year CONSTANT INTEGER := 366;
4. urban_legend CONSTANT BOOLEAN := FALSE;
5. BEGIN
6. NULL;
7. END;
8. /
104
 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Introduction to PL/SQL
SQL>
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged
through out the program.
a. Constant b. Variable
2. To declare a constant, put the keyword before the type
specifier.
a. CONSTANT b. DECLARE CONSTANT

8.6 Datatypes & Array :

 Datatypes :
Each literal or column value manipulated by Oracle has a datatype. A
value's datatype associates a fixed set of properties with the value. Broadly
classifying the datatypes, they can be of two types :
• BUILT–IN
• USER–DEFINED (dealt in a later chapter)
Built–in datatypes are predefined set of datatypes set in Oracle. Based
on the type of data that can be stored, built–in datatypes can be classified
as
• Character Datatypes
• Numeric Datatype
• Date Datatype
• Raw Datatype
• Long Raw Datatype
• Lob Datatype
• Character Datatypes Char(n)
Char datatype is a fixed length character data of length n bytes. Default
size is 1 byte and it can hold a maximum of 2000 bytes. Character datatypes
pad blank spaces to the fixed length if the user enters a value lesser than the
specified length.
Syntax
Char(n)
Example:
X char (4) stores upto 4 characters of data in the column X.
Varchar2(size)
Varchar 2 datatypes are variable length character strings. They can store
alpha–numeric values and the size must be specified. The maximum length
of varchar2 datatype is 4000 bytes. Unlike char datatype, blank spaces are not
padded to the length of the string. So, this is more preferred than character
datatypes since it does not store the maximum length.
Syntax
Varchar2(Size)
105
 Relational Database Example:
Management System
X varchar2 (10) stores upto 10 characters of data in the column X.
(RDBMS)
Numeric datatypes
Number
The number datatypes can store numeric values where p stands for the
precision and s stands for the scale. The precision can range between 1 to
38 and the scale ranges from –84 to 127.
Syntax
Number (p, s)
Example :
Sal number – Here the scale is 0 and the precision is 38
Sal number(7) – Here the scale is 0 and the number is a fixed point
number of 7 digits
Sal number(7,2) – Stores 5 digits followed by 2 decimal points.
 DATE datatype :
Date datatype is used to store date and time values. The default format
is 'DD–MON–YY'. The valid data for a date datatype ranges from January
1, 4712 BC to December 31, 4712 AD. Date datatype stores 7 bytes one each
for century, year, month, day, hour, minute and second.
RAW Datatype
RAW(n)
RAW datatype stores binary data of length n bytes. The maximum size
is 255 bytes. Specifying the size is a must for this datatype.
Syntax
Raw(n)
LONG Datatype
Stores character data of variable length upto 2 Gigabytes(GB) or
231 – 1.
 LONG RAW Datatype :
Stores upto 2 Gigabytes(GB) of raw binary data. The use of LONG Values
are restricted. The restrictions are :
• A Table cannot contain more than one LONG column
• LONG columns cannot appear in Integrity constraints (dealt later)
• They cannot appear in WHERE, ORDER BY clauses of SELECT
statements
• Cannot be a part of expressions or conditions
• Cannot appear in the SELECT list of CREATE TABLE as SELECT
statement.
 LOB Datatypes :
In addition to the above datatypes, Oracle 8 supports LOB datatypes.
LOB is the acronym for LARGE OBJECTS. The LOB datatypes stores upto
4 GB of data. This datatype is used for storing video clippings, large images,
history documents etc. LOB datatypes can be
106
• CLOB Character Large Objects (Internal LOB) Introduction to PL/SQL
• BLOB Binary Large Objects (Internal LOB)
• BFILE Binary File (External LOB)
The LOB datatypes store values, which are called locators. These locators
indicate the place where the objects are stored. The location can be out–of–
line or in an external file like CDROM.
In order to manipulate the LOB type of data, DBMS_LOB package is
used.
 Array :
An array is an ordered set of data elements. All elements of a given
array are of the same datatype. Each element has an index, which is a number
corresponding to the element's position in the array. The number of elements
in an array is the size of the array. Oracle arrays are of variable size, which
is why they are called VARRAYs. The maximum size must be specified while
creating varrays.
Declaring a Varray does not occupy space. It defines a type, which can
be used as
• The datatype of a column of a relational table.
• An object type attribute.
• A PL/SQL variable, parameter, or function return type.
An array object is stored in line, that is, in the same tablespace as the
other data in its row.
The following example illustrates this concept.
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE price_list AS VARRAY(5) OF number(9);
CREATE TABLE prods
(
pno number,
rateprice_list
) ;
Inserting Values
Inserting records are always done only using Constructor method.
INSERT INTO prods VALUES
(1, price_list (12,34,56,78));
INSERT INTO prods VALUES
(2, price_list (12,34,56));
Here the maximum values that can be specified are only 5. The number
of values that the column can hold must be less than or equal to 5. On exceeding
this maximum value, the insertion leads to the following error:
INSERT INTO prods VALUES
(4, price_list (12,3,5,6,71,90));
ERROR at line 2:
ORA–22909: exceeded maximum VARRAY limit
Querying the data from varrays:
107
 Relational Database Data can be selected as a complete list from the table containing varrays.
Management System Individual manipulation cannot be done in SQL. Also, while performing updation,
(RDBMS) even if one single value has to be updated the whole collection has to be
specified.
Example given below shows how to select and update records.
While issuing SELECT statement,
SELECT * FROM prods;
Displays,
PNO
-------
RATE
-------
2
RDBMS Concepts and Oracle 8i
358
PRICE_LIST(12, 34, 56)
1
PRICE_LIST(12, 34, 56, 78)
Selecting can be done only as a collection unit.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Each literal or column value manipulated by has a datatype.
a. Oracle b. SQL
2. Built– in are predefined set of datatypes set in Oracle.
a. Datatypes b. Database
3. datatype is a fixed length character data of length n bytes.
a. Char b. Cons
4. All elements of a given are of the same datatype.
a. Array b. Char
5. Oracle arrays are of variable size, which is why they are called .
a. VARRAYs b. VRARRAYs

8.7 Declare Statements :

Variables can be declared in various ways. The two examples given above
have shown how to declare variables and assign values to them. Certain
variables can carry default values, which can be used to initialize values, and
certain other variables can take constant values.
The following example illustrates the usage of the keywords DEFAULT
and CONSTANT.
Using DEFAULT
DECLARE
S NUMBER DEFAULT 10;

108
 BEGIN Introduction to PL/SQL
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(s);
END
In this example, the default value of S i.e 10 is printed. The value in
the variable s can be altered. It can also be re–assigned with any other numerical
value.
Using CONSTANT
Consider a situation where variables have to contain constant values; like
for example pi has to be assigned 3.14.
Example
DECLARE
Pi CONSTANT REAL:=3.14;
Area NUMBER;
R NUMBER:=&R;
BEGIN
Area:=pi*r**2;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('THE AREA OF CIRCLE WITH RADIUS
'||r||' IS '||area);
END;
In the above example, the variable pi is declared as a constant variable
whose value cannot change anywhere inside the program. Re–assigning the
value for the same variable leads to an error.
Using NOT NULL
Besides assigning an initial value, declarations can impose the NOT
NULL constraint, as the following example shows:
Example
DECLARE
s VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL:='RADIANT';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(s);
END;
The difference between using NOT NULL and DEFAULT is that, default
can be assigned to NULL but NOT NULL as the name suggests cannot hold
NULL values.
 Check Your Progress – 5 :
1. can be declared in various ways.
a. Variables b. constants
2. can be assigned to NULL but NOT NULL as the name suggests
cannot hold NULL values.
a. Default b. Error

109
 Relational Database 8.8 Lets Sum Up :
Management System
(RDBMS) SQL is generally used for updating, deleting and querying information
in Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS). PL SQL is used for
the shortcomings of SQL and enhances the characteristics of SQL. In this
chapter, detailed discussion was made on PL/SQL. We also explain PL/SQL
environment step by step, and also discussed variable, constant, datatypes &
array with proper examples. And the structures associated with this procedural
language extension to the Oracle database.

8.9 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : b
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 4 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 5 :
1 : a 2 : a

8.10 Glossary :
Array : It is an ordered set of data elements.

8.11 Assignment :
Discuss use of Array in PL/SQL with suitable example

8.12 Activities :
Write a brief note on variables and constants.

8.13 Case Study :

Discuss the types of Datatypes.

8.14 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. Fundamentals of Database Systems by Ramez Elmsari, Shamkant B
Navathe – Pearson Education
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.

110
 Unit
CONTROL STATEMENT &
09 INTERNAL FUNCTION
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.1 Learning Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Control Statements
9.4 Naming Convention
9.5 Internal Function
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Answers for Check Your Progress
9.8 Glossary
9.9 Assignment
9.10 Activities
9.11 Case Study
9.12 Further Readings

9.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this block, you will be able to understand :
• Describe about Control Structures
• Describe Iteration Control
• Internal function used in SQL

9.1 Introduction :
Control statement specifies that other statements will be executed or not.
PL/SQL support IF statement to control the execution of block of code. In
decision–making scenarios, the condition statements like IF–THEN, IF–THEN–
ELSE, IF–THEN–ELSEIF, and CASE are used.
In this chapter, we will discuss Loops used in PL/SQL. There is a situation
when you need to execute a block of code multiple times. In general, statements
are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is executed first,
followed by the second, and so on.
A function can be called from inside a statement just like any other
function (that is, by invoking the function's name), and can return a scalar
value the built–in functions are recorded in a system table of the Postgre SQL
database, pg_proc. As at Postgre SQL version 8.0 and later, this table have
more than 1,700 entries. Inpsql, you can list all functions and their arguments
using the \df command. Also, comments about any specific functions or group
of functions can be displayed using the\dd command.

9.3 Control Statement :

Often it is necessary to take alternative actions depending on circumstances.
The IF statement allows the execution of a sequence of statements conditionally.
The execution purely depends on the value of the condition specified.
111
 Relational Database The working is similar to the IF conditions in other programming languages.
Management System There are three forms of IF statements :
(RDBMS)
IF…THEN
IF..THEN..ELSE
IF..THEN..ELSEIF
IF–THEN
This is the simplest form of the IF statement. These associates a condition
with a sequence of statements enclosed by the keywords THEN and END IF.
The following example illustrates this :
Syntax
IF condition THEN
Sequence_of_statements;
End if;
The sequence of statements is executed only if the condition yields
TRUE. If the condition yields FALSE or NULL, the IF statement does nothing.
In either case, control passes to the next statement following END IF. An
example follows
Example
DECLARE
s number;
BEGIN
S:=&a;
If s>=10 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('S greater than or equal to 10');
END IF;
END;
The above example displays the value 'S greater than or equal to 10'
only if the variables holds the value 10 or greater than that.
IF–THEN–ELSE
The second form of IF statement adds the keyword ELSE followed by
an alternative sequence of statements. The general syntax is as follows.
IF condition THEN
Sequence_of_statements1;
ELSE

Sequence_of_statements2;

END IF;

The sequence of statements in the ELSE clause is executed only if the

condition yields FALSE or NULL. Thus, the ELSE clause ensures that a
sequence of statements is executed. Modifying the above example.
112
 Example Control Statement &
Internal Function
DECLARE
S number; BegiN S:=&a;
IF S>=10 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('S GREATER THAN OR
EQUAL TO 10'); Else
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('S IS LESSER THAN 10');
END IF; END;
IF–THEN–ELSIF
The third form of IF statement uses the keyword ELSIF (not ELSIF)
to introduce additional conditions. Multiple IF conditions are clubbed and
written using the ELSIF clause.
Syntax
IF CONDITION1 THEN
SEQUENCE_OF_STATEMENTS1;
ELSIF CONDITION2 THEN
SEQUENCE_OF_STATEMENTS2;
ELSE
SEQUENCE_OF_STATEMENTS3;
END IF;
If the first condition yields FALSE or NULL, the ELSIF clause tests
another condition. An IF statement can have any number of ELSIF clause; the
final ELSE clause is optional. Conditions are evaluated one by one from top
to bottom. If any condition yields TRUE, its associated sequence of statements
is executed and control passes to the next statement following ENDIF.
If all the conditions yield FALSE or NULL, the sequence in the ELSE
clause is executed. The following example finds the greatest of two numbers
using IF–THEN–ELSIF.
Example
DECLARE
A NUMBER:=&A;
B NUMBER:=&B;
BEGIN
IF A>B THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('THE GREATEST NUMBER IS '||A);
ELSIF B> A THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('THE GREATEST NUMBER IS '||B);
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('BOTH ARE EQUAL');
END IF;
END;

113
 Relational Database The above example accepts two numbers and the conditions are checked
Management System and depending on the condition that evaluates to TRUE, the message under
(RDBMS) that condition is displayed.
When possible, use the ELSIF clause instead of nested IF statements.
This will make the code easier to read and understand. Compare the following
IF statements.
IF condition1 THEN | IF condition1 THEN
statement1; | statement1;
ELSE | ELSIF condition2 THEN
IF condition2 THEN | statement2;
statement2; | ELSIF condition3 THEN
ELSE | statement3;
IF condition3 THEN | END IF;
statement3; |
END IF; |
END IF; |
END IF; |
These statements are logically equivalent. While the statement on the
left obscures the flow of logic, the statement on the right reveals it.
Iterative Control :
Iterative statements are a set of statements that are performed a number
of times depending on the value in the LOOP statement. There are three basic
forms of LOOP statements
LOOP
• WHILE LOOP
• FOR LOOP
LOOP
The simplest form of LOOP statement is the basic (or infinite) loop,
which encloses a sequence of statements between the keywords LOOP and END
LOOP. The syntax is as follows.
Syntex
LOOP
Sequence_of_statements;
End LOOP.
With each Iteration of the loop, the sequence of statements is executed
and the control resumes at the top of the loop. The following example shows
the execution of the LOOP statement.
Example
DECLARE
a NUMBER:=10;
BEGIN LOOP

114
 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a); Control Statement &
Internal Function
END LOOP; END;
The output leads to an error. Because the number of times the loop must
be executed is not specified and it goes for an infinite loop. In order to terminate
the loop some form of termination statement is required. The EXIT statement
is used to perform this operation.
Example
DECLARE
1. NUMBER:=&A;
BEGIN LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A); a:=a+1;
IF a > 20
THEN
EXIT;
End if;
END LOOP
;
END;
Till the value crosses 20 the loop is executed and once the value for
the variable reaches 20, the loop is terminated using the EXIT statement. This
EXIT statement can be further simplified by the usage of EXIT_WHEN
statement.
EXIT–WHEN
The EXIT–WHEN statement allows a loop to complete conditionally.
When the EXIT when statement is encountered, the condition in the WHEN
clause is evaluated. If the condition yields TRUE, the loop completes and
control passes to the next statement after the loop. The syntax follows.
BEGIN
….
EXIT WHEN <CONDITION>;
END;
The following example shows the usage of EXIT WHEN statement. This
example is a modification of the previous example with the EXIT statement.
Example
DECLARE
a NUMBER:=&a;
BEGIN
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a);
a:=a+1;
EXIT WHEN a>20;

115
 Relational Database END LOOP;
Management System
END;
(RDBMS)
While loop
The while loop statement associates a condition with a sequence of
statements enclosed by the keywords LOOP and END LOOP. The syntax of
the WHILE LOOP.
Syntax
While condition loop
Sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
Before each iteration of the loop, the condition is evaluated. If the
condition yields TRUE, the sequence of statements is executed and the control
resumes at the top of the loop. If the condition yields FALSE or NULL, the
loop is bypassed and control passes to the next statement after end loop. The
following example displays the total of the first 20 numbers using the WHILE
LOOP statement.
Example
DECLARE
X integer:=1;
Y integer:=0;
BEGIN
WHILE x < = 20
LOOP Y:=Y+x; X:=X+1;
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Y);
END;
In above example, the loop is executed only when the while condition
is satisfied.
FOR–LOOP
While the number of iterations for a WHILE loop is unknown until the
loop completes, the number of iterations for a FOR loop is known before the
loop is entered. FOR loops iterate over a specified range of integers. The range
is part of an iteration scheme, which is enclosed within the keywords FOR
and LOOPS. The syntax follows:
FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lower_bound..higher_bound LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
The range is evaluated when the FOR loop is first entered and is never
re–evaluated. As the next example shows, the sequence of statements is executed
once for each integer in the range. After each iteration, the loop counter is
incremented. The following example displays the reversal of a string:

116
 Example Control Statement &
Internal Function
DECLARE
S VARCHAR2(20):
='&s'; S1
VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
FOR I IN 1..LENGTH(S)
LOOP
S1:=S1||SUBSTR(S,–I,1);
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(s1);
END;
In the above example, a string is accepted. The number of iterations is
fixed by the length of the string. Each character in the string is extracted and
assigned to the variable S1. The variable is called a counter variable and it
cannot be assigned or declared.
Example
DECLARE
s VARCHAR2(20):
='&s'; s1
VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..LENGTH(s)

LOOP
s1:=s1||SUBSTR(s,– i,1);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The counter value is '||i);
END LOOP;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(s1); END;
This displays the value of the counter variable.
By default iteration proceeds upward from the lower bound to the higher
bound. However, the keyword REVERSE is used, iteration proceeds downward
from the higher bound to the lower bound, as the example given below shows.
After each iteration, the loop counter is decremented.
FOR i IN 1..3 LOOP -- assign the values 1,2,3 to i
sequence_of_statements; -- executes three times
END LOOP;
Never the less, the range bounds are to be written in ascending (not
descending) order. Inside a FOR loop, the loop counter can be referenced like
a constant. So, the loop counter can appear in expressions but it cannot be
assigned values, as the following example shows:
117
 Relational Database FOR ctr IN 1..10 LOOP
Management System
...
(RDBMS)
IF NOT finished THEN
INSERT INTO ... VALUES (ctr, ...); -- legal
factor := ctr * 2; -- legal
ELSE
ctr := 10; -- illegal
END IF;
END LOOP;
Iteration schemes
The bounds of a loop range can be literals, variables or expressions;
but they must evaluate to integers. For example, the following iteration schemes
are legal:
j IN –5..5
k IN REVERSE first..last
step IN 0..TRUNC(high/low) * 2
code IN ASCII('A')..ASCII('J')
LOOP LABELS
Like PL/SQL blocks, loops can be labeled. The label, an undeclared
identifier enclosed by double angle brackets, must appear at the beginning of
the loop statement, as follows:
<<label_name>>
LOOP
Sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
Optionally, the label name can also appear at the end of the loop
statement, as the following example shows:
<<my_loop>>
LOOP
….
END LOOP my_loop;
When labeled loops are nested, ending label names can be used to
improve readability. With either form of EXIT statement, not only the current
loop, but also any enclosing loops can be completed. This can be done by
labeling the enclosing loop that is to be completed. The label can then be used
in an EXIT statement, as follows

<<outer>>
LOOP
...
LOOP
...
118
 Exit outer WHEN... exit both loops Control Statement &
Internal Function
End Loop;
...
End Loop outer;
Every enclosing loop up to and including the labeled loop is exited.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Control Statements is the form of the IF statement.
a. Simplest b. Complex
2. statements are a set of statements that are performed a number
of times depending on the value in the LOOP statement.
a. Iterative b. Simple

9.4 Naming Convention :

The naming conventions apply to all PL/SQL program objects and units
including constants, variables, cursors, exceptions, procedures, functions, and
packages. Within the same scope, all declared identifiers must be unique. So,
even if their datatypes differ, variables and parameters cannot share the same
name.
In potentially ambiguous SQL statements, the names of local variables
and formal parameters take precedence over the names of database tables. For
example, the following SELECT statement fails because PL/SQL assumes that
emp refers to the formal parameter:
PROCEDURE calc_bonus (emp NUMBER, bonus OUT REAL) IS
avg_sal REAL;
...
BEGIN
SELECT AVG(sal) INTO avg_sal FROM emp WHERE ...
...
END;
In such cases, you can prefix the table name with a username, as follows:
PROECEDURE calc_bonus (emp NUMBER, bonus OUT REAL) IS
avg_sal REAL;
...
BEGIN
SELECT AVG(sal) INTO avg_sal FROM scott.emp WHERE ...
...
END;
The names of database columns take precedence over the names of local
variables and formal parameters. For example, the following DELETE statement
removes all employees from the emp table, not just KING, because ORACLE
assumes that both enames in the WHERE clause refer to the database column:

119
 Relational Database DECLARE
Management System
ename CHAR(10) := 'KING';
(RDBMS)
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename = ename;
...
END;
In such cases, to avoid ambiguity, prefix the names of local variables
and formal parameters with my_ as follows:
DECLARE
my_ename CHAR(10) := 'KING';
...
Or, use a block label to qualify references, as follows:
<<main>>
DECLARE
ename CHAR(10) := 'KING';
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename = main.ename;
…
END;
The next example shows that you can use a supprogram name to qualify
references to local variables and formal parameters:
PROCEDURE calc_bonus (empno NUMBER, bonus OUT REAL) IS
avg_sal REAL;
name CHAR(10);
job CHAR(15) := 'SALESMAN';
BEGIN
SELECT AVG(sal) INTO avg_sal FROM emp
WHERE job = calc_bonus.job; -- refers to local variable
SELECT ename INTO name FROM emp
WHERE empno = calc_bonus.empno; -- refers to parameter
…
END;
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. In potentially ambiguous SQL statements, the names of and
formal parameters take precedence over the names of database tables.
a. local variables b. Fixed
2. Within the same scope, all declared identifiers must be .
a. Unique b. Same

120
 9.5 Internal Function : Control Statement &
Internal Function
Internal functions also known as Supprograms are named PL/SQL blocks
that can take parameters and be invoked. PL/SQL has two types of supprograms
called procedures and functions. Generally, a procedure is used to perform an
action and a function to compute a value. Like unnamed or anonymous PL/
SQL blocks, supprograms have a declarative part, an executable part, and an
optional exception–handling part. The declarative part contains declarations of
types, cursors, constants, variables, exceptions, and nested supprograms.
These items are local and cease to exist when you exit the supprogram.
The executable part contains statements that assign values, control execution,
and manipulate Oracle data. The exception–handling part contains exception
handlers, which deal with exceptions raised during execution.
Advantages of Internal Functions / Supprograms :
Supprograms provide extensibility; that is, they let you tailor the PL/
SQL language to suit your needs. Supprograms also provide modularity; that
is, they let you break a program down into manageable, well–defined logic
modules. This supports top–down design and the stepwise refinement approach
to problem solving.
Also, supprograms promote reusability and maintainability. Once validated,
a supprogram can be used with confidence in any number of applications.
Furthermore, only the supprogram is affected if its definition changes. This
simplifies maintenance and enhancement.
Finally, supprograms aid abstraction, the mental separation from particulars.
To use supprograms, you must know what they do, not how they work.
Therefore, you can design applications from the top down without worrying
about implementation details. Dummy supprograms (stubs) allow you to defer
the definition of procedures and functions until you test and debug the main
program.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. provide extensibility; that is, they let you tailor the PL/SQL
language to suit your needs.
a. Supprograms b. Small programs
2. Supprograms provide ; that is, they let you tailor the PL/SQL
language to suit your needs.
a. Extensibility b. suitability
3. promote reusability and maintainability..
a. Supprograms b. Miniprograms
4. To use you must know what they do, not how they work.
a. supprograms, b. miniprograms

9.6 Let Us Sum Up :

In this chapter, detailed discussion was made on various decision control
statements like IF…THEN, IF..THEN..ELSE and IF..THEN..ELSEIF. Discussion
on various Looping statements used in PL/SQL like WHILE loop and FOR
loop. We also learnt internal function also called subprogram. Many of the
examples are given and discussed during discussions of various topics.
121
 Relational Database 9.7 Answers for Check Your Progress :
Management System
(RDBMS)  Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a

9.8 Glossary :
Loop Statement : While implementing logic in PL/SQL, we may require
to process a block of code repeatedly several times. This is achieved with the
help of LOOP statements.

9.9 Assignment :
Discuss various IF statement used in PL/SQL.

9.10 Activities :
Write a note on Naming Convention.

9.11 Case Study :

Discuss internal function of PL/SQL

9.12 Furthers Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. Fundamentals of Database Systems by Ramez Elmsari, Shamkant
B Navathe –Pearson Education
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.
6. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.

122
 Unit
10 STORED PROCEDURE

UNIT STRUCTURE
10.1 Learning Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Stored Procedure
10.3.1 Stored Procedure Types
10.3.2 SQL Stored Procedures
10.3.3 External Stored Procedure
10.3.4 Java Stored Procedures
10.3.5 Registering Stored Procedures
10.4 Overloading
10.5 Commit Statement
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.7 Answers for Check Your Progress
10.8 Glossary
10.9 Assignment
10.10 Activities
10.11 Case Study
10.12 Further Readings

10.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this block, you will be able to understand:
• The types of stored procedures
• The Create Procedure command
• Deleting or replacing a stored procedure
• Use of Commit Statement

10.1 Introduction :
A stored procedure is a combination of SQL statements and control and
condition handling statements that provides an interface to the Teradata
Database.The term stored procedure refers to a stored procedure you write with
SQL statements. The term external stored procedure refers to a stored procedure
you write in C, C++, or Java.A stored procedure is a database object executed
on the Teradata Database. Typically, a stored procedure consists of a procedure
name, input and output parameters, and a procedure body. See the next subsection
for information on the procedure body. Use the CREATE PROCEDURE statement
to define a stored procedure.
For details, see —CREATE/REPLACE PROCEDURE|| in SQL Data
Definition Language. For each stored procedure, the database includes a stored
procedure table that contains the stored procedure body you write and the
123
 Relational Database corresponding compiled stored procedure objectcode. Data dictionary tables
Management System contain stored procedure parameters and attributes.
(RDBMS)
10.3 Stored Procedure :
The invocation of a stored procedure is treated as a regular external call.
The application waits for the stored procedure to terminate, and parameters
can be passed back and forth. Stored procedures can be called locally (on the
same system where the application runs) and remotely on a different system.
However, stored procedures are particularly useful in a distributed environment
since they may considerably improve the performance of distributed applications
by reducing the traffic of information across the communication network.
For example, if a client application needs to perform several database
operations on a remote server, you can choose between issuing many different
database requests from the client siteand calling a stored procedure. In the first
case, you start a window with the remote system every time you issue a request.
If you call a stored procedure instead, only the call request and the
parameters flow on the line. In addition, the server system executes some of
the logic of your application with potential performance benefits at the client
site. Your programming productivity can be improved by using stored procedures
when you develop distributed applications. Stored procedures are the easiest
way to perform a remote call and to distribute the execution logic of application
program. Stored procedures can be used for many different application purposes
such as :
• Distributing the logic between a client and a server
• Performing a sequence of operations at a remote site
• Combining results of query functions at a remote site
• Controlling access to database objects
• Performing non–database functions
Let us look at a typical example where stored procedures can be effective.
A company runsits business on a server located at the headquarters and on
client systems located at every branch office. A user at a branch office is
working with an invoice clearance application, which has to update three tables
on the server :
• The invoice table is named INVOICE.
• The customer table is named CUSTOMER.
• The account receivable balance table is named ARBLNCE.
An invoice record is flagged with a —clearance|| marker, and after that
the corresponding CUSTOMER record is updated by deducting the invoice
amount from the current account receivable total amount. Finally, the account
receivable balance record must be updated as well. Figure 10.1 shows a
distributed application for the invoice clearance process that was implemented
without resorting to stored procedures. The client system has to access the server
database several times for every update event, sending and receiving data across
communication lines for every request. In addition, all the application logic
is implemented at the client site.

124
 Stored Procedure

Fig. 10.1 Distributed Applications Without Stored Procedures

Figure 10.2 shows how we can take advantage of stored procedures in
developing this application.

Fig. 10.2 Distributed Application With Stored Procedures

The same application functions can be carried out by calling a single
stored procedure that runs at the server site. The communications window is
greatly reduced, and the network resources are better balanced by splitting the
application logic.
Modularity in application development is also encouraged by using stored
procedures. This makes application maintenance easier and improves code
reusability. It is useful to compare stored procedures to other tools and techniques
for distributed application development such as DRDA SQL, DDM Submit
Remote Command (SBMRMTCMD), and triggers :

125
 Relational Database • With DRDA SQL, the application logic is fully implemented at the
Management System application requestersite. Stored procedures are the natural extension for
(RDBMS) DRDA applications, since they allow you to easily split the application
logic.
• The Submit Remote Command (SBMRMTCMD) command submits a CL
command using Distributed Data Management (DDM) support to run on
the target system. The SBMRMTCMD command allows a user at a client
system to perform some object management operations rather than running
remote applications. You may also want to submit user–written commands
or programs to run on the target system, but you face the following
restrictions:
The target (server) system cannot send any parameters to the source
(client) system. Only a generic return code is sent back to signal whether the
remote execution completed successfully.
Any changes in database tables made by the server application on the
server system cannot be committed or rolled back by the client application.
• Triggers are user–written programs associated with a table. Unlike stored
procedures, they are almost independent from applications because they
are automatically executed either before or after a database change. Stored
procedures need to be called explicitly by the SQL CALL statement.
Triggers receive from the database manager a standard parameter list,
which is input only, and they cannot pass any information back to the application
through the parameter list. Therefore, when the trigger ends abnormally, the
application must receive an error message or an SQLCODE and handle it. Stored
procedures can receive input/output parameters and use them to communicate
with the client application.
Triggers can be used to enforce business rules. Stored procedures are
used mainly to improve the performance of distributed applications and
productivity of application development. Stored procedures are capable of
returning result sets, which makes them very flexible and efficient in client/
server environments.
10.3.1 Stored Procedure Types :
There are two categories into which stored procedures can be divided:
• SQL stored procedures
• External stored procedures
10.3.2 SQL Stored Procedures :
SQL stored procedures are written in the SQL language. This makes it
easier to port stored procedures from other database management systems
(DBMS) to the iSeries server andfrom the iSeries server to other DBMS.
Implementation of the SQL stored procedures isbased on procedural SQL
standardized in SQL99.
10.3.3 External Stored Procedure :
An external stored procedure is written by the user in one of the
programming languages on the iSeries server. You can compile the host language
programs to create *PGM objects or Service Program. To create an external
stored procedure, the source code for the host language must be compiled so
126
that a program object is created. Then the CREATE PROCEDURE statement Stored Procedure
is used to tell the system where to find the program object that implements
this stored procedure. The stored procedure registered in the following example
returns the name of the supplier with the highest sales in a given month and
year. The procedure is implemented in ILE RPG with embedded SQL :
c+ CREATE PROCEDURE HSALE
c+ (IN YEAR INTEGER ,
c+ IN MONTH INTEGER ,
c+ OUT SUPPLIER_NAME CHAR(20) ,
c+ OUT HSALE DECIMAL(11,2))
c+ EXTERNAL NAME SPROCLIB.HSALES
c+ LANGUAGE RPGLE
c+ PARAMETER STYLE GENERAL
c/END_EXEC
The following SQL CALL statement calls the external stored procedure,
which returns a supplier name with the highest sales :
c/EXEC SQL
c+ CALL HSALE(:PARM1, :PARM2, :PARM3, :PARM4)
c/END–EXEC
An external stored procedure may contain no SQL statements. For example,
you may createa stored procedure that uses the native interface to access the
DB2 Universal Database for iSeries data.
10.3.4 Java Stored Procedures :
Java stored procedures were first introduced in the iSeries server starting
with V4R5, as a particular case of external stored procedures limited to not
being able to return result sets. Starting with V5R1, the support of result sets
was added to Java stored procedures. There is a growing interest in Java and
its portability across platform that makes Java stored procedures a very interesting
option to consider.
10.3.5 Registering Stored Procedures :
Before a stored procedure can be called by a client program, it must
be registered with the database using the DECLARE PROCEDURE or the
CREATE PROCEDURE statement. The stored procedure can also be defined
using either of these statements. The CREATE PROCEDURE statement differs
from the DECLARE PROCEDURE since it adds procedure and parameter
definitions to the system catalog tables (SYSROUTINES and SYSPARMS).This
way, a stored procedure becomes available for any client program running on
the local orthe remote system. Since the information about the stored procedure
is stored in the systemcatalog tables, the CREATE PROCEDURE needs to be
performed only once in the lifetime of a stored procedure. Use the DROP
PROCEDURE statement to delete the stored procedure Catalog information
entry. The DECLARE PROCEDURE statement is not frequently used. It is
mainly for temporary registration of stored procedures.

127
 Relational Database  Create Procedure :
Management System
The CREATE PROCEDURE statement can be used to create any of the
(RDBMS)
two types of stored procedures. This statement can be issued interactively, or
it can be embedded in an application program. After a procedure is registered,
it can be called from any interface supporting the SQL CALL statement.
During stored procedure creation, you can control characteristics that
affect the way the stored procedure is identified in DB2 Universal Database
for iSeries or its behavior. This section explains some of them.
 SPECIFIC Specific–Name :
DB2 Universal Database for iSeries identifies each stored procedure with
a specific name that, combined with the specific schema, must be unique in
the system. This gains importance because multiple stored procedures with the
same name but different signatures must have different specific names.If you
do not provide a specific name, DB2 Universal Database for iSeries generates
one automatically. If the SQL procedure name is longer than 10 characters,
this name can be used to specify the C program name instead of having DB2
enerate one automatically, as shown in the following example:
CREATE PROCEDURE SAMPLE.ALLOCATECOSTS(...)
...
SPECIFIC ALLOCATECOSTS_3PARMS
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1 The invocation of a is treated as a regular external call.
a. stored procedure b. create procedure
2. The client system has to access the server database for every
update event.
a. several times b. once
3. can be used to enforce business rules.
a. Triggers b. Guns
4. procedures are used mainly to improve the performance of
distributed applications and productivity of application development.
a. Stored b. saved
5. An external stored procedure is written by the user in one of the
programming languages on the server..
a. iSeries b. SQL

10.4 Overloading :
Postgre SQL considers functions to be distinct if they have different
names, if they have adifferent number of parameters, or if their parameters
have different types. We can create further add_one functions that deal with
different types if we wish. Consider what happens when we use our add_one
function on a floating–point value :

128
 bpfinal=# SELECT add_one(3.1); Stored Procedure
ERROR : function add_one(numeric) does not exist
HINT : No function matches the given name and argument types. You
may need to add explicit type casts.
bpfinal=#
Postgre SQL returns an error, because it could not locate a version of
the add_one function that takes a floating–point value as its parameter.
Note : Earlier versions of Postgre SQL would have executed this add_one
function by automatically converting the floating–point value to an integer. The
value 3.1 would have been rounded down to 3, and the function would have
returned 4.
If we wish to have an increment function for floating–point numbers,
we just need to create another definition of add_one :
bpfinal=# CREATE FUNCTION
bpfinal–# add_one(float8)RETURNS float8
bpfinal–# AS =
bpfinal'# BEGIN
bpfinal'# RETURN $1 + 1;
bpfinal'# END;
bpfinal'# =
bpfinal–# LANGUAGE =plpgsql';
CREATE FUNCTION
bpfinal=# SELECT add_one(3.1);
add_one
--------
4.1
(1 row)
bpfinal=#
This time, we get the result we want because Postgre SQL can find and
execute an appropriate version of the add_one function. This behavior, known
as function over loading, can be quite useful, but also fairly confusing. To
keep the functions distinct, we must refer to them in a way that indicates their
parameters. In this case, we have two functions that we can refer toas
add_one(int4) and add_one(float8).
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. considers functions to be distinct if they have different names.
a. PostgreSQL b. MSQL
2. We can create further functions that deal with different types
if we wish.
a. add_one b. many

129
 Relational Database 10.5 Commit Statement :
Management System
(RDBMS) As a SQL language we use transaction control language very frequently.
Committing a transaction means making permanent the changes performed by
the SQL statements with in the transaction. A transaction is a sequence of SQL
statements that Oracle Database treats as a single unit. This statement also erases
all save points in the transaction and releases transaction locks.
Oracle Database issues an implicit COMMIT before and after any data
definition language (DDL) statement. Oracle recommends that you explicitly
end every transaction in your application programs with a COMMIT or
ROLLBACK statement, including the last transaction, before disconnecting
from Oracle Database. If you do not explicitly commit the transaction and the
program terminates abnormally, then the last uncommitted transaction is
automatically rolled back.
 Until you Commit a Transaction :
• You can see any changes you have made during the transaction by
querying the modified tables, but other users cannot see the changes.
After you commit the transaction, the changes are visible to other users'
statements that execute after the commit
• You can roll back (undo) any changes made during the transaction with
the ROLLBACK statement
Note : Most of the people think that when we type commit data or
changes of what you have made has been written to data files, but this is wrong
when you type commit it means that you are saying that your job has been
completed and respective verification will be done by oracle engine that means
it checks whether your transaction achieved consistency when it finds ok it
sends a commit message to the user from log buffer but not from data buffer,
so after writing data in log buffer it insists data buffer to write data in to
data files, this is how it works.
Before a transaction that modifies data is committed, the following has
occurred :
• Oracle has generated undo information. The undo information contains
the old data values changed by the SQL statements of the transaction
• Oracle has generated redo log entries in the redo log buffer of the System
Global Area (SGA). The redo log record contains the change to the
datablock and the change to the rollback block. These changes may go
to disk before a transaction is committed
• The changes have been made to the database buffers of the SGA. These
changes may go to disk before a transaction is committed.
Note : The data changes for a committed transaction, stored in the
database buffers of the SGA, are not necessarily written immediately to the
data files by the database writer (DBWn) background process. This writing
takes place when it is most efficient for the database to do so. It can happen
before the transaction commits or, alternatively, it can happen some times after
the transaction commits.

130
 When a transaction is committed, the following occurs : Stored Procedure
1. The internal transaction table for the associated undo table space records
that the transaction has committed, and the corresponding unique system
change number (SCN) of the transaction is assigned and recorded in the
table
2. The log writer process (LGWR) writes redo log entries in the SGA's
redo log buffers to the redo log file. It also writes the transaction's SCN
to the redo log file. This atomic event constitutes the commit of the
transaction
3. Oracle releases locks held on rows and tables
4. Oracle marks the transaction complete
The syntax of Commit Statement is
COMMIT [WORK] [COMMENT byour comment'];
WORK is optional.
The WORK keyword is supported for compliance with standard SQL.
The statements COMMIT and COMMIT WORK are equivalent.
Examples
Committing an Insert
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (val1, val2);
COMMIT WORK;
COMMENT
Comment is also optional. This clause is supported for backward
compatibility. Oracle recommends that you used named transactions instead of
commit comments. Specify a comment to be associated with the current
transaction. The =text' is a quoted literal of up to 255 bytes that Oracle Database
stores in the data dictionary view DBA_2PC_PENDING along with the transaction
ID if a distributed transaction becomes in doubt. This comment can help you
diagnose the failure of a distributed transaction.
Examples
The following statement commits the current transaction and associates
a comment with it :
COMMIT
COMMENT =In–doubt transaction Code 36, Call (415) 555–2637';
 WRITE Clause :
Use this clause to specify the priority with which the redo information
generated by the commit operation is written to the redo log. This clause can
improve performance by reducing latency, thus eliminating the wait for an
I/O to the redo log. Use this clause to improve response time in environments
with stringent response time requirements where the following conditions
apply :
The volume of update transactions is large, requiring that the redo log
be written to disk frequently. The application can tolerate the loss of an a
synchronously committed transaction.

131
 Relational Database The latency contributed by waiting for the redo log write to occur
Management System contributes significantly to overall response time.
(RDBMS)
You can specify the WAIT | NOWAIT and IMMEDIATE | BATCH clauses
in any order.
Examples
To commit the same insert operation and instruct the database to buffer
the change to the redo log, without initiating disk I/O, use the following
COMMIT statement :
COMMIT WRITE BATCH;
Note : If you omit this clause, then the behavior of the commit operation
is controlled by the COMMIT_WRITE initialization parameter, if it has been
set. The default value of the parameter is the same as the default for this clause.
Therefore, if the parameter has not been set and you omit this clause, then
commit records are written to disk before control is returned to the user.
WAIT | NOWAIT Use these clauses to specify when control returns to
the user.
The WAIT parameter ensures that the commit will return only after the
corresponding redo is persistent in the online redo log. Whether in BATCH
or IMMEDIATE mode, when the client receives a successful return from this
COMMIT statement, the transaction has been committed to durable media. A
crash occurring after a successful write to the log can prevent the success
message from returning to the client. In this case the client cannot tell whether
or not the transaction committed.
The NOWAIT parameter causes the commit to return to the client whether
or not the write to the redo log has completed. This behavior can increase
transaction through put. With the WAIT parameter, if the commit message is
received, then you can be sure that no data has been lost.
Caution :
With NOWAIT, a crash occurring after the commit message is received,
but before the redo log record(s) are written can falsely indicate to a transaction
that its changes are persistent. If you omit this clause, then the transaction
commits with the WAIT behavior.
IMMEDIATE | BATCH Use these clauses to specify when the redo is
written to the log.
The IMMEDIATE parameter causes the log writer process (LGWR) to
write the transaction's redo information to the log. This operation option forces
a disk I/O, so it can reduce transaction through put.
The BATCH parameter causes the redo to be buffered to the redo log,
along with other concurrently executing transactions. When sufficient redo
information is collected, a disk write of the redo log is initiated. This behavior
is called —group commit||, as redo for multiple transactions is written to the
log in a single I/O operation.
If you omit this clause, then the transaction commits with the IMMEDIATE
behavior.

132
 FORCE Clause Stored Procedure
Use this clause to manually commit an in–doubt distributed transaction
or a corrupt transaction.
In a distributed database system, the FORCE string [,integer] clause lets
you manually commit an in–doubt distributed transaction. The transaction is
identified by the =string' containing its local or global transaction ID. To find
the IDs of such transactions, query the data dictionary view DBA_2PC_PENDING.
You can use integer to specifically assign the transaction a system change
number (SCN). If you omit integer, then the transaction is committed using
the current SCN.
The FORCE CORRUPT_XID =string' clause lets you manually commit
a single corrupt transaction, where string is the ID of the corrupt transaction.
Query the V$CORRUPT_XID_LIST data dictionary view to find the transaction
IDs of corrupt transactions. You must have DBA privileges to view the
V$CORRUPT_XID_LIST and to specify this clause.
Specify FORCE CORRUPT_XID_ALL to manually commit all corrupt
transactions. You must have DBA privileges to specify this clause.
Examples
Forcing an in doubt transaction. Example The following statement manually
commits a hypothetical in–doubt distributed transaction. Query the
V$CORRUPT_XID_LIST data dictionary view to find the transaction IDs of
corrupt transactions. You must have DBA privileges to view the V$CORRUPT_
XID_LIST and to issue this statement.
COMMIT FORCE =22.57.53';
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. As a SQL language we use control language very frequently..
a. Transaction b. Function
2. A is a sequence of SQL statements that Oracle Database treats
as a single unit.
a. Transaction b. function
3. The parameter causes the commit to return to the client
whether or not the write to the redo log has completed.
a. NOWAIT b. IMMEDIATE
4. The parameter causes the log writer process (LGWR) to write
the transaction's redo information to the log.
a. IMMEDIATE b. NOWAIT
5. The parameter causes the redo to be buffered to the redo log,
along with other concurrently executing transactions.
a. BATCH b. NOWAIT

10.6 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit, we have learnt so much about the stored procedure and
functions; we learnt that stored procedure and functions are sub programs stored
in database. Functions return a single value whereas procedure doesn't return
any value. Stored procedures have important advantages such as improving
performance, making maintenance and security implementation easy.
133
 Relational Database We learnt that Oracle allows parameters of three types – in, out, and
Management System in out.
(RDBMS)
OUT and IN OUT parameters are used to return values back to calling
program.
They can be passed by either value (default) or by reference using
NOCOPY hint.
We even learnt that Procedures are executed under privileges of owner
of the procedure. However, it is possible to execute procedure with the privileges
of invoker using AUTHID CURRENT_USER option of CREATE PROCEDURE
command. Standard procedure RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is used to raise
an application error with the given error number and message.

10.7 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a

10.8 Glossary :
Committing a Transaction : It means making permanent the changes
performed y the SQL statements within the transaction.

10.9 Assignment :
1. Discuss the stored procedures and also tell about their purposes.
2. Discuss the types of stored procedures.

10.10 Activities :
1. Discuss the procedure of creating procedures.
2. Discuss registering stored procedures.

10.11 Case Study :

Explain commit statement.

10.12 Furthers Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. Fundamentals of Database Systems by Ramez Elmsari, Shamkant B
Navathe –Pearson Education
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.
6. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.
134
 Unit
DATABSE TRIGGER &
11 PACKAGES
UNIT STRUCTURE
11.1 Learning Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Database Trigger
11.4 Creation of Database Trigger
11.5 Implementation of trigger
11.6 Package Creation
11.7 Package subprogram
11.8 Let Us Sum Up
11.9 Answers for Check Your Progress
11.10 Glossary
11.11 Assignment
11.12 Activities
11.13 Case Study
11.14 Further Readings

11.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Database triggers and their use
• Create database triggers
• Database trigger firing rules
• How to Remove database triggers
• How to create Package

11.1 Introduction :
In our stored procedure example, we developed a function that would
allow us to discover which products required restocking. The function wrote
reminder messages into a reorders table. For this to be useful, we would need
to ensure that this procedure is executed on a regular basis, perhaps once a
day during an overnight batch process. It might be an advantage to find a way
of automatically making sure the reorders table is always up–to–date, without
needing to program our client applications to keep updating the entries.
In our earlier discussion, we mentioned the concept of referential integrity–
ensuring that the data in our database makes sense at all times. For example,
if we delete a customer, we need to ensure that all of the order history relating
to that customer is deleted at the same time. We have seen constraints used
to ensure that Postgre SQL enforces this kind of integrity. For some applications,
constraints are not quite enough. Suppose we want to prevent the deletion of
a customer when there are still outstanding orders for that customer, but allow
the deletion if all orders have been shipped.
135
 Relational Database Earlier we saw how column–level and table–level constraints could be
Management System used to enforce more complex rules of data integrity, but these rules were
(RDBMS) essentially static. We could specify that a related row must exist, or enforce
a rule that you cannot delete while related rows exist.
However, we had no way of specifying complex conditions, such as that
a row must not exist unless some other condition is also true. Nor could we
carry out more complex user–defined actions when rows were added or deleted.
One solution to these problems is the use of triggers. With a trigger,
we can arrange for Postgre SQL to execute a stored procedure when certain
actions are taken, like an INSERT, DELETE, or UPDATE in a table.
The combination of stored procedures and triggers gives us the power
to enforce quite sophisticated business rules directly in the database. As discussed
earlier, that the best place for enforcing business rules about the data is in
the database. To use a trigger, we need to first define a trigger procedure. Then
we create the trigger itself, which defines when the trigger procedure will be
executed.

11.3 Database Trigger :

A database trigger is a stored PL/SQL block that is associated with a
table. Triggers are automatically executed when a specified SQL statement is
issued against the table. Triggers are mainly used for the following purposes :
• To automatically generate values
• To provide auditing.
• To prevent invalid transactions.
• To check for complex integrity constraints that cannot be given in
Constraints.
• To maintain replicate tables.
Triggers contain PL/SQL constructs and they can be fired only for DML
Statements like INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE. Triggers are event based.
Parts of a Trigger
A Trigger contains 3 parts. They are
• Triggering event or statement
• Trigger Restriction
• Trigger Action
Triggering Event or Statement
It is a SQL statement that causes the trigger to be fired. The valid
statements are the DML statements – Insert, Update or Delete. Additionally,
trigger can be made to be fired when a particular column is updated. Also
it can contain multiple DML statements.
Triggering Restriction
This is a Boolean expression which must be TRUE for the trigger to
be fired.
Trigger Action
This is a procedure containing SQL and PL/SQL statements to be executed
when a triggering statement is issued and also the triggering restriction is true.
136
 Types of Triggers Databse Trigger &
Packages
Triggers are classified into different types depending on when the trigger
is to be fired.
They are :
• BEFORE
• AFTER
• INSTEAD OF (dealt later in this chapter)
BEFORE / AFTER
The BEFORE option of a trigger is used to specify when the trigger
must be fired. If the option BEFORE is chosen, the trigger is fired before
the triggering statement is executed. In the case of AFTER, the trigger is fired
after executing the statement.
When to Use Before and After
BEFORE
Before triggers are used when the triggering action determines whether
the triggering statement must be allowed to be completed or not. This eliminates
un–necessary processing of the triggering statement. Before triggers can also
be used to derive specific column values before completing an Insert or Update
statement ?
AFTER
This trigger is executed after the trigger statement is issued. It is used
when the trigger statement has to be completed before the trigger action. If
a Before Trigger is already present, an after trigger can be used to perform
different actions on the same statement. Based on how many records are to
be affected by the triggers, triggers can be classified as;
• Row Level
• Statement Level
Row Level Triggers
These types of triggers are fired for each row that is affected by the
triggering statement. For example, UPDATE statement for multiple rows of a
table. In this case, the ROW level triggers are executed for every row that
is affected by the UPDATE statement.
Statement Level Triggers
This trigger is fired once on behalf of the triggering statement regardless
of the number of rows in the table that the triggering statement affects. Based
on the combinations of the above, there are twelve types of triggers that can
be written on a table.
Statement Level Row Level
Before Insert Before Insert
Before Update Before Update
Before Delete Before Delete
After Insert After Insert
After Update After Update
After Delete After Delete
137
 Relational Database  Check Your Progress – 1 :
Management System
1. A is a stored PL/SQL block that is associated with a table.
(RDBMS)
a. Database Trigger b. Stored Programs
2. It is a that causes the trigger to be fired.
a. SQL Statement b. Database
3. The option of a trigger is used to specify when the trigger
must be fired.
a. Before b. After
4. trigger is executed after the trigger statement is issued.
a. After b. before
5. is fired once on behalf of the triggering statement regardless
of the number of rows in the table that the triggering statement affects.
a. Statement Level b. Program Level

11.4 Creation of Database Trigger :

Triggers are created using CREATE TRIGGER statement. The name of
the trigger must be unique with respect to other triggers in the same schema.
The syntax for creating the trigger is :
Syntax:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER <triggername> [BEFORE/AFTER]
[INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE] ON <tablename> [FOR EACH ROW]
[WHEN <condition>]
The following example creates a simple trigger.
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER instremp BEFORE INSERT ON emp
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(?Inserting Record');
END;
/
The trigger gets created.
When an Insert statement is issued, the output will look like :
INSERT INTO emp (empno,ename,deptno) VALUES (1,'Giri',10);
This would display
Inserting Record
1 row created.
In the above example, the triggering statement is
BEFORE INSERT ON emp
Hence the message =Inseting record is displayed before the row is created
There is no trigger restriction the body or action of the trigger starts
from the Begin statement.

138
 Example Databse Trigger &
Packages
This trigger displays the total number of records available in the table
if insertion is done.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER INSTR1 BEFORE INSERT ON EMP
DECLARE
T NUMBER; BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO X FROM EMP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(X+1 ||' NUMBER OF RECORDS ARE
AVAILABLE');
END;
While insertion is done, the output will look like :
insert into emp(empno,ename,deptno) values(12,'hari',30); 15 number of
records are available
Before insertion the total records were 14. After insertion the total records
increases to 15.
Note here, there is an explicit DECLARE statement and no IS/AS is
specfiied. If a trigger containsany variable, DECLARE must be specified.
The trigger execution is performed in the following ways :
• All the Before statement triggers are executed.
• The Before Row Level triggers are executed.
• After Row Level triggers are executed.
• After Statement triggers are executed that apply to the statement.
Accessing Column Values
When a trigger action or the trigger body contains statements that require
access to the table values or for checking the new value with the old value,
two correlation names are used :
:new and :old. :new refers to the new values entered in the trigger
statement and :old refers to the old existing value in the table. These are also
called as pseudo records since they do not contain any permanent record. Also
these can be given only for row–level triggers. The following table illustrates
the values held by these with respect to the DML operations.
Statement :new :old
Insert New values entered in the Null
Update Insert command Old values available
New values entered in in the table
Update statement
Delete Null Old values in the table
They are available for both before and after triggers.
Example
This example uses the: new and displays the newly inserted record.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER INSTR2 AFTER INSERT ON DEPT
FOR EACH ROW

139
 Relational Database BEGIN
Management System
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(:NEW.DEPTNO||' =||:NEW.DNAME||'
(RDBMS)
=||:NEW.LOC);
END;
The output will look like :
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(12,'SALES','CHENNAI');
12 SALES CHENNAI
1 row created.
The following example checks for the dept no availability in the dept
table. If the corresponding dept no is not available in the table it displays a
message as shown in the following example.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER CHKDEPTNO BEFORE UPDATE
OF DEPTNO ON EMP FOR EACH
ROW
DECLARE
OLD_DNO NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT DEPTNO INTO OLD_DNO FROM DEPT WHERE
DEPTNO=:NEW.DEPTNO;
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(?DEPTNO NOT AVAILABLE');
END;
The output of the program
UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=34 WHERE EMPNO=7900;
DEPTNO NOT AVAILABLE
1 row updated.
Using Referencing Option
The Referencing option can be specified in a trigger body of a row trigger
to avoid name conflicts among the correlation names and tables that might
be named.
Using Conditional Predicates
If more than one type of DML operation can fire a trigger, all the
operations can be placed inside a single trigger each differentiated by what
are called conditional predicates.
For referring to Insert operation, INSERTING is used, for Delete operation,
DELETING and for update operation, UPDATING predicates are used. These
are Boolean values which return TRUE only when the statement that fired a
trigger is any one of DML statements. The syntax is given below :
IF INSERTING THEN…..
ELSIF UPDATING THEN …..

140
 ELSIF DELETING THEN ….. Databse Trigger &
Packages
END IF;
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER prdtrig AFTER INSERT OR UPDATE
OR DELETE ON
product
BEGIN
IF INSERTING THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Inserting operation');
ELSIF UPDATING THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Updating operation');
ELSIF DELETING THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Deleting operation');
END IF;
END;
Using Raise_Application_Error
As we have already seen in exceptions, Raise_Application_Error terminates
the operation abruptly and comes to the SQL prompt. Now, consider a situation
such that, a record gets inserted and the trigger based on that causes another
insert on another table.
For example consider the following trigger. This trigger checks for the
job and the corresponding salary in the table. If there is any violation, it reports
to the user.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER CHKSALJOB AFTER INSERT ON
EMP FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF NOT(:NEW.JOB=?MANAGER' AND (:NEW.SAL > 4000 AND
:NEW.SAL <6000))
THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(?Limit for Manager is between 4000 and
6000');
END IF;
END;
The trigger gets created. When a record is inserted on to the table EMP
which violates the condition the message is displayed as
INSERT INTO emp (empno,ename,deptno,mgr,job,sal) VALUES
(1234,'ARUN',20,7902,'MANAGER',8000); Limit for Manager is between
4000 and 6000
1 row created.
Even though the message is displayed, still this does not stop the record
from being inserted.

141
 Relational Database Now let us try to raise this as an exception with RAISE statement and
Management System the code is re–written as follows :
(RDBMS)
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER CHKSAL JOB AFTER INSERT ON
EMP FOR EACH ROW
DECLARE
raise_ex EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF NOT(:NEW.JOB==MANAGER' AND (:NEW.SAL > 4000 AND
:NEW.SAL <6000))
THEN
RAISE raise_ex;
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN RAISE_EX THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Limit for Manager is between 4000 and
6000');
END;
The trigger is created.
After this, when the insert statement is issued,
INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,deptno,mgr,job,sal) VALUES
(1234,'ARUN',20,7902,'MANAGER',8000);
Limit for Manager is between 4000 and 6000
1 row created.
Even this does not stop from inserting the record onto the table.
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is used to perform this operation. The
following example does not insert record into the table if the condition is not
satisfied.
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER CHKSAL JOB AFTER INSERT ON
EMP FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF NOT(:NEW.JOB=?MANAGER' AND (:NEW.SAL > 4000 AND
:NEW.SAL <6000))
THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(–20000,'MANAGER SALARY
CANNOT EXCEED 8000 AND CANNOT BE LESS THAN 4000');
END IF;
END;
The output when record is inserted is :
INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,deptno,mgr,job,sal) VALUES
(1234,'ARUN',20,7902,'MANAGER',8000);

142
 INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,deptno,mgr,job,sal) VALUES Databse Trigger &
Packages
(1234,'ARUN',20,7902,'MANAGER',8000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA–20000: Manager Salary cannot exceed 8000 and cannot be less
than
4000
ORA–06512: at —HEMA.CHKSALJOB||, line 4
ORA–04088: error during execution of trigger =HEMA.CHKSALJOB'
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. Triggers are created using statement.
a. CREATE TRIGGER b. START TRIGGER
2. displays the total number of records available in the table if
insertion is done.
a. Trigger b. Funciton
3. The option can be specified in a trigger body of a row trigger
to avoid name conflicts among the correlation names and tables that might
be named.
a. Referencing b. Trigger
4. terminates the operation a?ruptly and comes to the SQL
prompt.
a. Raise_Application_Error b. Application_Error

11.5 Implementing Trigger :

Enabling and Disabling Triggers
By default, all triggers are automatically enabled when Theyare created.
However, they can be disabled. Once a task is completed, the trigger can be
re–enabled. Enabling and Disabling triggers are performed using enable and
disable keywords.
Syntax:
ALTER TRIGGER <triggername> ENABLE|DISABLE; Example:
ALTER TRIGGER empdel DISABLE;
For a particular table, all triggers can be enabled using a single command.
ALTER TABLE <tablename> DISABLE ALL TRIGGERS;
Dropping Triggers
Triggers are dropped using the Drop Trigger Command. The syntax
follows :
Syntax:
RDBMS Concepts and Oracle 8i
346
DROP TRIGGER <triggername>;

143
 Relational Database Example:
Management System
DROP TRIGGER chkprod;
(RDBMS)
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. By default, all triggers are automatically when they are created.
a. enabled b. disabled

11.6 Package Creation :

A package is a schema object that groups logically related PL/SQL types,
items, and supprograms. Packages usually have two parts, a specification and
a body, although sometimes the body is unnecessary. The specification is the
interface to your applications; it declares the types, variables and constants
exceptions, cursors, and supprograms available for use. The body fully defines
cursors and supprograms, and so implements the specification. A package once
compiled and stored, gets life in a session when any of the components of
the package is referred in the session. Then onwards, the variables, arrays,
cursors or supprograms defined in the package are allocated and loaded in the
memory for that session and any change that is done to the components are
live for the whole session across operations and across all the supprograms
and triggers. This is unlike a supprogram where the variables have effect only
inside the supprogram and not across programs in the session.
Unlike supprograms, packages cannot be called, parameterized, or nested.
Still, the format of a package is similar to that of a supprogram as shown
below. CREATE PACKAGE name AS -- specification (visible part)
-- public type and item declarations
-- supprogram specifications
END [name];
CREATE PACKAGE BODY name AS -- body (hidden part)
-- private type and item declarations
-- supprogram bodies
[BEGIN
-- initialization statements]
END [name];
The specification holds public declarations, which are visible to the
application. The body holds implementation details and private declarations,
which are hidden from the application. This concept is very useful when
modular applications are build which would enable a server centric application
with all the application related programs and variables stored as part of the
package.

Fig. 11.1 Pakage Creation

144
 You can debug, enhance, or replace a package body without changing Databse Trigger &
the interface (package specification) to the package body. Packages

To create packages and store them permanently in an Oracle database,

CREATE PACKAGE and CREATE PACKAGE BODY statements are used.
These statements can be executed interactively from SQL*Plus or Enterprise
Manager.
In the example given below, you package a record type, a cursor, and
two employment procedures are packaged. Notice that the procedure
hire_employee uses the database sequence empno_seq and the function SYSDATE
to insert a new employee number and hire date, respectively.
CREATE PACKAGE emp_actions AS – specification
PROCEDURE hire_employee (
ename VARCHAR2,
job VARCHAR2,
mgr NUMBER,
sal NUMBER,
comm NUMBER,
deptno NUMBER);
PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER);
END emp_actions;
CREATE PACKAGE BODY emp_actions AS -- body
PROCEDURE hire_employee (
ename VARCHAR2,
job VARCHAR2,
mgr NUMBER,
sal NUMBER,
comm NUMBER,
deptno NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO emp VALUES (empno_seq.NEXTVAL, ename, job,
mgr, SYSDATE, sal, comm, deptno);
END hire_employee;
PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_id;

END fire_employee;
END emp_actions;

145
 Relational Database This package creates two procedures called hire_employee and
Management System fire_employee. The two procedures can be executed in the following way :
(RDBMS)
EXEC
EMP_ACTIONS.HIRE_EMPLOYEE('SUDHA','MANAGER',7902,10000,200,10);
EXEC EMP_ACTIONS.FIRE_EMPLOYEE(2);
Only the declarations in the package specification are visible and accessible
to applications.
Implementation details in the package body are hidden and inaccessible.
So, the body (implementation) can be changed without having to recompile
the calling programs.
Advantages of Packages
Packages offer several advantages: modularity, easier application design,
information hiding, added functionality, and better performance.
Modularity
Packages logically related types, items, and supprograms in a named PL/
SQL module to be encapsulated. Each package is easy to understand, and the
interfaces between packages are simple, clear, and well defined. This aids
application development.
Easier Application Design
When designing an application, all that is needed initially is the interface
information in the package specifications. A specification can be coded and
compiled without its body. Then, stored supprograms that reference the package
can be compiled as well. The package bodies fully until the user is ready to
complete the application.
Information Hiding
With packages, you can specify which types, items, and supprograms
are public (visible and accessible) or private (hidden and inaccessible). For
example, if a package contains four supprograms, three might be public and
one private. The package hides the definition of the private supprogram so
that only the package (not your application) is affected if the definition changes.
This simplifies maintenance and enhancement. Also, by hiding implementation
details from users, you protect the integrity of the package.
Added Functionality
Packaged public variables and cursors persist for the duration of a session.
So, they can be shared by all supprograms that execute in the environment.
Also, they allow data to be maintained across transactions without having to
store it in the database.
Better Performance
When a packaged supprogram is called for the first time, the whole
package is loaded into memory. So, later calls to related supprograms in the
package require no disk I/O. Also, packages stop cascading dependencies and
so avoid unnecessary recompiling. For example, if the definition of a packaged
function is changed. Oracle need not recompile the calling supprograms because
they do not depend on the package body.

146
 Check Your Progress – 4 : Databse Trigger &
Packages
1. A is a schema object that groups logically related PL/SQL
types, items, and supprograms.
a. Package b. Program
2. The specification holds public declarations, which are visible to the
.
a. Application b. Package
3. To create packages and store them permanently in an Oracle database,
and CREATE PACKAGE BODY statements are used.
a. CREATE PACKAGE b. TART PACKAGE
4. details in the package body are hidden and inaccessible.
a. Implementation b. Application
5. logically related types, items, and supprograms in a named
PL/SQL module to be encapsulated.
a. Packages b. Program

11.7 Package Subprogram :

A supprogram is a program unit/module that performs a particular task.
These supprograms are combined to form larger programs. This is basically
called the 'Modular design'. A supprogram can be invoked by another supprogram
or program which is called the calling program.
A supprogram can be created:
• At schema level
• Inside a package
• Inside a PL/SQL block
A schema level supprogram is a standalone supprogram. It is created
with the CREATE PROCEDURE or CREATE FUNCTION statement. It is
stored in the database and can be deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE or
DROP FUNCTION statement.
A supprogram created inside a package is a packaged supprogram. It is
stored in the database and can be deleted only when the package is deleted
with the DROP PACKAGE statement. We will discuss packages in the chapter
'PL/SQL – Packages'.
PL/SQL supprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can be invoked with
a set of parameters. PL/SQL provides two kinds of supprograms:
• Functions : these supprograms return a single value, mainly used to
compute and return a value.
• Procedures : these supprograms do not return a value directly, mainly
used to perform an action.
 Check Your Progress – 5 :
1. A is a program unit/module that performs a particular task.
a. Supprogram b. Sub module

147
 Relational Database 2. A supprogram can be invoked by another supprogram or program which
Management System is called the .
(RDBMS)
a. calling program b. second program
3. A level supprogram is a stand alone supprogram.
a. Schema b. Second
4. PL/SQL supprograms are named PL/SQL that can be invoked
with a set of parameters.
a. Blocks b. Programs
5. PL/SQL provides kinds of supprograms.
a. Two b. Four

11.8 Let Us Sum Up :

In this chapter, detailed discussion was made PL/SQL procedures,
supprograms, and the structures associated with this procedural language extension
to the Oracle database. You also saw a sample SQL script for building a
packaged procedure.
Triggers are set of supprograms that are automatically executed whenever
a DML statement is issued on a particular table. They are used to automatically
generate values, prevent invalid transactions and so on.
Triggers contain 3 parts :
• Triggering Event
• Restriction
• Action
There are 12 types of triggers.
Triggers are created using CREATE TRIGGER statement.
Instead of Triggers are used for Views which contain Joins.
Triggers can be enabled, disabled or dropped.
In this chapter, detailed discussion was made PL/SQL procedures,
supprograms, and the structures associated with this procedural language extension
to the Oracle database. You also saw a sample SQL script for building a
packaged procedure.

11.9 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a
 Check Your Progress 4 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 5 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
148
 11.10 Glossary : Databse Trigger &
Packages
Triggers : They are set of supprograms that are automatically executed.

11.11 Assignment :
1. What do you understand by database triggers ?
2. Discuss the purpose of database triggers.
3. Discuss Package creation.
4. Write a note on package supprograms

11.12 Activities :
1. Discuss the parts of triggers.
2. Discuss the before and after option in triggers.

11.13 Case Study :

Discuss the process of creating triggers.

11.14 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication.
3. Fundamentals of Database Systems by Ramez Elmsari, Shamkant B
Navathe – Pearson Education
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication.
6. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

149
 Relational Database BLOCK SUMMARY :
Management System
(RDBMS) PL/SQL programming is the topic of this chapter. The subject areas of
PL/SQL that were discussed include overview of PL/SQL, modular coding
practices, developing PL/SQL blocks, interacting with Oracle, controlling process
flow with conditional statements and loops, cursors, and error handling.
PL/SQL is the best method available for writing and managing stored procedures
that work with Oracle data. PL/SQL code consists of three su?blocks–the
declaration section, the executable section, and the exception handler. In addition,
PL/SQL can be used in four different programming constructs. The types are
procedures and functions, packages, and triggers. Procedures and functions are
similar in that they both contain a series of instructions that PL/SQL will
execute. However, the main difference is that a function will always return
one and only one value.

In this block, we have learnt about Store procedure. This portion provided
an overview of the above topic with the help of various examples.

This block gave the student's a basic idea of what store procedure are.
Various functions and commands have been discussed here in this block in
a very brief and interesting way. The writer tried his best to concise the topics
using the most easy language to help the student to understand the topic. The
aim of this block was to enable the reader understand the basic concepts of
these topcis. The writer tried his best to detail the store procedure have even
been discussed by him in detail.

The objective of this block includes detailing the student's about the
various above mentioned topics in very detail with the help of sufficient and
suitable examples.

150
 BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :
Write short notes on :
1. Variables
2. Constants
3. Data types and Arrays
4. Control Statements
5. Overloading
6. Commit statement
7. Package Creation

 Long Questions :
1. Discuss the control statements in detail with example.
2. What do you understand by internal functions ?
3. Discuss the naming conventions.
4. What do you understand by package subprograms ?

151
 Relational Database  Enrolment No. :
Management System
(RDBMS) 1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 8 9 10 11

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

152
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR 302
Open University Ahmedabad

RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS)
BLOCK 4 : PL/SQL

UNIT 12 CURSOR MANAGEMENT AND EXCEPTION HANDLING IN

PL/SQL AND PACKAGES

UNIT 13 PACKAGE AND EXCEPTIONS

UNIT 14 PRACTICAL SOLVING OF SQL

UNIT 15 PRACTICAL SOLVING OF SQL

 PL/SQL
Block Introduction :
This section covers the PL/SQL constructs that allow software developers
to use this procedural language interface to the Oracle RDBMS. Constructs in
PL/SQL are analogous to those in 3GL and C, and they allow a flexible technique
of programming. To alter data as SQL*Forms relies heavily on PL/SQL, but You
can access common datas processes by writing database procedures outside of
forms. While limiting the amount of manipulation procedures and other Oracle
developer tools applications in the form. The purpose of this lock is to help the
reader grasp the fundamental ideas of the importance of PL/SQL. The author
has done his best to describe the package's creation in detail. Apart from that,
the variables and constants have been discussed in suprograms detail. The reader
will also gain a comprehensive understanding of data types and arrays. On the
other hand, the author has gone over the declaration statement and naming. Apart
from that, other PL/SQL illustrations and examples have been provided.

Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to understand :

• The Package Creation

• Utility of Package Subprograms

• About the Variables and Constants

• About various Data types and Arrays

• Control Statements,

• DECLARE statement and Naming Conventions

• PL/SQL more with the help of examples and illustrations.

• Cursor Management and Exception Handling in PL/SQL and Packages

Block Structure :
Unit 12 : Cursor Management and Exception Handling in PL/SQL
and Packages
Unit 13 : Package and Exceptions
Unit 14 : Practical Solving of SQL
Unit 15 : Practical Solving of SQL
 CURSOR MANAGEMENT AND
Unit

12 EXCEPTION HANDLING IN
PL/SQL AND PACKAGES
UNIT STRUCTURE
12.0 Learning Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Cursors
12.3 Explicit Cursor Attributes
12.4 Creation of Cursor Packages
12.5 Let Us Sum Up
12.6 Answers For Check Your Progress
12.7 Glossary
12.8 Assignment
12.9 Activities
12.10 Case Study
12.11 Further Readings

12.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The Errors
• Types of Cursors
• About Cursor Variables
• About eg. For using constrained cursors

12.1 Introduction :
This chapter deals with working of Cursors and different types of Cursors.
This chapter also gives an insight into the working of composite data types
and their methods. This chapter also introduces Cursor variables and their usage.
• Cursors
• Implicit Cursors
• Explicit Cursors
• Cursor Attributes
• Constrained Cursors and Unconstrained Cursors
• Using Cursor For update
• Using Composite Data types
Oracle uses work areas to execute SQL statements and store processing
results. A PL/SQL construct called Cursor allows a work area to be named,
to store and accesses its information. They are typically used in areas where
the query inside the PL/SQL block retrieves more than one record. A cursor

153
 Relational Database is a pointer to handle the context area or the memory area or work area. The
Management System result set of information is called Result Set.
(RDBMS)
12.2 Cursors :
A cursor is a data structure that stored procedures and Pre–processor
2 use at runtime to point to the result rows in a response set returned by an
SQL query.
Stored procedures and embedded SQL also use cursors to manage inserts,
updates, execution of multi statement requests, and SQL macros.
The syntax of functionally similar cursor control statements sometimes
varies depending on whether they are used for stored procedures or embedded
SQL. This book documents variant syntax forms with the individual cursor
control statements. Several cursor control statements are valid only with embedded
SQL. Cursors are not valid for sessions you conduct interactively from a
terminal using a query manager like BTEQ.
Why Cursors Are Necessary ?
This information does not apply to result set cursors.
An embedded or stored procedure SQL SELECT statement can retrieve
at most one row of dataat a time. It is an error for a SELECT statement to
retrieve more than one row of data in these applications.
Without knowing the number of rows to be retrieved from a request,
it is impossible to know the number of host variables required to hold the
results of the SELECT. Thus, only a single result row is allowed.
This is not a problem for so–called singleton SELECTs, which are
SELECT statements that you write so that they return only one row. However,
SQL queries frequently return multiple rows in the form of a result table or
response set. This situation is one that typical programming languages are not
equipped to handle.
Traditional programming languages such as COBOL, C, and PL/I are
record–oriented, while relational databases and their operators are inherently
set–oriented.
Cursors enable record–oriented languages to process set–oriented data.
Think of a cursor as a pointer to a single data row in a result table.
Cursors use SQL statements unique to embedded SQL and stored procedures
to step through the result table, which is held in a data structure known as
a spool file, one row at a time.
Types of Cursors :
PL/SQL implicitly declares a cursor for all SQL data manipulation
statements, including queries that return only one row. Cursors can be of 2
types.
• Implicit Cursors
• Explicit Cursors
Implicit Cursors :
Whenever a SQL statement is issued the Database server opens an area
of memory in which the command is parsed and executed. This area is called
a cursor. When the executable part of PL/SQL block issues a SQL command,
154
PL/SQL creates an implicit cursor, which has the identifier SQL.PL/SQL Cursor Management
manages this cursor. and Exception
Handling in PL/SQL
Explicit Cursors : and Packages
SELECT statements that occur within PL/SQL blocks are known as
embedded. They must return one row and may only return one row. To get
around this a SELECT statement is defined as a cursor (an area of memory),
the query is executed and the returned rows are manipulated within the cursor.
Explicit Cursors can be of two types.
• Static Cursors
• Dynamic Cursors
Static Cursors :
Static cursors are a type of cursors where the SELECT statement is given
at compile time itself. That is, the table from which the data are coming and
the records that are going to be selected are predetermined at compile time
itself. The definition of the cursor is done in the declarative part.
Dynamic Cursors :
Dynamic Cursors as the name suggests, are a set of cursors where the
records from the tables are selected at run time rather than at compile time.
Each Cursor has Four Attributes
%ROWCOUNT Returns the number of rows processed by a SQL
statement.
%FOUND Holds TRUE if at least one row is processed
%NOTFOUND Holds TRUE if no rows are processed.
%ISOPEN Holds TRUE if a cursor is open or
FALSE if cursor has not been opened or has been closed.
They are used only in connection with explicit cursors.
%ROWCOUNT The %ROWCOUNT attribute is used to return the number
of records fetched. This is in accordance with the number
of FETCHes done.
%FOUND This attribute contains TRUE if the FETCH statement
fetches any records. The attribute will hold FALSE if
there are no records to be fetched.
%NOTFOUND It is the logical opposite of % FOUND. If records are
fetched, the %NOTFOUND is FALSE and TRUE if
there are no more records to be processed. Using this
we can terminate from the loop.
%ISOPEN This attribute checks for the status, if the status of the
cursor is open or not. If the cursor is opened, it holds
TRUE and FALSE if the cursor is not opened.

155
 Relational Database The tabular structure illustrates this better.
Management System
(RDBMS) Attribute Is TRUE Is FALSE
%ISOPEN If the cursor is opened. When If the cursor is not open. If
%FOUND records are fetched there are no more
%NOTFOUND using FETCH statement records to be fetched and
When there are no records processed When records are
available to be fetched fetched by the FETCH
statement
%ROWCOUNT Holds the number of records –

Explicit Cursors :
Explicit cursor manipulation is performed using four commands
• DECLARE
• OPEN
• FETCH
• CLOSE
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. A is a data structure that stored procedures and Preprocessor
2 use at runtime to point to the result rows in a response set returned
by an SQL query.
a. Cursor b. pointer
2. and embedded SQL also use cursors to manage inserts, updates,
execution of multi statement requests, and SQL macros.
a. Stored procedures b. Statements
3. The syntax of functionally similar cursor control statements sometimes
varies depending on whether they are used for or embedded
SQL.
a. stored procedures b. Cursor
4. Several control statements are valid only with embedded SQL.
a. Cursor b. Pointer
5. Cursors enable languages to process set–oriented data.
a. record–oriented b. Program oriented

12.3 Explicit Cursor Attributes :

There are four attributes associated with cursors : ISOPEN, FOUND,
NOTFOUND, and ROWCOUNT. These attributes can be accessed with the
% delimiter to obtain information about the state of the cursor. The syntax
for a cursor attribute is : cursor_name%attribute where cursor_name is the name
of the explicit cursor. The behaviors of the explicit cursor attributes are
described in the following table.

156
 Attribute Description Cursor Management
and Exception
%ISOPEN TRUE if cursor is open. Handling in PL/SQL
FALSE if cursor is not open. and Packages

%FOUND INVALID_CURSOR is raised if cursor has not been

OPENed.
NULL before the first fetch.
TRUE if record was fetched successfully.
FALSE if no row was returned.
INVALID_CURSOR if cursor has been CLOSEd.
%NOTFOUND INVALID_CURSOR is raised if cursor has not been
OPENed.
NULL before the first fetch.
FALSE if record was fetched successfully.
TRUE if no row was returned.
INVALID_CURSOR if cursor has been CLOSEd.
%ROWCOUNT INVALID_CURSOR is raised if cursor has not been
OPENed.
The number of rows fetched from the cursor.
INVALID_CURSOR if cursor has been CLOSEd.
Frequently a cursor attribute is checked as part of a WHILE loop that
fetches rows from a cursor:
DECLARE
caller_reccaller_pkg.caller_cur%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN caller_pkg.caller_cur;
LOOP
FETCH caller_pkg.caller_cur into caller_rec;
EXIT WHEN caller_pkg.caller_cur%NOTFOUND
OR
caller_pkg.caller_cur%ROWCOUNT> 10;
UPDATE call
SET caller_id = caller_rec.caller_id
WHERE call_timestamp< SYSDATE;
END LOOP;
CLOSE caller_pkg.caller_cur;
END;

157
 Relational Database %ISOPEN Attribute
Management System
You can fetch rows only when the cursor is open. Use the %ISOPEN
(RDBMS)
cursor attribute before performing a fetch to test whether the cursor is open.
%ISOPEN returns the status of the cursor: TRUE if open and FALSE if not.
Example :
IF NOT emp_cursor%ISOPEN THEN
OPEN emp_cursor;
END IF;
LOOP
FETCH emp_cursor...

%ROWCOUNT and %NOTFOUND Attributes

Usually the %ROWCOUNT and %NOTFOUND attributes are used in
a loop to determine when to exit the loop. Use the %ROWCOUNT cursor
attribute for the following:
• To process an exact number of rows
• To count the number of rows fetched so far in a loop and/or determine
when to exit the loop
Use the %NOTFOUND cursor attribute for the following:
• To determine whether the query found any rows matching your criteria
• To determine when to exit the loop
Example of %ROWCOUNT and %NOTFOUND
This example shows how you can use %ROWCOUNT and %NOTFOUND
attributes for exit conditions in a loop.
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cursor IS
SELECT employee_id, last_name FROM employees;
v_emp_recordemp_ cursor%ROWTYPE; BEGIN

OPEN emp_cursor;
LOOP
FETCH emp_cursor INTO v_emp_record;
EXIT WHEN emp_cursor%ROWCOUNT> 10 OR emp_cursor%
NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_emp_record.employee_id ||' ?||
v_emp_record.last_name);

END LOOP;
CLOSE emp_cursor;

END;
158
 Explicit Cursor Attributes in SQL Statements Cursor Management
and Exception
You cannot use an explicit cursor attribute directly in an SQL statement.
Handling in PL/SQL
The following code returns an error: and Packages
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cursor IS
SELECT employee_id, salary FROM employees
ORDER BY SALARY DESC;
v_emp_recordemp_cursor%ROWTYPE;
v_count NUMBER;
BEGIN
OPEN emp_cursor;
LOOP

FETCH emp_cursor INTO v_emp_record;

EXIT WHEN emp_cursor%NOTFOUND;
INSERT INTO top_paid_emps
(employee_id, rank, salary)
VALUES
(v_emp_record.employee_id, emp_cursor%ROWCOUNT,
v_emp_record.salary);

Usage Notes :
The cursor attributes apply to every cursor or cursor variable. For
example, you can open multiple cursors, then use %FOUND or %NOTFOUND
to tell which cursors have rows left to fetch. Likewise, you can use
%ROWCOUNT to tell how many rows have been fetched so far.
If a cursor or cursor variable is not open, referencing it with %FOUND,
%NOTFOUND, or %ROWCOUNT raises the predefined exception INVALID_
CURSOR.
When a cursor or cursor variable is opened, the rows that satisfy the
associated query are identified and form the result set. Rows are fetched from
the result set one at a time.
If a SELECT INTO statement returns more than one row, PL/SQL raises
the predefined exception TOO_MANY_ROWS and sets %ROWCOUNT to 1,
not the actual number of rows that satisfy the query.
Before the first fetch, %NOTFOUND evaluates to NULL. If FETCH
never executes successfully, the EXIT WHEN condition is never TRUE and
the loop is never exited. To be safe, you might want to use the following EXIT
statement instead:
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND OR c1%NOTFOUND IS NULL;
You can use the cursor attributes in procedural statements but not in
SQL statements.

159
 Relational Database  Check Your Progress – 2 :
Management System
1. There are attributes associated with cursors.
(RDBMS)
a. Four b. Five
2. You can fetch rows only when the cursor is .
a. Open b. closed
3. Usually the %ROWCOUNT and %NOTFOUND attributes are used in
a loop to determine when to the loop.
a. Exit b. Enter
4. The cursor attributes apply to cursor or cursor variable.
a. Every b. unique
5. When a cursor or variable is opened, the rows that satisfy
the associated query are identified and form the result set.
a. Cursor b. Fixed

12.4 Creation of Cursor Packages :

A cursor is an image that tracks the mouse on the display. Each window
has its own cursor which you can change. There are some cursors defined by
OPEN LOOK that correspond to specific window manager operations such as
resizing or dragging windows. For these cases, you cannot redefine a cursor.
However, for windows in your application, you can assign any cursor image
you like.
To use the CURSOR package, include the header file <xview/cursor.h>.
The owner of the cursor may be any XView object. The root window associated
with the XView object is used internally by the CURSOR package. If the owner
is NULL, then the root window of the default screen is used.
A number of predefined cursors are available in the CURSOR package
for use as OPEN LOOK cursors. To use these cursors, you may specify the
CURSOR_SRC_CHAR and CURSOR_ MASK_CHAR attributes with certain
predefined constants as values for these attributes. There are some OPEN LOOK
cursor defines prefixed by OLC_ in <xview/cursor.h>.
The hotspot on a cursor is the location in which the cursor is located
if the user generates an event like pressing a mouse button or typing at the
keyboard, or if you were to query its position. For example, if a cursor is
shaped like an arrow, the hotspot should be at the tip of the arrow. If the
hotspot for a cursor were set to (0, 0) then the hotspot would be the upper–
left corner of the image used. A cursor shaped like a?ull's eye (16x16) might
have its hotspot at (7, 7) to indicate that the focus for the cursor is in the
middle.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. A cursor is an that tracks the mouse on the display..
a. Image b. Picture
2. To use the package, include the header file <xview/cursor.h>.
a. CURSOR b. Image

160
3. A number of predefined cursors are available in the CURSOR package Cursor Management
for use as cursors. and Exception
Handling in PL/SQL
a. OPEN LOOK b. LOOK and Packages
4. The hotspot on a cursor is the location in which the cursor is located
if the generates an event like pressing a mouse button or typing
at the keyboard, or if you were to query its position.
a. User b. System

12.5 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit, we have learnt that Cursors are named workareas that are
used for multiple rows processing in PL/SQL blocks.
They can be of two types:
• Implicit Cursors and Explicit Cursors
• The four Cursor attributes which check the status of a cursor are %FOUND,
%NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT and %ISOPEN.
Composite Datatypes are the datatypes that can hold multiple columns
and multiple records.
Dynamic cursors can accept the table name at run–time. They can be
further classified as Constrained and Un–constrained Cursors. Cursor variables
can be associated with different statements at run time

12.6 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 3 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a

12.7 Glossary :
Cursor : They are a data structure that stored procedures and reprocessor
2 use at runtime to point to the result rows in a response set returned by an
SQL query.

12.8 Assignment :
1. What do you understand by cursors ? Why are they considered necessary ?
2. Discuss the types of cursors.

12.9 Activities :
Explain working of cursors in real time applications

12.10 Case Study :

Make a case study on applications where cursors can be used

161
 Relational Database 12.11 Further Readings :
Management System
(RDBMS) 1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw– Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai– Galgotia Publication.
4. DatabaseManagement System by Raghu Ramkrishnan– Tata McGraw –
Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

162
 Unit
13 PACKAGE AND EXCEPTIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
13.0 Learning Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Exception Handling
13.3 More on Exceptions
13.4 Let Us Sum Up
13.5 Answers for Check Your Progress
13.6 Glossary
13.7 Assignment
13.8 Activities
13.9 Case Study
13.10 Further Readings

13.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Exceptions
• More details on Exceptions

13.1 Introduction :
Runtime errors arise from design faults, mistakes, hardware failures and
many other sources. Although these errors are not anticipated, these errors can
be handled meaningfully. To capture the errors raised, Exceptions are used.

13.2 Exception Handling :

In PL/SQL, warnings or error condition is called Exception. When an
error occurs, an exception is raised. That is normal execution is stopped and
control is transferred to the exception–handling part of the PL/SQL block. They
are designed for run–time rather than compile time errors. They are handled
in the Exception section of the PL/SQL block. Errors can be classified as
• Runtime Errors
• Compile–time Errors
Exceptions can be broadly classified into :
• Predefined Exceptions
• User–defined Exceptions
• Un–defined Exceptions
Pre–defined Exceptions
Predefined exceptions are exceptions that are already defined by Oracle.
The following list gives the set of Predefined Exceptions.

163
 Relational Database Advantages of Exceptions
Management System
Using exceptions for error handling has several advantages. Without
(RDBMS)
exception handling, every time a command is issued, execution errors must
be checked, as follows:
BEGIN

SELECT ...

-- check for =no data found' error SELECT

...
-- check for =no data found' error SELECT
...
-- check for =no data found' error
Error processing is not clearly separated from normal processing; nor
is it robust. If you neglect to code a check, the error goes undetected and
is likely to cause other, seemingly unrelated errors. With exceptions, errors can
be conveniently handled without the need to code multiple checks, as follows:
BEGIN
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
...
Exception
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN -- catches all =no data found' errors
Exceptions improve readability by letting error–handling routines to be
isolated. Error recovery algorithms do not obscure the primary algorithm.
Exceptions also improve reliability. You need not worry about checking for
an error at every point it might occur. Just add an exception handler to your
PL/SQL block. If the exception is ever raised in that block (or any sub–block),
you can be sure it will be handled.
STORAGE_ERROR PL/SQL runs out of memory or memory
is corrupted.
SUBSCRIPT_BEYON A nested table or varray element is
referenced using an index number
D_COUNT larger than the number of elements in the
collection.
SUBSCRIPT_OUTSIDE_LIMIT you reference a nested table or varray
element using an index number that is
outside the legal range (–1 for example).
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE A timeout occurs while Oracle is waiting
for a resource.

164
 TOO_MANY_ROWS A SELECT INTO statement returns more Package and Exceptions
than one row.
Anarithmetic conversion, truncation, or
size–constraint error occurs.
For example, when a column value is
selected into a character variable, if the
value is longer than the declared length
of the variable,
VALUE_ERROR PL/SQL aborts the assignment and raises
VALUE_ERROR. In procedural
statements, VALUE_ERROR is raised if
the conversion of a character string to a
number fails. In SQL statements,
INVALID_NUMBER is raised.
ZERO_DIVIDE User tries to divide a number by zero.
The following examples illustrates the usage of Pre–defined exceptions
Zero–Divide When a number is divided by zero, this exception is raised. The
following example briefs this exception.

Example

DECLARE

X NUMBER:=&X;

Y NUMBER:=&Y;

BEGIN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=RESULT IS =||X/Y); END;

In this example, two values are accepted for x and y respectively. If

both contains non–zero values the result is printed. If =y' contains zero, it leads
to the exception which is displayed as :
ORA–01476: divisor is equal to zero
In order to handle the exception, exception clause must contain the
Exception Zero_Divide.

Refining the above example,

DECLARE

X NUMBER:=&X;

Y NUMBER:=&Y;

BEGIN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=RESULT IS =||X/Y);

165
 Relational Database EXCEPTION
Management System
(RDBMS) WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(?VALUE IS DIVIDED BY ZERO');

END;

The second example illustrates the usage of NO_DATA_FOUND

Example

DECLARE

MYENAME VARCHAR2(20);

BEGIN

SELECT ENAME INTO MYENAME FROM EMP WHERE

EMPNO=&X;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=THE NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE IS

=||MYENAME);

EXCEPTION

WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(?NO RECORD FOUND');

END;

A SELECT statement returns not more than one row. If a SELECT

statement is made to return more than one record, a cursor is required. The
following example shows this.

Example

DECLARE

MYSAL NUMBER;

BEGIN

SELECT SAL INTO MYSAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(MYSAL);

END;

166
 This would display Package and Exceptions
ORA–01422: exact fetch returns more than requested number of rows
Raises the pre–defined exception too_many_rows. To avoid this, handle
the exception in the Exception clause.

DECLARE

MYSAL NUMBER;

BEGIN

SELECT SAL INTO MYSAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(MYSAL);

EXCEPTION

WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Use Cursors');

END;

The given above examples illustrated the usage of handling pre–defined

exceptions in the exception section of any PL/SQL block. Likewise all the other
pre–defined exceptions can behandled in the following fashion.
Using Others
To handle any kind of an exception, use OTHERS. This is a handler
that handles anyexception. The example follows:

Example

DECLARE

MYSAL NUMBER;

MYENAME VARCHAR2(20);

BEGIN

SELECT SAL INTO MYSAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(MYSAL);

SELECT ENAME INTO MYENAME FROM EMP WHERE

EMPNO=&X;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=THE NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE

IS =||MYENAME);

EXCEPTION

WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS THEN

167
 Relational Database Exception Raised when ...
Management System
(RDBMS) ACCESS_INTO_NULL User tries to assign values to the attributes
of an uninitialized (atomically null) object.
User tries to apply collection methods other
than EXISTS to an uninitialized (atomically
null) nested table or varray, or assigns values
to the elements of an uninitialized nested
table or varray.
COLLECTION_IS_NULL User tries to open an already open cursor.
A cursor must be Closed before it can be
reopened.
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN A cursor FOR loop automatically opens the
cursor to which it refers. So, that cursor
cannot be opened inside the loop.
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX User tries to store duplicate values in a
database column that is constrained by a
unique index.
INVALID_CURSOR User tries an illegal cursor operation such
as closing an unopened cursor.
INVALID_NUMBER In a SQL statement, the conversion of
character string to a number fails because
the character string does not represent a
valid number. In procedural statements,
VALUE_ERROR is raised.
LOGIN_DENIED User tries logging on to Oracle with an
invalid username and/or password.
NO_DATA_FOUND A SELECT INTO statement returns no rows,
or a Deleted element is referenced in a
nested table, or an Uninitialized element is
referenced in an index–by table. The FETCH
statement is expected to return no rows
eventually, so when that happens, no
exception is raised. SQL group functions
such as AVG and SUM always return a
value or a null. So, a SELECT INTO
statement that calls a group function will
never raise NO_DATA_FOUND

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Use Cursors');

WHEN OTHERS THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=OTHERS EXCEPTION HANDLED');

END;

168
 Check Your Progress – 1 : Package and Exceptions

1. errors arise from design faults, mistakes, hardware failures

and many other sources.
a. Runtime b. Exceptions
2. To capture the errors raised, are used
a. Exceptions b. runtime
3. exceptions are exceptions that are already defined by Oracle.
a. Predefined b. defined
4. Using exceptions for error handling has several .
a. Advantages b. disadvantages
5. improve readability by letting error–handling routines to be
isolated.
a. Exceptions b. Runtime errors

13.3 More on Exceptions :

User–Defined Exceptions
PL/SQL allows users to define their own exceptions. Unlike Predefined
exceptions, user defined exceptions must be declared exceptions can be raised
using one of the following :
• RAISE
• RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
In the case of user–defined exceptions, the following three steps must
be performed :
• Declare the exception
• Raise the Exception
• Handle the Exception
Declaring Exceptions
Exceptions are declared in the declarative part of a PL/SQL block,
supprogram or package. It contains a name followed by the datatype called
Exception. The following syntax shows this :

DECLARE

Ex1 EXCEPTION;

Exception declaration is very much similar to variable declaration. But

they cannot appear as apart of an assignment statement.
Raising Exceptions
Raising Exceptions means the exception declared by the user is raised
explicitly unlike Predefined exceptions. The keyword RAISE is used to perform
this operation. Syntax forusing this is :

RAISE ex1;

Handling Exceptions

169
 Relational Database After the exception is raised, it must be handled. Handling of exceptions
Management System is performed using the exception handling section similar to handling of pre–
(RDBMS) defined exceptions.

WHEN ex1 THEN

……

The following example illustrates this:

Example

DECLARE

Ex1 EXCEPTION;

N NUMBER(5):=&x;

BEGIN

If N > 20000 THEN RAISE

ex1;

END IF; EXCEPTION

WHEN ex1 THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=Value must not exceed 20000'); END;

Consider another example. The following example adds the accepted

value onto the table. If the salary exceeds 30000 the exception SALARY_RAISE
is raised and handled.

DECLARE

ENO NUMBER:=&NO;

NAME VARCHAR2(20):==&B';

SALARY NUMBER:=&P;

SALARY_RAISE EXCEPTION;

BEGIN

IF SALARY > 30000 THEN

RAISE SALARY_RAISE;

ELSE

INSERT INTO EMP(EMPNO,ENAME,SAL)

170
 VALUES(ENO,NAME,SALARY); Package and Exceptions

END IF;

EXCEPTION

WHEN SALARY_RAISE THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(=SALARY EXCEEDS 30000');

END;

RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR

Raise_Application_Error stops the program and terminates the block

abruptly.
Raise_Application_error is primarily used in triggers to rollback the
transaction and give suitable error messages. The syntax is

RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (errornumber , MESSAGE);

where the error messages span between –20000 and –20999. Message is a
character data that can hold upto 2000 bytes. The following example illustrates
this:
In the following example, raise_application_error is called if an employee's
salary is missing:

DECLARE

Emp_idnumber :=&no;
current_salary NUMBER;

increase number:=&x;

BEGIN

SELECT sal INTO current_salary FROM emp

WHERE empno = emp_id;

IF current_salary IS NULL THEN

/* Issue user–defined error message. */

raise_application_error(–20101, =Salary is missing');

ELSE

UPDATE emp SET sal = current_salary + increase

WHERE empno = emp_id;

171
 Relational Database END IF;
Management System
(RDBMS) EXCEPTION

WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN

RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(–20000,'NO MATCHING RECORD');

END raise_salary;

This program accepts the employee number and the salary increase.If
the corresponding employee is found, it updates the value else it raises an error.
Assume 765 isa number which is not available in the table. The error message
in this case wills be :

ERROR at line 1:

ORA–20000: NO MATCHING RECORD

ORA–06512: at line 17

Using EXCEPTION_INIT – Use of PRAGMA

To handle unnamed internal exceptions, you must use the OTHERS

handler or the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT must be used. A pragma is a compiler
directive, which can be thought of as a parenthetical remark to the compiler.
Pragmas (also called pseudo instructions) are processed at compile time, not
at run time.
In PL/SQL, the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT tells the compiler to associate
an exception name with an Oracle error number. That allows any internal
exception to be referenced by name and to write a specific handler for it.
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT is given in the declarative part of a PL/
SQL block, supprogram, or package using the syntax

PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exception_name, Oracle_error_number);

whereexception_name is the name of a previously declared exception.

The pragma must appear somewhere after the exception declaration in the same
declarative part, as shown in the following example:

DECLARE

X EXCEPTION;

PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(X,–1400);

BEGIN

INSERT INTO EMP(EMPNO) VALUES(NULL);

EXCEPTION

WHEN X THEN
172
 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( = VALUE CANNOT HOLD NULL Package and Exceptions
VALUES');

END;

In the above example, if a null value is being inserted onto a column

which cannot contain null values, an exception is raised.
Unhandled Exceptions
Remember, if it cannot find a handler for a raised exception, PL/SQL
returns an unhandled exception error to the host environment, which determines
the outcome. For example, in the Oracle Precompilers environment, any database
changes made by a failed SQL statement or PL/SQL block are rolled back.
Unhandled exceptions can also affect supprograms. If you exit a supprogram
successfully,
PL/SQL assigns values to OUT parameters. However, if you exit with
an unhandled exception, PL/SQL does not assign values to OUT parameters.
Also, if a stored supprogram fails with an unhandled exception, PL/SQL does
not roll back database work done by the supprogram.
Unhandled exceptions can be avoided by coding an OTHERS handler
at the topmost level of every PL/SQL block and supprogram.
How Exceptions Propagate
When an exception is raised, if PL/SQL cannot find a handler for it
in the current block or supprogram, the exception propagates. That is, the
exception reproduces itself in successive enclosing blocks until a handler is
found or there are no more blocks to search. In the latter case, PL/SQL returns
an unhandled exception error to the host environment. An exception can
propagate beyond its scope, that is, beyond the block in which it is declared.
Consider the following example:

BEGIN

...

DECLARE ---------- sub–block begins

past_due EXCEPTION;

RDBMS Concepts and Oracle8i

293

BEGIN

...

IF ... THEN

RAISE past_due;

END IF;
173
 Relational Database END; ------------– sub–block ends
Management System
(RDBMS) EXCEPTION

...

WHEN OTHERS THEN

ROLLBACK;

END;

Because the block in which it was declared has no handler for the
exception named past_due, it propagates to the enclosing block. But, according
to the scope rules, enclosing blocks cannot reference exceptions declared in
a sub–block. So, only an OTHERS handler can catch the exception.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. allows users to define their own exceptions.
a. PL/SQL b. Cursors
2. are declared in the declarative part of a PL/SQL block,
supprogram or package.
a. Exceptions b. PL/SQL
3. Raising means the exception declared by the user is raised
explicitly unlike Predefined exceptions.
a. Exceptions b. PL/SQL
4. After the is raised, it must be handled.
a. Exception b. PL/SQL
5. To handle unnamed exceptions, you must use the OTHERS
handler or the pragma.
a. Internal b. External

13.4 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit, we have learnt that Errors are of two types
• Runtime Errors
• Compile–time Errors
Exceptions are of three types
• Predefined Exceptions
• User–defined Exceptions
• Un–defined Exceptions

13.5 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : a 2 : a 3 : a 4 : a 5 : a
174
 13.6 Glossary : Package and Exceptions

Exceptions : In PL/SQL, warnings or error condition is called Exception.

When an error occurs, an exception is raised

13.7 Assignment :
Discuss the types of Errors

13.8 Activities :
Describe the real time applications where exceptions can be useful

13.9 Case Study :

Discuss the case study where problems occurred due to lack of exception
handling

13.10 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw– Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai– Galgotia Publication.
4. DatabaseManagement System by Raghu Ramkrishnan– Tata McGraw –
Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

175
 Relational Database
Management System
Unit
(RDBMS)
14 PRACTICAL SOLVING OF SQL
UNIT STRUCTURE
14.0 Learning Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Examples
14.2.1 Example 1 – Simple SQL* Plus Report Code
14.2.2 Example 2 – Cross–Tabular SQL* Plus Report Code
14.2.3 Example 3 – Master/Detail SQL* Plus Report Code
14.2.4 Example 4 – Multitable SQL* Plus Report Code
14.2.5 Example 5 & 6 – Fixed Position Formatting SQL* Plus
Report Code
14.3 Let Us Sum Up
14.4 Answers for Check Your Progress
14.5 Glossary
14.6 Assignment
14.7 Activities
14.8 Case Study
14.9 Further Readings

14.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The SQL language through practical excercises.
• The various SQL * formatting features.

14.1 Introduction :
The purpose of any exercise is to steadily develop skills and to acquire
the automatic algorithms for fulfilling certain operations. As for the SQL
language, practical exercises are intended to enable the database programmer
to quickly devise SQL queries in order to solve practically any problem, by
having already studied similar problems in exercises. This unit provides such
a collection of practical solved SQL exercises.
This unit covers some common SQL* Plus report formatting features.
It also covers techniques for controlling the resulting output. I discuss and
provide examples of simple reporting techniques and advanced reporting
techniques.
The following example formats the results of a SQL query. It defines
a report title and formats, assigns column headings, and applies some control
breaks for intermediate and report totalling.

176
14.2 Examples : Practical Solving of SQL

14.2.1 Example 1 – Simple SQL* Plus Report Code :

Listing 1. Simple SQL* Plus Report Code :
1: define ASSIGNED_ANALYST = &1
2: set FEEDBACK OFF
3: set VERIFY OFF
4: set TERMOUT OFF
5: set ECHO OFF
6: column APPLICATION_NAME format a12 heading 'Application'
7: column PROGRAM_NAME format a12 heading 'Program'
8: column PROGRAM_SIZE format 999999 heading 'Program|Size'
9: break on APPLICATION_NAME skip 2
10: break on report skip 2
11: compute sum of PROGRAM_SIZE on APPLICATION_NAME
12: compute sum of PROGRAM_SIZE on report
13: ttitle 'Programs by Application | assigned to: &ASSIGNED_
ANALYST'
14: spool ANALYST.OUT
15: select APPLICATION_NAME,PROGRAM_NAME,nvl
(PROGRAM_SIZE,0)
16: from APPLICATION_PROGRAMS
17: where ASSIGNED_NAME = '&&ASSIGNED_ANALYST'
18: order by APPLICATION_NAME,PROGRAM_NAME
19: /
20: spool off
21: exit
The following is the output report.
Tue Jul 13
Programs by Application
Assigned to :
Program
Application Program Size
------------ ------------ ---------
COBOL CLAIMS 10156
HOMEOWN 22124
PREMIUMS 10345 HOTKA
---------
sum 42625

177
 Relational Database FORTRAN ALGEBRA 6892
Management System
MATH1 7210
(RDBMS)
PL/SQL SCIENCE1 10240
---------
sum 24342
sum 66967
Listing 1 is a simple but common form of SQL* Plus formatting. This
report passes a command–line parameter (&1 on line 1) and assigns it to the
variable name ASSIGNED_ANALYST. The ASSIGNED_ANALYST variable
is then used in the headings (see line 13) and again as part of the SQL query
(see line 17). Lines 2, 3, 4, and 5 suspend all terminal output from the SQL*
Plus environment. The && is utilized to denote substitution of an already
defined variable. This report contains two breaks, one when the column
APPLICATION_NAME changes (see line 9) and one at the end of the report
(see line 10). Totals are also calculated for each of these breaks (see lines
11 and 12). The pipe character (|) in the TTITLE command (see line 13) moves
the following text onto its own line. Line 14 will open an operating system–
dependent file named ANALYST.OUT in the current operating system–dependent
directory. The order by clause of the query on line 18 ensures that the breaks
occur in an orderly manner.
14.2.2 Example 2 – Cross–Tabular SQL* Plus Report Code :
Listing 2. Cross–tabular SQL* Plus Report Code :
1: define RPT_DATE = &1
2: set FEEDBACK OFF
3: set VERIFY OFF
4: set TERMOUT OFF
5: set ECHO OFF
6: column SALES_REP format a12 heading 'Sales|Person'
7: column NISSAN format 999999 heading 'Nissan'
8: column TOYOTA format 999999 heading 'Toyota'
9: column GMformat 999999 heading 'GM'
10: column FORD format 999999 heading 'Ford'
11: column CRYSLER format 999999 heading 'Crysler'
12: column TOTALS format 999999 heading 'Totals'
13: break on report skip 2
14: compute sum of NISSAN on report
15: compute sum of TOYOTA on report
16: compute sum of GM on report
17: compute sum of FORD on report
18: compute sum of CRYSLER on report
19: compute sum of TOTALS on report
20: ttitle left '&&IN_DATE' center 'Auto Sales' RIGHT 'Page: 'format
999
178
 21: SQL.PNO skip CENTER ' by Sales Person ' Practical Solving of SQL
22: spool SALES.OUT
23: select SALES_REP,
24: sum(decode(CAR_TYPE,'N',TOTAL_SALES,0)) NISSAN,
25: sum(decode(CAR_TYPE,'T',TOTAL_SALES,0)) TOYOTA,
26: sum(decode(CAR_TYPE,'G',TOTAL_SALES,0)) GM,
27: sum(decode(CAR_TYPE,'F',TOTAL_SALES,0)) FORD,
28: sum(decode(CAR_TYPE,'C',TOTAL_SALES,0)) CRYSLER,
29: sum(TOTAL_SALES) TOTALS
30: from CAR_SALES
31: where SALES_DATE <= to_date('&&RPT_DATE')
32: group by SALES_REP
33: /
34: spool off
35: exit
The following code shows the output
31–AUG–95 Auto Sales
by Sales Person
Sales
Person Nissan Toyota GM Ford Crysler Totals
Elizabeth 5500 2500 0 0 4500 12500
Emily 4000 6000 4400 2000 0 16400
Thomas 2000 1000 6000 4000 1500 14500
Listing 6.2 is a cross–tabular SQL* Plus command file. This report passes
a command–line parameter (&1 on line 1) and assigns it to the variable name
RPT_DATE. The RPT_DATE variable is then used in the headings (see line
20) and again as part of the SQL query (see line 31). Lines 2, 3, 4, and 5
suspend all terminal output from the SQL* Plus environment. The report will
be created in the operating system–dependent file SALES.OUT. Column
formatting commands control the appearance of the columns (lines 6 through
12). The combination of compute commands (lines 14 through 19), the sum
statements in the query (lines 24 through 29), and the group by clause in the
query (line 32) give the report output the appearance of a cross–tabular report.
14.2.3 Example 3 – Master/Detail SQL* Plus Report Code :
Listing 3. Master/detail SQL* Plus Report Code :
1: ttitle 'Sales Detail | by Sales Rep'
2: set HEADINGS OFF
3: column DUMMY NOPRINT
4: select 1 DUMMY, SALES_REP_NO,'Sales Person: ' || SALES_REP
5: from sales
6: UNION

179
 Relational Database 7: select 2 DUMMY,SALES_REP_NO,'--------------------'
Management System
8: from sales
(RDBMS)
9: UNION
10: select 3 DUMMY,SALES_REP_NO, rpad(CAR_MAKE,4) || ' ' ||
11: to_char(SALE_AMT,'$999,999.99')
12: from sales_detail
13: UNION
14: select 4 DUMMY,SALES_REP_NO,' ----------'
15: from sales
16: UNION
17: select 5 DUMMY,SALES_REP_NO,'Total: ' ||
18: to_char(sum(TOTAL_SALES),'$999,999.99'))
19: from sales
20: UNION
21: select 6 DUMMY,SALES_REP_NO,' '
22: from sales
23: order by 2,1,3
24: /
I will now only include the specific SQL* Plus commands necessary
to produce the desired output in the remaining examples.
The following code shows the output.
Thur Aug 31
Sales Detail
by Sales Rep
Sales Person: Elizabeth
----------------------------
Chrysler $3,000
Chrysler $1,500
Nissan $2,000
Nissan $2,000
Nissan $1,500
Toyota $2,500
----------
Total: $12,500
Sales Person: Emily
----------------------------
Ford $1,000
Ford $1,000
GM $2,000
GM $2,400
180
 Nissan $2,000 Practical Solving of SQL
Nissan $2,000
Toyota $1,000
Toyota $2,500
Toyota $2,500
----------
Total: $16,400
Sales Person: Thomas
----------------------------
Chrysler $1,500
Ford $1,000
Ford $3,000
GM $1,400
GM $1,600
GM $3,000
Nissan $2,000
Toyota $1,000
----------
Total: $16,400
Listing 3 creates a master/detail SQL* Plus report by utilizing the SQL
UNION command. In this example, there are six distinct separate types of lines
to be printed: the sales person (line 4), a line of dashes under the sales person
(line 7), the detail line (line 10), a line of dashes under the detail total (line
14), a total line (line 17), and a blank line (line 21). There are six separate
queries that have their output merged and sorted together by the SQL JOIN
statement (see lines 6, 9, 13, 16, 19, and 23). When you use JOIN to merge
the output of two or more queries, the output result set must have the same
number of columns. The headings are turned off (line 2) because regular SQL*
Plus column headings are not desired for this type of report. The first column
of each query has an alias column name of DUMMY. This DUMMY column
is used to sort the order of the six types of lines (denoted by each of the
six queries). The DUMMY column's only role is to maintain the order of the
lines within the major sort field (SALES_REP_NO in this example); therefor,
the NOPRINT option is specified in line 3.
Listing 4 uses the JOIN feature to display output from two or more tables
within the same report.
14.2.4 Example 4 – Multitable SQL* Plus Report Code :
Listing 4. Multitable SQL* Plus Report Code :
1: column OBJECT_TYPE format a20 heading 'Object'
2: column OBJECT_NAME format a8 heading 'Name'
3: column COMMENT format a8 heading 'Comments'
4: break on OBJECT_TYPE skip 1
5: ttitle 'System Summary Report
181
 Relational Database 6: select 'Program' OBJECT_TYPE, program_name OBJECT_NAME,
Management System
7: program_comments COMMENTS
(RDBMS)
8: from program_table
9: UNION
10: select 'Command Language',cl_name, assoc_system
11: from cl_table
12: UNION
13: select 'Files',file_name, 'File Size = ' || file_size || 'Bytes'
14: from file_table
15: /
The following code shows the output report from Listing 4.
System Summary Report
Object Name Comments
------------------------ ---------- ------------------------
Programs AM1 Algebra Test 1
AM2 Algebra Test 2
AM3 Algebra Test 3
Command Language CL1 AM1
CL2 AM2
CL3 AM3
Files AM1.TST File Size = 1200 Bytes
AM2.TST File Size = 3000 Bytes
AM3.TST File Size = 2200 Bytes
Listing 4 creates a SQL* Plus report utilizing different columns from
different tables using the SQL UNION command. In this example, there are
three different tables (see lines 8, 11, and 14), but there are only three columns
of output. The first query contains the column names (see lines 6 and 7). This
is because of the way the UNION operator works. The queries after the first
query must follow the number of columns and the type of column (text or
numeric) based on the column definitions of the first query. The BREAK
command (line 4) causes the OBJECT_NAME to print once and creates the
blank line between the groupings of records.
I will demonstrate two methods of creating reports that print with specific
text in specific positions. Method 1 in Listing 5 utilizes the RPAD SQL function
whereas Method 2 in Listing 6 utilizes the COLUMN formatting command.
Both examples will create the same output report.
14.2.5 Example 5 & 6 – Fixed Position Formatting SQL* Plus Report
Code :
Listing 5. Method 1 Fixed Position Formatting SQL* Plus Report
Code :
1: define TICKET_ROWID = &1
2: set LINESIZE 80

182
3: set HEADING OFF Practical Solving of SQL
4: set FEEDBACK OFF
5: spool TICKET.OUT
6: select RPAD('----------------------------------------------------||null,80),
7: RPAD('Customer Contact Survey' || null,80),
8: RPAD('------------------------------------------------–' || null,80),
9: RPAD('Customer Name:' || CUSTOMER_NAME || 'PHONE#:' ||
PHONE || null,80),
10: RPAD('Customer Address:' || CUSTOMER_ADDRESS || null,80),
11: RPAD(' ' || CUSTOMER_CITY || CUSTOMER_STATE ||
12: CUSTOMER_ZIP || null,80),
13: RPAD('------------------------------------------------' || null,80),
14: RPAD(' ' || TO_CHAR(CONTACT_DATE,'mm/dd/yy HH:MI') || '
Caller: ' || CALLER || null,80),
15: RPAD('------------------------------------------------' || null,80),
16: RPAD(' Home Phone? ' || HPHONE_YN || 'Best Time to call: '
|| CALL_TIME || null,80),
17: RPAD(' Has Catalog? ' || CATALOG_YN || 'Desire Future Calls?
' || FUTURE_YN ||null,80),
18: RPAD('------------------------------------------------' || null,80),
19: RPAD('PRINTED: ' || TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'mm/dd/yy HH:MI ||
'BY: ' ||OPERATOR || null,80) from CUSTOMER_TABLE where
ROWID = '&&TICKET_ROWID'
20: /
21: set PAGESIZE 1
22: set NEWPAGE 0
23: select null from dual;
24: set PAGESIZE 0
25: spool OUT
26: exit
1: define TICKET_ROWID = &1
2: set PAGESIZE 55
3: set LINESIZE 80
4: set HEADING OFF
5: set FEEDBACK OFF
6: column LINE1 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
7: column LINE2 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
8: column LINE3 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
9: column LINE4 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
10: column LINE5 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
11: column LINE6 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
183
 Relational Database 12: column LINE7 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
Management System
13: column LINE8 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
(RDBMS)
14: column LINE9 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
15: column LINE10 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
16: column LINE11 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
17: column LINE12 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
18: column LINE13 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
19: column LINE14 JUSTIFY LEFT NEWLINE
20: break ON ROW SKIP PAGE
21: SPOOL TICKET
22: select '-------------------------------------------- ' || null LINE1,
23: 'Customer Contact Survey' || null LINE2,
25: ' Customer Name: ' || CUSTOMER_NAME || ' PHONE#: ' ||
PHONE || null LINE4,
26: ' Customer Address: ' || CUSTOMER_ADDRESS || null LINE5,
27: '|| CUSTOMER_CITY || CUSTOMER_STATE ||
28: CUSTOMER_ZIP || null LINE6,
29: '--------------------------------------------------–' || null LINE7,
30: ' ' || TO_CHAR(CONTACT_DATE,'mm/dd/yy HH:MI || ' Caller:
' || CALLER || null
31: LINE8,
32: '--------------------------------------------------–' || null LINE9,
33: 'Home Phone? ' || HPHONE_YN || 'Best Time to call: ' || CALL_TIME
|| null
34: LINE10,
35: ' 'Has Catalog? ' || CATALOG_YN || 'Desire Future Calls? ' ||
FUTURE_YN || null
36: LINE11,
37: '-------------------------------------------------- ' || null LINE12,
38: 'PRINTED: ' || TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'mm/dd/yy HH:MI || 'BY: '
|| OPERATOR || null
39: LINE13,
40: '--------------------------------------------------–' || null LINE14
41: from CUSTOMER_TABLE
42: where ROWID = '&&TICKET_ROWID'
43: /
44: spool OUT
45: exit
Listings 5 and 6 both produce the same output report.

184
 Check Your Progress – 1 : Practical Solving of SQL

1. A parent–child relationship between two tables can be created only, when

there is a in one table and FOREIGN KEY in another table.
a. PRIMARY KEY b. SECONDARY KEY

14.3 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit you learned the history and functional uses of SQL* Plus
and saw an in–depth list of SQL* Plus commands with examples. You used
these commands in a variety of ways to produce report and program output
examples. Some of the features discussed in this chapter are not directly
referenced in Oracle documentation.
Hopefully, you can utilize the skills and refer to the examples provided
in this chapter in your application, design, and development of Oracle–based
products.

14.4 Answers for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : a

14.5 Glossary :
Constant : It is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged
throughout the program.

14.6 Assignment :
The following relations keep track of airline flight information :
• Flights (flno: integer, from: string, to: string, distance: integer, departs:
time, arrives: time, price: integer)
• Aircraft(aid: integer, aname: string, cruisingrange: integer)
• Certified(eid: integer, aid: integer)
• Employees(eid: integer, ename: string, salary: integer)
Note that the Employees relation describes pilots and other kinds of
employees as well; every pilot is certified for some aircraft, and only pilots
are certified to fly. Write each of the following queries in SQL.
1 Find the names of aircraft such that all pilots certified to operate them
earn more than $80,000.
2 For each pilot who is certified for more than three aircraft, find the eid
and the maximum cruising range of the aircraft for which she or he is
certified.
3 Find the names of pilots whose salary is less than the price of the cheapest
route from Los Angeles to Honolulu.
4 For all aircraft with cruising range over 1000 miles, find the name of
the
5 aircraft and the average salary of all pilots certified for this aircraft.
6 Find the names of pilots certified for some Boeing aircraft.
7 Find the aids of all aircraft that can be used on routes from Los Angeles
to Chicago.
185
 Relational Database 8 Identify the routes that can be piloted by every pilot who makes more
Management System than $100,000.
(RDBMS)
9 Print the enames of pilots who can operate planes with cruisingrange
greater than 3000 miles but are not certified on any Boeing aircraft.
10 A customer wants to travel from Madison to New York with no more
than two changes of flight. List the choice of departure times from
Madison if the customer wants to arrive in New York by 6 p.m.
11 Compute the difference between the average salary of a pilot and the
average salary of all employees (including pilots).
12 Print the name and salary of every nonpilot whose salary is more than
the average salary for pilots.
13 Print the names of employees who are certified only on aircrafts with
cruising range longer than 1000 miles.
14 Print the names of employees who are certified only on aircrafts with
cruising range longer than 1000 miles, but on at least two such aircrafts.

14.7 Activities :
Consider the following relational schema. An employee can work in more
than one department; the pct_time filed of the Works relation shows the
percentage of time that a given employee works in a given department.
• Emp(eid: integer, ename: string, age: integer, salary: real)
• Works(eid: integer, did: integer, pct_time: integer)
• Dept(did: integer, dname: string, budget: real, managerid: integer)
• Write the following queries in SQL :
1 Print the names and ages of each employee who works in both the
Hardware department and the Software department.
2 For each department with more than 20 full–time–equivalent employees
(i.e., where the part–time and full–time employees add up to at least
that many fulltime employees), print them together with the number of
employees that work in that department.
3 Print the name of each employee whose salary exceeds the budget of
all of the departments that he or she works in.
4 Find the manager ids of managers who manage only departments with
budgets greater than $1 million.
a. Find the enames of managers who manage the departments with
the largest budgets.
b. If a manager manages more than one department, he or she controls
the sum of all the budgets for those departments. Find the manager
ids of managers who control more than $5 million.
c. Find the manager ids of managers who control the largest amounts.
Find the enames of managers who manage only departments with budgets
larger than $1 million, but at least one department with budget less than $5
million.

186
 14.8 Case Study : Practical Solving of SQL

Case 1 demonstrates the following :

A simple query
A simple query retrieving full date information
The first query retrieves all the data from GTW_DEPT and confirms
that the gateway is working correctly. The second query retrieves all the data
from GTW_EMP including the time portion of the hire date because the default
date format was set to DD–MON–YY HH:MM:SS for the session by an ALTER
SESSION command.
To run Case 1, log on to SQL* Plus as SCOTT/TIGER and enter the
following:
SQL> START CASE1
Case 1 executes two SQL statements. The first statement is as follows:
SELECT * FROM GTW_DEPT@GTWLINK; which results in the
following :
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
The following command and SQL statement change the date format to
DD–Mon–YY HH24:MM:SS in Oracle and retrieve the employee name and
hire date from the Rd? database:
ALTER SESSION SET NLS_DATE_FORMAT = 'DD–Mon–YY
HH24:MM:SS';
SELECT ENAME, HIREDATE FROM GTW_EMP@GTWLINK;

14.9 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth –Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

187
 Relational Database
Management System
Unit
(RDBMS)
15 PRACTICAL SOLVING OF SQL
UNIT STRUCTURE
15.0 Learning Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Practical Solving of SQL
15.2.1 Example 1 – Customer Contact Survey
15.2.2 Example 2 – SQL Creating SQL
15.2.3 Example 3 – SQL Creating Database Triggers
15.2.4 Example 4 – SQL Creating Command Language Scripts
15.2.5 Example 5 – MS–DOS Batch Command File
15.2.6 Example 6 – SQL* Plus Command File LIST6_16.SQL
15.2.7 Master/Detail or Parent/Child SQL
15.3 Let Us Sum Up
15.4 Glossary
15.5 Assignment
15.6 Activities
15.7 Case Study
15.8 Further Readings

15.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Various examples using PL/SQL
• Creating batch files using MS–DOS and Master–Detail form creation
which can be useful in database applications

15.1 Introduction :
The purpose of any exercise is to steadily develop skills and to acquire
the automatic algorithms for fulfilling certain operations. As for the SQL
language, practical exercises are intended to enable the database programmer
to quickly devise SQL queries in order to solve practically any problem, by
having already studied similar problems in exercises. This unit provides such
a collection of practical solved SQL exercises.

15.2 Practical Solving Using SQL :

The following example formats the results of a SQL query. It defines
a report title and formats, assigns column headings, and applies some control
breaks for intermediate and report totalling.

188
15.2.1 Example 1 – Customer Contact Survey : Practical Solving of SQL

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Customer Contact Survey
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Customer Name : John Smith PHONE#:
515 123–4567 Customer Address: 123
Oak Street Anytown VA 12345
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
31–Aug–95 10:05 Caller: ABC
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Home Phone? Y Best Time to call: 8pm
Has Catalog? Y Desire Future Calls? N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
PRINTED: 31–Aug–95 12:45 BY: ABC
These examples utilize the concatenation feature of SQL (||) to blend
text between database fields. Each column in the SQL statement represents
an individual line in the report. Both examples have the standard column
headings feature turned off. Both examples have a one–to–one relationship
between a SQL column and a line of output. The methods differ in how the
columns are formatted to create the individual lines.
The main difference in these two methods is the approach used in the
individual line setup. Method 1 uses the SQL command RPAD in combination
with LINESIZE to create an output line. The RPAD is used to fill the line
with blanks to position 80, and with LINESIZE set at 80 will cause the formatted
line to appear on a line by itself. Method 2 uses the column command with
the option NEWLINE specified in conjunction with a field alias name. The
column command with the NEWLINE option will make the formatted line
appear on a line by itself.
15.2.2 Example 2 – SQL Creating SQL :
The classic example of using SQL* Plus formatting to create other SQL
statements (hence the term "SQL creating SQL") is cleaning up a table after
an employee leaves a company. The Oracle data dictionary view TAB is used
in this example. You can easily enter at the SQL* Plus prompt (shown here
as SQL>) the steps in Listing 8 or adapt them to a SQL* Plus command file
using features you already learned.
Listing 8. Dropping all tables owned by a particular user.
SQL>set headings off
SQL>set pagesize 0
SQL>set termout off
SQL>spool drop_tbl.sql
SQL>select 'DROP TABLE ' || tname || ';' from tab;
SQL>spool off

189
 Relational Database SQL>set termout on
Management System
SQL>start drop_tbl
(RDBMS)
This scenario assumes that the login ID and the owner of the table objects
to be dropped are both the same. The first three commands are used to set
up the SQL* Plus environment. The spool file drop_tbl.sql will capture the
concatenated text and table names (tname) from the SQL query. The spool off
command closes the file and the start command executes the drop table
commands now inside the drop_tbl.sql file.
15.2.3 Example 3 – SQL Creating Database Triggers :
Listing 3 is an extension of Listing 2 as another example of creating
useful database–driven programs. This example will add four auditing fields
to the end of each table owned by the user ID that runs this particular SQL*
Plus command file. This script will also create a database trigger that will
automatically maintain these four added fields. I utilized the fixed position
formatting discussed in Listing
Listing 3. SQL Creating Database Triggers :
1: set ECHO OFF
2: set TERMOUT OFF
3: FEEDBACK OFF
4: set VERIFY OFF
5: set PAGESIZE 0
6: set LINESIZE 80
7: set HEADING OFF
8: spool cre_dbtrg.sql
9: select RPAD('select ' alter table ' || TNAME || null,80),
10: RPAD(' add (inserted_by varchar2(10), ' || null,80),
11: RPAD(' inserted_date date , ' || null,80),
12: RPAD(' updated_by varchar2(10), ' || null,80),
13: RPAD(' updated_date date ); ' || null,80)
14: from TAB;
15: Select RPAD(' create trigger trg_' || TNAME || null,80),
16: RPAD(' before insert or update ' || null,80),
17: RPAD('on ' || TNAME || null,80),
18: RPAD(' for each row ' || null,80),
19: RPAD(' begin ' || null,80),
20: RPAD(' if :old.inserted_by is null then ' || null,80),
21: RPAD(' :new.inserted_by := USER; ' || null,80),
22: RPAD(' :new.inserted_date := SYSDATE; ' || null,80),
23: RPAD(' :new.updated_by := null; ' || null,80),
24: RPAD(' :new.updated_date := null; ' || null,80),
25: RPAD(' else ' || null,80),

190
 26: RPAD(' :new.inserted_by := :old.inserted_by; ' || null,80),
27: RPAD(' :new.inserted_date := :old.inserted_date; ' || null,80),
28: RPAD(' :new.updated_by := USER; ' || null,80),
29: RPAD(' :new.updated_date := SYSDATE; ' || null,80),
30: RPAD(' end if; ' || null,80),
31: RPAD(' end; ' || null,80),
32: RPAD( '/' || null,80)
33: from TAB;
spool off
34: set FEEDBACK ON
35: set TERMOUT ON
36: set VERIFY ON
37: set ECHO ON
38: spool dbtrg.log
39: start dbtrg.sql
40: spool off
41: exit
Lines 1 through 7 set up the SQL* Plus environment so that no extra
messages appear in the cre_dbtrg.sql file (see line 8). Lines 9 through 14 create
the SQL alter table statement that will add the audit fields to each table, and
lines 15 through 33 create the SQL create trigger statement that will add the
database triggers necessary to maintain these audit fields. Lines 35 through
38 reset the SQL* Plus environment so that all SQL commands and messages
display. Line 40 then runs the SQL* Plus command file cre_dbtrg.sql that was
just created.
Important Note : In Listing 9, line 39 opens the file DBTRG.LOG. This
file will contain the output (an audit trail) when the DBTRG.SQL statement
is executed with the START command on Line 40. I like to create SQL audit
trails for various DBA commands, particularly ones such as this example where
the process is rather automated. The audit trails enable me to review the
additions and any errors that might have occurred by simply editing the log
file.
15.2.4 Example 4 – SQL Creating Command Language Scripts :
The example in Listing 4 applies the SQL creating SQL discussed in
Listing 3 to create a DOS BAT file.
Listing 4. SQL Creating Command Language Scripts :
1: column HOME_DIR new_value HDIR noprint
2: column PROGRAM_DIR new_value PDIR noprint
3: column PROGRAM_SUFFIX new_value PSUF noprint
4: select HOME_DIR,PROGRAM_DIR,PROGRAM_SUFFIX
5: from APPLICATION_DEFAULTS
6: /

191
 Relational Database 7: spool LIST614.BAT
Management System
8:
(RDBMS)
9: select 'CD &PDIR'
10: from dual
11: /
12: select 'DIR *.&PSUF'
12: from dual
13: /
14: select 'CD &HDIR'
15: from dual
16: /
17: spool off
18: exit
The following code is the output created by Listing 6.10.

CD \COBOL\PROGRAMS

DIR *.COB

CD \

Listing 4 is a simple example of creating an MS–DOS batch file with

SQL* Plus formatting commands. The important concept of this example comes
in lines 1 through 3. These lines contain three column commands that contain
the NEW_VALUE clause. The importance of this concept is that these variables
can be loaded from the Oracle database and their values referenced again in
other SQL queries. Lines 4 and 5 populate these variables as named in the
column statement. Note that when the variables are referenced in other SQL
queries (lines 8, 11, and 14), the reference is to the NEW_VALUE variable
name.
Important Note : Use the column command with the NEW_VALUE
option to load variables from Oracle tables to use in other SQL queries.
15.2.5 Example 5 – MS–DOS Batch Command File :
Listing 5. MS–DOS Batch Command File :
1: SQLPLUS –S HOTKA/DAN @LIST6_16.SQL
2: CALL LIST6_16.BAT
3: SED –F LIST6_19.SED LIST6_15A.DAT > LIST6_15B.DAT
4: SQLLOAD USERID=HOTKA/DAN CONTROL=LIST6_16.CTL
Listing 5 is the actual MS–DOS bat command file that runs the four
computer tasks to accomplish our goal. The SQLPLUS command on line 1
connects to the database and runs the SQL* Plus command file LIST6_16.SQL
LIST6_16.SQL creates two files, LIST6_16.BAT and LIST6_16.CTL Line 2
executes the newly created LIST6_16.BAT file. This command creates the file,
LIST6_15A.DAT, that is an MS–DOS DIR (directory) list of directory
'C:\COBOL'. Line 3 is a stream editor (SED) that deletes the first few lines
192
and the last few lines (as directed by LIST6_19.SED; see Listing 15) of file
LIST6_15A.DAT, creating LIST6_15B.DAT. This file is the MS–DOS DIR
output without the heading and trailing text information. Line 4 then runs
Oracle's SQL* Loader program, using the LIST6_16.CTL SQL* Loader control
file created by line 1 and reading the datafile LIST6_15B.DAT file created
by line 3.
LIST6_16.SQL referenced in Line 1 of Listing 11 and will create the
LIST6_16.BAT file referenced in Line 2.
15.2.6 Example 6 – SQL* Plus Command File LIST6_16.SQL :
Listing 6. SQL* Plus Command File LIST6_16.SQL :
1: set PAGESIZE 0
2: column HOME_DIR new_value HDIR noprint
3: column PROGRAM_DIR new_value PDIR noprint
4: column PROGRAM_SUFFIX new_value PSUF noprint
5: select HOME_DIR,PROGRAM_DIR,PROGRAM_SUFFIX
6: from APPLICATION_DEFAULTS
7: /
8: spool LIST6_16.BAT
9: select 'DIR &PDIR\*.&PSUF >&HDIR\LIST6_15A.DAT'
10: from dual
11: /
12: spool off
13: spool LIST6_16.ctl
14: select 'load data'
15: from dual
16: /
17: select 'infile '|| '''' || 'LIST6_15B.DAT' || ''''
18: from dual
19: /
20: select 'append'
21: from dual
22: /
23: select 'into table APPLICATION_PROGRAMS'
24: from dual
25: /
26: select '(PROGRAM_NAME position(1:8) char,'
27: from dual
28: /
29: select 'PROGRAM_SUFFIX constant ' || '''' || '&PSUF' || '''' || ','
30: from dual
31: /
193
 Relational Database 32: select ÔPROGRAM_SIZE position(15:22) integer external,'
Management System
33: from dual
(RDBMS)
34: /
35: select 'PROGRAM_PATH constant ' || '''' || '&PDIR' || '''' || ','
36: from dual
37: /
38: select 'ASSIGNED_ANALYST constant ' || '''' || '&USER' || '''' || ')'
39: from dual
40: /
41: spool off
42: exit
15.2.7 Master/Detail or Parent/Child SQL :
A parent–child relationship between two tables can be created only, when
there is a PRIMARY KEY in one table and FOREIGN KEY in another table.
Master–detail forms display a master row and multiple detail rows within
a single HTML page. With this form, users can query, insert, update, and delete
values from two tables or views. The tables or views are joined together in
the wizard by a SQL JOIN condition.
Values in the master row determine which detail rows are displayed for
updating. For example, the master row could display column values from the
SCOTT.DEPT table. This table joins to SCOTT.EMP by a column in each table
called DEPTNO. Selecting a department ID in the master row displays in detail
rows all Employees having the same Department ID.
The end user of the master–detail form can update or delete values in
the master row. The wizard provides an option to allow cascading deletes, so
that deleting a master row also deletes detail rows. The same master–detail
form can be used to insert new detail rows, or update and delete existing detail
rows.

15.3 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit you learned the history and functional uses of SQL* Plus
and saw an in–depth list of SQL* Plus examples. You used these commands
in a variety of ways to produce report and program output examples. Some
of the features discussed in this chapter are not directly referenced in Oracle
documentation.
Hopefully, you can utilize the skills and refer to the examples provided
in this chapter in your application, design, and development of database
applications.

15.4 Glossary :
A parent–child relationship between two tables can be created only, when
there is a PRIMARY KEY in one table and FOREIGN KEY in another table.

15.5 Assignment :
Create a database application for ecommerce website

194
 15.6 Activities :
Create a master detail form for Invoice Application

15.7 Case Study :

Create a list of reports that can be useful for an ecommerce application

15.8 Further Readings :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth –Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication.
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication.
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication.
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication.

195
 Relational Database BLOCK SUMMARY :
Management System
(RDBMS) This chapter is about PL/SQL programming. The following PL/SQL
subject topics were discussed: overview of PL/SQL, modular coding principles,
building PL/SQL locks, communicating with Oracle, and process control.
Conditional statements and loops, cursors, and error handling help you flow.
PL/SQL is the most up-to-date approach for writing and managing stored
procedures. Using data from Oracle the declaration is the first subblock in PL/
SQL code. Furthermore, PL/SQL is used in four different programming constructs.
Procedures are the several categories. They both include a set of instructions
that will be executed by PL/SQL. Nonetheless, the primary distinction is that
a function will always return a single value.

196
 BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :
1. Package Creation
2. Variables
3. Constants
4. Data types and Arrays
5. Control Statements

 Long Questions :
1. What do you understand by control statements ?
2. What do you understand by package subprograms ?
3. Discuss the naming conventions.

197
 Relational Database  Enrolment No. :
Management System
(RDBMS) 1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 12 13 14 15

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

198