DR.

BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR
OPEN UNIVERSITY

BCA
BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

BCAR-202
Database Management System (DBMS)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

AHMEDABAD
Editorial Panel

Authors : Hiral R. Patel

Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science
Ganpat University.

Editor : Dr. Dharmesh Bhavsar

Associate Professor & I/C Director,
Shri Chimanbhai Patel Institute of
Computer Applications, Ahmedabad.

Language Editor : Dr. Jagdish Vinayakrao Anerao

Associate Professor,
Smt A. P. Patel Arts And,
N. P. Patel Commerce College,
Ahmedabad.

ISBN 978-81-949223-0-8

Edition : 2020

Copyright © 2020 Knowledge Management and Research

Organisation.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

transmitted or utilized in any form or by a means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage or retrieval system without written permission from us.

Acknowledgment

Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of

material reproduced in this book. Should an infringement have
occurred, we apologize for the same and will be pleased to make
necessary correction/amendment in future edition of this book.
ROLE OF SELF–INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN DISTANCE LEARNING
The need to plan effective instruction is imperative for a
successful distance teaching repertoire. This is due to the fact that
the instructional designer, the tutor, the author (s) and the
student are often separated by distance and may never meet in
person. This is an increasingly common scenario in distance
education instruction. As much as possible, teaching by distance
should stimulate the student's intellectual involvement and contain
all the necessary learning instructional activities that are capable
of guiding the student through the course objectives. Therefore,
the course / self–instructional material is completely equipped
with everything that the syllabus prescribes.

To ensure effective instruction, a number of instructional

design ideas are used and these help students to acquire knowledge,
intellectual skills, motor skills and necessary attitudinal changes.
In this respect, students' assessment and course evaluation are
incorporated in the text.

The nature of instructional activities used in distance

education self–instructional materials depends on the domain of
learning that they reinforce in the text, that is, the cognitive,
psychomotor and affective. These are further interpreted in the
acquisition of knowledge, intellectual skills and motor skills.
Students may be encouraged to gain, apply and communicate
(orally or in writing) the knowledge acquired. Intellectual–skills
objectives may be met by designing instructions that make use of
students' prior knowledge and experiences in the discourse as the
foundation on which newly acquired knowledge is built.

The provision of exercises in the form of assignments,

projects and tutorial feedback is necessary. Instructional activities
that teach motor skills need to be graphically demonstrated and
the correct practices provided during tutorials. Instructional
activities for inculcating change in attitude and behaviour should
create interest and demonstrate need and benefits gained by
adopting the required change. Information on the adoption and
procedures for practice of new attitudes may then be introduced.

Teaching and learning at a distance eliminate interactive

communication cues, such as pauses, intonation and gestures,
associated with the face–to–face method of teaching. This is
particularly so with the exclusive use of print media. Instructional
activities built into the instructional repertoire provide this missing
interaction between the student and the teacher. Therefore, the
use of instructional activities to affect better distance teaching is
not optional, but mandatory.

Our team of successful writers and authors has tried to

reduce this.

Divide and to bring this Self–Instructional Material as the

best teaching and communication tool. Instructional activities are
varied in order to assess the different facets of the domains of
learning.

Distance education teaching repertoire involves extensive use

of self–instructional materials, be they print or otherwise. These
materials are designed to achieve certain pre–determined learning
outcomes, namely goals and objectives that are contained in an
instructional plan. Since the teaching process is affected over a
distance, there is need to ensure that students actively participate
in their learning by performing specific tasks that help them to
understand the relevant concepts. Therefore, a set of exercises is
built into the teaching repertoire in order to link what students
and tutors do in the framework of the course outline. These could
be in the form of students' assignments, a research project or a
science practical exercise. Examples of instructional activities in
distance education are too numerous to list. Instructional activities,
when used in this context, help to motivate students, guide and
measure students' performance (continuous assessment)
 PREFACE
We have put in lots of hard work to make this book as user–
friendly as possible, but we have not sacrificed quality. Experts
were involved in preparing the materials. However, concepts are
explained in easy language for you. We have included many tables
and examples for easy understanding.

We sincerely hope this book will help you in every way you
expect.

All the best for your studies from our team!

 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Contents

BLOCK 1 : INTRODUCTION, DATA MODELS AND ER MODEL

Unit 1 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM

Introduction, Definition of DBMS, What is Database ?,

What is DBMS ?, Functions of a DBMS, Data Abstraction,
Comparison of File Processing System and DBMS,
Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS, Users of
DBMS, Capabilities of DBMS

Unit 2 DATA MODELS

Introduction, Types of Data Models, Object Base Logical

Model, Record Base Logical Model, Physical Data Models,
Relational, Network, Hierarchical Model

Unit 3 ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL AND DIAGRAMS

Introduction, Entity Set, What is Entity Set ?, What is

weak Entity Set ?, Attribute, Relationship Set, ER
Diagrams

BLOCK 2 : RELATIONAL DATABASE AND DATABASE DESIGN

Unit 4 INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE

Introduction, Codd's 12 Rules, Terms, Keys, Anomalies

of Un–normalized Database, Comparison Hierarchical,
Network and Relational Databases

Unit 5 DATABASE DESIGN

Introduction, Database Development Life Cycle, Logical

Design, Physical Model, Capacity Planning, Advantages
and Disadvantages of Normalization

Unit 6 NORMALISATION

Introduction, What is Normalization ?, Database Normal

Forms and Example, 1NF (First Normal Form), 2NF
(Second Normal Form), 3NF (Third Normal Form), BCNF
(Boyce–Codd Normal Form), 4NF (Fourth Normal Form),
5NF & 6NF (Fifth & Sixth Normal Form)

BLOCK 3 : SQL AND OODBMS

Unit 7 SQL (STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE)

Introduction, History, Basic Structure, DDL Commands,

DML Commands, Simple Queries, Nested Queries,
Aggregate Functions
Unit 8 SQL CONSTRAINTS

Introduction, Not Null Constraint, Default Constraint,

Unique Constraint, Primary Key, Foreign Key, Check
Constrait

Unit 9 TRANSACTION PROCESSING

Introduction, Types of Transactions, Concurrent

Transactions, Discreet Transactions, Distributed
Transactio ns, In–Doubt Transactions, Normal
Transactions, Read–Only Transactions, Remote
Transactions, Read–Consistency, Steps to Processing a
Transaction, Entering DML/DDL Statements, Assigning
Rollback Segments, Long–Running Transactions and
Rollback Segment Allocation, Using the Optimizer, Cost–
Based Analysis, Rule–Based Analysis, Overriding the
Optimizer_Mode Parameter, Parsing Statements,
Handling Locks, Stepping Through the Transaction,
Processing a Remote or Distributed Transaction, Entering
DDL/DML Statements, Assigning Rollback Segments,
Breaking down Statements, Optimizing Local Statements,
Forwarding Remote Commands, Assigning Remote
Rollback Segments and Writing Redo Logs, Optimizing
Remote Statement, Returning Data to the Local Database,
Summarizing Remote and Distributed Transactions

Unit 10 OBJECT ORIENTED DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM

Introduction, Introduction to Database Management

Systems (DBMS), Example of Bank Transactions, Object
Oriented Database (OODB), Related terms, Distributed
Object Computing (DOC), Objects Methods Users,
Interfaces, Associations, Persistent Objects, Persistence
Data, Transient Data, Referential Integrity, MDBS, ODBC
(Open Database Connectivity), Locks, ActiveX, OOSAD,
CORBA, DCOM, OMG, CORBA Open DOC ActiveX,
Virtual DBMS, Object Oriented Database Management
Systems (OODBMS), Comparison between RDBMS and
OODBMS, A Three Schema Architecture, Mapping of
OODBMS to RDBMS, Example of Railway Reservation
System

BLOCK 4 : DATA (WARE HOUSING AND MINING) AND SECURITY

Unit 11 TYPES OF DATABASE

Introduction, Centralized Database, Distributed

Database, Personal Database, End–User Database,
 Commercial Database, NoSQL Database, Operational
Database, Relational Database, Cloud Database, Object–
Oriented Database, Graph Database

Unit 12 DATA WAREHOUSING AND DATA MINING

Introduction, Concept, Architecture, Various Tools in

Data Warehousing, Tools in Data Mining, Difference
Between Data Mining and Normal Query

Unit 13 DATABASE SECURITY

Introduction, Password Authentication, Operating

System Authentication, Why Protect Passwords ?,
Control, Protection, Integrity, Privileged Accounts, SYS,
SYSTEM, Other Issues, Operating System Group : DBA,
Object Security, Access Rights, Resolving Object
Synonyms, System Security, Defined System Privileges,
Object Security Model, Database Auditing, Recovery
from Various Problems of Volatile and Non–Volatile
Storage Devices

Unit 14 RECOVERY MECHANISMS

Introduction, Concept–Properties–States of Transaction,

Introduction to Mechanisms, Log, Deferred Update,
Immediate Update, Caching/Buffering, Checkpoint,
Shadow Paging
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR-202/
Open University Ahmedabad DCAR-202

Database Management System

BLOCK 1 : INTRODUCTION, DATA MODELS AND ET MODEL

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

UNIT 2 DATA MODELS

UNIT 3 ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL AND DIAGRAMS

 INTRODUCTION, DATA
MODELS AND ET MODEL
Block Introduction :
An important aspect of most every business is record keeping. In our
information society, this has become an important aspect of business, and much
of the world's computing power is dedicated to maintaining and using databases.
Databases of all kinds pervade almost every business. All kinds of data,
from emails and contact information to financial data and records of sales, are
stored in some form of a database. The quest is on for meaningful storage of less–
structured information, such as subject knowledge.
Unit 1 provides general overview of a nature and purpose of database
systems. You will learn how database has developed, problems with file
processing systems, common features of database system and users of database
system.
Unit 2 provides need of data modelling to organize data elements and
standardize how the data elements relate to one another. You will get overview
of three basic models conceptual, physical and logical models.
Unit 3 provides basic concepts of high level conceptual data model i.e. the
ER model. ER model views the real world as entities and relationships. You will
learn a basic component of the model – the Entity – Relationship diagram which
is used to visually represent data objects. It helps in database design and provides
overall logical structure of database.

Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able :

• To understand concept of database, Database management system and its

capabilities

• To understand the need of data modeling

• To study physical and logical database design, concept of data models

• To study basic concepts of Entity Relational model

Block Structure :
Unit 1 : Introduction to Database Management System
Unit 2 : Data Models
Unit 3 : Entity Relationship Model and Diagrams
 Unit
INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE
01 MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0 Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of DBMS
1.2.1 What is Database ?
1.2.2 What is DBMS ?
1.2.3 Functions of a DBMS
1.2.4 Data Abstraction
1.3 Comparison of File Processing System and DBMS
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS
1.5 Users of DBMS
1.6 Capabilities of DBMS
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Assignment
1.11 Activities
1.12 Case Study
1.13 Further Readings

1.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Meaning and importance of DBMS
• Definition of DBMS
• Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS
• Comparison of File Management and DBMS
• Users of DBMS
• Capabilities of DBMS

1.1 Introduction :
In the age of Information Technology, the significance of Data is very
crucial. Database Management System (DBMS) is a separate branch of IT that
comprises of several aspects regarding management of data.
Data can be defined as the collection of facts and figures.
The data can be generated in any type of transaction taking place in
an organization. For example, amount withdrawn from a particular account on
a particular day is the data which is generated in any bank. The basic unit

1
Database Management of data is byte. One byte comprises of eight bits. Bit refers to as binary digit
System i.e. zero and one. Thus the data comprises of several numbers of bits in form
of zero's and ones. The other unit of data is Kilobyte. One kilobyte is equivalent
to 1028 bytes (i.e. 210 bytes). The other units are Megabyte, Gigabyte, and
Terabyte and so on.
There is a difference between data and information. When we process
data, it becomes information. For example, we have recorded daily financial
transaction of a company. This forms a data. When we process this data for
generating some report, say journal, profit and loss account or balance sheet,
it becomes information.
In short, information is the processed form of data which helps managers
to make a decision. On these lines, let us compare data and information.
Data Information
Data is a collection of facts and figures. Information is the processed form of
It is difficult to draw any conclusion data.
from data. Information can be used to draw some
It is difficult to use data for decision conclusion.
making. Information can be used for the purpose
Data is a raw material for processing. of decision making.
The data is required to be processed Information can also be further utilized
further. to produce highly densified information.
Data is not generally time bound. Information is generally time bound

A Database management system (DBMS) is a collection of inter–related

data and a set of programs/methods to access those data. The database refers
to the data underlying the system. The goal of a DBMS is to provide a user–
friendly environment, which is convenient. For example a telephone directory
is an example of a database, where the underlying data consists of the name,
address and phone number. However it is not exactly a DBMS since, there
is no convenient way to get the address of the person who has a given phone
number. Another example, which is a DBMS, is the one underlying http://
www.amazon.com. The database underlying the system, consists of its members
and their information (name, login, password, credit card number, shipping
address, billing address, when they made their last purchase...), information
regarding the books (name, author, ISBN number, should an order be placed
for it), information regarding transactions in progress. In this case the database
is stored in amazon. Com's database server, the user's web browser initiates
the transaction (causes amazon.com to run the program to modify the database)
and the user interface is provided by the ser's web browser with the help of
the web server and the database server.

2
 Introduction to
Database
Management System

1.2 Definition of DBMS :

Definition of DBMS
1.2.1 What is Database ?
A database is an orderly collection of information. Sales order, stock
control or student records systems are all examples of databases
• A database categorizes information into logical groups, which are physically
stored in files called tables
• A table is an orderly collection of records
• A record is a collection of fields

3
Database Management A database can be viewed as a storeroom of data. A collection of actual
System information regarding an organization is stored in a database. For example,
there are 1000 students in a college and we want to store their personal details,
marks details etc. This information can be recorded in a database.
A collection of programs that enables you to store, modify, and extract
information from a database is known as DBMS. The major goal of a DBMS
is to provide a way to store & retrieve database information in convenient
and efficient manner.
Database systems are designed to handle large number of information.
Management of data involves both defining structures for storage of information
& providing way for manipulation of data. In addition, the database system
must ensure safety and accuracy of data.
1.2.2 What is DBMS ?
As DBMS is set of programs that enable you to store, modify, and extract
important information from a database. There are many different types of
DBMS, ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to huge
systems that run on mainframes.

Good data management is an essential prerequisite to corporate success.

Data Information
Information Knowledge
Knowledge Judgment
Judgment Decision
Decision Success

4
 A student record database holds details of students, courses and number Introduction to
Database
Table
Management System
Matric No Name Address Course
9712345 Samir Mumbai MA
9682374 Mihir Surat BE
9754322 Nishita Baroda MBA
Record 9567892 Alka Pune MBA
6763333 Soham Pune MCA
--------- --------- --------- ---------
--------- --------- --------- ---------
--------- --------- --------- ---------
--------- --------- --------- ---------

Fields
The student record database contains tables for students, courses and staff.
The student table has a record for each student, and each student record has
fields Matriculation Number, Student Name, Address, Date–of–birth, Course
etc.
One of the rules of relational databases is that only these "rectangular"
tables are permitted.
A database comprises 'tables', which contain 'records', which in turn
contain 'fields'.
A Database Management System (DBMS) provides facilities for the
storage and retrieval of information and, in addition, provides facilities for
preservation of the 'integrity' of the data
There are a number of different types of database management systems,
of which the 'relational' model, as used in Microsoft Access, is currently the
most common.
1.2.3 Functions of a DBMS :
1. Data Storage, Retrieval, and Update.
2. A User–Accessible Catalog.
3. Transaction Support.
4. Concurrency Control Services.
5. Recovery Services.
6. Authorization Services.
7. Support for Data Communication.
8. Integrity Services.
9. Services to Promote Data Independence.
10. Utility Services.

5
Database Management
System

1.2.4 Data Abstraction :

The main objective of database management systems is to provide the
users with an abstract view of data. The users of database may not be computer
professionals. Hence the complexity of system is hidden from them through
several levels of abstraction. Data abstraction is the process of hiding certain
details of how data is stored and maintained in database.

Data Abstraction
 Levels of Abstraction :
Various levels of abstraction are as follows :
Physical Level : It is the lowest level of abstraction. It describes how
the data is actually stored and describes the data structure and access methods
to be used by the database.
At the physical level, complex low level data is described in detail. The
internal view is expressed by the internal schema which contains the definition
6
of stored record, the method of representing the data fields and access aids Introduction to
used. Database
Management System
Conceptual level or logical level : It is the next higher level of abstraction.
It describes what data is stored actually in the database. It also explains what
relationships exist among the data.
At the conceptual level, the entire database is described in terms of
relatively simple data structures by conceptual schema.
View Level : It is the highest level of abstraction. At this level, only
a part of the database is described because the users of database may not be
concerned with the entire database. To simplify their interaction with database,
the view level is defined. This system may provide many views with same
database.
External/ User view defined
by user or application View 1 View 2 View 3
programmer in consultation
with Database Administrator. View Level 1

Global Community User View Defined by Conceptual Level

Database Administrator.

Internal / Shortage View defined by Physicals Level

Database Administrator
The various levels discussed above can be understood from this example-
Struct customer {
Char customer–name (50);
Char social–security (50);
Char customer–street (50);
Char customer–city (50);
} cust;
The structure of a customer can be defined using the above four fields.
Each field has a name and data type associated with it.
Physical Level : This level is expressed as a block of memory location.
The customer structure has 200 bytes block. This level is hidden from
programmers.
Conceptual Level : At this level of abstraction, the structure is defined
along with interrelationships with other structures. The database schema is
defined.
View Level : At this level, the user can see the final result of the program
for different inputs. Similarly, at the view level, several views of the database
are defined and the database users can get the required output.
Instances and Schemes : Collection of information stored in database
at a particular instance of time moment is called an instance of database. The
overall design of the database is called database schema.

7
Database Management The database system supports three types of database schema –
System
Physical Schemas : These are the schema at the physical level. They
are at the lowest level.
Logical Schemas : These are the schema at the conceptual level. These
are provided at the next or intermediate level.
Sub–Schemas : These are the schema at view level. These are at the
highest level.
 Data Independence :
The ability to modify schema definition at one level without affecting
schema definition in the next higher level is known as data independence.
There are two levels of data independence – physical data independence
and logical data independence. Physical data independence means the ability
to modify physical schema without causing application programs to be rewritten.
On similar lines, logical data independence means the ability to modify
the logical schema without causing application programs to be rewritten.
It is more difficult to achieve Logical data independence than achieving
Physical data independence
Data Model : It is the collection of conceptual tools for describing Data,
Data schema and Consistency constraints.
Data models are classified into following three categories –
(1) Object based logical model
(2) Record–based logical model
(3) Physical data model
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. What is database ? Explain with example ?
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2. What is DBMS ? Explain with example ?
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1.3 Comparison of File Processing System and DBMS :

Typical file–processing system is supported by conventional operating
systems. The system stores permanent records in various files. So various
application programs are needed to add, modify and extract information. There
is a need to protect data from inconsistency due to multiple concurrent users.
Crash recovery, security and access control should be taken into account. The
8
following drawbacks of typical file–processing systems are : Introduction to
Database
• Data redundancy and inconsistency
Management System
• Difficulty in accessing data
• Data isolation – multiple files and formats
• Integrity problems
• Atomicity of updates
• Concurrent access by multiple users
• Security problems
A database management system is software that provides services for
accessing a database, while maintaining all the required features of data. The
major components of a DBMS are the following :
• Transaction management – A transaction is a sequence of database
operations that represents a logical unit of work and that accesses a
database and transforms it from one state to another. Transaction
management ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct)
state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system
crashes) and transaction failures.
• Concurrency Control – This is the database management activity of
coordinating the actions of database manipulation processes that operate
concurrently that access shared data and potentially interfere with one
another. It ensures the consistency of the database in spite of interaction
among the concurrent transactions.
• Recovery Management – This in a database ensures the aborted or failed
transactions create no adverse effects on the database or the other
transactions
• Security Management – Refers to the protection of data against un–
authorized access.
• Language Interface – The DBMS provides support languages for definition
and manipulation of data in the database.
• Storage Management – Storage manager is a program module that
provides the interface between the low–level data stored in the database
and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.
The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks :
• Interaction with the file manager
• Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. Write a note on Four significant differences between file system & DBMS
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9
Database Management 1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS :
System
• Advantages of DBMS – One of the main advantages of using a database
system is that the organization can make use of, via the DBA, centralized
management and control over the data. The database administrator is the
focus of the centralized control. Any application requiring a change in
the structure of a data record requires an arrangement with the DBA,
who makes the necessary modifications.
• Reduction of Redundancies – Centralized control of data by the DBA
avoids unnecessary duplication of data and effectively reduces the total
amount of data storage required. It also eliminates the extra processing
necessary to trace the required data in a large mass of data.
• Elimination of Inconsistencies – The main advantage of avoiding
duplication is the elimination of inconsistencies that tend to be present
in redundant data files. Any redundancies that exist in the DBMS are
controlled and the system ensures that these multiple copies are consistent.
• Shared Data – A database allows the sharing of data under its control
by any number of application programs or users. For example, the
applications for the public relations and payroll departments can share
the same data.
• Integrity – Centralized control can also ensure that adequate checks are
incorporated in the DBMS to provide data integrity. Data integrity means
that the data contained in the database is both accurate and consistent.
Therefore, data values being entered for the storage could be checked
to ensure that they fall within a specified range and are of the correct
format.
• Security – Data is of vital importance to an organization and may be
confidential. Such confidential data must not be accessed by unauthorized
persons. The DBA who has the ultimate responsibility for the data in
the DBMS can ensure that proper access procedures are followed, including
proper authentication schemes for access to the DBMS and additional
checks before permitting access to sensitive data. Different levels of
security could be implemented for various types of data and operations.
• Conflict Resolution – Since the database is under the control of the
DBA, he/she should resolve the conflicting requirements of various users
and applications. In essence, the DBA chooses the best file structure and
access method to get optimal performance for the response–critical
applications, while permitting less critical applications to continue to use
the database, albeit with a relatively slower response.
• Data Independence – It is advantageous in the database environment
since it allows for changes at one level of the database without affecting
other levels. These changes are absorbed by the mapping between the
levels.
Disadvantages are as follows :
1. A complex conceptual design process
2. The need for multiple external databases
3. The need to hire database–related employees
4. High DBMS acquisition costs
10
5. A more complex programmer environment Introduction to
Database
6. Potentially catastrophic program failures
Management System
7. A longer running time for individual applications
8. Highly dependent DBMS operations
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. What are the Advantages of DBMS ?
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1.5 Users of DBMS :

Following people are interacting with the database Management System
in the organization :
(1) Database Administrators – The Database Administrators have overall
control on everything related to the database. They are responsible for
administering the resources like database, the object in database,
authentications to use data, coordinating and monitoring the activities,
acquiring software and hardware resources.
(2) Database Designers – Database designers are responsible for designing
database objects such as tables, columns, their data types, forms, reports,
etc. these objects must be designed properly as per requirement so that
those can be flexibly used by the users. The database designers have
to frequently communicate with all respective database users, understand
and study their requirements. They develop a view of database that
supports the requirement. Once the database design is complete, they
assist DBA i.e. Database Administrator.
(3) Application Programmers – These people write the program (Code)
according to the suggested by the database designers, so as to meet the
requirement of the end users. They also test, debus, document and
maintain these programs.
(4) End Users – End Users are the ultimate users of the system. The end
users access database for different purposes the end users can be categorizes
as follows :
(a) Casual end users – they occasionally access database but may
need different information every time the casual end users are
typically high or middle level managers.
(b) Naïve or Parametric end users – these users keep querying
constantly and updating database using common programmed queries.
The examples of such end users are production supervisors, store
keepers of the industry, reservation clerks of railway or airline.
(c) Sophisticated End Users – these people are business analysts,
consultants, scientists. They generally need complex information.

11
Database Management (d) Standalone users – these users maintain personal database by using
System readymade program packages. These packages provide flexible
environment with easy to use menu or graphical user interface.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Explain different users of database management system.
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1.6 Capabilities of DBMS :

• Data dictionary – stores data about the data (meta–data) In Access we
can see a list of all the tables we have defined. We can view and edit
the various fields.
• Data storage, retrieval, updating – In Access we can view and edit
the data using the "datasheet" view. This looks rather like a spread sheet.
Usually we will hide this facility in a released application – but it can
be very useful during development.
• Integrity provisions – ensures that data remains consistent with itself
we can restrict the types of data that can be entered. This may be as
simple as ensuring that the date of birth is a real date. We can also prevent
some more subtle errors creeping into our data.
• Transaction integrity – changes should be stored (committed) only when
transaction is successful
• We have to cope with the fact that computers go wrong – we may
suffer power failures or disk failures. Often it is important that operations
do not fail part way through. Complete failure of a transaction can be
recovered.
• Concurrency control – protects against simultaneous access to a single
record by multiple users
• Security mechanisms – protect against accidental or deliberate misuse
• Recovery mechanisms – restoration of database where failure occurs
• Data communications interface – increasingly databases are 'distributed'
 Check Your Progress – 5 :
1. Explain functions of DBMS.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. Database is collections of .
(A) Modules (B) Data (C) Programs (D) None

12
3. is collection of interrelated data and set of program to access Introduction to
them. Database
Management System
(A) Data Structure (B) Programming language
(C) Database Management System (D) Database
4. DBMS should provide following feature(s) .
(A) Protect data from system crash
(B) All of these
(C) Safety of the information stored
(D) Authorized access
5. Which of the following is considered as DBMS ?
(A) Oracle (B) Foxpro (C) All of these (D) Access
6. stores data about the data (meta–data).
(A) Model (B) Data Dictionary
(C) Template (D) None

1.7 Let Us Sum Up :

In this unit we have learned :
• Data can be defined as the collection of facts and figures. When we
process data, it becomes information.
• Database is an orderly collection of information. It categorizes information
into logical groups, which are physically stored in files called tables.
a table is an orderly collection of records. a record is a collection of
fields.
• A collection of programs that enables you to store, modify, and extract
information from a database is known as DBMS. The major goal of a
DBMS is to provide a way to store & retrieve database information in
convenient and efficient manner.
• The main objective of database management systems is to provide the
users with an abstract view of data. Data abstraction is the process of
hiding certain details of how data is stored and maintained in database.
Various levels of abstraction are physical, conceptual, view level.
• Data Independence is the ability to modify schema definition at one level
without affecting schema definition in the next higher level is known
as data independence. There are two levels of data independence –
physical data independence and logical data independence.
• Typical file–processing system is supported by conventional operating
system has drawbacks like Data redundancy and inconsistency, Difficulty
in accessing data, Data isolation – multiple files and formats, Integrity
problems, Atomicity of updates, Concurrent access by multiple users,
Security problems
• Components of DBMS are Transaction management, Concurrency Control,
Recovery Management, Security Management and Storage Management
• The DBMS users are Database Administrators, Database Designers,
Application Programmers and End Users like Casual end users, Naïve
or Parametric, Sophisticated and Standalone users.
13
Database Management 1.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :
System
 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 1.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 1.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 1.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 1.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
1 : See Section 1.6
2 : Data 3 : Database Management System
4 : All of These 5 : All of These
6 : Data Dictionary

1.9 Glossary :
1. Data – It can be defined as the collection of facts and figures.
2. Information – When we process data, it becomes information.
3. Database – A database is an orderly collection of information.
4. Database Management System (DBMS) – It is a collection of inter–
related data and a set of programs/methods to access those data.
5. Data Abstraction – It is the process of hiding certain details of how
data is stored and maintained.
6. Instances and Schemas – Collection of information stored in database
at a particular instance of time moment is called an instance of database.
The overall design of the database is called database schema.
7. Data Independence – The ability to modify schema definition at one
level without affecting schema definition in the next higher level is known
as data independence.
8. Physical Data Independence – It means the ability to modify physical
schema without causing application programs to be rewritten.
9. Logical Data Independence – It means the ability to modify the logical
schema without causing application programs to be rewritten.
10. Integrity – The property of the database that ensures that the data
contained in the database is as accurate and consistent as possible.
11. Data Dictionary – The database stores metadata in an area called the
data dictionary, which describes the tables, fields, indexes, constraints,
and other related items that make up the database.
12. Concurrent Access – Two or more users operating on the same records
in the same database table at the same time.

14
 1.10 Assignment : Introduction to
Database
Design a file structure of student with consists of student name, student Management System
roll no., student address, student course and student phone no. and save it,
so that further it will be used to convert it in to database

1.11 Activities :
List major steps that you would take in setting up a database for particular
organization.

1.12 Case Study :

List five responsibilities of a database management system. For each
responsibility, explains the problems that would arise if the responsibility were
not dis–charged.

1.13 Further Reading :

1. Introduction to Database Systems by C. J. Date
2. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang –PHI Learning Pvt Ltd
3. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz,Korth –Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai– Galgotia Publication
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan– Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
6. SQL, PL/SQL:The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross– BPB
Publication
Some useful websites are as follows :
http://www.eiilmuniversity.ac.in/coursepack/Computing/Database_
Management_ System.pdf
http://www.slideshare.net/singhanshu21/unit3rd
http://placementjump.blogspot.in/2013/10/dbms–important–questions–for–
interview.html
http://www.slideshare.net/singhanshu21/unit3rd http://www.orafaq.com/
wiki/Talk:DBMS http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/nehasinghal–
761246–dbms
http://placementjump.blogspot.in/2013/10/dbms–important–questions–for–
interview.html
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/nehasinghal–761246–dbms
http://arts.nprcolleges.org/e%20content/swca/Database%20System%
20Technique s%20–%20SST8C51.pdf

15
 Unit
02 DATA MODELS
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.0 Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Data Models
2.2.1 Object Base Logical Model
2.2.2 Record Base Logical Model
2.2.3 Physical Data Models
2.2.4 Relational
2.2.5 Network
2.2.6 Hierarchical Model
2.3 Let Us Sum Up
2.4 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
2.5 Glossary
2.6 Assignment
2.7 Activities
2.8 Case Study
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Concept of Data Models
• Importance in System Analysis and design
• Types of Data Models

2.1 Introduction :
In the earlier unit, we had a discussion on the fundamental concepts of
Database and Database Management Systems. One of the main purposes of
Database Management System is to provide some level of data abstraction by
hiding details of data storage that are not required by most of the database
users. Now, let us consider how the structure of data, the relationship between
the data, its semantics and consistency constraints can be conceptually described.
These details are provided by the tool called Data Model.
Data model is integrated collection of concepts for describing data,
relationships between data, and constraints on the data in an organization.

16
 2.2 Types of Data Models : Data Models

Types of Data Models

A DBMS can take any one of the several approaches to manage data.
Each approach constitutes a database model. A data model is a collection of
descriptions of data structures and their contained fields, together with the
operations or functions that manipulate them. A data model is a comprehensive
scheme for describing how data is to be represented for manipulation by humans
or computer programs. A thorough representation details the types of data, the
topological arrangements of data, spatial and temporal maps onto which data
can be projected, and the operations and structures that can be invoked to handle
data and its maps. The various Data Models fall into three groups : (1) Object
Based Logical Model, (2) Record Based Logical Model and (3) physical model.
2.2.1 Object Based Logical Model :
Object Based Logical Models describe data at the conceptual and view
levels. These models provide fairly flexible structuring capabilities and allow
one to specify data constraints explicitly. There are many different models under
this:
• Entity–relationship model.
• Object–oriented model.
• Semantic data model.
• Functional data model
The Entity–Relationship model has emerged as one of the main techniques
for modelling database design and forms the basis for the database design
methodology,
2.2.2 Record Base Logical Model :
Record based logical models are used in describing data at the logical
and view levels. In contrast to object based data models, they are used to specify
the overall logical structure of the database and to provide a higher–level
description of the implementation. Record based models are so named because
the database is structured in fixed format records of several types. Each record
type defines a fixed number of fields, or attributes, and each field is usually
of a fixed length.
The three most widely accepted record based data models are:
• Hierarchical Model
• Network Model
• Relational Model
The relational model has gained popularity over the other two in recent
years. The network and hierarchical models are still used in a large number
of older databases. 17
Database Management 2.2.3 Physical Data Models :
System
Physical data models describe how data is stored in the computer,
representing information such as record structures, record ordering, and access
paths. Thus these models describe data at the lowest level. There are not as
many physical data models as logical data models, the most common one are:
• The Unifying model.
• Frame memory model
2.2.4 Relational :
Relational model stores data in the form of tables. This concept purposed
by Dr. E. F. Codd, a researcher of IBM in the year 1960s. The relational model
consists of three major components:
1. The set of relations and set of domains that defines the way data can
be represented (data structure).
2. Integrity rules that define the procedure to protect the data (data integrity).
3. The operations that can be performed on data (data manipulation).
A rational model database is defined as a database that allows you to
group its data items into one or more independent tables that can be related
to one another by using fields common to each related table.
Properties of Relational Tables:
a. Values Are Atomic
b. Each Row is Unique
c. Column Values Are of the Same Kind
d. The Sequence of Columns is Insignificant
e. The Sequence of Rows is Insignificant
f. Each Column Has a Unique Name
Basic Terminology used in Relational Model
The figure shows a relation with the formal names of the basic components
marked the entire structure is, as we have said, a relation.

• Tuples of a Relation – Each row of data is a tuple. Actually, each row

is an n–tuple, but the "n–" is usually dropped.
• Cardinality of a relation – The number of tuples in a relation determines
its cardinality. In this case, the relation has a cardinality of 4.
• Degree of a relation – Each column in the tuple is called an attribute.
The number of attributes in a relation determines its degree. The relation
in figure has a degree of 3.

18
• Domains – A domain definition specifies the kind of data represented Data Models
by the attribute. Particularly, a domain is the set of all possible values
that an attribute may validly contain. Domains are often confused with
data types. Data type is a physical concept while domain is a logical
one. "Number" is a data type and "Age" is a domain.
To give another example "Street Name" and "Surname" might both be
represented as text fields, but they are obviously different kinds of text
fields; they belong to different domains.
• Body of a Relation – The body of the relation consists of an unordered
set of zero or more tuples. There are some important facts :
 First the relation is unordered. Record numbers do not apply to
relations.
 Second a relation with no tuples still qualifies as a relation.
 Third, a relation is a set. The items in a set are, by definition,
uniquely identifiable. Therefore, for a table to qualify as a relation
each record must be uniquely identifiable and the table must
contain no duplicate records.
 In this model, two sets of data are linked by a relationship. The
relationship could be 'one–to–one', 'one–to–many' or 'many–to–
many'.
 Relational View of Sample Database :
• Let us take an example of a sample database consisting of supplier, parts
and shipments tables. The table structure and some sample records for
supplier, parts and shipments tables are given as Tables as shown below :

• Each row in Supplier table is identified by a unique SNo (Supplier

Number), which uniquely identifies the entire row of the table. Likewise
each part has a unique PNo (Part Number). Also, we assume that no

19
Database Management more than one shipment exists for a given supplier/part combination_in
System the shipments table.
• Note that the relations Parts and Shipments have PNo (Part Number)
in common and Supplier and Shipments relations have SNo (Supplier
Number) in common. The Supplier and Parts relations have City in
common. For example, the fact that supplier S3 and part P2 are located
in the same city is represented by the appearance of the same value,
Amritsar, in the city column of the two tuples in relations.
 Keys of a Relation :
It is a set of one or more columns whose combined values are unique
among all occurrences in a given table. A key is the relational means of
specifying uniqueness. Some different types of keys are :
• Primary key – is an attribute or a set of attributes of a relation which
possess the properties of uniqueness and irreducibility (No subset should
be unique). For example: Supplier number in S table is primary key,
Part number in P table is primary key and the combination of Supplier
number and Part Number in SP table is a primary key
• Foreign key – is the attributes of a table, which refers to the primary
key of some another table. Foreign key permit only those values, which
appears in the primary key of the table to which it refers or may be
null (Unknown value). For example: SNO in SP table refers the SNO
of S table, which is the primary key of S table, so we can say that SNO
in SP table is the foreign key. PNO in SP table refers the PNO of P
table, which is the primary key of P table, so we can say that PNO
in SP table is the foreign key.
 Operations in Relational Model :
The four basic operations Insert, Update, Delete and Retrieve operations
are shown below on the sample database in relational model:
• Insert Operation – Suppose we wish to insert the information of supplier
who does not supply any part, can be inserted in S table without any
anomaly e.g. S4 can be inserted in Stable. Similarly, if we wish to insert
information of a new part that is not supplied by any supplier can be
inserted into a P table. If a supplier starts supplying any new part, then
this information can be stored in shipment table SP with the supplier
number, part number and supplied quantity. So, we can say that insert
operations can be performed in all the cases without any anomaly.
• Update Operation – Suppose supplier S1 has moved from Qadian to
Jalandhar. In that case we need to make changes in the record, so that
the supplier table is up–to–date. Since supplier number is the primary
key in the S (supplier) table, so there is only a single entry of S 1,
which needs a single update and problem of data inconsistencies would
not arise. Similarly, part and shipment information can be updated by
a single modification in the tables P and SP respectively without the
problem of inconsistency. Update operation in relational model is very
simple and without any anomaly in case of relational model.
• Delete Operation – Suppose if supplier S3 stops the supply of part P2,
then we have to delete the shipment connecting part P2 and supplier
S3 from shipment table SP. This information can be deleted from SP
20
 table without affecting the details of supplier of S3 in supplier table and Data Models
part P2 information in part table. Similarly, we can delete the information
of parts in P table and their shipments in SP table and we can delete
the information suppliers in S table and their shipments in SP table.
The Relational database model is based on the Relational Algebra.
Advantages :
1. Structural Independence
2. Conceptual Simplicity
3. Ease of design, implementation, maintenance and usage.
4. Ad hoc query capability
Disadvantages :
1. Hardware Overheads
2. Ease of design can lead to bad design
2.2.5 Network :
The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity
of the hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with
more than one parent per child. So, the network model permitted the modeling
of many–to–many relationships in data. In 1971, the Conference on Data
Systems Languages (CODASYL) formally defined the network model. The
basic data modeling construct in the network model is the set construct. A
set consists of an owner record type, a set name, and a member record type.

A member record type in the Network Model can have that role in more
than one set; hence the multi parent concept is supported. An owner record
type can also be a member or owner in another set. The data model is a simple
network, and link and intersection record types (called junction records by
IDMS) may exist, as well as sets between them.
Thus, the complete network of relationships is represented by several
pair wise sets; in each set some (one) record type is owner (at the tail of
the network arrow) and one or more record types are members (at the head
21
Database Management of the relationship arrow). Usually, a set defines a 1 : M relationship, although
System 1 : 1 is permitted. The CODASYL network model is based on mathematical
set theory.
 Network view of Sample Database :
Considering again the sample supplier–part database, its network view
is shown. In addition to the part and supplier record types, a third record type
is introduced which we will call as the connector. A connector occurrence
specifies the association (shipment) between one supplier and one part. It
contains data (quantity of the parts supplied) describing the association between
supplier and part records.

All connector occurrences for a given supplier is placed on a chain.The

chain starts from a supplier and finally returns to the supplier. Similarly, all
connector occurrences for a given part are placed on a chain starting from
the part and finally returning to the same part.
 Operations on Network Model :
Detailed description of all basic operations in Network Model is as under :
• Insert Operation – To insert a new record containing the details of a
new supplier, we simply create a new record occurrence. Initially, there
will be no connector. The new supplier's chain will simply consist of
a single pointer starting from the supplier to it.
For example, supplier S4 can be inserted in network model that does
not supply any part as a new record occurrence with a single pointer
from S4 to itself. This is not possible in case of hierarchical model.
Similarly a new part can be inserted who does not supplied by any
supplier.
Consider another case if supplier S 1 now starts supplying P3 part with
quantity 100, then a new connector containing the 100 as supplied
quantity is added in to the model and the pointer of S1 and P3 are
modified as shown in the below. We can summarize that there is no insert
anomalies in network model as in hierarchical model.
• Update Operation – Unlike hierarchical model, where updating was
carried out by search and had many inconsistency problems, in a network
model updating a record is a much easier process. We can change the
city of S I from Qadian to Jalandhar without search or inconsistency
problems because the city for S1 appears at just one place in the network
22
 model. Similarly, same operation is performed to change the any attribute Data Models
of part.

• Delete operation – If we wish to delete the information of any part

say PI, then that record occurrence can be deleted by removing the
corresponding pointers and connectors, without affecting the supplier who
supplies that part i.e. P1, the model is modified as shown. Similarly,
same operation is performed to delete the information of supplier.
In order to delete the shipment information, the connector for that
shipment and its corresponding pointers are removed without affecting
supplier and part information.
For example, if supplier SI stops the supply of part PI with 250 quantity
the model is modified as shown below without affecting P1 and S1
information.

Advantages :
1. Conceptual Simplicity
2. Ease of data access
3. Data Integrity and capability to handle more relationship types
4. Data independence
5. Database standards
Disadvantages :
1. System complexity
2. Absence of structural independence

23
Database Management Class
System

Student Teacher

Grade ID Department

Network Data Model

2.2.6 Hierarchical Data Model :
Hierarchical Database model is one of the oldest database models, dating
from late 1950s. One of the first hierarchical databases Information Management
System (IMS) was developed jointly by North American Rockwell Company
and IBM. This model is like a structure of a tree with the records forming
the nodes and fields forming the branches of the tree.
Thus hierarchical data model organizes data in a tree structure. There
is a hierarchy of parent and child data segments. This structure implies that
a record can have repeating information, generally in the child data segments.
Data is a series of records, which have a set of field values attached to it.
It collects all the instances of a specific record together as a record type. These
record types are the equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the
individual records being the equivalent of rows.
This model is applicable when data in the organization can be put down
in hierarchical or in terms of levels, one after the other. This model is equivalent
to a tree. The tree has roots, branches and leaves, their equivalents in this
model beings records, nodes and fields.
In the hierarchical model, data elements are organized in a tree structure
in parent – child format. For example, the hierarchical model of a bank database
is as shown in the figure.

24
 In the hierarchical model, any information about the child can be accessed Data Models
only through the parent. For example, if you want any transaction information
about an account in the branch, then it will be accessed through the branch
– function account route. Direct access to the transaction, even if you know
its identity key, is not possible.
In this model, there are issues about loss of data and information, if
you delete the entity. When you delete the entity, you lose the information
of the child as well as of the tree structure e.g. if you delete account B, its
transaction and records are lost.
The typical characteristics of a hierarchical model are as follows:
1. Hierarchical model starts with a root and it has several roots.
2. A root will have several branches.
3. Each branch is connected to one and only one root.
4. A branch has several leaves and a set of leaves is connected to one branch.
5. Thus, the hierarchical tree structure is made up of branches (nodes) and
leaves (fields).
In order to understand the hierarchical data model better, let us take the
example of the sample database consisting of supplier, parts and shipments.
The record structure and some sample records for supplier, parts and shipments
elements are as given in following tables.

25
Database Management We assume that each row in Supplier table is identified by a unique
System SNo (Supplier Number) that uniquely identifies the entire row of the table.
Likewise each part has a unique Pno (Part Number). Also we assume that no
more than one shipment exists for a given supplier/part combination in the
shipments table.
 Hierarchical View for the Suppliers–Parts Database :
The tree structure has parts record superior to supplier record. That is
parts form the parent and supplier forms the children. Each of the four trees
figure, consists of one part record occurrence, together with a set of subordinate
supplier record occurrences. There is one supplier record for each supplier of
a particular part. Each supplier occurrence includes the corresponding shipment
quantity.

For example, supplier S3 supplies 300 quantities of part P2. Note that
the set of supplier occurrences for a given part occurrence may contain any
number of members, including zero (for the case of part P4). Part PI is supplied
by two suppliers, S1 and S2. Part P2 is supplied by three suppliers, S1, S2
and S3 and part P3 supplied by only supplier SI as shown in figure.
 Operations on Hierarchical Model :
There are four basic operations Insert, Update, Delete and Retrieve that
can be performed on each model. Now, we consider in detail that how these
basic operations are performed in hierarchical database model.
• Insert Operation – It is not possible to insert the information of the
supplier e.g. S4 who does not supply any part. This is because a node
cannot exist without a root. Since, a part P5 that is not supplied by any
supplier can be inserted without any problem, because a parent can exist
without any child. So, we can say that insert anomaly exists only for
those children, which has no corresponding parents.
• Update Operation – Suppose we wish to change the city of supplier
S1 from Qadian to Jalandhar, then we will have to carry out two
operations such as searching S1 for each part and then multiple updates
for different occurrences of S1. But, if we wish to change the city of
part P1 from Qadian to Jalandhar, then these problems will not occur
because there is only a single entry for part P I and the problem of
inconsistency will not arise. So, we can say that update anomalies only
exist for children not for parent because children may have multiple
entries in the database.

26
• Delete Operation – In hierarchical model, quantity information is Data Models
incorporated into supplier record. Hence, the only way to delete a
shipment (or supplied quantity) is to delete the corresponding supplier
record. But such an action will lead to loss of information of the supplier,
which is not desired. For example: Supplier S2 stops supplying 250
quantity of part PI, then the whole record of S2 has to be deleted under
part PI which may lead to loss the information of supplier. Another
problem will arise if we wish to delete a part information and that part
happens to be only part supplied by some supplier. In hierarchical model,
deletion of parent causes the deletion of child records also and if the
child occurrence is the only occurrence in the whole database, then the
information of child records will also lost with the deletion of parent.
For example: if we wish to delete the information of part P2 then we
also lost the information of S3, S2 and S1 supplier. The information of
S2 and Sl can be obtained from PI, but the information about supplier
S3 is lost with the deletion of record for P2.
 Program Work Area / User Work Area :
In an application environment, as a number of records are accessed from
a database, they are retrieved into a set of program variables. The program
then accesses the field values of the database records through them. The
database system maintains a program work area or user work area. The PWA/
UWA is a buffer storage area for these variables.
The following variables are maintained in a PWA/UWA for each application
program:
a. Record templates – The variables with data types and width of each
field of the record types accessed by the application programs.
b. Currency Pointers – A set of pointers, one for each database tree
containing the address of the record in that particular tree accessed most
recently by the application program.
c. Status flag – A variable set (DB – status) by the system to indicate
to the application program, the outcome of the last database operation.
If DB–status = 0, then it indicates that the last operation succeeded.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Explain the concept of Data models.
2. State the difference between Network data model and Hierarchical Model.
3. Explain advantages and disadvantages of relational model.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
4. Data Model is collection of conceptual tools for describing –
(A) Data (B) Schema (C) Constraints (D) All of these

27
Database Management 5. Data Models in DBMS are classified into ______ categories.
System
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 5 (D) 4
6. Object based logical model(s) are used to describe data at – [Select
Appropriate Option(s)
(A) View Level (B) Logical Level
(C) Physical Level (D) None
7. Which of the following is example of Object based logical model ?
(A) Relational Model (B) Hierarchical Model
(C) Network Layer (D) ERM
8. is a variable set (DB – status) by the system to indicate to
the application program, the outcome of the last database operation
(A) Status flag (B) Currency Pointer
(C) None (D) Both

2.3 Let Us Sum Up :

Data Model can be defined as an integrated collection of concepts for
describing and manipulating data, relationships between data, and constraints
on the data in an organization. The purpose of a data model is to represent
data and to make the data understandable. There have been many data models
proposed in the literature. They fall into three broad categories: Object Based
Data Models, Physical Data Models and Record Based Data Models. The object
based and record based data models are used to describe data at the conceptual
and external levels, the physical data model is used to· describe data at the
internal level. Some of the more common types of object based data model
are: Entity–Relationship, Object Oriented, Semantic and Functional. The three
most widely accepted record based data models are: Hierarchical Model,
Network Model and Relational Model. The most common Physical model is
the Unifying Model.

2.4 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
1 : See Section 2.2
2 : See Section 2.2.5 and 2.2.6
3 : See Section 2.2.4
4 : All of these 5 : 3
6 : Logical Level 7 : ERM
8 : Status flag

2.5 Glossary :
1. Data Model – It can be defined as an integrated collection of concepts
for describing and manipulating data, relationships between data, and
constraints on the data in an organization.
2. Object based data model – the model which uses concepts such as
entities, attributes, and relationships
3. Record based logical model – the model is used in describing data at
the logical and view levels.
28
4. Physical Model – Physical data models describe how data is stored in Data Models
the computer, representing information such as record structures, record
ordering, and access paths.
5. Relational model – the model stores data in the form of tables.
6. Network model – The model which organizes entity as graph and can
be accessed by several paths.
7. Hierarchical model – This model is like a structure of a tree with the
records forming the nodes and fields forming the branches of the tree.
8. CODASYL – Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL)
formally defined the network model.
9. HDML – Hierarchical Data Manipulation Language for Hierarchical
model
10. IMS – Information Management System is one of the oldest and widely
used database system introduced by IBM.
11. DDL – Data definition Language.

2.6 Assignment :
Pick the various Databases which you are very much familiar with. And
identify the data model that suits those databases

2.7 Activities :
Study different object based logical models in detail.

2.8 Case Study :

Study different record based logical models in detail.

2.9 Further Reading :

1. Introduction to Computer Graphics, N Krishnamurthy, Tata McGraw Hill
2. Computer Graphics – Theory into Practice, Jeffrey J. McConnell
3. Procedural element for Computer Graphics, Rogers, 2nd ed, Tata McGraw
Hill.
4. Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice, James D. Foley, Andries van
Dam, Steven K. Feiner, John F. Hughes.
Some useful websites are as follows :
http://ecomputernotes.com
http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM–Level–2–Core/glossary.html
http://www.w3.org/TR/PR–DOM–Level–1/glossary.html
http://arts.nprcolleges.org/e%20content/swca/Database%20System%20
Technique s%20–%20SST8C51.pdf
http://www.cs.iit.edu/~cs561/cs425/PANDURENGAN_VIGNESH
RelationalData baseIntro/test/DBModels.html
http://unixspace.com/context/databases.html
http://www.unixspace.com/context/databases.html

29
Database Management http://rakeshpurohit.wordpress.com
System
http://www.gdcbemina.com/Study–Material/BCOM–FINAL–YEAR–
STUDY–MATERIAL(COMPUTER)/B.Com.3rd–Study–mat...
http://sql–plsql–notes.blogspot.in/2011/07/relational–database–management
–system.html
http://www.cs.iit.edu/~cs561/cs425/PANDURENGAN_VIGNESH
RelationalData baseIntro/test/DBModels.html
http://www.unixspace.com/context/databases.html

30
 Unit
ENTITY RELATIONSHIP
03 MODEL & DIAGRAMS
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.0 Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Entity Set
3.2.1 What is Entity Set ?
3.2.2 What is weak Entity Set ?
3.3 Attribute
3.4 Relationship Set
3.5 ER Diagrams
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
3.8 Glossary
3.9 Assignment
3.10 Activities
3.11 Case Study
3.12 Further Readings

3.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The need for entity–relationship modeling
• The terms and notations related to entity–relationship model, entity–
relationship diagram
• To understand various terms like entity type, entity, attribute, attribute
value, primary key, relationship, relationship type etc.

3.1 Introduction :
The E–R data model is based on a perception of a real world that consists
of a set of basic objects called entities and of relationships among these objects.
It was developed to facilitate database design by allowing the specification of
an enterprise schema, which represents the overall logical structure of a database.
The E–R model is extremely useful in mapping the meanings and interactions
of real–world enterprises onto a conceptual schema. Because of this utility,
many database–design tools draw on concepts from the E–R model.
There are three basic notations that the E–R Model employs:
1. Entity Sets.
2. Relationship sets.
3. Attributes.
Entities and Entity sets :

31
Database Management 3.2 Entity Set :
System
3.2.1 What is Entity Set ?
An Entity is any object of interest to and organization or for the
representation in the database. They represent objects in the real world which
is distinguishable from all other objects.
For Eg : Every person in a college is an entity.
Every room in a college is an entity.
Associated with an entity is a set of properties. These properties are used
to distinguish to from one entity to another entity.
For Eg : 1. The Attributes of the entity of student are
USN, Name, Address.
2. The Attributes of the Entity of Vehicle are
Vehicle no, Make, Capacity.
For the purpose of accessing and storing information only certain attributes
are used.
Those attributes which uniquely identify every instance of the entity is
termed as primary key.
An Entity which has a set of attributes which can uniquely identify all
the entities is termed as Strong entity.
An entity whose primary key does not determine all the instance of the
entity uniquely termed as weak entity.
A collection of similar entities, which has certain properties which are
common forms an entity set for organization such as a college the object of
concern include Student, Teacher, Rooms, Subjects. The collection of similar
entities forms entity set.
3.2.2 What is Weak Entity Set ?
An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key,
and its primary key compromises of its partial key and primary key of its parent
entity, then it is said to be Weak Entity set.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. What is Entity Set ?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3.3 Attribute :
 Attribute / Column :
A column stores an attribute of the entity. For example, if details of
students are stored then student name is an attribute; course is another attribute
and so on.

32
 In general, an attribute is a property or characteristic. Colour, for example, Entity Relationship
is an attribute of your hair. In using or programming computers, an attribute Model & Diagrams
is a changeable property or characteristic of some component of a program
that can be set to different values.
In a database management system (DBMS), an attribute may describe
a component of the database, such as a table or a field, or may be used itself
as another term for a field.

 Types of attributes :
1. Simple Attributes – The attributes which cannot be further divided into
subparts.
Eg : University Seat Number of a student is unique which cannot be
further divided.
2. Composite Attributes – The attributes can be further divided into
portions.
Eg : The attribute name in the Student Database can be further divided
into First
name, Middle name, Last name.
Name
First name Middle name Last name
3. Single valued Attributes – The attribute at any instant contains only
a specific value at any instant.
for eg The USN is unique
4. Multivalued Attributes – Certain attributes for example the dependent
name in the policy database may have set of values assigned to it. There
may be more than one dependent for a single policy holder.
5. Stored Attributes – For a person entity, the value of age can be
determined from the current date and the value of that person's birthdate.
The Age attribute is hence derived attribute and is said to be derivable
from the birthdate attributes, which is called a stored attributes.
6. NULL Attributes – A NULL value attribute is used when an attributes
does not have any values.

33
Database Management  Check Your Progress – 2 :
System
1. Explain concept of Attribute with proper example
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3.4 Relationship Set :

A relationship is an association of entities where the association includes
one entity from each participating entity type. The relationship between entities
may be
One–to–one, one–to–many or many–to–many.
If you take entities student, batch and subject, the following are the
possible relationships.
There is one–to–one relationship between batch and subject. One batch
is associated with only one subject.
Three is one–to–many relationship between batch and student entities.
One batch may contain many students.
There is many–to–many relationship between student and subject entities.
A single student may take many subjects and a single subject may be taken
by multiple students.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. State with example – What is Relationship Set ?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3.5 ER Diagrams :
Figure depicts the entity relationship diagram for a store system. In this
diagram, the line connecting entities are shown. The arrows also indicate the
nature of relationships. The one to one (1:1) relationship occurs when one entity
is associated exactly with the other. For example, one receipt causes only one
payable and there is only one payable for every receipt so the lines connecting
these entities have only one arrow.
There can also be a one–to–many (1: n) relationship. One order contains
many different order items so the line connecting order–to–order item has a
dark arrow pointing to the order item and a single arrow pointing to the order.
Finally there are many to many (n: n) relationships. There can be many items
on a sale and many sales of item double arrow point to each entity.

34
 The symbols used in ER diagram are as follows : Entity Relationship
Model & Diagrams

Here we are going to design an Entity Relationship (ER) model for a

college database. Say we have the following statements.
1. A college contains many departments
2. Each department can offer any number of courses
3. Many instructors can work in a department
4. An instructor can work only in one department
5. For each department there is a Head
35
Database Management 6. An instructor can be head of only one department
System
7. Each instructor can take any number of courses
8. A course can be taken by only one instructor
9. A student can enroll for any number of courses
10. Each course can have any number of students
Step 1 : Identify the Entities
What are the entities here ?
From the statements given, the entities are
1. Department
2. Course
3. Instructor
4. Student
Step 2 : Identify the relationships
1. One department offers many courses. But one particular course can be
offered by only one department. hence the cardinality between department
and course is One to Many (1:N)
2. One department has multiple instructors. But instructor belongs to only
one department. Hence the cardinality between department and instructor
is One to Many (1:N)
3. One department has only one head and one head can be the head of
only one department. Hence the cardinality is one to one. (1:1)
4. One course can be enrolled by many students and one student can enroll
for many courses. Hence the cardinality between course and student is
Many to Many (M:N)
5. One course is taught by only one instructor. But one instructor teaches
many courses. Hence the cardinality between course and instructor is
Many to One (N :1)
Step 3 : Identify the key attributes
• "Departmen_Name" can identify a department uniquely. Hence
Department_Name is the key attribute for the Entity "Department".
• Course_ID is the key attribute for "Course" Entity.
• Student_ID is the key attribute for "Student" Entity.
• Instructor_ID is the key attribute for "Instructor" Entity.
Step 4 : Identify other relevant attributes
• For the department entity, other attributes are location
• For course entity, other attributes are course_name,duration
• For instructor entity, other attributes are first_name, last_name, phone
• For student entity, first_name, last_name, phone

36
 Step 5 : Draw complete ER diagram Entity Relationship
Model & Diagrams
By connecting all these details, we can now draw ER diagram as given
below.

Entity relationship diagram of store system

37
Database Management Figure is a rough draft ER diagram of the warehouse system. Here we
System use the convention of single and dark arrows to represent 1:1, 1: n etc
relationships.

Entry–relationship diagram of warehouse system

 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. What are Entity Relationship Diagrams ? Explain with example
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. Entity Relationship model consists of collection of basic objects called
and relationship among these objects.
(A) Functions (B) models (C) entities (D) None
3. Object which is distinguishable from other objects by specific set of
attributes is called as .
(A) Entity (B) Classes (C) Attributes (D) None

38
4. Association among several entities is called as . Entity Relationship
Model & Diagrams
(A) Relationship (B) Association
(C) Combination (D) Extraction
5. express the number of entities to which another entity can
be associated via a relationship set.
(A) Mapping Cardinality (B) Messaging Cardinality
(C) Logical Cardinality (D) None
6. is an association of entities where the association includes one entity
from each participating entity type.
(A) Entity (B) Relationships
(C) Diagram (D) Node

3.6 Let Us Sum Up :

An entity is any object that is stored in the database. Each entity is
associated with a collection of attributes. For example, if you take a data of
a training institute, student is an entity as we store information about each
student in the database. Each student is associated with certain values such
as roll number, name, course etc., which are called as attributes of the entity.
In general, an attribute is a property or characteristic. Colour, for example,
is an attribute of your hair. In using or programming computers, an attribute
is a changeable property or characteristic of some component of a program
that can be set to different values.
There will be relationship among entities. The relationship between
entities may be
One–to–one, one–to–many or many–to–many.
If you take entities student, batch and subject, the following are the
possible relationships.
There is one–to–one relationship between batch and subject. One batch
is associated with only one subject.
Three is one–to–many relationship between batch and student entities.
One batch may contain many students.
There is many–to–many relationship between student and subject entities.
A single student may take many subjects and a single subject may be taken
by multiple students.

3.7 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 3.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 3.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 3.4

39
Database Management  Check Your Progress 4 :
System
1 : See Section 3.5
2 : Entities 3 : Entity
4 : Relationships 5 : Mapping Cardinality
6 : Relationships

3.8 Glossary :
1. ER model – It is a conceptual data model that views the real world
as entities and relationships. A basic component of the model is the
Entity–Relationship diagram, which is used to visually represent data
objects.
2. Entity – An entity is something which is described in the database by
storing its data, it may be a concrete entity a conceptual entity.
3. Entity set – An entity set is a collection of similar entities.
4. Attribute – An attribute describes a property associated with entities.
Attribute will have a name and a value for each entity.
5. Domain – A domain defines a set of permitted values for a attribute.
6. Relationship – A relationship is a link or association between entities.
Relationships are usually denoted by verb phrases.
7. Weak entity – An entity may not have sufficient attributes to form a
primary key, and its primary key compromises of its partial key and
primary key of its parent entity, then it is said to be Weak Entity.
8. Candidate key – If an attribute can be thought of as a unique identifier
for an entity, it is called a candidate key.
9. Primary key – When a candidate key is chosen to be the unique
identifier, it becomes the primary key for the entity.

3.9 Assignment :
Explain in your own words how to define Entity, attribute and relationship
with example.

3.10 Activities :
Explain ER–design methodology.What are problems with ER Model ?

3.11 Case Study :

A small accounting firm wants a simple HR application that will help
it to keep track of its employees, their positions, allowances, salary scales,
and which company vehicles their employees drive.
The application must keep track of all the positions at the firm, the
employees filling these positions, the allowances for these positions, the salary
scales for these positions, and the company vehicles assigned to these positions.
Identify entities, relationship within entities and draw ER diagram for
the above case study.

40
 3.12 Further Reading : Entity Relationship
Model & Diagrams
1. Introduction to Database Systems by C.J.Date
2. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang –PHI Learning Pvt Ltd
3. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz,Korth –Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai– Galgotia Publication
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan– Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
6. SQL, PL/SQL:The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross– BPB
Publication
Some useful websites are as follows :
http://ecomputernotes.com/fundamental/what–is–a–database/network–
model
http://rakeshpurohit.wordpress.com
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/nehasinghal–761246–dbms
http://www.slidsseshare.net/the10dar/document–33319174
http://rakeshpurohit.wordpress.com
http://www.gdcbemina.com/Study–Material/BCOM–FINAL–YEAR–
STUDY–MATERIAL(COMPUTER)/B.Com.3rd–Study–mat...
http://www.orafaq.com/wiki/Talk:DBMS
http://www.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_attributes_of_an_Object
http://www.programmingking.in/2013_05_26_archive.html

41
Database Management BLOCK SUMMARY :
System
Unit 1 provides concept of database and database management system.
Database is well organized data about particular enterprise. DBMS is a collection
of interrelated data and set of programs to access those data. The primary goal
of DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database information that
is both convenient and efficient. Keeping organizational information in file
processing system has major disadvantages like data redundancy and inconsistency,
difficulty in accessing data, data isolation, integrity and security and concurrent
access anomalies. In order to remove drawbacks, database management system
comes into existence. A major purpose of database management system is to
provide users with an abstract view of the data. Data abstraction is provided
at physical, logical and view level. Database system has schemas according
to levels of abstraction: physical, logical and sub–schema. There are different
types of database users: naïve users, application programmers and sophisticated
users and specialized users. Database Administrator is person who has central
control over database. Components of DBMS are Transaction manager, storage
manager, query processor, file manager and buffer manager.

Unit 2 provides the concept of data models. Data Model can be defined
as an integrated collection of concepts for describing and manipulating data,
relationships between data, and constraints on the data in an organization. The
purpose of a data model is to represent data and to make the data understandable.
They fall into three broad categories: Object Based Data Models, Physical Data
Models and Record Based Data Models.

Unit 3 explains the concept of ER models. In Entity–Relationship model

a database is modeled as a collection of entities and relationship among entities.
The ER model views the real world as a construct of entities and association
between entities. A basic component of the model is the Entity–Relationship
diagram, which is used to visually represent data objects. For the database
designer, the utility of the ER model is wide. It maps well to the relational
model. The constructs used in the ER model can easily be transformed into
relational tables. It is simple and easy to understand with a minimum of training.
Therefore, the model can be used by the database designer to communicate
the design to the end user. In addition, the model can be used as a design
plan by the database developer to implement a data model in specific database
management software.

42
 BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :

1. List different users of database management system.

2. What are different types of record based logical model ?

3. What are different types of object based logical model ?

4. Define: Entity, attribute, relationship

5. List different types of relationships among entities.

 Long Questions :

1. What is DBMS ? State its advantages and disadvantages.

2. Explain Relational model in detail.

3. Explain different attribute types with respect to ER model.

4. Draw the ER Diagram for Library Management System.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/database_management_system_
DBMS.html
http://searchsoa.techtarget.com/definition/attribute
http://www.fidelcaptain.com/casestudy1/entitiesandattributescs1.html

43
Database Management  Enrolment No. :
System
1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 1 2 3

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

44
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR-202/
Open University Ahmedabad DCAR-202

Database Management System

BLOCK 2 : RELATIONAL DATABASE AND DATABASE DESIGN

UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE

UNIT 5 DATABASE DESIGN

UNIT 6 NORMALISATION
 RELATIONAL DATABASE
AND DATABASE DESIGN
Block Introduction :
Unit 4 provides overview of relational database. "Relational database was
proposed by Edgar Codd (of IBM Research) around 1969. It has since become
the dominant database model for commercial applications (in comparison with
other database models such as hierarchical, network and object models). Today,
there are many commercial Relational Database Management System (RDBMS),
such as Oracle, IBM DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server. There are also many free
and open–source RDBMS, such as MySQL, mSQL (mini–SQL) and the embedded
JavaDB" (Apache Derby).
A relational database organizes data in tables (or relations). A table is made
up of rows and columns. A row is also called a record (or tuple). A column is
also called a field (or attribute). A database table is similar to a spreadsheet.
However, the relationships that can be created among the tables enable a
relational database to efficiently store huge amount of data, and effectively
retrieve selected data.
Unit 5 discusses design issues in relational databases. The goal of relational
database design is to generate a set of relational schemas that allows us to store
information without redundancy and allows us to retrieve it easily. One approach
is to design schemas that are in appropriate normal forms.
In Unit 6 the need of normalization process is explained. Also basic three
normal forms are discussed with examples. It also explained all the 6 NF with
examples and give detail understanding.

Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to :

• Understand concept of Relational database

• Understand Codd's 12 Rules and key concepts
• Understand Integrity Constraints
• Understand drawbacks of un–normalized database
• Understand concept of normalization and different normal forms

Block Structure :
Unit 4 : Introduction To Relational Database
Unit 5 : Database Design
Unit 6 : Normalisation
 Unit
INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL
04 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.0 Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Codd's 12 Rules
4.3 Terms
4.4 Keys
4.5 Anomalies of Un–normalized Database
4.6 Comparison Hierarchical, Network and Relational Databases
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
4.9 Glossary
4.10 Assignment
4.11 Activities
4.12 Case Study
4.13 Further Readings

4.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to :
• Understand Codd's 12 Rules
• Understand primary key, foreign key concept
• Understand Integrity Constraints
• Understand drawbacks of un–normalized database.
• Understand comparison of different data models.

4.1 Introduction :
Database of business computing from the beginning of the digital age
is a fastener. EF Codd, a researcher at IBM, wrote a letter outlining the process,
when in fact, was born in 1970 in a relational database. Since then, relational
databases have become popular and standard.
Originally, databases were flat. This means that the information was
stored in one long text file, called a tab delimited file. Each entry in the tab
delimited fil e is separated by a special character, such as a vertical bar (|).
Each entry contains multiple pieces of information about a particular object
or person grouped togethe r as a record. It is very difficult to search for specific
information or to create reports in text files.
A relational database allows you to easily obtain specific information.
It also lets you sort the data by any field and each record contains only a
few areas that allows you to generate reports. Relational databases use tables
to store information. Standard fields and records in a table columns (fields)
and rows (records) are represented. 45
Database Management With a relational database, you quickly learn to arrange the data in the
System columns can compare. To increase the speed and versatility of the database
similar uses relationship data. The name "relational" part is derived from the
mathematical relationships. On the table to gather information from other tables,
each table can key in a column or columns.
Relational databases are created using a special computer language,
structured query language (SQL) that is the standard for database interoperability.
SQL is the foundation for all of the popular database applications available
today.

4.2 Codd's 12 Rules :

"Dr. Edgar F. Codd's relational model database system has done extensive
research and came up with twelve rules, According to him, the database must
comply in order to be a true relational database. These rules by using their
relational data warehousing capabilities and retrieving a database system that
is able to be applied
Rule 1 : Information rule – This rule is stored in the database, all
data should be a part of a table cell. Everything in the database should be
stored in tables or relations. This information can be user data or Meta data.
Rule 2 : Guaranteed Access rule – The rule table every data element
names, attribute names in conjunction with the logical primary key and is
assured to be accessible explains.
Rule 3 : Systematic Treatment of NULL values – This rule states in
the database should be a systematic treatment of NULL values. After the tap
may be interpreted as a data iss missing, the data is not known, the data is
not applicable etc.
Rule 4 : Active online data dictionary – This rule states in the database
should be a systematic treatment of NULL values. After the tap may be
interpreted as a data is missing, the data is not known, the data is not applicable
etc
Rule 5 : Comprehensive data sub–language rule – This rule is a
database data definition, data manipulation and transaction management that
is capable of conducting linear syntax which must be a support for a language
which tells. Database itself, either directly or through the language of the
application can be accessed through. Database access or the language without
any help that can be manipulated in some way, it is a violation
Rule 6 : View updating rule – This rule could theoretically be updated,
the views of the database, it should also be updatable by the system.
Rule 7 : High–level insert, update and delete rule – The rule database
support high–level entry, updating and deleting states should employ. It should
not be confined to a single line, set it to record data Union, intersection and
should support the operation of the loan
Rule 8 : Physical data independence – Application data is physically
stored are rules about how to be ignorant. In addition, any change in its physical
structure should not affect the application
Rule 9 : Logical data independence – The rules of logical data view
user (application) should be independent of the states. Logical data using a
change should not affect any change in the application
46
 Rule 10 : Integrity independence – This rule should be independent Introduction to
of the database application that states using it. The lack of honesty freely Relational
without requiring any changes to the application can be modified. This rule Database Management
makes the front–end application and its interface is independent of the database System

Rule 11 : Distribution independence – This rule is distributed at various

locations of data that must be unaware that states how the end user. User data
is located on the same site would see only. The rules in distributed database
systems has been proven as a base.
Rule 12 : Non–subversion rule –
This rule is a system that provides low –level access to records is an
interface, the interface of the system and bypass the security and integrity of
the barrier should not be able to destroy the state."
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Explain Codd's 12 rules.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

4.3 Term :

Terms
• In the relational model, a database is a collection of relational tables.
• Relations can be represented as two–dimensional data tables with rows
and columns
• The rows of a relation are called tuples.
• The columns of a relation are called attributes.
• The attributes draw values from a domain (a legal pool of values).
• The number of tuples in a relation is called its cardinality while the
number of attributes in a relation is called its degree.
• A relation also consists of a schema and an instance.
• Schema defines the structure of a relation which consists of a fixed set
of attribute domain pairs.
• An instance of a relation is a time–varying set of tuples where each tuple
consists of attribute–value pairs.
Relational tables can be expressed concisely by eliminating the sample
data and showing just the table name and the column names.
47
Database Management For example,
System
AUTHOR (au_id, au_lname, au_fname, address, city, state, zip)
TITLE (title_id, title, type, price, pub_id)
PUBLISHER (pub_id, pub_name, city)
AUTHOR TITLE (au_id, title_id)
 Properties of Relational Tables :
Relational tables have six properties :
1. Values are atomic.
2. Column values are of the same kind.
3. Each row is unique.
4. The sequence of columns is insignificant.
5. The sequence of rows is insignificant.
6. Each column must have a unique name.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. Explain properties of relational table.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

4.4 Keys :
 Key :
A set of attributes whose values, k, a tuple to identify any specific
examples and none of Kashmir proper subsets property
Example : {rollNumber} is a key for studentrelation. {rollNumber, name}
– values can uniquely identify a tuple but the set is not minimal. So it is not
a Key. A particular example of a key cannot be determined from the data.
It's an integral scheme. It property can be determined only by means of
attributes. A relationship may be more than one key.
Each of the keys is called a candidate key.
Example : book (isbnNo, authorName, title, publisher, year)
(Assumption : books have only one author)
Keys : {isbnNo}, {authorName, title}
ƒ A relation has at least one key i.e. The set of all attributes, in case
no proper subset is a key.
• Superkey – A set of attributes that contains any key as a subset. A key
can also be defined as a minimal superkey.

48
 Introduction to
Relational
Database Management
System

• Primary Key – One of the candidate keys chosen for indexing purposes.
This is key whose values uniquely identify each row in a table.

• A foreign key – is key whose values are the same as the primary key
of another table. Foreign key is a copy of primary key from another
relational table. The relationship is made between two relational tables
by matching the values of the foreign key in one table with the values
of the primary key in another.

Keys are fundamental to the concept of relational databases because they

enable tables in the database to be related with each other. Navigation around
a relational database depends on the ability of the primary key to unambiguously
identify specific rows of a table. Navigating between tables requires that the
49
Database Management foreign key is able to correctly and consistently reference the values of the
System primary keys of a related table.
For example, the figure below shows how the keys in the relational tables
are used to navigate from AUTHOR to TITLE to PUBLISHER. AUTHOR_TITLE
is an all key table used to link AUTHOR and TITLE. This relational table
is required because AUTHOR and TITLE have a many–to–many relationship.

How the keys are used to navigate Data Integrity

Relational Database Scheme and Instance –
Relational database scheme : it consists of a finite one. I have a set
of plans and the lack of integrity of the relationship. Lack of integrity of the
data values, so that the necessary conditions set constitute a meaningful relational
database data values in the cases are to be satisfied. The following are the
constraints –

50
• Domain constraints Introduction to
Relational
• Key constraints
Database Management
• Referential integrity constraints System
Domain constraints – Properties have been associated with the domain.
Domain is set for a specific type of atomic data values. Domain constraint
declared the actual values of an attribute in a tuple to be related to the domain
stipulates that. For example, the employee ID must be unique, the employee
birthday is in the range [Jan 1, 1950, Jan 1, 2000]. Such information is provided
in logical statements called integrity constraints.
Key constraints or Entity constraint – Each table has a primary key
is required. Primary key, nor any part of the primary key, can contain null
values. We identify a few lines for the primary key cannot be null value because
it means. Thus entity integrity constraint states that the primary key cannot
be null. For example, in the EMPLOYEE table, mobile cannot be a key since
some people may not have a mobile.
Referential integrity constraints – This integrity constraints works on
the concept of Foreign Key. A key attribute of a relation can be referred in
other relation, where it is called foreign key. The referential integrity rule states
that if a relational table has a foreign key, then every value of the foreign
key must either be null or match the values in the relational table in which
that foreign key is a primary key.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. Define primary, superkey and foreign key.
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4.5 Anomalies of Un–normalized Database :

In a relational database, a logical and efficient design is very important.
A poorly designed database can be difficult to use, may provide incorrect
information, or it may fail to work properly.
Most of these problems are the result of design features, two bad
redundant data and inconsistencies. Redundant data set of data is twofold.
Discrepancies, delete, insert and update to undermine the integrity of your data
due to irregularity any event that causes inconsistent data.
A company obtains parts from a number of suppliers. Each supplier is
located in one city. A city can have more than one supplier located there and
each city has a status code associated with it. Each supplier may provide many
parts. The company creates a simple relational table to store this information
that can be expressed in relational notation as :

51
Database Management FIRST (s#, status, city, p#, qty)
System

• Insert Anomaly When certain attributes cannot be inserted into database

without presence of other attributes insert anomaly occurs. For example,
in above relation INSERT anomaly would occur if a certain supplier (s5)
is located in a particular city (Athens) is added, and he has not supplied
a part.
• DELETE Anomaly occurs when certain attributes are lost because of
deletion of other attributes. In above example, if a row is deleted, then
the information about quantity, part and the supplier would be lost.
• UPDATE Anomaly exists when one or more instances of duplicated data
is updated, but not at all. If supplier s1 moved from London to New
York, then six rows would have to be updated with this new information.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Explain anomalies of un–normalized database.
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4.6 Comparison Hierarchical, Network and Relational Databases :

Data models such as hierarchical model, network model and relational
model can be compared in terms of data structures, Data manipulation and
Data integrity.
Characteristic Hierarchical model Network model Relational model
One to many or one Allowed the One to One, One to
to one relationships network model to many, Many to
support many to many relationships
many relationships
Based on parent A record can have Based on relational
child relationship many parents as well data structures
Data structure as many children.
52
 Introduction to
Record types are Model multiple A relation which is
Relational
organized in the branches emanating a two-dimensional
Database Management
form of a rooted tree from one or more table. System
nodes.
Does not provide an CODASYL Relational databases
independent stand- (Conference on are what brings
alone query interface Data Systems many sources into a
Data Languages) common query
manipulation (such as SQL)
Retrieve algorithms Retrieve algorithms Retrieve algorithms
are complex and are complex and are simple and
asymmetric symmetric symmetric
Cannot insert the Does not suffer Does not suffer
information of a from any insertion from any insert
child who does not anomaly. anomaly.
have any parent.
Multiple occurrences Free from update
of child records anomalies. Free form update
Data integrity which lead to anomalies
problems of
inconsistency during
the update operation
Deletion of parent Free from delete
results in deletion of anomalies Free from delete
child records anomalies

 Check Your Progress – 5 :

1. Compare Hierarchical, network and relational model
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. A ________ in a table represents a relationship among a set of values.
(A) Column (B) Key (C) Row (D) Entry
3. The term is used to refer to a row..
(A) Attribute (B) Tuple (C) Field (D) Instance
4. For each attribute of a relation, there is a set of permitted values, called
the of that attribute.
(A) Domain (B) Relation (C) Set (D) Schema
5. Database which is the logical design of the database, and the
database which is a snapshot of the data in the database at
a given instant in time.
(A) Instance, Schema (B) Relation, Schema
(C) Relation, Domain (D) Schema, Instance
6. A relational database allows you to easily obtain specific information.
(A) Relational (B) Hierarchical (C) Temporal (D) None

53
Database Management 4.7 Let Us Sum Up :
System
Dr. Edgar F. Codd's relational model database systems did some extensive
research and according to him, a true relational database is a database that
must be followed in order to come up with your own twelve rules
• Relations can be represented as two–dimensional data tables with rows
and columns
• The rows of a relation are called tuples.
• The columns of a relation are called attributes.
• The attributes draw values from a domain (a legal pool of values).
• The number of tuples in a relation is called its cardinality while the
number of attributes in a relation is called its degree
• A relation also consists of a schema and an instance
• Schema defines the structure of a relation which consists of a fixed set
of attribute domain pairs.
• An instance of a relation is a time–varying set of tuples where each tuple
consists of attribute–value pairs.
• Keys are fundamental to the concept of relational databases because they
enable tables in the database to be related with each other.
• Candidate key is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies
a row.
• The Candidate key that you choose to identify each row uniquely is called
the Primary Key.
• When a primary key of one table appears as an attribute in another table,
it is called the foreign key in the second table. A foreign key is used
to relate two table.
• Integrity constraints are necessary conditions to be satisfied by the data
values in the relational instances so that the set of data values constitute
a meaningful database.
• Data Integrity falls into the following categories : Domain integrity,Entity
integrity and Referential integrity
• Domain integrity refers to the range of valid entries for a given column.
It ensures that, there are only valid entries in the column
• Entity integrity ensures that each row can be uniquely identified by an
attribute called the Primary key. The Primary key cannot have a NULL
value.
• Referential integrity ensures that for every value of a foreign key, there
is a matching value of the Primary key.
• Most of these problems, two redundant data and discrepancies are the
result of bad design. Unnecessary data is unnecessary recurring data.
Discrepancies due to irregular or inconsistent storage to undermine the
integrity of your data to any event.
• When we move with the data models such as hierarchical model, network
model, relational model we can identify number of difference in terms
of data structures, Data manipulation and Data integrity.

54
 4.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress : Introduction to
Relational
 Check Your Progress 1 : Database Management
System
See Section 4.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 4.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 4.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 4.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
1 : See Section 4.6
2 : Row 3 : Tuple
4 : Domain
5 : Schema, Instance, Answer 6: Relational

4.9 Glossary :
1. Relations – It can be represented as two–dimensional data tables with
rows and columns
2. Tuples – The rows of a relation.
3. Attributes – The columns of a relation.
4. Schema – It defines the structure of a relation which consists of a fixed
set of attribute domain pairs.
5. Instance of a relation – It is a time–varying set of tuples where each
tuple consists of attribute–value pairs.
6. Candidate key – It is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely
identifies a row.
7. Primary Key – The Candidate key that you choose to identify each row
uniquely.
8. Foreign key – When a primary key of one table appears as an attribute
in another table, it is called Foreign key the in the second table. A foreign
key is used to relate two tables.
9. Integrity constraints – these are necessary conditions to be satisfied
by the data values in the relational instances so that the set of data values
constitute a meaningful database.
10. Domain integrity – It refers to the range of valid entries for a given
column. It ensures that there are only valid entries in the column
11. Entity integrity – It ensures that each row can be uniquely identified
by an attribute called the Primary key. The Primary key cannot have
a NULL value.
12. Referential integrity – It ensures that for every value of a foreign key,
there is a matching value of the Primary key.

55
Database Management 4.10 Assignment :
System
Compare all three (Hierarchical, relational and Network) models of
Database with Suitable example.

4.11 Activities :
Study and write Codd's 12 rules in detail.

4.12 Case Study :

Discuss the problems with un–normalized data with proper example and
explain need of normalization.

4.13 Further Reading :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication

56
 Unit
05 DATABASE DESIGN
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0 Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Database Development Life Cycle
5.3 Logical Design
5.4 Physical Model
5.5 Capacity Planning
5.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Normalization
5.7 Let Us Sum Up
5.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
5.9 Glossary
5.10 Assignment
5.11 Activities
5.12 Case Study
5.13 Further Readings

5.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to :
• Understand the requirements for designing database
• Understand how the designing of database is done.
• Method of representing the logical model through an Entity–Relationship
(E–R) Diagram
• Understand the use of various keys in Database Design
• Understand how Normalization technique is used to group attributes
• Understand the use of DDL script
• Understand the concept De–normalization and Striping

5.1 Introduction :
Database design is made up of two main phases : logical and physical
database design.
Logical database design is the process of constructing a model of the
data used in a company based on a specific data model, but independent of
a particular DBMS and other physical considerations.
In the logical database design phase we build the logical representation
of the database, which includes identification of the important entities and
relationships, and then translate this representation to a set of tables. The logical
data model is a source of information for the physical design phase, providing
the physical database designer with a vehicle for making tradeoffs that are very
important to the design of an efficient database.
57
Database Management Physical database design is the process of producing a description of
System the implementation of the database on secondary storage; it describes the base
tables, file organizations, and indexes used to achieve efficient access to the
data, and any associated integrity constraints and security restrictions. In the
physical database design phase we decide how the logical design is to be
physically implemented in the target relational DBMS. This phase allows the
designer to make decisions on how the database is to be implemented. Therefore,
physical design is tailored to a specific DBMS.

5.2 Database Development Life Cycle :

A database system is a fundamental component of the larger enterprise
information system. The database development life cycle (DDLC) is a process
of designing, implementing and maintaining a database system to meet strategic
or operational information needs of an organisation or enterprise such as :
• Improved customer support and customer satisfaction
• Better production management.
• Better inventory management.
• More accurate sales forecasting.
The database development life cycle (DDLC) is inherently associated with
the software development life cycle (SDLC) of the information system. DDLC
goes hand–in–hand with the SDLC and database development activities starts
right at the requirement phase. The Database Life Cycle (DBLC) contains six
phases, as shown in the following Figure: database initial study, database design,
implementation and loading, testing and evaluation, operation, and maintenance
and evolution.

58
 5.3 Logical Design : Database Design

The logical database design phase of the methodology is divided into

two main steps.
• In Step 1 we create a data model and check that the data model has
minimal redundancy and is capable of supporting user transactions. The
output of this step is the creation of a logical data model, which is a
complete and accurate representation of the company (or part of the
company) that is to be supported by the database.
The main tasks associated with Step 1 of logical database design are
as follows :
Step 1.0 Create and check ER model
Step 1.1 Identify entities
Step 1.2 Identify relationships
Step 1.3 Identify and associate attributes with entities or relationships
Step 1.4 Determine attribute domains
Step 1.5 Determine candidate, primary, and alternate key attributes
Step 1.6 Specialize/Generalize entities (optional step)
Step 1.7 Check model for redundancy
Step 1.8 Check model supports user transactions
Step 1.9 Review model with users
• In Step 2 we map the ER model to a set of tables. The structure of
each table is checked using normalization. Normalization is an effective
means of y consistent, logical, with minimal redundancy. The tables are
also checked to ensure that they are capable of supporting the required
transactions. The required integrity constraints on the database are also
defined.
The main purpose and tasks of Step 2 of the logical database design
are as follows :
To create tables for the logical data model and to check the structure
of the tables.
The tasks involved in Step 2 are :
Step 2.1 Create tables
Step 2.2 Check table structures using normalization
Step 2.3 Check tables support user transactions
Step 2.4 Check business rules
Step 2.5 Review logical database design with users
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. What do you mean by logical design of database ?
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59
Database Management 5.4 The Physical design :
System
Physical database design is divided into six main steps :
• Step 1 involves the desigsn of the base tables and integrity constraints
using the available functionality of the target DBMS.
You will need to know :
 How to create base tables;
 Whether the system supports the definition of primary keys, foreign
keys, and alternate keys;
 Whether the system supports the definition of required data (that
is, whether the system allows columns to be defined as NOT
NULL);
 Whether the system supports the definition of domains;
 Whether the system supports relational integrity rules;
 Whether the system supports the definition of business rules.
• Step 2 involves choosing the file organizations and indexes for the base
tables. Typically, DBMSs provide a number of alternative file organizations
for data, with the exception of PC DBMSs, which tend to have a fixed
storage structure.
You can't make meaningful physical design decisions until you understand
in detail the transactions that have to be supported. In analyzing the
transactions, you're attempting to identify performance criteria, such as:
 the transactions that run frequently and will have a significant
impact on performance;
 the transactions that are critical to the operation of the business;
 The times of the day/week when there will be a high demand made
on the database (called the peak load).
You'll use this information to identify the parts of the database that may
cause performance problems. At the same time, you need to identify the high–
level functionality of the transactions, such as the columns that are updated
in an update transaction or the columns that are retrieved in a query. You'll
use this information to select appropriate file organizations and indexes.
When would you not add any indexes to a table ?
(1) Do not index small tables. It may be more efficient to search the table
in memory than to store an additional index structure.
(2) Avoid indexing a column or table that is frequently updated.
(3) Avoid indexing a column if the query will retrieve a significant proportion
(for example, 25%) of the records in the table, even if the table is large.
In this case, it may be more efficient to search the entire table than to
search using an index.
(4) Avoid indexing columns that consist of long character strings.
Some of the main reasons for selecting a column as a potential
candidate for indexing as follows :
(1) In general, index the primary key of a table if it's not a key of the file
organization. Although the SQL standard provides a clause for the
60
 specification of primary, but note that this does not guarantee that the Database Design
primary key will be indexed in some RDBMSs.
(2) Add a secondary index to any column that is heavily used for data
retrieval.
(3) Add a secondary index to a foreign key if there is frequent access based
on it.
(4) Add a secondary index on columns that are frequently involved in:
(a) selection or join criteria;
(b) ORDER BY;
(c) GROUP BY;
(d) Other operations involving sorting (such as UNION or DISTINCT).
(5) Add a secondary index on columns involved in built–in functions, along
with any columns used to aggregate the built–in functions.
• Step 3 involves the design of the user views originally identified in the
requirements analysis and collection stage of the database system
development lifecycle.
• Step 4 involves designing the security measures to protect the data from
unauthorized access.
System security covers access and use of the database at the system
level, such as a username and password.
Data security covers access and use of database objects (such as tables
and views) and the actions that users can have on the objects.
Access control facilities of SQL.
 Each database user is assigned an authorization identifier by the Database
Administrator (DBA); usually, the identifier has an associated password,
for obvious security reasons. Every SQL statement that is executed by
the DBMS is performed on behalf of a specific user. The authorization
identifier is used to determine which database objects that user may
reference, and what operations may be performed on those objects. Each
object that is created in SQL has an owner, who is identified by the
authorization identifier. By default, the owner is the only person who
may know of the existence of the object and perform any operations
on the object.
 Privileges are the actions that a user is permitted to carry out on a given
base table or view. For example, SELECT is the privilege to retrieve
data from a table and UPDATE is the privilege to modify records of
a table. When a user creates a table using the SQL CREATE TABLE
statement, he or she automatically becomes the owner of the table and
receives full privileges for the table. Other users initially have no privileges
on the newly created table. To give them access to the table, the owner
must explicitly grant them the necessary privileges using the SQL GRANT
statement. A WITH GRANT OPTION clause can be specified with the
GRANT statement to allow the receiving user(s) to pass the privilege(s)
on to other users. Privileges can be revoked using the SQL REVOKE
statement.

61
Database Management  When a user creates a view with the CREATE VIEW statement, he or
System she automatically becomes the owner of the view, but does not necessarily
receive full privileges on the view. To create the view, a user must have
SELECT privilege to all the tables that make up the view. However, the
owner will only get other privileges if he or she holds those privileges
for every table in the view.
• Step 5 considers relaxing the normalization constraints imposed on the
tables to improve the overall performance of the system. This is a step
that you should undertake only if necessary, because of the inherent
problems involved in introducing redundancy while still maintaining
consistency.
Formally, the term denormalisation refers to a change to the structure
of a base table, such that the new table is in a lower normal form than
the original table. However, we also use the term more loosely to refer
to situations where we combine two tables into one new table, where
the new table is in the same normal form but contains more nulls than
the original tables.
• Step 6 is an ongoing process of monitoring and tuning the operational
system to identify and resolve any performance problems resulting from
the design and to implement new or changing requirements.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. What is physical design of database ?
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5.5 Capacity Planning :

Possible improvements from CP

Capacity planning is important in ensuring that adequate storage is
available for future growth. The DDL scripts for each database object are
invaluable in determining the overall storage required by the database. In fact,
the process of capacity planning actually begins with the DDL scripts.
62
 It starts with defining the column attributes. These column attributes, in Database Design
turn, determine the size of each row in the table. The column attributes also
determine the size of each row in indexes created on the columns. These
attribute, combined with the estimated total number of rows (including provisions
for future growth) are used in defining the storage clause for tables and indexes.
Most of these problems, two redundant data and discrepancies are the
result of bad design. Unnecessary data is unnecessary recurring data. Discrepancies
due to irregular or inconsistent storage to undermine the integrity of your data
to any event.
The total size of the database by simply adding the size of the data files
can be determined. Sometimes it is accurate and complete estimates, however,
assume that. In addition, a number of additional considerations are to be made.
Ability to plan, design must accommodate the anticipated growth. A
general rule of thumb, at least 25 percent (preferably 50 percent) after each
disk should be free as early establishment. Tables are expected to be larger
than the additional data will allow files to be made where necessary.It is
common to experience unprecedented growth, and to reduce the requirements
for temporary and rollback segments, or after completion of the initial design
to identify the need for additional indexes and is more common.
The initial hardware configuration and data file layout should accommodate
these possibilities. Capacity limitations can be crippling in the event that
additional rollback segments or temporary segments cannot be created when
needed.
For this reason, the importance of capacity planning should not be
underestimated
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. Why capacity planning is important ?
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5.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Normalization :

Normalisation improves storage capacity, in order to improve data integrity
and scalability of the table is unnecessary data cleaning process. The correction
tables joining query – time generalized increase in complexity and performance
loss is balanced.
• There are two goals of the normalization process:
• eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data in more
than one table)
• Ensuring data dependencies that exist i.e. only storing related data in
a table.
• Both of these objectives will help in reducing the amount of space a
database consumes and ensuring that data is logically stored.

63
Database Management  Need of Normalization :
System
Normalization is a well–designed relational database management system
(RDBMS) is aimed. The data is put in its simplest forms, step by step set
of rules by which we need normalization in the relational database data for
the following reasons:
• In order to minimize data redundancy.
• It is possible to add new data values and rows without reorganizing the
database structure.
• The Data should be consistent throughout the database it means it should
not suffer from following anomalies.
• Insert Anomaly – Due to the lack of data i.e., all the data available for
insertion such that null values in keys should be avoided. This kind of
anomaly can seriously damage a database
• Update Anomaly – It is due to data redundancy i.e. multiple occurrences
of same values in a column. This can lead to inefficiency.
• Deletion Anomaly – It leads to loss of data for rows that are not stored
elsewhere. It could result in loss of vital data.
• Complex queries required by the user should be easy to handle.
• On decomposition of a relation into smaller relations with fewer attributes
on normalization the resulting relations whenever joined must result in
the same relation without any extra rows. The join operations can be
performed in any order. This is known as Lossless Join decomposition.
The resulting relations (tables) should possess qualities such as the
normalization of each line received, resulting relations (tables), a unique key,
no repeating groups must be identified by identical columns, each column is
assigned a unique name, etc.
They are six normal forms as follows :
• First Normal Form
• Second Normal Form
• Third Normal Form
• Boyce–Codd Normal Form
• Fourth Normal Form
• Fifth Normal Form
• Sixth or Domain–key Normal form
How to identify whether table is in normalized form or not ?
Let's take an example to understand this,
Suppose we want to create a database which stores friends name and
their three favorite artists. The database would be quite a simple so initially
there is only one table called friends table. Here FID is the primary key.
FID FNAME FavoriteArtist
1 Srihari Akon, The Corrs, Robbie Williams.
2 Arvind Engima, Chicane, Shania Twain

64
 This table is not in normal form as Favorite Artist column is not atomic Database Design
or having more than one value.
So we can modify this table
FID FNAME FavoriteArtist1 FavoriteArtist2 FavoriteArtist3
1 Srihari Akon The Corrs Robbie Williams.
2 Arvind Engima Chicane Shania Twain
Still this table is also not in normal form as we are having multiple
columns with same kind of value i.e. repeating group of data or repeating
columns.
To bring it in First Normal Form, we will perform the following steps:
• We'll first break single table into two.
• Each table should have information about only one entity. So we will
store friend's information in one table and his favorite artists' information
in another
FID FNAME
1 Srihari
2 Arvind
FID FavoriteArtist
1 Akon
1 The Corrs
1 Robbie Williams.
2 Engima
2 Chicane
2 Shania Twain
FID foreign key in Favorite Artist table which refers to FID in our Friends
Table.
Now we can say that our table is in first normal form.
So First Normal Form :
• Column values should be atomic, scalar or should be holding single value
• No repetition of information or values in multiple columns.
So what does Second Normal Form means ?
For second normal form our database should already be in first normal
form and every non–key column must depend on entire primary key.
Here we can say that our Friend database was already in second normal
form because we don't have composite primary key in our friends and favorite
artists table.
Composite primary keys are– primary keys made up of more than one
column.
But there is no such thing in our database.
But still let's try to understand second normal form with another example
This is our new table
65
Database Management Gadgets Supplier Cost Supplier Address
System
Headphone Abaci 123$ New York
Mp3 Player Sagas 250$ California
Headphone Mayas 100$ London
In above table ITEM+SUPPLIER together form a composite primary key.
Let's check for dependency. If we know gadget, still we cannot find the cost
as same gadget is provided my different supplier at different rate.
If we know supplier, then still we unable to find cost because same
supplier can provide me with different gadgets.
If we know both gadget and supplier, then we can find cost. So cost
is fully dependent (functionally dependent) on our composite primary key
(Gadgets+Supplier)
Let's start with another non–key column Supplier Address.
If we know gadget, then from that we cannot find supplier address.
If we know who the supplier, then we can find address.
So here supplier is not completely dependent on (partial dependent) on
our composite primary key (Gadgets+Supplier).
This table is surely not in Second Normal Form.
To bring it in second normal form, we'll break the table in two.
Gadgets Supplier Cost
Headphone Abaci 123$
Mp3 Player Sagas 250$
Headphone Mayas 100$
Supplier Supplier Address
Abaci New York
Sagas California
Mayas London
We know how to normalize till second normal form.
But let's take a break over here and learn some definitions and terms.
Composite Key :– Composite key is a primary key composed of multiple
columns.
Functional Dependency – When value of one column is dependent on
another column.
So that if value of one column changes the value of other column changes
as well.
E.g. Supplier Address is functionally dependent on supplier name. If
supplier's name is changed in a record we need to change the supplier address
as well.
Supplier–>SupplierAddress
"In our s table supplier address column is functionally dependent on the
supplier column"
66
 Partial Functional Dependency – A non – key columns in a composite Database Design
primary key is dependent on some of the columns.
In our above example Supplier Address was partially dependent on our
composite key columns (Gadgets+Supplier).
Transitive Dependency – In a non – key column is a transitive dependency
and non – key column value is determined by the value, which is a type of
functional dependency
With these definitions let's move to Third Normal Form.
For a table in third normal form
• It should already be in Second Normal Form.
• There should be no transitive dependency, i.e. we shouldn't have any
non–key column depending on any other non–key column.
Album Artist No. of tracks Country
Come on over Shania Twain 11 Canada
History Michael Jackson 15 USA
Up Shania Twain 11 Canada
MCMXC A.D. Enigma 8 Spain
The cross of changes Enigma 8 Spain
Again we need to make sure that the non–key columns depend upon
the primary key and not on any other non–key column.
Although the above table looks fine but still there is something in it
because of which we will normalize it further.
Album is the primary key of the above table.
Artist and No. of tracks are functionally dependent on the Album (primary
key).
In the above table Country value is getting repeated because of artist.
So in our above table Country column is depended on Artist column
which is a non–key column.
So we will move that information in another table and could save table
from redundancy i.e. repeating values of Country column.
Album Artist No. of tracks

Come on over Shania Twain 11

History Michael Jackson 15

Up Shania Twain 11

MCMXC A.D. Enigma 8

The cross of changes Enigma 8

67
Database Management Artist Country
System
Shania Twain Canada

Michael Jackson USA

Shania Twain Canada

Enigma Spain

Enigma Spain

Steps in Normalization
Relationship between Normal Forms

68
 Let us summarize basic three forms : Database Design
First Normal Form :
This is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself. This rule
defines that all the attributes in a relation must have atomic domains. Values
in atomic domain are indivisible units.
A relation is in first normal form if it meets the definition of a relation:
1. Each attribute (column) value must be a single value only.
2. All values for a given attribute (column) must be of the same type.
3. Each attribute (column) name must be unique.
4. The order of attributes (columns) is insignificant
5. No two tuples (rows) in a relation can be identical.
6. The order of the tuples (rows) is insignificant.
Converting from UNF to 1NF :
• Select attribute(s) to act as the key.
• Identify the repeating group(s) in the unnormalised table which repeats
for the key attribute(s).
• Remove the repeating group by Entering data into empty columns of
rows which contain the repeating data or by placing the repeating data
along with a copy of the original key attribute(s) into a separate relation.
Second Normal Form (2NF) :
It is based on the concept of full functional dependency
• A relation is in second normal form (2NF) if all of its non–key attributes
are dependent on all of the key.
• Another way to say this: A relation is in second normal form if it is
free from partial–key dependencies.
• Relations that have a single attribute for a key are automatically in 2NF.
A 2NF relation is in 1NF and every non–primary–key attribute is fully
functionally dependent on the primary key.
Converting from 1NF to 2NF :
• Identify the primary key for the 1NF relation.
• Identify the functional dependencies in the relation.
• If partial dependencies exist on the primary key remove them by placing
then in a new relation along with a copy of their determinant.
Third Normal Form :
It is based on the concept of transitive dependency. A relation that is
in 1NF and 2NF and in which no non–primary–key attribute is transitively
dependent on the primary key.
For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal
form and the following must satisfy:
• No non–prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute
• For any non–trivial functional dependency, X ? A, then either
• X is a superkey or,
• A is prime attribute. 69
Database Management Converting from 2NF to 3NF :
System
• Identify the primary key in the 2NF relation.
• Identify functional dependencies in the relation.
• If transitive dependencies exist on the primary key remove them by
placing them in a new relation along with a copy of their dominant.
Advantages of Normalization
The advantages of the normalization have been discussed below.
• Here the data structure is more efficient.
• It also avoids redundant fields or columns.
• We are able to add new rows and data values easily
• It helps in Better understanding of data.
• It ensures that distinct tables exist when necessary.
• It is very easy to perform operations and complex queries can be easily
handled.
• It even minimizes duplication of data.
• Close modeling of real world entities, processes and their relationships.
Disadvantages of Normalization
The disadvantages of the normalization have been discussed below.
1. One cannot start building the database before he know what the user
needs.
2. In the process of normalizing the relations to higher normally forms that
simply means. 4NF, 5NF the performance degrades.
3. This is a very time taking and difficult process in normalizing relations
of higher degree.
4. Careless decomposition may leads to bad design of database which may
leads to serious problems.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. What is normalization ? What is need of normalization ?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. can help us detect poor E–R design.
(A) Database Design Process (B) E–R Design Process
(C) Relational scheme (D) Functional dependencies
3. If a multivalued dependency holds and is not implied by the corresponding
functional dependency, it usually arises from one of the following sources.
(A) A many–to–many relationship set
(B) A multivalued attribute of an entity set
(C) A one–to–many relationship set
(D) Both A many–to–many relationship set and A multivalued attribute
of an entity set

70
4. Which of the following has each related entity set has its own schema Database Design
and there is an additional schema for the relationship set.
(A) A many–to–many relationship set
(B) A multivalued attribute of an entity set
(C) A one–to–many relationship set
(D) All of the mentioned
5. In which of the following, a separate schema is created consisting of
that attribute and the primary key of the entity set.
(A) A many–to–many relationship set
(B) A multivalued attribute of an entity set
(C) A one–to–many relationship set
(D) All of the mentioned
6. A function that has no partial functional dependencies is in
form :
(A) 3NF (B) 2NF (C) 4NF (D) BCNF

5.7 Let Us Sum Up :

Logical database design stage but how information is shared with the
logical, data will be stored physically does not deal with how. Requirements
in terms of business entities and relationships to represent the data, provides
a level of abstraction from the physical database that are translated into a model,
rather than in terms of tables and columns.
Physical design characteristics and individual data elements are defined
as columns in the table, which is HASE. At this stage the performance index,
rollback segments, the idea of the creation of temporary segments, and is
concerned with the physical layout of data files on disk. DDL (Data Definition
Language) scripts to create database objects to be used for capacity planning
and is written.
Sufficient storage capacity planning is available for future development
is important in ensuring that. DDL script for each database object databases
are invaluable in determining the required total storage. In fact, the capacity
planning process begins with the DDL scripts

5.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 5.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 5.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 5.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 5.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
See Section 5.6
71
Database Management  Check Your Progress 6 :
System
1 : See Section 5.7
2 : Functional dependencies
3 : Both A many–to–many relationship set and A multivalued attribute
of an entity set
4 : A many–to–many relationship set
5 : A multivalued attribute of an entity set
6 : 2NF

5.9 Glossary :
1. Prime attribute – an attribute, which is part of prime–key, is prime
attribute.
2. Non–prime attribute – an attribute, which is not a part of prime–key,
is said to be a non–prime attribute.
3. Normalization – It is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring
database to consistent state and free from any kinds of anomalies.
4. First Normal Form (1NF) – This rule defines that all the attributes
in a relation must have atomic domains.
5. Second Normal Form (2NF) – Second normal form says, that every
non–prime attribute should be fully functionally dependent on prime key
attribute.
That is, if X ? A holds, then there should not be any proper subset Y
of X, for that Y ? A also holds.
6. Third Normal Form (3NF) – For a relation to be in Third Normal Form,
it must be in Second Normal form and the following must satisfy: No
non–prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute, For
any non–trivial functional dependency, X ? A, then either X is a superkey
or, A is prime attribute.

5.10 Assignment :
State the conceptual difference between simple bifurcation and
Normalization of DBMS view.

5.11 Activities :
Study the BCNF, 4NF and 5NF normal forms in detail.

5.12 Case Study :

A businessman has to start his own Internet business, called Mastermind
pieces Ltd, hiring paintings to private individuals and commercial companies.
Because of its reputation as a database designer to support new business
for the design and implementation of a database is called upon their services.
Initial planning meeting, the design, and the user has requested the
requirements discussed.
System, customers should be able to manage the details of the images
on the pictures to existing customers rent. Client B (Bronze), S (Silver), G
(gold) or P (platinum) is classified as. Respectively in these categories : 0%,
5%, 10% or 15% discount entitle a customer.
72
 Customers often have a particular artist or theme (such as animal, Database Design
landscape, seascape, navy, still life, etc.) to request images.
Over time a customer may hire the same painting more than once.
Each image is defined by the owner of a customer is allocated monthly
rental price. The owner of the painting so that the customer has paid 10%
of the rental price. Hired within six months are not any pictures that are returned
to the owner. However, three months later, the owner returned the painting
can resubmit.
Each painting can only have one artist associated with it.
Several reports are required from the system. Three main ones are:
1. For each client, they are hired or a report showing an overview of all
the pictures are currently recruiting
2. All pictures for each artist to hire a report submitted
3. For each artist a return to the past six months rent pictures Reports
What are you supposed to take each in turn report and the third is to
make a set of relationships in general. At each step in the normalization process
you must show the relationship

5.13 Further Reading :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
5. Database Solutions (2nd Edition) By Thomas M Connolly & Carolyn
E. Begg

73
 Unit
06 NORMALIZATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.0 Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 What is Normalization ?
6.3 Database Normal Forms and Example
6.4 1NF (First Normal Form)
6.5 2NF (Second Normal Form)
6.6 3NF (Third Normal Form)
6.7 BCNF (Boyce–Codd Normal Form)
6.8 4NF (Fourth Normal Form)
6.9 5NF & 6NF (Fifth & Sixth Normal Form)
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.11 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
6.12 Glossary
6.13 Assignment
6.14 Activities
6.15 Case Study
6.16 Further Readings

6.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to :
• Understand the requirements for designing database
• Understand how the designing of database is done.
• Normal forms with example

6.1 Introduction :
Database normalization is the way toward getting sorted out information
into tables in such a way that the results of using the database are always
unambiguous and as intended. Such normalization is intrinsic to relational
database theory. It may have the effect of duplicating data within the database
and often results in the creation of additional tables. In this unit learner will
get insight about Normalization and its various forms.

6.2 What is Normalization ?

Normalization is a database design technique that reduces data redundancy
and eliminates undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion
Anomalies. Normalization rules divides larger tables into smaller tables and
links them using relationships. The purpose of Normalization in SQL is to
eliminate redundant (repetitive) data and ensure data is stored logically.
74
 The inventor of the relational model Edgar Codd proposed the theory Normalization
of normalization of data with the introduction of the First Normal Form, and
he continued to extend theory with Second and Third Normal Form. Later he
joined Raymond F. Boyce to develop the theory of Boyce–Codd Normal Form.

6.3 Database Normal Forms and Example :

Here is a list of Normal Forms
• 1NF (First Normal Form)
• 2NF (Second Normal Form)
• 3NF (Third Normal Form)
• BCNF (Boyce–Codd Normal Form)
• 4NF (Fourth Normal Form)
• 5NF (Fifth Normal Form)
• 6NF (Sixth Normal Form)
The Theory of Data Normalization in SQL server is still being developed
further. For example, there are discussions even on 6th Normal Form. However,
in most practical applications, normalization achieves its best in 3rd Normal
Form. The evolution of SQL Normalization theories is illustrated below –

Database Normalization With Examples

Database Normalization Example can be easily understood with the help
of a case study. Assume, a video library maintains a database of movies rented
out. Without any normalization in database, all information is stored in one
table as shown below. Let's understand Normalization in database with tables
example :

Now for all normal form we are using this table.

Problems Without Normalization :
If a table is not properly normalized and have data redundancy then it
will not only eat up extra memory space but will also make it difficult to handle
and update the database, without facing data loss. Insertion, Updation and
Deletion Anomalies are very frequent if database is not normalized.

6.4 1NF :
For a table to be in the First Normal Form, it should follow the following
4 rules :
75
Database Management • It should only have single(atomic) valued attributes/columns.
System
• Values stored in a column should be of the same domain
• All the columns in a table should have unique names.
• And the order in which data is stored, does not matter.

Example of Table in 1NF as per rules

Before we proceed let's understand a few things:
What is Composite Key ?
A composite key is a primary key composed of multiple columns used
to identify a record uniquely. In our database, we have two people with the
same name Robert Phil, but they live in different places.

Hence, we require both Full Name and Address to identify a record

uniquely. That is a composite key. Let's move into second normal form 2NF.

6.5 2NF :
For a table to be in the Second Normal Form,
• It should be in the First Normal form.
• And, it should not have Partial Dependency.
It is clear that we can't move forward to make our simple database in
2nd Normalization form unless we partition the table above.

76
 We have divided our 1NF table into two tables viz. Table 1 and Table2. Normalization
Table 1 contains member information. Table 2 contains information on movies
rented. We have introduced a new column called Membership_id which is the
primary key for table 1. Records can be uniquely identified in Table 1 using
membership id. Foreign Key references the primary key of another Table! It
helps connect your Tables.

You will only be able to insert values into your foreign key that exist
in the unique key in the parent table. This helps in referential integrity.
The above problem can be overcome by declaring membership id from
Table2 as foreign key of membership id from Table1. Now, if somebody tries
to insert a value in the membership id field that does not exist in the parent
table, an error will be shown
A transitive functional dependency is when changing a non–key column,
might cause any of the other non–key columns to change Consider the table
1. Changing the non–key column Full Name may change Salutation.

Let's move into 3NF.

77
Database Management 6.6 3NF :
System
A table is said to be in the Third Normal Form when,
• It is in the Second Normal form.
• And, it doesn't have Transitive Dependency.

We have again divided our tables and created a new table which stores
Salutations. There are no transitive functional dependencies, and hence our table
is in 3NF
In Table 3 Salutation ID is primary key, and in Table 1 Salutation ID
is foreign to primary key in Table 3
Now our little example is at a level that cannot further be decomposed
to attain higher normal forms of normalization. In fact, it is already in higher
normalization forms. Separate efforts for moving into next levels of normalizing
data are normally needed in complex databases. However, we will be discussing
next levels of normalizations in brief in the following. Advantage of removing
Transitive Dependency.
The advantage of removing transitive dependency is, Amount of data
duplication is reduced.
Data integrity achieved.

6.7 BCNF :
Boyce and Codd Normal Form is a higher version of the Third Normal
form. This form deals with certain type of anomaly that is not handled by
3NF. A 3NF table which does not have multiple overlapping candidate keys
is said to be in BCNF. For a table to be in BCNF, following conditions must
be satisfied:
• R must be in 3rd Normal Form
• and, for each functional dependency (X Y), X should be a super Key.

78
 The second point sounds a bit tricky, right ? In simple words, it means, Normalization
that for a dependency A B, A cannot be a non–prime attribute, if B is a
prime attribute. Boyce–Codd Normal Form or BCNF is an extension to the
third normal form, and is also known as 3.5 Normal Form.

6.8 4NF :
A table is said to be in the Fourth Normal Form when,
• It is in the Boyce–Codd Normal Form.
• And, it doesn't have Multi–Valued Dependency.
Fourth Normal Form comes into picture when Multi–valued Dependency
occur in any relation. In this tutorial we will learn about Multi–valued Dependency,
how to remove it and how to make any table satisfy the fourth normal form.
What is Multi–valued Dependency ?
A table is said to have multi–valued dependency, if the following conditions
are true,
For a dependency A B, if for a single value of A, multiple value
of B exists, then the table may have multi–valued dependency. Also, a table
should have at–least 3 columns for it to have a multi–valued dependency. And,
for a relation R(A, B, C), if there is a multi–valued dependency between, A
and B, then B and C should be independent of each other. If all these conditions
are true for any relation(table), it is said to have multi–valued dependency.

6.9 5NF & 6NF :

A table is in 5th Normal Form only if it is in 4NF and it cannot be
decomposed into any number of smaller tables without loss of data.
6th Normal Form is not standardized, yet however, it is being discussed
by database experts for some time. Hopefully, we would have a clear &
standardized definition for 6th Normal Form in the near future.
 Check Your Progress :
1. Demoralization is used for .
(A) DB backup (B) Delete tables
(C) Reduce redundancy (D) Performance tuning.
2. Atomicity of domains of attributes related to .
(A) 1NF (B) 2NF (C) 3NF (D) BCNF
3. Redundancy in data may lead to its inconsistency.
(A) True (B) False (C) Partially True (D) None
4. 5NF is designed to cope with .
(A) Transitive dependency (B) Join dependency
(C) Multi valued dependency (D) All of the above
5. Every Boyee–Codd normal form is in
(A) First normal form (B) Second normal form
(C) Third normal form (D) All of the above

79
Database Management 6.10 Let Us Sum Up :
System
Lets us summaries the unit, This unit focus on the detailed understanding
of Normalization process with first normal form to 6th normal form with
example.

6.11 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress :
1 : Performance Tuning 2 : 1NF
3 : True 4 : Join dependency
5 : All of above

6.12 Glossary :
1. First Normal Form (1NF) – This rule defines that all the attributes
in a relation must have atomic domains.
2. Second Normal Form (2NF) – Second normal form says, that every
non–prime attribute should be fully functionally dependent on prime key
attribute.
That is, if X A holds, then there should not be any proper subset
Y of X, for that Y A also holds.
3. Third Normal Form (3NF) – For a relation to be in Third Normal Form,
it must be in Second Normal form and the following must satisfy : No
non–prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute, For
any non–trivial functional dependency, X A, then either X is a
superkey or, A is prime attribute.

6.13 Assignment :
State the conceptual difference between simple bifurcation and
Normalization of DBMS view.

6.14 Activities :
Study the BCNF, 4NF and 5NF normal forms in detail.

6.15 Case Study :

A businessman has to start his own Internet business, called Mastermind
pieces Ltd, hiring paintings to private individuals and commercial companies.
Because of its reputation as a database designer to support new business
for the design and implementation of a database is called upon their services.
Initial planning meeting, the design, and the user has requested the
requirements discussed.
System, customers should be able to manage the details of the images
on the pictures to existing customers rent. Client B (Bronze), S (Silver),
G (gold) or P (platinum) is classified as. Respectively in these categories :
0%, 5%, 10% or 15% discount entitle a customer.
Customers often have a particular artist or theme (such as animal,
landscape, seascape, navy, still life, etc.) to request images.
Over time a customer may hire the same painting more than once.

80
 Each image is defined by the owner of a customer is allocated monthly Normalization
rental price. The owner of the painting so that the customer has paid 10%
of the rental price. Hired within six months are not any pictures that are returned
to the owner. However, three months later, the owner returned the painting
can resubmit.
Each painting can only have one artist associated with it.
Several reports are required from the system. Three main ones are :
1. For each client, they are hired or a report showing an overview of all
the pictures are currently recruiting
2. All pictures for each artist to hire a report submitted
3. For each artist a return to the past six months rent pictures Reports
What are you supposed to take each in turn report and the third is to
make a set of relationships in general. At each step in the normalization process
you must show the relationship

6.16 Further Reading :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
5. Database Solutions (2nd Edition) By Thomas M Connolly & Carolyn
E. Begg

81
Database Management BLOCK SUMMARY :
System
In unit 4, We discussed in a relational model real world objects are
represented in tables. Each table is made out of rows and columns. It is also
known as tuple or record each line, it is also known as attributes, is out of
the fields. Each attribute stands for a certain feature of the real world object.
An attribute is defined by a name and its value.

Tuples represent the relationship between the existing relationships between

tables. In addition to the key features to be defined (usually appear underlined
in a relationship). They allocation tables (relations) are required to allow
accesses to the unique tables.

Integrity or consistency of data in a database system that stands for quality

and reliability. The data referenced objects are displayed correctly if a database
is consistent. Database vague or contradictory tuples, relations or tables there
if it is inconsistent.

A relation model (scheme, entity) should reflect relationships that also

logically (in the real world) belong together. Normalizations anomalies correspond
to different types of databases to help avoid.

Unit 5 discussed issues of bad database design and explained the need
of normalization process. It also explained logical, physical database design
and need of capacity planning. The basics of normalization process is discussed.

In Unit 6, Normalization is process of efficiently organizing the database.

It is accurate representation of data, relationships and Constraints. The goal
of normalization is to eliminate redundant data in a database and ensure data
dependencies make sense. There are guidelines for ensuring that databases are
normalized called normal forms: 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF, 5NF and 6NF.

82
 BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :
1. Define Candidate key, primary key.
2. Define terms schema, tuple, instance, relation.
3. What is goal of normalization ?
4. Write any two advantages of normalization.
5. What is referential integrity ?
 Long Questions :
1. Explain the anomalies in un–normalized database.
2. What is normalization ? Explain basic three normal forms.
3. Compare Hierarchical, network and relational model.

83
Database Management  Enrolment No. :
System
1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 4 5 6

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

84
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR-202/
Open University Ahmedabad DCAR-202

Database Management System

BLOCK 3 : SQL AND OODBMS

UNIT 7 SQL (STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE)

UNIT 8 SQL CONSTRAINTS

UNIT 9 TRANSACTION PROCESSING

UNIT 10 OBJECT ORIENTED DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

 SQL AND OODBMS
Block Introduction :

Unit 7 will introduce query language for database. SQL (Structured Query
Language) is a database computer language designed for managing data in
relational database management systems RDBMS). SQL, is a standardized
computer language that was originally developed by IBM for querying, altering
and defining relational databases, using declarative statements. SQL has several
parts like DDL, DML, and TCL etc. You will discover how to use SQL to sort

and are trieve data from tables and how to use SQL to filter retrieved data. You
will also learn how to gather significant statistics from data using aggregate
functions, and how to extract data from multiple tables simultaneously using joins
and subqueries. In addition, you'll learn how to manipulate data using the
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements. So this unit will provide you SQL's
basic constructs and concepts.

Unit 8 provides the understanding of types of constraints available in SQL.

It explain each constraint with practical implementation aspects.

Unit 9 will provide you the concept of transaction processing. A transaction,

also in simplified terms, is a specific task, or set of tasks, to be executed against

the database. Transactions start with an executable DML statement and end when
the statement or multiple statements are all either rolled back or committed to
the database, or when a DDL (Data Definition Language) statement is issued
during the transaction. You will learn different types of transactions in this unit.
Also you will understand the steps involved in processing local and remote
transaction. In addition, you will learn how to optimize the execution of

transaction.

Unit 10 will give you overview of object oriented databases.Object oriented

database technology is a blend of object oriented programming and database

technology. The result of this blend is Object Oriented Database (OODB). The
blending achieves integration of applications running on different platforms.
OODB has more or less the same features of DBMS, but, in addition, is in a
position to handle OO features. In the real world, both the applications exist,
namely, OO applications and RDBMS applications, with first generation client–
server computing. So in an organisation, both OODBs and RDBs exist. The user
must have access to both of them to manipulate data. The developer must
therefore develop applications that could source data from all databases (OODB,
relational database, etc.). Now there is a mismatch between the application

objects and relational data that needs to be mapped for use in the application.
The process of mapping and integrating begins with defining the relationships
between the table structures in RDB and class structure in the object model in

OODB.

Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to :

• Understand basic constructs and concept of SQL.

• Understand various DDL DML commands in SQL.
• Understand the concept of Transaction processing.
• Understand the need and concept of object oriented databases.
• Understand the features and advantages of OODBMS.
Block Structure :
Unit 7 : SQL (Structured Query Language)
Unit 8 : SQL Constraints
Unit 9 : Transaction Processing
Unit 10 : Object Oriented Database Management Systems
(OODBMS)
 Unit
SQL (STRUCTURED
07 QUERY LANGUAGE)
UNIT STRUCTURE
7.0 Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History
7.3 Basic Structure
7.4 DDL Commands
7.5 DML Commands
7.6 Simple Queries
7.7 Nested Queries
7.8 Aggregate Functions
7.9 Let Us Sum Up
7.10 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
7.11 Glossary
7.12 Assignment
7.13 Activities
7.14 Case Study
7.15 Further Readings

7.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The purpose of using SQL in DBMS
• Distinguish between SQL and other programming languages
• Learn various data types in SQL
• Learn various Built in Functions in SQL.
• Lean how to write queries.
• Lean how to use CREATE statement.
• ANSI standardization for SQL

7.1 Introduction :
Dr. E. F. Codd published the paper, "A Relational Model of Data for
Large Shared Data Banks", in June 1970 in the journal, Communications of
the ACM. Codd's model is now accepted as the definitive model for relational
database management systems (RDBMS). The language, Structured English
Query Language (SEQUEL) was developed by IBM Corporation, Inc., to use
Codd's model. SEQUEL later became SQL (still pronounced "sequel"). In 1979,
Relational Software, Inc. (now Oracle) introduced the first commercially available
implementation of SQL. Today, SQL is accepted as the standard RDBMS
language.

85
Database Management SQL is a non–procedural language. Non–Procedural means that SQL lacks
System the traditional control constructs such as IF–THEN–ELSE, WHILE, FOR, and
GO TO statements found in procedural languages like C, Perl, Python, and
other 3GL's.
SQL is called a declarative language, meaning that you only need to
specify what needs to be accomplished (such as a query or insert) and not
how to do it; the DBMS determines and performs internally the step by step
operation needed to obtain the result.
The sets of records can be manipulated instead of one record at a time.
The syntax is free–flowing, enabling you to concentrate on the data presentation.
Oracle has two optimizers (cost– and rule–based) that will parse the syntax
and format it into an efficient statement before the database engine receives
it for processing. The database administrator (DBA) determines which optimizer
is in effect for each database instance.

7.2 History :

SQL History
The history of SQL begins in an IBM laboratory in San Jose, California,
where SQL was developed in the late 1970s. The initials stand for Structured
Query Language, and the language itself is often referred to as "sequel." It
was originally developed for IBM's DB2 product (a relational database
management system, or RDBMS, that can still be bought today for various
platforms and environments). In fact, SQL makes an RDBMS possible. SQL
is a nonprocedural language, in contrast to the procedural or third–generation
languages (3GLs) such as COBOL and C that had been created up to that
time.
Two standards organizations, the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO), currently promote
SQL standards to industry. Although these standard–making bodies prepare
standards for database system designers to follow, all database products differ
from the ANSI standard to some degree. In addition, most systems provide
some proprietary extensions to SQL that extend the language into a true
procedural language.

86
 Check Your Progress – 1 : SQL (Structured
Query Language)
1. What is SQL ? Explain in brief History of SQL.
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7.3 Basic Structure :

Basic Structure
SQL is based on set and relational operations with certain modifications
and enhancements.A typical SQL query has the form:
Select A1, A2,..., An
From r1, r2,..., rm
Where P
–A is represent attribute
–r is represent relations
–P is a predicate or condition.
 Select Clause :
• The select clause corresponds to the projection operation of the relational
algebra. It is used to list the attributes desired in the result of a query.
• The general form for a SELECT statement, retrieving all of the rows
in the table is:
Select Column Name, Column Name,...
From Table Name;
• To get all columns of a table without typing all column names, use: Select
* From Table Name;
Note that SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.
Sql> Select * From Emp;

87
Database Management EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
System
––– ––– ––– ––– ––– ––– ––– –––
7369 Smith Clerk 7902 17-Dec-80 800 20
7499 Allen Salesman 7698 20-Feb-81 1600 300 30
7521 Ward Salesman 7698 22-Feb-81 1250 500 30
7566 Jones Manager 7839 02-Apr-81 2975 20
7654 Martin Salesman 7698 28-Sep-81 1250 1400 30
7698 Blake Manager 7839 01-May-81 2850 30
7782 Clark Manager 7839 09-Jun-81 2450 10
7788 Scott Analyst 7566 19-Apr-87 3000 20
7839 King President 17-Nov-81 5000 10
7844 Turner Salesman 7698 08-Sep-81 15000 30
7876 Adams Clerk 7788 23-May-87 1100 20
7900 James Clerk 7698 03-Dec-81 950 30
7902 Ford Analyst 7566 03-Dec-81 3000 20
7934 Miller Clerk 7782 23-Jan-82 1300 10
14 Rows Selected.
Select All The Records From Dept Table
Sql> Select * From Dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
––– ––– –––
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
• SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results. To force
the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after select.
Example : Find the names of all employees in the emp relation, and
remove duplicates.
select distinct ename
from emp;
• The keyword all specifies that duplicates should not be removed.
select all ename
from emp;
• The select clause can also contain arithmetic expressions involving the
operators, +, ?, ?, and /, and operating on constants or attributes of tuples.
The query:
Select ename, sal*100 From emp;
88
 Would return a relation which is the same as the emp relation, except SQL (Structured
that the attribute sal is multiplied by 100. Query Language)

WHERE clause:
• The where clause corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational
algebra. It consists of a predicate involving attributes of the relations
that appear in the from clause.
SYNTAX :
Where <search condition>
Find The Employee Name Who Is Working In Dept No 30
Sql> Select Ename From Emp Where Deptno=30; Ename
Allen
Ward
Martin
Blake
Turner
James
6 Rows Selected.
• SQL uses the logical connectives and, or, and not. It allows the use of
arithmetic expressions as operands to the comparison operators. SQL
includes a between comparison operator in order to simplify where
clauses that specify that a value be less than or equal to some value
and greater than or equal to some other value.
• Find ename Who Are Manager And Getting Salary More Than 2000
Sql> Select ename From emp Where Job='Manager' And Sal>2000;
Ename
–––
Jones
Blake
Clark
• Find Those Employees Who Were Hired Between 1 Mar 1981 And 1
Jun 1983
Sql> Select Ename From Emp Where Hiredate Between '1–Mar–1981'
And '1–Jun–1983';
Ename
–––
Jones
Martin
Blake
Clark
King
Turner

89
Database Management James
System
Ford
Miller
9 Rows Selected.
FROM Clause :
• The from clause corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the
relational algebra. It lists the relations to be scanned in the evaluation
of the expression.
• Find the Cartesian product emp×dept
Select ename, dname
From emp, dept
• Find the name of employees working at location 'DALLAS'
select distinct ename
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno and loc= 'DALLAS';

Tuple variables :
Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the as clause.
• Find the emp names, deptno and their dept name
Select T.ename, S.Deptno, S.Dname
from emp as T, dept asS
where T.deptno = S.deptno
String Operations :
• SQL includes a string–matching operator for comparisons on character
strings. Patterns are described using two special characters :
– percent (%) : The % character matches any substring.
– underscore : The character matches any character.
• Find the names of all employees whose name includes the substring 'john'.
Select ename
From emp
Where ename like"%john%"

Ordering the Display of Tuples :

• List in alphabetic order the names of all employees
Select ename
from emp
order by ename ;
• We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending order,
for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
• Find Ename Who Are Working In Deptno 30 Order By Salary In Des.
Order Sql> Select Ename From Emp Where Deptno=30 Order By Sal
Des;
90
 Ename SQL (Structured
Query Language)
–––
Blake
Allen
Turner
Ward
Martin
James
6 Rows Selected.
• SQL must perform a sort to fulfil an order by request. Since sorting
a large number of tuples may be costly, it is desirable to sort only when
necessary.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. Explain the basic structure of SQL.
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7.4 DDL Commands :

Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to define the
database structure or schema. Some basic commands are as follows:
Create – To Create Objects In The Database
Alter – Alters The Structure Of The Database
Drop – Delete Objects From The Database

Create Table
The PURPOSE of this command is to create a table, the basic structure
to hold user data, specifying this information:
• column definitions
• integrity constraints
• the table's table space
• storage characteristics Syntax:
Create Table [Schema.]Table
( { Column Datatype [Default Expr] [Column_Constraint]...
| Table_Constraint}
[, { Column Datatype [Default Expr] [Column_Constraint]...
| Table_Constraint} ]...)
Where:

91
Database Management • Schema – is the schema containing the table. If you omit schema, it
System is assumed that the table is in your own schema.
• Table – is the name of the table to be created.
• Column – specifies the name of a column of the table. The number
of columns in a table can range from 1 to 254.
• Datatype – is the datatype of a column.
The data types permitted are

Data type Syntax Description Example

Character data char(n) It is fixed length a c c o u n t _ t y p e
types character string of char(6)
size n, default value
1 byte if n is not
specified.
varchar(n) It is variable length e m p l y e e _ n a m e
character string varchar(50)
with maximum size
n.
Text It is used to store work_experiene text
large text data, no
need to define a
maximum.
Numeric data Integer, int, Serial is same as int, Eno int
types serial only that values are Eno serial
incremented
automatically.
Numeric A real number with Sal numeric(5.2)
P digits, S of them Sal numeric(n)
after decimal point.
Float Real number Weight Float
Date and time Date Stores date Birthdate date
type information
Time Stores time Birthtime time
information
Timestamp Stores a date & time Birth timestamp
Boolean and Boolean, bool Stores only 2 value : Flag Boolean
Binary type true or false, 1 or 0,
yes or no, y or n,
t or f

• Default – specifies a value to be assigned to the column if a subsequent

INSERT statement omits a value for the column. The datatype of the
expression must match the datatype of the column.
• Column Constraint – defines an integrity constraint as part of the
column definition.

92
• Table Constraint – defines an integrity constraint as part of the table SQL (Structured
definition. Query Language)

Constraints can be defined as either of the following :

Name Name Example
Column Level When data constraint is Create table name (attribute
Table Level defined only with respect to 1 datatype primary key,
one column and hence attribute 2 datatype
defined after the column constraint constraint–
definition, it is called as name,……..)
column level constraint Create table name (attribute
When data constraint spans 1 datatype, attribute 2
across multiple column and datatype2
hence defined after defining ,…………..,constraint pkey
all the table columns when primary) key (attriburw 1
creating or altering a table atrributr)
structure. It is called as table
level constraint

Create table emp (eno integer primary key,

ename varchar[50],
salary float);
OR
create table sales_order1(order_no char[10],
product_no char[10],,
qty_ordered integer,
product_rate numeric(8,2),
PRIMARY KEY(order_no,product_no));
 Alter Table :
The PURPOSE of this command is to alter the definition of a table in
one of these ways:
• to add a column
• to add an integrity constraint
• to redefine a column (datatype, size, default value)
• to modify storage characteristics or other parameters
• to enable, disable, or drop an integrity constraint or trigger
• to explicitly allocate an extent
• to allow or disallow writing to a table
• to modify the degree of parallelism for a table
 Syntax :
ALTER TABLE [schema.]table
[ADD { { column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint]...
| table_constraint}
| ( { column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint]...
93
Database Management | table_constraint}
System
[, { column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint]...
| table_constraint} ]... ) } ]
[MODIFY { column [datatype] [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint]...
| (column [datatype] [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint]...
[, column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint]...]...)} ]
[DROP drop_clause]...
 Where :
• Schema – is the schema containing the table. If you omit schema, Oracle
assumes the table is in your own schema.
• Table – is the name of the table to be altered.
• Add – adds a column or integrity constraint.
• Modify – modifies a the definition of an existing column. If you omit
any of the optional parts of the column definition (datatype, default value,
or column constraint), these parts remain unchanged.
• Column – is the name of the column to be added or modified.
• Datatype – specifies a datatype for a new column or a new datatype
for an existing column.
• Default – specifies a default value for a new column or a new default
for an existing column.
• Column_Constraint – adds or removes a NOT NULL constraint to or
from and existing column.
• Table constraint – adds an integrity constraint to the table. For Example,
To add an advisor column into the Student table
SQL> ALTER TABLE Student AsDD (advisor VARCHAR2(30));
Table altered.
 Drop Table :
The Purpose Of This Command Is To Remove A Table And All Its Data
From The Database.
 Syntax :
DROP TABLE [schema.]table
[CASCADE CONSTRAINTS]
 Where :
• Schema – is the schema containing the table. If you omit schema, Oracle
assumes the table is in your own schema.
• Table – is the name of the table to be dropped.
• Cascade Constraints – drops all referential integrity constraints that refer
to primary and unique keys in the dropped table. If you omit this option,
and such referential integrity constraints exist, SQL returns an error and
does not drop the table.

94
 For Example : SQL (Structured
Query Language)
To drop the Student table, enter:
SQL> DROP TABLE Student;
Table dropped.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. Explain basic DDL statements.
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7.5 DML Commands :

INSERT

SELECT
Data Manipulation
Language
UPDATE

DELETE

Data Manipulation Language is used to insert, modify and delete the

records in the database. It never modifies the schema of the database (table
features, relationships etc.).
DML include three statements: INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.
 Insert :
The Purpose of This Command Is To Add Rows To A Table Or To A
View's Base Table.
 Syntax :
INSERT INTO [schema.]{table | view | subquery }
[ (column [, column]...) ]
{VALUES (expr [, expr]...) | subquery}
 Where :
• schema – is the schema containing the table or view. If you omit schema,
SQL assumes the table or view is in your own schema.
• table | view – is name of the table into which rows are to be inserted.
If you specify view, SQL inserts rows into the view's base table.
• subquery – is a SELECT statement that is treated as if it is a view.
• column – is a column of the table or view. In the inserted row, each
column in this list is assigned a value from the VALUES clause or the
subquery. If you omit one of the table's columns from this list, the
column's value for the inserted row is the column's default value as
specified when the table was created. If you omit the column list
altogether, the VALUES clause or query must specify values for all
columns in the table.
95
Database Management • Values – specifies a row of values to be inserted into the table or view.
System You must specify a value in the VALUES clause for each column in
the column list.
• Subquery – is a SELECT statement that returns rows that are inserted
into the table. The select list of this subquery must have the same number
of columns as the column list of table.
For Example :
• To insert a student named Smith into the Student Table :
SQL> INSERT INTO Student
VALUES ('Smith', 17, 1, 'CS');
1 row created.
UPDATE:
The PURPOSE of this command is to change existing values in a table
or in a view's base table.
 Syntax :
UPDATE [schema.]{table | view | subquery}[@dblink]
SET { (column [, column]...) = (subquery)
| column = { expr | (subquery) } }
[, { (column [, column]...) = (subquery)
| column = { expr | (subquery) } } ]...
[WHERE condition]
Where :
• schema – is the schema containing the table or view. If you omit schema,
SQL assumes the table or view is in your own schema.
• table | view | subquery – is the name of the table to be updated. If
you specify view, SQL updates the view's base table. A subquery is treated
the same as a view.
• column – is the name of a column of the table or view that is to be
updated. If you omit a column of the table from the SET clause, that
column's value remains unchanged.
• expr – is the new value assigned to the corresponding column. This
expression can contain host variables and optional indicator variables.
• Subquery – is a SELECT statement that returns new values that are
assigned to the corresponding columns.
• Where – restricts the rows updated to those for which the specified
condition is TRUE. If you omit this clause, Oracle updates all rows in
the table or view.
Example :
To change a major name from 'COCS' to 'CS' for all students, enter :
SQL> UPDATE Student
SET Major = 'CS'
WHERE Major = 'COSC';
6 rows updated.
96
 Delete : SQL (Structured
Query Language)
The PURPOSE of this command is to remove rows from a table or from
a view's base table.
 Syntax :
DELETE [FROM] [schema.]{table | view}[@dblink]
[WHERE condition]
 Where :
• schema – is the schema containing the table or view. If you omit schema,
SQL assumes the table or view is in your own schema.
• table | view – is the name of a table from which the rows are to be
deleted. If you specify view SQL deletes rows from the view's base table.
• Where – deletes only rows that satisfy the condition. The condition can
reference the table and can contain a subquery. If you omit this clause,
Oracle deletes all rows from the table.
For Example : To delete all students who have major in 'VOODOO',
enter:
SQL> DELETE FROM Student
WHERE MAJOR = 'VOODOO';
0 rows deleted.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Explain DML statements with example.
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7.6 Simple Queries :

Queries

97
Database Management To retrieve data from the database, use the SELECT statement. Once
System again, proper privileges are required and are maintained by the DBA. The
SELECT statement has the following format:
SELECT column(s)
FROM tables(s)
WHERE conditions are met
GROUP BY selected columns
ORDER BY column(s);
Every SQL statement ends with a semicolon (;). When you are writing
scripts (disk files) that will be executed, you can also use a slash (\) to terminate
the SQL statement.
When SELECT column(s) is used, it is assumed that all of the columns
fitting the WHERE clause will be retrieved. It is sometimes necessary to only
retrieve columns that are distinct from one another. To do this, use the reserved
word DISTINCT before the column descriptions. In the following example,
a SELECT statement is used to retrieve all of the cities and states from the
addresses table (defined previously).
SELECT city, state
FROM addresses;
When you run this code, every city and state will be retrieved from the
table. If 30 people lived in Rochester, NY, the data would be displayed 30
times. To see only one occurrence for each city and state use the DISTINCT
qualifier, as shown in the following example:
SELECT DISTINCT city, state
FROM addresses;
This will cause only one row to be retrieved for entries with Rochester,
NY.
The FROM clause is a listing of all tables needed for the query. You
can use table aliases to help simplify queries, as shown in the following
example:
SELECT adrs.city, adrs.state
FROM addresses adrs;
In this example, the alias adrs has been given to the table addresses.
The alias will be used to differentiate columns with the same name from
different tables.
The 'WHERE' clause is used to list the criteria necessary to restrict the
output from the query or to join tables in the FROM clause. See the following
example.
SELECT DISTINCT city, state
FROM addresses
WHERE state in ('CA','NY','CT')
AND city is NOT NULL;

98
 The above example will retrieve cities and states that are in the states SQL (Structured
of California, New York, and Connecticut. The check for NOT NULL cities Query Language)
will not bring data back if the city field was not filled in.
The GROUP BY clause tells Oracle how to group the records together
when certain functions are used.
SELECT dept_no, SUM(emp_salary)
FROM emp
GROUP BY dept_no;
The GROUP BY example will list all department numbers once with
the summation of the employee salaries for that particular department.
 Check Your Progress – 5 :
1. Explain group by and order by clause with example.
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7.7 Nested Queries :

SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
• A subquery is a select–from–where expression that is nested within
another query.
• You can build powerful statements out of simple ones by using sub–
queries. They can be very useful when you need to select rows from
a table with a condition that depends on the data in the table itself.
General form of sub query
is SELECT select_list
FROM table
WHERE expr operator
( SELECT select_List
FROM table);
• The subquery (inner query) executes once before the main query.
• The result of the sub–query is used by the main query (outer query).
• You can place the sub–query in a number of SQL clauses
• WHERE clause
• HAVING clause
• FROM clause in the syntax;
operator includes a comparison operatör such as >, =, or IN
Note : Comparison operutors fall i11to two classes: single–row operators
(>,=,>=,<,<>,<=)
and multiple–row operators ( IN, ANY, ALL ).

99
Database Management For example : Find employee name whose salary is greater than empno
System = 7566
SELECT ename
FROM EMP
WHERE sal >
( SELECT sal
FROM emp
WHERE empno=7566);
Output :
ENAME
FORD
SCOTT
KING
FORD
• A common use of sub queries is to perform tests for set membership,
set comparisons, and set cardinality.
SET MEMBERSHIP:
The 'in' & 'not in' connectivity tests are used for set membership &
absence of set membership respectively.
For example, display the employee number and name for all employees
who work in a department with any employee whose name contains a T.
SELECT empno, ename
FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN
( SELECT deptno
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%T%' );
Set Comparisons:
The < some, > some, <= some, >= some, = some, <> some are the
constructs allowed for comparison.
= some is same as the 'in' connectivity.
<> some is not the same as the 'not in' connectivity.
Similarly sql also provides < all, >all, <=all, >= all, <> all comparisons.
<>all is same as the 'not in' construct.
SELECT empno, ename, job
FROM emp
WHERE sal < ANY
( SELECT sal
FROM emp
WHERE job = 'CLERK' );

100
 Output : SQL (Structured
Query Language)
EMPNO ENAME JOB
7369 SMITH CLERK
7900 JAMES CLERK
7876 ADAMS CLERK
7521 WARD SALESMAN
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN
 Set Cardinality :
The 'exists' construct returns the value true if the argument subquery is
nonempty. We can test for the non–existence of tuples in a subquery by using
the 'not exists' construct. The 'not exists 'construct can also be used to simulate
the set containment operation (the super set). We can write "relation A contains
relation
B" as "not exists (B except A)".
For example, display employee and their dept. names whose salary
> 3500
SELECT ename, deptno
FROM emp
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE sal >3500 )
ENAME DEPTNO
SMITH 20
ALLEN 30
WARD 30
JONES 20
MARTIN 30
BLAKE 30
CLARK 10
SCOTT 20
KING 10
TURNER 30
ADAMS 20
JAMES 30
FORD 20
MILLER 10

101
Database Management  Check Your Progress – 6 :
System
1. Explain SQL statements involving set membership, set comparisons and
set cardinality operations.
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7.8 Aggregate Functions :

Aggregate Functions
The five important aggregate functions are SUM, AVG, MAX, MIN, and
COUNT. They are called aggregate functions because they summarize the
results of a query, rather than listing all of the rows.
(1) SUM () gives the total of all the rows, satisfying any conditions, of the
given column, where the given column is numeric.
(2) AVG () gives the average of the given column.
(3) MAX () gives the largest figure in the given column.
(4) MIN () gives the smallest figure in the given column.
(5) COUNT (*) gives the number of rows satisfying the conditions.
• FIND ENAME WHO WAS HIRED FIRST :
SQL> SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE IN(SELECT
MIN(HIREDATE) FROM EMP);
ENAME
–––––
SMITH
• FIND TOTAL SALARY FOR THOSE WHO ARE NOT MANAGER
SQL> SELECT SUM(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE JOB<>'MANAGER';
SUM(SAL)
8275

102
• FIND TOTAL SALARY OF EACH DEPT EXCLUDING THE SQL (Structured
EMPLOYEE WHO ARE NOT SALESMAN AND DISPLAY ONLY Query Language)
THOSE DEPT WHOSE TOTAL>7000
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE
JOB!='SALESMAN' GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING SUM(SAL)>7000;
DEPTNO SUM (SAL)
10 8750
20 10875
• FIND AVG SALARY FOR ALL THE JOB TYPES WITH MORE THAN
2 EMPLOYEES
SQL> SELECT JOB,AVG(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB HAVING
COUNT(JOB)>2;
JOB AVG(SAL)
CLERK 1037.5
MANAGER 2758.3333
SALESMAN 1400
• DISPLAY EMP. COUNT FOR EACH JOB CATAGORY
SQL> SELECT JOB,DEPTNO,COUNT(ENAME) FROM EMP GROUP
BY JOB,DEPTNO;
JOB DEPTNO COUNT(ENAME)
––––– ––––– –––––
ANALYST 20 2
CLERK 10 1
CLERK 20 2
CLERK 30 1
MANAGER 10 1
MANAGER 20 1
MANAGER 30 1
PRESIDENT 10 1
SALESMAN 30 4
9 ROWS SELECTED.
 Check Your Progress – 7 :
1. Explain any five aggregate functions.
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103
Database Management 2. Designers use which of the following to tune the performance of systems
System to support time–critical operations ?
(A) Denormalization (B) Redundant optimization
(C) Optimization (D) Realization
3. If one attribute is determinant of second, which in turn is determinant
of third, then the relation cannot be:
(A) Well–structured (B) 1NF
(C) 2NF (D) 3NF
4. 5NF is designed to cope with :
(A) Transitive dependency (B) Join dependency
(C) Multi valued dependency (D) None of these
5. Third normal form is inadequate in situations where the relation :
(A) has multiple candidate keys
(B) has candidate keys that are composite
(C) has overlapped candidate keys
(D) none of the above
6. function gives the total of all the rows.
(A) sum() (B) Avg() (C) Min() (D) Max()

7.9 Let Us Sum Up :

Almost all relational database management systems use SQL (Structured
Query Language) for data manipulation and retrieval. SQL is the standard
language for relational database systems. SQL is a non–procedural language,
where you need to concentrate on what you want, not on how you get it. Put
it in other way, you need not be concerned with procedural details.
SQL Commands are divided into four categories, depending upon what
they do.
_ DDL (Data Definition Language)
_ DML (Data Manipulation Language)
_ DCL (Data Control Language)
_ Query (Retrieving data)
DDL commands are used to define the data. For example, CREATE
TABLE.
DML commands such as, INSERT and DELETE are used to manipulate
data.
DCL commands are used to control access to data. For example, GRANT.
Query is used to retrieve data using SELECT.
DML and Query are also collectively called as DML. And DDL and DCL
are called as DDL.

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 7.10 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress : SQL (Structured
Query Language)
 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 1.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 1.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 1.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 1.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
See Section 1.6
 Check Your Progress 6 :
See Section 1.7
 Check Your Progress 7 :
1 : See Section 1.8 2 : Denormalization
3 : 3NF 4 : Join dependency
5 : none of the above, 6 : sum()

7.11 Glossary :
1. Aggregate – A single [summary] field's value, based on results calculated
from values found in like fields across an entire set or subset of records;
typically counts, sums, averages, first, last, minimum and maximum.
2. Column – Synonymous with field.
3. Constraints – Data restrictions specified in a database; rules that determine
what values the field to the table can assume.
4. Data Retrieval – Data extraction from disparate sources, most operational,
some legacy –– typically in different formats.
5. Data Type – Every field in every table in a database must be declared
as a specific type of data with defined parameters and limitations (e.g.
numeric, character or text, date, logical, etc.), known as a data type.
6. Key – A key is a field, or combination of fields, that uniquely identifies
a record in a table.
7. Candidate Key – (1) One or more fields that will uniquely identify one
record in a table; (2) A potential primary key.
8. Composite Key – A key made up of two or more table columns that,
together, guarantee uniqueness, when there is no single column available
that can guarantee uniqueness by itself.
9. Foreign key – A column or group of columns in a table that corresponds
to or references a primary key in another table in the database. A foreign
Key need not itself be unique, but must uniquely identify the field or
fields in the table that the key references.

105
Database Management 10. Primary key – A field or combination of fields that uniquely identifies
System each record in a table, so that each record can be uniquely distinguished
from every other occurring in the table. A table cannot have more than
one primary key, and a primary key, by definition may not contain a
null value.
11. Nonprocedural Language – For example, SQL; a computer language
in which the programmer cannot dictate in what order a procedure will
process its contained commands.
12. Procedural Language – A computer language that solves a problem by
sequentially executing steps in either a linear or loop back procedure
(or both) until the operation is completed.
13. Query Language – A computer language that enables an end–user to
create and run queries that interact directly with a DBMS to retrieve,
and possibly modify, the data it contains.
14. Nested query – A statement that contains one or more sub queries.
15. Referential Integrity – (1) A series of rules that defines and manages
the link between parent and child records; (2) A state in which all the
tables in the database are consistent with each other; (3) The facility
of any DBMS that ensures the validity of predefined relationships.
16. Schema – (1) The database's metadata –– the structure of an entire
database, which specifies, among other things, the tables, their fields,
and their domains. In some database systems, the linking or join fields
are also specified as part of the schema; (2) The description of a single
table.
17. Table – Synonymous with relation. A collection of data organized into
records and fields (a ka rows and columns), with fields being descriptions
of the kinds of information contained in each record (attributes); and
records being specific instances usually referring to specific objects or
persons (entities).
18. SQL – Pronounced "Sequel", it stands for Structured Query Language,
the standard format for commands that most database software understands.

7.12 Assignment :
Explain in our own words importance of the SQL in today's IT world.

7.13 Activities :
Explain in brief various relational databases available in IT world.

7.14 Case Study :

Consider the following case study :
A music company wants to go in for automation of their requirements.
They want to develop a database for maintaining the information of their music
albums, singers, musicians, instruments.
The following facts are relevant :
a. each album is produced by many musicians, a musician can produce many
albums
b. A singer can sing for many albums, but an album consists of songs of
only one singer.
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c. A musician can play many instruments, an instrument can be played by SQL (Structured
many musicians. Query Language)

The following constraints are to be placed on the relations :

a. each musician is paid a minimum of 50000 Rs. foreach album
b. all singers are from either pune, Mumbai or Chennai
c. each instrument cost is maximum 10000
Design the relational database for the above, so that the following
queries can be answered :
1. List the names of musicians who have played guitar for the album 'zindagi'
2. list the names of musicians who palsy at least one instrument same as
the one "joshi" plays.
3. List the names of albums, in which "sonu nigam" has sung.
4. List the names of albums released in 1998
5. List the names of albums that have more than two instruments being
played in it
6. Delete all information of singers who have not sung in any album
7. Delete all information of musicians, who have worked in the album
"zindagi"

7.15 Further Reading :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw – Hill
Publication
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw
– Hill Publication
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication

107
 Unit
08 SQL CONSTRAINTS
UNIT STRUCTURE
8.0 Learning Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Not Null Constraint
8.3 Default Constraint
8.4 Unique Constraint
8.5 Primary Key
8.6 Foreign Key
8.7 Check Constrait
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
8.10 Glossary
8.11 Assignment
8.12 Activities
8.13 Case Study
8.14 Further Readings

8.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Not Null Constraint
• Default Constraints
• Unique Constraints
• Primary and Foreign Key
• Check constraint

8.1 Introduction :
Constraints are the rules enforced on the data columns of a table. These
are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the
accuracy and reliability of the data in the database. Constraints could be either
on a column level or a table level. The column level constraints are applied
only to one column, whereas the table level constraints are applied to the whole
table.
Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available
in SQL. These constraints have already been discussed in SQL – RDBMS
Concepts chapter, but it's worth to revise them at this point.
• NOT NULL Constraint – Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
• DEFAULT Constraint – Provides a default value for a column when none
is specified.

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• UNIQUE Constraint – Ensures that all values in a column are different. SQL Constraints
• PRIMARY Key – Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
• FOREIGN Key – Uniquely identifies a row/record in any of the given
database table.
• CHECK Constraint – The CHECK constraint ensures that all the values
in a column satisfies certain conditions.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created with the CREATE
TABLE statement or you can use the ALTER TABLE statement to create
constraints even after the table is created.
 Dropping Constraints :
Any constraint that you have defined can be dropped using the ALTER
TABLE command with the DROP CONSTRAINT option.
For example, to drop the primary key constraint in the EMPLOYEES
table, you can use the following command.
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP CONSTRAINT
CONSTRAINT_NAME;
Some implementations may provide shortcuts for dropping certain
constraints. For example, to drop the primary key constraint for a table in
Oracle, you can use the following command.
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP PRIMARY KEY;

8.2 Not Null Constraint :

By default, a column can hold NULL values. If you do not want a column
to have a NULL value, then you need to define such a constraint on this column
specifying that NULL is now not allowed for that column.
A NULL is not the same as no data, rather, it represents unknown data.
For example, the following SQL query creates a new table called
CUSTOMERS and adds five columns, three of which, are ID NAME and AGE,
In this we specify not to accept NULLs ?
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a NOT
NULL constraint to the SALARY column in Oracle and MySQL, you would
write a query like the one that is shown in the following code block.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS MODIFY SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2)
NOT NULL;

109
Database Management 8.3 Default Constraint :
System
The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value to a column when
the INSERT INTO statement does not provide a specific value.
Example :
For example, the following SQL creates a new table called CUSTOMERS
and adds five columns. Here, the SALARY column is set to 5000.00 by default,
so in case the INSERT INTO statement does not provide a value for this column,
then by default this column would be set to 5000.00.
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a
DEFAULT constraint to the SALARY column, you would write a query like
the one which is shown in the code block below.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS
MODIFY SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00;
Drop Default Constraint
To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL query.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ALTER COLUMN SALARY DROP
DEFAULT;

8.4 Unique Constraint :

The UNIQUE Constraint prevents two records from having identical
values in a column. In the CUSTOMERS table, for example, you might want
to prevent two or more people from having an identical age.
Example :
For example, the following SQL query creates a new table called
CUSTOMERS and adds five columns. Here, the AGE column is set to UNIQUE,
so that you cannot have two records with the same age.
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL UNIQUE,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

110
 If the CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a SQL Constraints
UNIQUE constraint to the AGE column. You would write a statement like the
query that is given in the code block below.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS MODIFY AGE INT NOT NULL UNIQUE;
You can also use the following syntax, which supports naming the
constraint in multiple columns as well.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD CONSTRAINT myUniqueConstraint
UNIQUE(AGE, SALARY);
DROP a UNIQUE Constraint
To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL query.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP CONSTRAINT
myUniqueConstraint;
If you are using MySQL, then you can use the following syntax ?
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP INDEX myUniqueConstraint;

8.5 Primary Key Constraint :

A primary key is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row/
record in a database table. Primary keys must contain unique values. A primary
key column cannot have NULL values.
A table can have only one primary key, which may consist of single
or multiple fields. When multiple fields are used as a primary key, they are
called a composite key.
If a table has a primary key defined on any field(s), then you cannot
have two records having the same value of that field(s).
Note – You would use these concepts while creating database tables.
Create Primary Key
Here is the syntax to define the ID attribute as a primary key in a
CUSTOMERS table.
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" column when the
CUSTOMERS table already exists, use the following SQL syntax ?
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
NOTE ? If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key,
the primary key column(s) should have already been declared to not contain
NULL values (when the table was first created).

111
Database Management For defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the
System SQL syntax given below.
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID, NAME)
);
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" and "NAMES"
columns when CUSTOMERS table already exists, use the following SQL
syntax.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS
ADD CONSTRAINT PK_CUSTID PRIMARY KEY (ID, NAME);
Delete Primary Key
You can clear the primary key constraints from the table with the syntax
given below.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP PRIMARY KEY ;

8.6 Foreign Key Constraint :

A foreign key is a key used to link two tables together. This is sometimes
also called as a referencing key. A Foreign Key is a column or a combination
of columns whose values match a Primary Key in a different table.
The relationship between 2 tables matches the Primary Key in one of
the tables with a Foreign Key in the second table. If a table has a primary
key defined on any field(s), then you cannot have two records having the same
value of that field(s).
Example
Consider the structure of the following two tables.
CUSTOMERS table
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
ORDERS table

112
 CREATE TABLE ORDERS ( SQL Constraints
ID INT NOT NULL,
DATE DATETIME,
CUSTOMER_ID INT references CUSTOMERS(ID),
AMOUNT double,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the ORDERS table has already been created and the foreign key has
not yet been set, the use the syntax for specifying a foreign key by altering
a table.
ALTER TABLE ORDERS ADD FOREIGN KEY (Customer_ID)
REFERENCES CUSTOMERS (ID);
DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL syntax.
ALTER TABLE ORDERS DROP FOREIGN KEY;

8.7 Check Constraint :

The CHECK Constraint enables a condition to check the value being
entered into a record. If the condition evaluates to false, the record violates
the constraint and isn't entered the table.
Example
For example, the following program creates a new table called
CUSTOMERS and adds five columns. Here, we add a CHECK with AGE
column, so that you cannot have any CUSTOMER who is below 18 years.
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK (AGE >= 18),
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a CHECK
constraint to AGE column, you would write a statement like the one given
below.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS MODIFY AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK
(AGE >= 18 );
You can also use the following syntax, which supports naming the
constraint in multiple columns as well ?
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD CONSTRAINT myCheckConstraint
CHECK(AGE >= 18);
DROP a CHECK Constraint

113
Database Management To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL syntax. This syntax
System does not work with MySQL.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP CONSTRAINT myCheckConstraint;
 Check Your Progress :
1. Which of the following is not a integrity constraint ?
(A) Not null (B) Positive
(C) Unique (D) Check 'predicate'
2. Foreign key is the one in which the ________ of one relation is referenced
in another relation.
(A) Foreign key (B) Primary key
(C) References (D) Check constraint
3. Point out the correct statement.
(A) CHECK constraints enforce domain integrity
(B) UNIQUE constraints enforce the uniqueness of the values in a set
of columns
(C) In a UNIQUE constraint, no two rows in the table can have the
same value for the columns
(D) All of the mentioned
4. Which of the following constraint does not enforce uniqueness ?
(A) UNIQUE (B) Primary key
(C) Foreign key (D) None of the mentioned
5. Constraints can be applied on ___________
(A) Column (B) Table
(C) Field (D) All of the mentioned

8.8 Let Us Sum Up :

The constraints are the key points in data base management system. In
this unit all the constraints and practical tasks are explained in detail. It also
discuss the usage and characteristics of the constraints. All available constraints
in DBMS is explained in detail.

8.9 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress :
1 : Positive 2 : Primary Key
3 : All of the mentioned 4 : Foreign Key
5 : All of the mentioned

8.10 Glossary :
1. NOT NULL – Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value
2. UNIQUE – Ensures that all values in a column are different
3. PRIMARY KEY – A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE.
Uniquely identifies each row in a table
4. FOREIGN KEY – Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
114
5. CHECK – Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific SQL Constraints
condition
6. DEFAULT – Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified
7. INDEX – Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

8.11 Assignment :
Create user registration table with all constraints utilization.

8.12 Activities :
Study the constraints in detail.

8.13 Case Study :

Create the tables for User registration and login process.

8.14 Further Reading :

i. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
ii. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
iii. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
iv. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
v. Database Solutions (2nd Edition) By Thomas M Connolly & Carolyn
E Begg

115
 Unit
TRANSACTION
09 PROCESSING
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.0 Learning Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of Transactions
9.2.1 Concurrent Transactions
9.2.2 Discreet Transactions
9.2.3 Distributed Transactions
9.2.4 In–Doubt Transactions
9.2.5 Normal Transactions
9.2.6 Read–Only Transactions
9.2.7 Remote Transactions
9.3 Read–Consistency
9.4 Steps to Processing a Transaction
9.4.1 Entering DML/DDL Statements
9.4.2 Assigning Rollback Segments
9.4.3 Long–Running Transactions and Rollback Segment Allocation
9.4.4 Using the Optimizer
9.4.5 Cost–Based Analysis
9.4.6 Rule–Based Analysis
9.4.7 Overriding the Optimizer_Mode Parameter
9.4.8 Parsing Statements
9.4.9 Handling Locks
9.4.10 Stepping Through the Transaction
9.5 Processing a Remote or Distributed Transaction
9.5.1 Entering DDL/DML Statements
9.5.2 Assigning Rollback Segments
9.5.3 Breaking down Statements
9.5.4 Optimizing Local Statements
9.5.5 Forwarding Remote Commands
9.5.6 Assigning Remote Rollback Segments and Writing Redo Logs
9.5.7 Optimizing Remote Statement
9.5.8 Returning Data to the Local Database
9.5.9 Summarizing Remote and Distributed Transactions
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
116
9.8 Glossary Transaction Processing
9.9 Assignment
9.10 Activities
9.11 Case Study
9.12 Further Readings

9.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• The difference between a session and a transaction
• Know what happens when a transaction is started
• How rollback segments are assigned
• How the database handles multiple and concurrent transactions
• Locking techniques used to ensure data integrity
• Execution of SQL and PL/SQL statements
• In–doubt and distributed transactions
• Commits, set points, and rollbacks
• Behind–the–scenes processes that comprise a session and transaction
• Database parameters that affect the execution of a transaction

9.1 Introduction :
Understanding how a transaction begins, executes, and ends, and knowing
what happens along each step of the way are vital parts of making Oracle
work for you. This knowledge is helpful not only to system and database
administrators, but to Oracle developers as well. Knowing when a transaction
is issued, a rollback segment, or how locking occurs in the database can
drastically change the strategy of creating applications or nightly processes.
A transaction is directly related to a session, but it is still considered
a separate entity. A session, simply stated, is a single connection to a database
instance based upon a username and, optionally, a password. All sessions in
a database instance are unique, which means that they have a unique identifier
setting them apart from the other users and processes accessing the database.
This unique identifier, called a SID, is assigned by the instance and can be
reused after a session is ended. The combination of the SID and a session
serial number guarantees that each no session, even if the number is reused,
is identical.
A transaction, also in simplified terms, is a specific task, or set of tasks,
to be executed against the database. Transactions start with an executable DML
statement and end when the statement or multiple statements are all either rolled
back or committed to the database, or when a DDL (Data Definition Language)
statement is issued during the transaction.
If COMMIT or ROLLBACK statements are issued from the command
line, the transaction is said to have been explicitly ended. However, if you
issue a DDL command (DROP TABLE, ALTER TABLE, etc.) the previous
statements in your transaction will be committed (or rolled back if unable to
commit), the transaction will be implicitly ended, and a new transaction will
begin and then end.
117
Database Management To illustrate these rules, assume that you log into your database to update
System and modify your customer tables. What you would like to do is enter 100 new
customers to your database. You do this by creating a temporary table to hold
that customer information, search your customer table for duplicates, and update
those records if they do not exist. Though this is unlikely, assume that you
must update customer table before checking for duplicate entries. The sequence
would look like the steps listed in the following sequence of session and
transaction begins and ends without save points.
1. Connect to SQL*Plus (begin session #1).
2. Create temporary customer table (begin and end transaction #1).
3. Insert new customer information into temporary table (begin transaction
#2).
4. Step through entries in temporary table (continue transaction #2).
5. Update customer table (continue transaction #2).
6. Check for duplicate entries (continue transaction #2). If duplicates exist,
roll back entire transaction (end transaction #2).
7. Repeat steps 4–7 until complete or duplicates are found.
8. Drop temporary table (end transaction #2, begin and end transaction #3).
9. Exit from SQL*Plus (end session #1).
Notice how the create–table and drop–table steps (2 and 8) begin and
end a transaction. If you found duplicate entries in your tables, step 8 would
actually end transaction #3 and begin and end transaction #4. Also note that
the DDL command in step 5 implicitly ended transaction #2 by committing
any changes made before beginning transaction #3. Finally, it is important to
realize that if you had done another update between steps 5 and 6, the exit
from SQL*Plus would have implicitly ended transaction #4 (started by the
update) by issuing a commit before exiting.
One other form of implicitly ending a transaction includes terminating
a session either normally or abnormally. When these situations arise, the
instance automatically attempts to commit the current transaction. If that is
not possible, the transaction will be rolled back.
Commits, Rollbacks, and Save points
Although these topics are discussed elsewhere in this book, it is important
to note how they affect a given transaction. As mentioned earlier, commits
and rollbacks both end a transaction. Commit makes all changes made to the
data permanent. Rollback reverses all changes made during the transaction by
restoring the previous state of all modified data. With the use of save points,
the ROLLBACK command can also be used to roll back only a portion of
a transaction.
Save points were designed to be used as logical stopping points from
within a single transaction. They are helpful in splitting up extremely long
transactions into smaller portions, and they provide points of recovery along
the way. Using save points within a transaction enables you to roll back the
transaction to any given save point as long as a commit has not been issued
(which immediately commits all data, erases all save points, and ends the
transaction). Refer to Chapter 6, "SQL*Plus," to learn more about the

118
SAVEPOINT command as well as how to use ROLLBACK to roll the current Transaction Processing
transaction back to a specified save point.
The following list is an update to the previously shown sequence with
the addition of save points. Refer to this example to show how save points
affect the transaction.
1. Connect to SQL*Plus (begin session #1).
2. Create temporary customer table (begin and end transaction #1).
3. Insert new customer information into temporary table (begin transaction
#2).
4. Step through each entry in the temporary table (continue transaction #2).
5. Create unique save point (continue transaction #2).
6. Update customer table with information from temporary table (continue
transaction #2).
7. If duplicate customer is found, roll back to save point (continue transaction
#2).
8. Repeat steps 4–7 until finished.
9. Issue commit (end transaction #2).
10. Drop temporary table (begin and end transaction #3).
11. Exit from SQL*Plus (end session #1).
Notice how the save point enables you to roll back to a point within
your current transaction without affecting the previous updates before the save
point. Anywhere within your procedure, you can roll back to any save point
or you can roll back the entire transaction. By using the save points, you are
providing a collection of recovery points that are available to you until you
end that transaction. Once the transaction is ended, all save points are erased.
Multiple save points give you even greater flexibility in rolling back
portions of long or complex transactions if an error occurs before the completion
of the process.
There is no limit to the number of save points you can create during
any given transaction, but be careful that the ones you do create are logically
named in case you must roll back to them.
Transaction Control Statements
Transaction control statements are statements that affect the execution
or properties of a transaction, whether it is the management of data or
characteristics of how the transaction executes. The family of transaction control
statements includes:
• COMMIT
• SAVEPOINT
• ROLLBACK
• SET TRANSACTION

9.2 Types of Transactions :

Several names are used to identify transactions and their states. Knowing
these terms is helpful in understanding the terms mentioned by Oracle and

119
Database Management interpreting Oracle errors returned during a transaction. These terms cover types
System of transactions as well as other terms used in identifying them.
9.2.1 Concurrent Transactions :
Concurrent transactions are transactions that are executed in the same
general time. These transactions, because they have started so close to each
other, generally do not see the changes made by the other transactions. Any
data that has been updated by a concurrent transaction and requested by another
concurrently running transaction must be read from rollback segments until the
transaction requesting the data has completed.
9.2.2 Discreet Transactions :
A discreet transaction is used to improve the performance of short
transactions. For developers creating custom applications, the procedure
BEGIN_DISCREET_TRANSACTION() changes the steps followed during the
duration of a session in order to speed its processing. The main differences
are as follows :
• All changes are held until the transaction ends
• Other transactions cannot see uncommitted changes
• Redo information is stored in a separate location in the SGA
• No rollback information is written because all changes are held until a
commit and then applied directly to the data block(s)
9.2.3 Distributed Transactions :
Distributed transactions are transactions in which one or more statements
manipulate data on two or more nodes, or remote systems of a distributed
database. If a transaction manipulates data on only one node, it is considered
a remote transaction. As in a remote transaction, none of the redo information
is stored locally.
9.2.4 In–Doubt Transactions :
An in–doubt transaction is actually a state of a transaction instead of
a type and refers to transactions within a distributed database environment.
One situation that causes this state is if an instance involved in a currently
running transaction fails, that transaction must be either rolled back or committed.
It is difficult, however, to do either without knowing the state of the transaction
in the affected database. In this case, all other instances in the distributed
environment mark this transaction as in–doubt. Once the instance is restarted,
the transaction can be analyzed and all instances can either commit or rollback.
9.2.5 Normal Transactions :
Normal transaction is a term used to refer to a local (non–remote)
transaction. All redo information is stored in the local database, and all data
manipulation is done to the same database. This type of transaction is the focus
for the discussion on transaction processing.
9.2.6 Read–Only Transactions :
Read–only refers to the type of read consistency that is set or defaulted
to for a given transaction. By default, the level of read consistency is statement
level, which is also known as read–write. This means that each consecutive
statement in your transaction will see the changes made to the database by
120
any previous statements regardless of whose transaction has committed the Transaction Processing
changes.
9.2.7 Remote Transactions :
Remote transactions are transactions containing single or multiple
statement(s) to be executed against a non–local database. All these statements
reference the same node. If they do not, they are considered separate remote
transactions and the instance will split them up. One of the major differences
between remote and normal transactions is that redo and rollback information
against a remote transaction is stored on the remote database. None of this
information is transferred to your local database to be used for recovery.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Explain all the types of transactions.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

9.3 Read–Consistency :
Read–consistency is not a difficult concept to grasp. In short, read–
consistency guarantees that the data you are viewing while executing a transaction
does not change during that transaction. With read–consistency, if two users
are updating the same table at the same time, user 1 will not see the changes
made by the other user during their transaction. User 2, likewise, cannot see
any changes committed by user 1 until both transactions are complete. If they
happen to be working on the same row in the table, this becomes a locking
issue instead of read–consistency. A later section discusses locking.
Read–consistency is the major building block that enables multiple users
to update, select, and delete from the same tables without having to keep a
private copy for each user. When combined with locking techniques, read–
consistency provides the foundation for a multi–user database in which users
can do similar or identical operations without difficulty.
Take a look at an example of the way read–consistency works in a
theoretical telemarketing department; user1 is entering an order for a customer,
while user 2 is changing customer information. Both users have concurrent
transactions (they are executing at the same time), but user1 began the transaction
first. Suppose that user 2 makes a mistake and changes the phone number for
the same customer whose order is being entered. Because user1 began the
transaction first, they will always be looking at the 'before picture' of the
customer data and will see the customer's previous phone number when querying
the user's data. This is true even if user 2 commits their changes. Why ? Because
it is possible that user1's transaction is solely dependent on the data that existed
when their transaction began. Imagine the confusion that would result if data
could be changed while an already executing query was making changes based
on that data! It would be nearly impossible to guarantee the coordination and
functioning of all processing within the application.

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Database Management Read–consistency is also a secondary function of rollback segments.
System Aside from being able to undo changes from a transaction, they also provide
other users with a 'before picture' of the data being modified by any process.
If a transaction must review data that has been modified by a concurrent
uncommitted transaction, it must look in the rollback segments to find that
data.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. Explain the concept read consistency.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

9.4 Steps to Processing a Transaction :

Understanding the steps followed during the execution of a transaction
can be quite helpful in planning and implementing custom applications. It is
also important for the database administrator to know these steps because they
can help in understanding and tuning the database parameters and processes.
This discussion covers normal transactions.
Other transactions, such as distributed, remote, and discreet, are treated
a bit differently, because these transactions are short in nature, and those
differences are documented throughout this chapter. The processing steps follow.
1. DML/DDL statement is entered.
2. Rollback segment is assigned or requested.
3. Statement is optimized.
4. Optimizer generates an execution plan.
5. The execution plan is followed to manipulate/return data.
6. Transaction loops through steps 1–5 until commit, rollback or session
termination.
The following sections examine each step individually.
9.4.1 Entering DML/DDL Statements :
The issuing of DML or DDL statements can take place through a number
of ways, including SQL*Forms, SQL*Plus, and custom C programs. The rules
governing the start and end of transactions are the same no matter which way
a SQL statement is issued.
9.4.2 Assigning Rollback Segments :
Rollback segments are assigned randomly by Oracle at the beginning of
each transaction (not session) when the first DML statement is issued, and
they are used to roll back the transaction to a specified save point or to the
beginning of a transaction. The selection of a rollback segment is based on
which rollback segments are currently available and how busy each segment
is. By default, DDL statements are not issued rollback segments due to the
nature of DDL commands. They are, however, issued redo entries so that the
modifications can be reapplied if the database must be recovered.
122
 Two types of transactions do not acquire rollback segments. These are Transaction Processing
read–only transactions and remote transactions. Read–only transactions, by their
nature, do not modify data, so they do not require a rollback segment. Remote
transactions actually do acquire rollback segments, but these rollback segments
are allocated on the remote database that the transaction is executed on.
Distributed transactions are really a form of remote transactions and follow
the same rule.
There is no limit to the number of rollback segments a user can access
throughout a given session, but only one rollback segment will be used at any
given time for any transaction. In other words, a transaction will acquire one
and only one rollback segment to be used for the duration of the transaction.
Once the transaction is complete, the rollback segment is released. Space used
in that rollback segment is dictated by the amount of data that is modified.
9.4.3 Long–Running Transactions and Rollback Segment Allocation :
Transactions that modify large amounts of data require larger rollback
segments. By using the SET TRANSACTION command, you can specify a
specific rollback segment to be used by a given transaction. Reference the
section on SET TRANSACTION for a further explanation of how to do this.
It is important to note, however, that a SET TRANSACTION command must
be the very first command issued in a transaction. If it is not, an error message
will be returned.
Once a transaction is completed, the rollback segment is released. This
does not mean that the segment's data is overwritten immediately, though.
Sometimes other transactions that started before this transaction finished need
access to the unmodified data for read–consistency. In this case, the rollback
segment containing the 'before picture' will be used. Unfortunately, Oracle does
not lock this data into the rollback segment to prevent the data blocks from
being reused if needed.
If your rollback segments are too small, you may encounter the error
rollback segment too old. If this error occurs, the transaction that received the
error is forced to rollback. This error implies two things:
• A rollback segment's extent was reused for a new transaction
• A transaction that started before the other transaction ended required
access to the previously unmodified data for read–consistency
In either situation, a transaction was accessing the before picture of some
data that was still in a rollback segment when the system was forced to reclaim
that extent to use for a currently executing transaction. Because this before
picture is no longer available, the executing transaction cannot continue.
You can use three steps (separately or in conjunction with each other)
to alleviate this problem:
1. Increase the size of your rollback segments.
2. Increase the OPTIMAL size of your rollback segments.
3. Reschedule your processing so that no two processes are updating and/
or reading from updated tables while the other is running.

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Database Management 9.4.4 Using the Optimizer :
System
Oracle's optimizer is a critical part in the execution of a transaction. The
optimizer is responsible for taking a SQL statement, identifying the most
efficient way of executing the statement, and then returning the data requested.
There is a high likelihood that a SQL statement can be executed in more than
one way. The optimizer is responsible for identifying the most efficient means
of executing that statement.
Optimization can take many steps to complete, depending on the SQL
statement. The steps used to execute the SQL statement are called an execution
plan. Once the execution plan is completed, it is then followed to provide the
desired results (updated or returned data).
9.4.5 Cost–Based Analysis :
Cost–based analysis is a mode of analyzing SQL statements to provide
the most efficient way of execution. When the optimizer is running in cost–
based mode, it follows these steps to decide which plan is the best way to
execute the statement unless the developer has provided a hint to use in the
execution.
1. Generate a set of execution plans based on available access paths.
2. Rank each plan based on estimated elapsed time to complete.
3. Choose the plan with the lowest ranking (shortest elapsed time).
Cost–based analysis uses statistics generated by the ANALYZE command
for tables, indexes, and clusters to estimate the total I/O, CPU, and memory
requirements required to run each execution plan. Because the goal of the cost–
based approach is to provide maximum throughput, the execution plan with
the lowest ranking or lowest estimated I/O, CPU, and memory requirements
will be used.
The analysis used to provide the final cost of an execution plan is based
on the following data dictionary views:
• USER_TABLES, USER_TAB_COLUMNS, USER_INDEXES,
USER_CLUSTERS
• ALL_TABLES, ALL_TAB_COLUMNS, ALL_INDEXES,
ALL_CLUSTERS
• DBA_TABLES, DBA_TAB_COLUMNS, DBA_INDEXES,
DBA_CLUSTERS
9.4.6 Rule–Based Analysis :
Rule–based analysis rates the execution plans according to the access
paths available and the information in Table 9.1. The rule–based approach uses
those rankings to provide an overall rating on the execution plan and uses the
plan with the lowest ranking. Generally speaking the lower the rating, the shorter
the execution time though this is not always the case.

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 Table 9.1 : Access type ratings Ranking Type of Access Transaction Processing

1 Single row by ROWID

2 Single row by cluster join
3 Single row by hash cluster key with unique or primary key
4 Single row by unique or primary key
5 Cluster join
6 Hash cluster key
7 Indexed cluster key
8 Composite index
9 Single–column index
10 Bounded range search on indexed columns
11 Unbounded range search on indexed columns
12 Sort–merge join
13 MAX() or MIN() of indexed column
14 ORDER BY on indexed columns
15 Full table scan
9.4.7 Overriding the Optimizer_Mode Parameter :
Because the developer can sometimes optimize code more efficiently than
the optimizer can, various directives, called hints, can be issued from within
the SQL statement to force the optimizer to choose a different method of
optimization. This method works at the statement level from within the transaction
and affects only the current statement.
To affect all statements at the transaction level, the SQL command
ALTER SESSION SET OPTIMIZER_GOAL can be used. This command
overrides the OPTIMIZER_MODE initialization parameter and forces all
statements within the current transaction to be optimized according to this value.
This parameter has four possible values :
• CHOOSE. Tells the optimizer to search the data dictionary views for
data on at least one related table (referenced in the SQL statement). If
the data exists, the optimizer will optimize the statement according to
the cost–based approach. If no data exists for any tables being referenced,
the optimizer will use rule–based analysis.
• ALL_ROWS. Chooses cost–based analysis with the goal of best
throughput.
• FIRST_ROWS. Chooses cost–based analysis with the goal of best
response time.
• RULE. Chooses rule–based analysis regardless of the presence of data
in the data dictionary views related to the tables being referenced.
This parameter affects all SQL statements issued from within the
transaction, including functions and stored procedures that are called.
OPTIMIZER_MODE is still used for any recursive SQL calls issued by Oracle
on behalf of the transaction, though.

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Database Management 9.4.8 Parsing Statements :
System
A parsed statement is not to be confused with an execution plan of a
statement. Whereas an execution plan examines the most efficient way to
execute a statement, parsing the statement creates the actual executable statements
to be used in retrieving the data. Parsing a statement is a one–step process
by the optimizer to do the following:
• Check semantics and syntax
• Verify that the user has the appropriate privileges to execute this statement
• Allocate private SQL space to store the statement
• Check for duplicate statements in the shared SQL area
• Generate an executable version of parsed SQL if necessary
• Allocate and stores SQL in shared library cache if it does not already
exist
When checking the syntax and semantics, the instance is verifying that
no key words or necessary parameters are missing. If the statement is in correct
form, the instance then verifies that the user has the correct privileges required
to carry out the execution of the statement. Once these have been verified,
space is allocated in the private SQL area for the user's statement. This statement
is saved until either it is needed again or the memory space is required to
store another parsed statement.
After allocating space in the private SQL area, the instance searches
through the shared SQL area for any duplicate statements. If a duplicate
statement is found, the executable version of the statement is retrieved from
memory and executed by the process, and the private SQL area is pointed to
the statement in the shared area. If it is not found, an executable version is
created and stored in the private SQL area only.
9.4.9 Handling Locks :
The locking of data rows and/or tables is completely automated and
transparent to the user. Once the executable version of the SQL statement is
run, Oracle automatically attempts to lock data at the lowest level required.
This means that if possible, a row will be locked instead of the entire table.
This is dependent solely on how the SQL statement was written and what types
of access are required (full table scan versus single rows).
A form of manual, or explicit, locking can take place by using the LOCK
TABLE command. By default, these commands are not necessary in day–to–
day processing. Oracle recommends that you allow the database to handle all
locking of data whenever possible.
9.4.10 Stepping Through the Transaction :
From this point, there are several paths that a transaction can take to
completion. Most commonly, the transaction is committed. Still, handling must
be taken into account for transactions that are rolled back. Following are the
steps taken during a commit:
1. Instance's transaction table marks transaction as complete.
2. A unique SCN (system change number) is generated.
3. Redo log entries are written to disk.

126
4. Any acquired locks are released. Transaction Processing
5. Transaction is marked as having completed.
Should any of these steps fail, the transaction cannot be committed.
Depending on the nature of the error, the transaction will either wait for the
problem to be fixed so it can complete the transaction, or it will be rolled
back.
The following steps illustrate what must take place if a transaction is
rolled back:
1. All changes are rolled back to previous savepoint and savepoint is
preserved (or beginning of transaction if no savepoints have been specified).
2. If savepoint is not the last specified savepoint, all savepoints after this
one are erased.
3. Acquired locks are released.
4. Transaction continues (if no savepoints were specified then the transaction
is ended).
If transaction is ended, rollback segments are released as well, though
no SCN is recorded
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. Explain the steps in processing transaction in brief.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

9.5 Processing a Remote or Distributed Transaction :

The steps required to process remote and distributed transactions are
nearly identical to the way normal transactions are processed. The biggest
difference is where the statement is parsed, and the instance whose resources
are used for processing.
9.5.1 Entering DDL/DML Statements :
All statements for remote and distributed transactions are entered on a
local database or a database where local data resides. It is not necessary to
log in to a database where data will be manipulated in order to issue queries
against that database, because that is essentially what a remote or distributed
transaction is.
9.5.2 Assigning Rollback Segments :
Just as in a normal transaction, if any part of the transaction's statements
modifies data on the local database, a rollback segment is assigned to track
any changes made to the data.
9.5.3 Breaking down Statements :
Oracle must break down all statements that query or modify remote data
in order to send them as a group to the remote database(s). Once they are
grouped according to remote database, the statements are sent, via SQL*Net,
to their intended destination. 127
Database Management 9.5.4 Optimizing Local Statements :
System
Just as in a normal transaction, the local statements are optimized, based
on either the database parameter OPTIMIZER_MODE or the transaction–level
parameter OPTIMIZER_GOAL. Once the desired explain plan is created and
executed, data is returned and held until all data from remote transactions has
been received.
9.5.5 Forwarding Remote Commands :
All remote commands are forwarded to the intended database before they
are optimized or parsed. Once the remote database has received the information,
it acts identically as it would on a local database: the statement is parsed;
the shared SQL area is searched in order to find an identical parsed representation
of the statement, the statement is optimized if necessary, and then the statement
is executed.
At this point, all data is returned to the local database user or application.
If data is to be compared with other data from the local or another remote
database, that action takes place on the local database. The local database is
responsible for correlating all returned data to provide the final desired output.
9.5.6 Assigning Remote Rollback Segments and Writing :
Redo Logs
All statements that are sent to remote databases to update/manipulate data
are assigned a rollback segment on the remote database as they would if
manipulating data. The remote database is then responsible for all recovery
operations should the database fail or should the transaction require a rollback.
Remote transactions function like normal transactions when a commit or rollback
statement is issued.
9.5.7 Optimizing Remote Statements :
Statements that are sent to remote databases are not parsed by the local
database. This is so that the remote database's shared SQL area can be searched
for identical statements. Once the statement is parsed, it is either optimized
or the optimized execution plan for the identical statement is used. Data is
then returned to the local database.
9.5.8 Returning Data to the Local Database :
As stated earlier, it is the responsibility of the local database, or the
database from where the transaction was initiated, to receive data from all
remote databases, correlate it, and return only the data that the original statement
requested. This can include joins, WHERE and IN clauses, and GROUP BY
statements.
9.5.9 Summarizing Remote and Distributed Transactions :
Despite the differences in where the bulk of the transaction processing
resides, the steps are much the same. When working in a distributed environment,
though, you need to take into account quite a few other steps when dealing
with complex updates and error handling. Should a transaction be abnormally
terminated or an instance in the distributed environment go down, there are
quite a few extra steps needed to help decide whether a distributed transaction
should be committed or rolled back. It is better to refer to more in–depth
documentation to learn more about two–phase commits and exactly how Oracle
128
deals with the problems resulting from a downed instance or terminated session Transaction Processing
from within a distributed environment.
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Explain the steps in processing a Remote or Distributed transaction
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. Collections of operations that form a single logical unit of work are called
.
(a) Views (b) Networks (c) Units (d) Transactions
3. Which of the following is a property of transactions ?
(a) Atomicity (b) Durability
(c) Isolation (d) All of the mentioned
4. Execution of translation in isolation preserves the _________ of a database
(a) Atomicity (b) Consistency
(c) Durability (d) All of the mentioned
5. Which of the following is not a property of a transaction ?
(a) Atomicity (b) Simplicity (c) Isolation (d) Durability
6. analysis rates the execution plans according to the access
paths available.
(a) Rule based (b) Statement Based
(c) Temp based (d) Constraint based

9.6 Let Us Sum Up :

Knowing the steps that must be taken to process a transaction can greatly
affect how a custom application is developed. If a transaction is querying data
only, using a read–only transaction can greatly reduce the amount of processing
overhead required to run an application. If many users are running the same
read–only query, this savings on overhead can be a considerable amount.
Likewise, knowing more about how statements are optimized can save
a great deal of time in reaching the goals set for a new application. Because
optimization methods take a critical role in meeting those goals, it is imperative
that you take this into account.
Overall, knowing transaction processing steps is just plain helpful for
administrators and developers alike.
Understanding how a transaction begins, executes, and ends, and knowing
what happens along each step of the way are vital parts of making Oracle
work for you. This knowledge is helpful not only to system and database
administrators, but to Oracle developers as well. Knowing when a transaction
is issued a rollback segment, or how locking occurs in the database can
drastically change the strategy of creating applications or nightly processes.
A transaction is directly related to a session, but it is still considered
a separate entity. A session, simply stated, is a single connection to a database
instance based upon a username and, optionally, a password. All sessions in
a database instance are unique, which means that they have a unique identifier
setting them apart from the other users and processes accessing the database.
129
Database Management This unique identifier, called a SID, is assigned by the instance and can
System be reused after a session is ended. The combination of the SID and a session
serial number guarantees that each no session, even if the number is reused,
is identical.
A transaction, also in simplified terms, is a specific task, or set of tasks,
to be executed against the database. Transactions start with an executable DML
statement and end when the statement or multiple statements are all either rolled
back or committed to the database, or when a DDL (Data Definition Language)
statement is issued during the transaction.
It would look like the steps listed in the following sequence of session
and transaction begins and ends without save points.
1. Connect to SQL*Plus (begin session #1).
2. Create temporary customer table (begin and end transaction #1).
3. Insert new customer information into temporary table (begin transaction
#2).
4. Step through entries in temporary table (continue transaction #2).
5. Update customer table (continue transaction #2).
6. Check for duplicate entries (continue transaction #2).If duplicates exist,
roll back entire transaction (end transaction #2).
7. Repeat steps 4–7 until complete or duplicates are found.
8. Drop temporary table (end transaction #2, begin and end transaction #3).
9. Exit from SQL*Plus (end session #1).
Commits, Rollbacks, and Save points
Commits and rollbacks both end a transaction. Commit makes all changes
made to the data permanent. Rollback reverses all changes made during the
transaction by restoring the previous state of all modified data. With the use
of save points, the ROLLBACK command can also be used to roll back only
a portion of a transaction.
The following list is an update to the previously shown sequence with
the addition of save points. Refer to this example to show how save points
affect the transaction.
• Connect to SQL*Plus to (begin session #1).
• Create temporary cusmer table (begin and end transaction #1).
• Insert new customer information into temporary table (begin transaction
#2).
• Step through each entry in the temporary table (continue transaction #2).
• Create unique save point (continue transaction #2).
• Update customer table with information from temporary table (continue
transaction #2).
• If duplicate customer is found, roll back to save point (continue transaction
#2).
• Repeat steps 4–7 until finished.
• Issue commit (end transaction #2).
• Drop temporary table (begin and end transaction #3).
130
• Exit from SQL*Plus (end session #1). Transaction Processing
Transaction Control Statements
The family of transaction control statements include:
• COMMIT
• SAVEPOINT
• ROLLBACK
• SET TRANSACTION
Types of Transactions
Concurrent transactions are transactions that are executed in the same
general time. These transactions, because they have started so close to each
other, generally do not see the changes made by the other transactions.
A discreet transaction is used to improve the performance of short
transactions. For developers creating custom applications, the procedure
BEGIN_DISCREET_TRANSACTION() changes the steps followed during the
duration of a session in order to speed its processing.
Distributed transactions are transactions in which one or more statements
manipulate data on two or more nodes, or remote systems, of a distributed
database. If a transaction manipulates data on only one node, it is considered
a remote transaction. As in a remote transaction, none of the redo information
is stored locally.
An in–doubt transaction is actually a state of a transaction instead of
a type and refers to transactions within a distributed database environment.
One situation that causes this state is if an instance involved in a currently
running transaction fails, that transaction must be either rolled back or committed.
Normal transaction is a term used to refer to a local (non–remote)
transaction. All redo information is stored in the local database, and all data
manipulation is done to the same database. This type of transaction is the focus
for the discussion on transaction processing.
Read–only refers to the type of read consistency that is set or defaulted
to for a given transaction. By default, the level of read consistency is statement
level, which is also known as read–write. This means that each consecutive
statement in your transaction will see the changes made to the database by
any previous statements regardless of whose transaction has committed the
changes.
Remote transactions are transactions containing single or multiple
statement(s) to be executed against a non–local database. These statements all
reference the same node. If they do not, they are considered separate remote
transactions and the instance will split them up.
Read–consistency is not a difficult concept to grasp. In short, read–
consistency guarantees that the data you are viewing while executing a transaction
does not change during that transaction. With read–consistency, if two users
are updating the same table at the same time, user1 will not see the changes
made by the other user during their transaction. User 2, likewise, cannot see
any changes committed by user1 until both transactions are complete.

131
Database Management Entering DML/DDL Statements
System
The issuing of DML or DDL statements can take place through a number
of ways, including SQL*Forms, SQL*Plus, and custom C programs. The rules
governing the start and end of transactions are the same no matter which way
a SQL statement is issued.
Rollback segments are assigned randomly by Oracle at the beginning of
each transaction (not session) when the first DML statement is issued, and
they are used to roll back the transaction to a specified save point or to the
beginning of a transaction. The selection of a rollback segment is based on
which rollback segments are currently available and how busy each segment
is. By default, DDL statements are not issued rollback segments due to the
nature of DDL commands. They are, however, issued redo entries so that the
modifications can be reapplied if the database must be recovered.
Using the Optimizer
Oracle's optimizer is a critical part in the execution of a transaction. The
optimizer is responsible for taking a SQL statement, identifying the most
efficient way of executing the statement, and then returning the data requested.
There is a high likelihood that a SQL statement can be executed in more than
one way. The optimizer is responsible for identifying the most efficient means
of executing that statement.
Cost–based analysis is a mode of analyzing SQL statements to provide
the most efficient way of execution. When the optimizer is running in cost–
based mode, it follows these steps to decide which plan is the best way to
execute the statement unless the developer has provided a hint to use in the
execution.
Rule–Based Analysis
Rule–based analysis rates the execution plans according to the access
paths available. The rule–based approach uses those rankings to provide an
overall rating on the execution plan and uses the plan with the lowest ranking.
Handling Locks
The locking of data rows and/or tables is completely automated and
transparent to the user. Once the executable version of the SQL statement is
run, Oracle automatically attempts to lock data at the lowest level required.
This means that if possible, a row will be locked instead of the entire table.
This is dependent solely on how the SQL statement was written and what types
of access are required (full table scan versus single rows).
Stepping Through the Transaction –
Following are the steps taken during a commit.
• Instance's transaction table marks transaction as complete.
• A unique SCN (system change number) is generated.
• Redo log entries are written to disk.
• Any acquired locks are released.
Transaction is marked as having completed.

132
 9.7 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress : Transaction Processing

 Check Your Progress 1 :

See Section 9.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 9.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 9.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
1 : See Section 9.5 2 : Transactions
3 : All of the mentioned 4 : Consistency
5 : Simplicity 6 : Rule based

9.8 Glossary :
1. Transaction – In simplified terms, it is a specific task, or set of tasks,
to be executed against the database
2. Commit – The COMMIT command is the transactional command used
to save changes invoked by a transaction to the database.
3. Rollback – The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command
used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to the database.
4. Save point – A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can
roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire
transaction.
5. Set Transaction – The Set Transaction command can be used to initiate
a database transaction.
6. Concurrent transactions – These are transactions that are executed in
the same general time.
7. Discreet Transaction – It is used to improve the performance of short
transactions.
8. Distributed transactions – These are transactions in which one or more
statements manipulate data on two or more nodes, or remote systems,
of a distributed database
9. Remote transactions – These are transactions containing single or multiple
statement(s) to be executed against a non–local database
10. Execution plan – The steps used to execute the SQL statement are called
an execution plan
11. Cost–based analysis – It is a mode of analyzing SQL statements to
provide the most efficient way of execution.
12. Rule–based analysis – It rates the execution plans according to the access
paths available and the information.
13. Locking – Reserving the use of a database, table, record, or other
collection of data for access by one user at any one time to prevent
the resulting anomalous database behavior when, for example, one user
reads or modifies data in a record which is in the process of being
modified by another user.
133
Database Management 14. Read Lock – An imposed access barrier that allows a user to query
System and view all or part of a database, but not to modify it. Some database
management systems will allow many users to have simultaneous read
locks.
15. Write Lock – A lock that allows the user to read and to modify the
database. Write locks almost always imply exclusive control of the
database so that other users will not be allowed to have either active
read or write locks as long as one write lock is operational.

9.9 Assignment :
State the difference between Data processing and Transaction Processing.

9.10 Activities :
Explain the use of optimizer in execution of transaction.

9.11 Case Study :

Discuss the transaction control statements with example.

9.12 Further Reading :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw –Hill
Publication
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
5. SQL, PL/SQL: The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross – BPB
Publication.

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 Unit OBJECT ORIENTED DATABASE
10 MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
(OODBMS)
UNIT STRUCTURE
10.0 Learning Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Introduction to Database Management Systems (DBMS)
10.3 Example of Bank Transactions
10.4 Object Oriented Database (OODB)
10.5 Related terms
10.5.1 Distributed Object Computing (DOC)
10.5.2 Objects Methods Users
10.5.3 Interfaces
10.5.4 Associations
10.5.5 Persistent Objects
10.5.6 Persistence Data
10.5.7 Transient Data
10.5.8 Referential Integrity
10.5.9 MDBS
10.5.10 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity)
10.5.11 Locks
10.5.12 ActiveX
10.5.13 OOSAD
10.5.14 CORBA
10.5.15 DCOM
10.5.16 OMG
10.5.17 CORBA Open DOC ActiveX
10.5.18 Virtual DBMS
10.6 Object Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMS)
10.7 Comparison between RDBMS and OODBMS
10.8 A Three Schema Architecture
10.9 Mapping of OODBMS to RDBMS
10.10 Example of Railway Reservation System
10.11 Let Us Sum Up
10.12 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
10.13 Glossary
10.14 Assignment
10.15 Activities
10.16 Case Study
10.17 Further Readings
135
Database Management 10.0 Learning Objectives :
System
After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Basic concepts of Database, DBMS, RDBMS and OODBMS
• Use of OO concepts in database
• Practical applications such as bank transactions, railway reservations
• Principle of mapping of OODBMS to RDBMS
• Difference between OODBMS and RDBMS
• A three schema architecture
• Basic Concept of Persistent Object
• Basic Concept of Transient Object

10.1 Introduction :
Relational database systems have proved their worth in the domain of
business
Applications, particularly those dealing with accounting. The relational
data model, however, is not suitable for all application domains. New applications
involving complex data modeling (i.e. that do not map well to tables) now
require the services normally associated with database systems: persistence,
transactions, authorization, distribution, versioning, data stability, buffering, and
associative access.
To illustrate, let's examine a CAD/CAM application for a company that
manufactures airplanes. The application supports both the specification and
design of all parts required to build an airplane. Modeling physical objects
does not reduce easily to tabular, or relational, form. In particular, an airplane
requires many duplicate parts, each of which would require a unique tag to
be stored as a distinct entity in a relational database. Furthermore, the relations
representing sets of different parts that are mostly similar would require
separate, independent schemas. Finally, the application programmer almost
definitely would prefer to manipulate part designs as complex abstractions at
a level higher than that provided in the relational model.
Our example application, however, requires database services. An airplane
design team typically consists of several people, all of whom will desire access
to the current state of the design. In today's workplace, it is likely that these
designers will be using workstations distributed over a network. In addition,
some people should not be allowed total access to certain aspects of the design
(e.g. documenters do not need update access). Finally, a completed design can
involve hundreds of thousands of parts and direct access to each part becomes
impractical: thus, associative access is essential. For instance, a designer may
wish to know how many times a given part has been used before deciding
to change its specification.
Object–oriented databases, then, are an attempt to solve the problems
mentioned and still maintain the advantages of database systems. Object–
oriented databases treat each entity as a distinct object. An assembly composed
of several parts, therefore, can refer directly to its components instead of
explicitly associating some unique identifier with each component in some
relation. In addition, application programmers can manipulate database entities
at any desired level of abstraction by extending the set of types recognized
136
by the database system. This is an important point – it means that the Object Oriented
programmer need not be concerned with transforming an application's persistent Database Management
data into a form manipulable by the underlying storage subsystem. In many Systems (OODBMS)
systems, a programmer can also incorporate totally new, variable–sized data
types (e.g. multimedia objects). Finally, object–oriented databases allow embedded
semantics by associating procedural information with objects.

10.2 Introduction to Database Management Systems (DBMS) :

The primary memory of computer has a limited capacity. Therefore, for
storage a large amount of data (database), a secondary memory is used. A
secondary storage provides efficient ways to access objects.
The second requirement is of persistence. The object store stores objects
that have ability to survive even though the program or system that created
them is no longer live. Such objects are called Persistent Objects. Persistence
often means that objects are copied from fast and volatile memory to a slow
and persistent secondary memory.
Volatile memory Persistent memory

volatile memory persistent memory

The object is copied from/to the volatile memory to/from the persistent
memory.
The data that has no value once the process that creates it is no more
in existence is called Transient data. Variables allocated dynamically belong
to Transient data. The data once created by a process survives for as long
as it is created externally, is called persistence data. The data that exists due
to its need for ever is categorized under persistence data.
The end User of database is not worried about how the data is stored
in the memory. Therefore, we make use of database management system
(DBMS). The application programmer is only interested in a logical view of
the database. He may not be interested to take part in decisions about how
the physical storage is done.
Instead of using DBMS we can also create data files for our applications.
This is, however, laborious and time consuming.
Database specialization is an integration of DBMS product in the
development of the system. The specialization of OOSE depends on type of
DBMS used. According to Jacobson and others, the properties that indicate
a need for a DBMS are as stated below –
• Information that needs to be persistent.
• More than one application sharing of the data.
• Information structure with large number of instances.
• Complex searching in the information structure.
• Advanced generation of reports from stored information.
• Handling of user transactions.
• A log for system restart.
137
Database Management The steps in life cycle of database applications are shown in Figure below
System
Create architecture for Select a specific
Design the
Coupling applications to DBMS to serve as
applications
the database. a platform

Design the
Run the Write a code to
database.
application Populate compensate for DBMS
Write DBMS
Query Database shortcomings, provide a
code to set
and With user interface, validate
up the
Update Information data and perform
database
database. computations,
structure.

life cycle of database applications

The main and perhaps difficult part is a database design. The database
design is often called as a data model or schema.
Broadly, there are two approaches of database design –
(1) Attribute driven approach – In this approach, a list of attributes relevant
to the application is compiled. Synthesize the groups of attributes that
preserve functional entities.
(2) Entity driven approach – In this approach the entities meaningful to
the application are discovered. The object modeling is in form of entity
design. Entity design is more tractable.

10.3 Example of Bank Transactions :

You have studied that the object consists of data values describing
attributes of an entity, plus operations that can be performed upon data. This
encapsulation capacity allows OO model to better handle more complex types
of data (graphs, pictures, voice, text etc.) than the other database structure.
The OO model also supports inheritance i.e. new objects can be automatically
created by replicating some or all of characteristics of one or more parent
objects.
As shown in Figure both recurring and saving accounts inherit common
attributes and operations of parent bank account object. Such capability has
made OODBMS popular. For example, OOT allows designer to develop product
design, store them as objects in OODB and replicate and modify them to create
a new product design.

138
 Bank account Object Object Oriented
Database Management
Attributes Systems (OODBMS)
• Customer
• Balance
• Interest
Operations
• Deposit
• Withdraw
• Get Owner
Inheritance Inheritance

Recurring Account Object Saving Account

Attributes Object Attributes
• Credit line • Number of withdrawals
• Monthly Statement • Quarterly statement
Operations Operations
• Calculate interest owed • Calculate interest paid
• Print monthly statement • Print quarterly statement
Use of OODBMS in bank application
You have already understood the basic concept of RDBMS. The relational
data model was invented by E. F. Codd. As you have studied, the concept
of RDBMS is based on a table. RDBMS is a computer program for managing
these tables.
According to Codd, the RDBMS can be defined in three major parts:
• Data that is presented as tables.
• Operations for manipulating tables.
• Integrity rules on tables.
The mismatch between application objects and relational data needs to
be mapped for use in the application. Mapping of multiple inheritance into
a single table is possible in RDBMS.
The schemas are moved in Table with columns indicating data type and
row containing data. Relational RDBMS is built on schema representing complex
relationships between entities. Mapping of multiple inheritance into a single
table is possible in RDBMS.
Since there is heterogeneity in computing environment platform,
programming languages and different application architecture, we are living in
a non–standard environment. In real world, we have to source data from multiple
data sources that have different data models. When the data have a complex
structure, the operation to deliver customer requirements becomes complex to
design and deliver. The engineering objects data set is very complex. It requires
complex modeling to represent deep and multidimensional structures. Every
new requirement calls for the ability to define, create, modify and delete the

139
Database Management existing data structure. The following parameters are empowered with
System authorization capabilities to perform only certain operations.
Objects Systems Users
The company may have functional databases such as BOM (Bill Of
Material), drawings, equipment. These databases are heterogeneous in nature
and are distributed physically, logically and by responsibility of control
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Why there is need of OODBMS ?
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10.4 Object Oriented Database (OODB) :

Object oriented databases defined as databases that integrate object
orientation with database capabilities. Object orientation allows a more direct
representation and modeling of real world problems, and database functionality
is needed to ensure persistence and concurrent sharing of information in
applications.
Object databases store objects rather than data such as integers, strings
or real numbers. Objects basically consist of the following :
• Attributes – Attributes are data which defines the characteristics of an
object. This data may be simple such as integers, strings, and real numbers
or it may be a reference to a complex object.
• Methods – Methods define the behavior of an object and are what was
formally called procedures or functions.
Therefore objects contain both executable code and data. Classes are used
in object oriented programming to define the data and methods the object will
contain. The class is like a template to the object. The class does not itself
contain data or methods but defines the data and methods contained in the
object. The class is used to create (instantiate) the object. Classes may be used
in object databases to recreate parts of the object that may not actually be
stored in the database. Methods may not be stored in the database and may
be recreated by using a class.
The complex data structures are handled effectively by OODB. In order
to tackle the problems related with complex data structures, OODB makes use
of what is called as PDM (Product Data Management). Change in data item
should make relevant changes in overall database. This facility is provided by
OODB. Large complex systems requiring complex data support are handled
through distributed data sources or Databases. The process of mapping and
integrating begins with defining the relationships between the table structure
in RDB and class structure in object model in OODB.
In the real world, both the applications exist, namely OO applications
and RDBMS applications with first generation client server computing.

140
 Client applications accessing OODB do not have to specify relationships Object Oriented
because objects are stored with established relationships. Database Management
Systems (OODBMS)
OODBs store and deliver objects and provide facilities to manipulate
objects.
When we need to create multiple versions of entity, OODB becomes very
handy.
OODB can be a solution to handle complex data structures.
The strength of OODB is best seen when:
• Data and relationships are irregular and complex
• Objects are tightly coupled
• Non–DBMS data sources and applications are integrated
OODB should meet following requirements to design a system in OO
technology.
1. User interface support
2. Change management
3. Object translation into various activities.
4. OODB security
5. OODB recovery
6. Accessibility to legacy systems data
7. Maintenance of class libraries
8. Maintenance of data dictionary
9. OODB integrity
10. Providing concurrent access by multiple users
11. Distribute database with location transparency
12. Handling query with efficiency
13. C++ based OO model
14. Maintaining persistent objects
15. Object translation into various activities.
The user must have access to both OODB and RDB to manipulate data.
The developer therefore must develop applications that could source data from
all databases (OODB, RDB etc.).
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. What are requirements OODB should meet to design a system in OO
technology ?
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Database Management 10.5 Related Terms :
System
10.5.1 Distributed Object Computing (DOC) :
In first generation client–server computing, methods/applications were
available to serve on demand at server side. Having independent locations, the
objects need to communicate with each other for processing and computing.
This is called second generation client–server computing.
Having independent locations, the objects need to communicate with each
other for processing and computing. This is called second generation client–
server computing.
In first generation client–server computing, methods/applications were
available to serve on demand at server side.
Since there is so much heterogeneity distributed in the network in terms
of servers, clients, databases, platforms, applications and architecture, which
cannot be easily dispended with, what is needed is therefore standard DOC
system.
The second generation client–server computing is based on distributed
object computing (DOC). DOC enables the development of extremely flexible
client–server systems as it is possible to locate reusable objects/components
stored anywhere in the network and manipulate them as per the application
requirements. DOC introduces a higher level of abstraction of the application.
10.5.2 Objects Methods Users :
With the advent of DOC, it is now possible to use following components
anywhere in the network and running on different platforms.
a. Reusable Components
b. Distributed Components
c. Resident Components
10.5.3 Interfaces :
In the normal course, the developer would need to write interfaces for
each method or server application whatever resident.
10.5.4 Associations :
Associations show logical link between objects.
The cardinality of association is specified when the class is defined. The
links are expressed in cardinality of associations.
10.5.5 Persistent Objects :
The object store stores objects that have ability to survive even though
the program or system that created them is no longer live. Such objects are
called Persistent Objects.
Persistent Object Storage System under DBMS can provide the following:
• Unique ID to objects so as to reach correctly
• Communication between objects
• Large, stable and reliable storage capacity
The stores for persistent objects, such as disk files do not support queries
or interactive user interface operations. In such stores following problems are
142 seen :
• Controlling concurrent access Object Oriented
Database Management
• Handling ad–hoc queries
Systems (OODBMS)
• Controlling physical locals of data entry
The stores for persistent objects, such as disk files do not support queries
or interactive user interface operations. These problems are solved by DBMS.
10.5.6 Persistence Data :
The data once created by a process survives for long till it is created
externally, is called persistence data.
The data that exists due to its need for ever is categorized under
persistence data.
10.5.7 Transient Data :
The data that has no value once the process that creates it is no more
in existence is called Transient data. Variables allocated dynamically belong
to Transient data. The following are some examples of transient data:
• Discounts calculated to arrive at net price
• Intermediate values computed in discount algorithms
• Data extracted from external sources for reference or use.
10.5.8 Referential Integrity :
The integrity that guarantees existence of all objects that need to be
referred is known as Referential Integrity
10.5.9 MDBS :
The Multi–database (MDBS) is a database system that sits on the top
of existing relational and OODBMS but gives impression of being a single
database to the users.
MDBS provides diverse set of interfaces to reach data stored at any
database and then manipulates it to produce the result. MDBS helps to integrate
homogeneous database system with multiple database and data types other than
relational data types. MDBS handles cross database functionality through virtual
database, by constructing unified schemes. MDBS coordinates the processing
of global transactions split into various local databases to achieve consistency
and integrity of data and results. MDBS translates global queries and updates
data sending it to the appropriate local database for actual processing. Automatic
generation of unified global database using a local database (OODB, RDB,
file system) is done by MDBS. Fig. shows virtual database model.

OODB OODB RDB RDB

Virtual

Applications
MDBS virtual database model
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Database Management 10.5.10 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) :
System
An API (Application Programming Interface) that provides solution to
reach the intended database is called as ODBC.ODBC is developed by Microsoft
Corporation
The ODBC driver manager manages an application's data needs by
mapping data requirements to data source in the database.
OODBMS provides all required advanced features in addition to all
features of RDBMS. ODBC with API provides standard database access through
a common interface, independent of application. With its strength, ODBC has
become an industry standard for inter–operatability on different databases.
The ODBC–API driver drives to reach to intended database, runs the
application, manipulates the data and puts it back in position as the new data
image.
Developers write applications using different databases. In order to
interconnect these databases, developer has to write a driver program called
ODBC driver.
JDBC (Java database Connectivity) and ODBC can be combined to form
a JDBC–ODBC Bridge.

ODBC Driver A
Application
Manager ODB
programs
ODBC
Application Apl
Drivers B
programs
For RDB
Application DBS
programs
C
Local DB
ODBC connectivity and application
10.5.11 Locks :
Concurrency control and synchronization of different processes is achieved
by using locks. Following types of locks are available:
• Read Lock – No other transaction is committed till the earlier transaction
completes the task
• Writes Lock – The lock that ensures that no other transaction is committed
till the transaction is in the mode of updating and creation of new version
of object is called Write Lock.
• Null lock – The lock in which objects are managed in a cache is called
null lock.
• Notify lock – Cause interruption of the program when a new value is
committed in OODB.
Null and Notify locks are generally used outside transaction boundary
in a cache. On other hand, Read and Write locks are generally used inside
transaction boundary.

144
10.5.12 ActiveX : Object Oriented
Database Management
ActiveX controls are third party controls. For example, if you are using
Systems (OODBMS)
Visual C++, you can import. doc files from MS Word. ActiveX is also known
as OLE (Object Linking and embedding). The ActiveX technology is developed
by Microsoft Corporation.
10.5.13 OOSAD :
When we move to OOSAD, server–resident applications will give way
to objects and distributed objects in distributed server environment.
10.5.14 CORBA :
The advantage of CORBA is that it allows developer through Interface
Definition language (IDL) language to specify language neutral object–oriented
interfaces for applications and their components.
CORBA provides a communication channel through which applications
can access object interfaces and request data and services.
Microsoft's Component Object Model (COM) and Distributed Component
Object Model (DCOM) are alternatives to CORBA.
10.5.15 DCOM :
DCOM is the internet and component strategy where ActiveX plays a
role of DCOM object. An easy passage to distributed object computing technology
such as CORBA and DCOM is provided by ALC (Access Layer Classes).
DCOM is supported by Microsoft's web browser Internet Explorer.
Since there is heterogeneity in computing environment platform,
programming languages and different application architecture, we are living in
a non–standard environment.
10.5.16 OMG :
The Standard DOC system was developed by the organization of about
500 companies named Object Management Group (OMG).
The Object Management Group (OMG) suggested an abstract object
model with following features :
• Object can be distinguished clearly.
• The object methods and operations are governed by parameters and their
values.
• The object's nature is persistent or transient.
• An object at any time has state
• An object has set of operations
• Object provides services to other clients.
Many organizations are now adopting OMG's Object Request Broker
Architecture Standard for integrating.
• Distributed business applications
• Heterogeneous business applications
• Business data types
Object Management Group (OMG) specifies an architecture for Open
Software Bus.
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Database Management At present, following are the computing standards of OSB (Open Software
System Bus).
10.5.17 CORBA Open DOC ActiveX :
Open Software Bus provides a platform for objects components to operate
across the networks and on different operating systems.
10.5.18 Virtual DBMS :
In multi–database environment when we are dealing with multiple
heterogeneous databases for application processing we need an interface to
access the Virtual DBMS.
Access to the Virtual DBMS can be provided by API. API is used by
developers to interface the application with the database.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. Explain the terms like Persistent objects, Persistent data, Transient Data
2. Explain terms ODBC, MDBS,DCOM, CORBA
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3. Full form of CORBA
4. Full Form of ODBC
5. Full form of OMG

10.6 Object Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMS) :

OODBMS can handle a wide range of data types supporting complex
data and structure. OODBMS is a result of blending OOP and database
technology to meet the application needs of systems defined in OOT. OODBMS
has more or less the same features of DBMS, but in addition, is in position
to handle OO features.
The row of table in RDBMS contains data which maps instance of class
in OODBMS. The corresponding equivalent of table in OODBMS is class with
attributes and methods. OODBMS scores over pure relational database as it
gives benefit of object orientation. Since OODBMS supports distribution of
objects, it must have a feature of location transparency so that OO application
need not take efforts to add mechanisms to local objects.
OO systems while in operation generate large amount of data. Each item
of such data remains 'alive' during certain time and provides some service during
that period.
Besides finding where the object is in distributed environment, OODBMS
is able to move an object from one location to the other for optimum distribution
of load.
OODBMS provides such security features that protect operations and
objects from illegal actions from unauthorized quarters.
OODBMS ensures that in the event of failure the recovery process
enforces consistency in database status after a transaction is terminated by force
externally.
The key feature that enables users/application to cooperate and collaborate
in application processing is named as concurrency.
146
 OODBMS must be accessible by multiple users. That is if users/application Object Oriented
access a selection of database, other user/application should also be in a position Database Management
to access other sections of database. Systems (OODBMS)

The OODBMS recovery process ensures that the system failure does not
result in an inconsistent database state.
The significant features of OODBMS are as follows:
• OODBMS has a feature of managing traffic of persistent objects.
• OODBMS ensures that when a pointer refers to an object, the object
exists
• OODBMS manages logical link association and its cardinality
• OODBMS can work on following Operating systems on server :– MS
Windows, OS/2, Sun OS In context of transactions, OODBMS
a. Handles nested transactions
b. Supports MROW
c. Supports long transactions.
• Access to other OODBMS comprises of
a. Read data resident in other OODB
b. Modify data resident in other OODB
c. Read data resident on RDBMS
• ODBMS Queries comprise of
a. Ad–hoc queries with C++
b. Ad–hoc queries with 4GL
c. Ad–hoc queries with LISP
• O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant are some of the Object Oriented
Database produces
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support following DBMS criteria
a. SUN OS
b. AIX
c. MS Windows
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support following DBMS criteria
a. single–user, single–tasking environment
b. single–user, multi–tasking environment
c. multi–user environment
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support following criteria for access to other DBMS whenever an
application is running on the OODBMS
a. can read data that resides in other OODBMS
b. can modify data that resides in other OODBMS
c. can read data that resides in RDBMS ORACLE

147
Database Management • All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
System support following DBMS criteria:
a. embedded queries with a 4GL
b. ad–hoc updates of DB–schema with GUI
c. ad–hoc updates of DB–schema with OOL.
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support ad–hoc queries with the following
a. GUI
b. 4GL
c. C++
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support following DBMS criteria
a. OQL
b. ODMG C++ binding
c. Smalltalk binding
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and
• Versant support application programming in following languages.
a. C++
b. JAVA
c. SMALLTALK
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support following DBMS criteria
a. replication of data
b. data encryption
c. database language based on SQL
• In OODBMS product O2, the attributes of objects have to be defined
in following languages.
a. C++
b. JAVA
c. SMALLTALK
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and Versant
support following DBMS criteria
a. multiple inheritance
b. concept of version
c. checking of cardinality between objects
• All OODBMS products namely O2, Objectivity, Object Store and
• Versant support following DBMS criteria
a. user defined data type
b. is a relationship
c. part of relationship

148
• OODBMS supports comprise of Object Oriented
Database Management
a. user defined data type
Systems (OODBMS)
b. is a relationship
c. part of relationship
• OODBMS standards comprise of
a. ODL
b. OQL
c. ODMG C++ binding
• Following are the OO concepts managed by OODBMS
a. Complex objects storage structures
b. Query processing & displaying results
c. Concurrency control on multiple accesses
• Some parameters of OODBMS
Parameter Example
OODBMS standards ODL, OQL, ODMG C++ binding, standard
SQL in interactive and embedded mode
OODBMS supports user derived datatype, is_a relationship, part_of
relationship
Queries Ad–hoc queries with 4GL, Lisp, C++
Accesstoother Read/Modify data in other OODB
OODBMS
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Explain the features of OODBMS.
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10.7 Comparison between RDBMS and OODBMS :

There are certain significant benefits of OODBMS over RDBMS. This
can be understood from following comparison :
RDBMS OODBMS
Not suitable for engineering, Highly suitable for engineering,
manufacturing, office automation manufacturing, office automation
and complex MIS systems and complex MIS systems
Data access performance is normal Significant improvement in data
access performance
There is no explicit management of Inheritance property represents
inheritance of attributes and relations explicitly
methods

149
Database Management
Records in RDBMS are passive Records in OODBMS are active
System
Cannot handle large number of data Handles large number of data types,
types, relationships and behaviors relationships and behaviors.
Poor in navigational and associative Supports navigational and
access to information associative access to information
Data representation has no character Data has character
and no identity in itself
RDBMS does not cover advanced OODBMS provides all required
features of OODBMS. advanced features in addition to all
features of RDBMS

 Check Your Progress – 5 :

1. Differentiate RDBMS and OODBMS
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10.8 A Three Schema Architecture :

Fig. depicts a three schema architecture. It is a standard architecture for
related database applications. Earlier, this architecture was proposed by the
ANSI/SPARC committee on DBMS.
As shown in the figure, there are three layers in this design – external,
conceptual and internal schemas.
External schema layer comprises of number of external schemas viz.
external schema1, external schema2 …….. external scheman etc. Each external
schema is a database design form, a perspective of single application. The
external schema is a view or abstraction of the global, overall conceptual
schema. The external schema isolates applications from most changes in the
conceptual schema.

Three Schema Structure for ANSI / SPAPC

150
 The conceptual schema layer integrates internal and external schemas. Object Oriented
Database Management
The internal schema layer consists of actual DBMS code required to
Systems (OODBMS)
implement the conceptual schema.
The object modeling can be applied for designing both, internal and
external schemas.
Figure shows how object modeling is related to the three schema
architecture.
First of all, you have to formulate object models for external and internal
schemas. Next, translate each object to a table model. As shown in the figure,
views and/or interface programs connect external table to conceptual tables.
Conceptual tables convert to internal schema.

Three Schema Architecture and object modeling

The object model comprises of classes, associations, generalizations and
attributes. The object models emphasize on logical data structures. Each table
model comprises of number of ideal tables. In order to translate from object
model to ideal table, a number of alternatives are available.
The internal schema comprises of SQL commands that create attributes,
tables, indexes etc.
 Check Your Progress – 6 :
1. Explain in brief how object modelling is related to the three schema
architecture.
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Database Management 10.9 Mapping of OODBMS to RDBMS :
System
The RDBMS is built on schema representing complex relationships
between entities. The schemas are then translated into a table. Under the context
of OO Systems, the class is mapped into tables in the following manner as
per approach given by Jacobson and others.
1. Assign one table for each class.
Assign attribute as a column in the table. The attributes are primitive.
The columns of table usually indicate data type and its name.
In case of complex attributes additional table is required to be created.
2. The column representing the primary key will be a unique instance
identifier. Using primary key column, the instance is uniquely recognized.
3. Each instance of the class will now be represented by a row in this table.
The row of a table contains data for a single entity. This maps with
instance of class in OODBMS.
4. Each acquaintance association with cardinality greater than 1 will become
a new table. This new table will connect the tables representing the
objects that are to be associated.
This can be described with the example of 'student '. The class or object
'student' has the attributes such as roll_number, student_name and address. The
object 'student' and its attributes are shown in

Object 'Student' and its attitudes

The object 'student' and its attributes can be transformed into a table
as follows :
Roll Number Student Name Address
10 S.A. Patil 1102, Sadashiv Peth, Pune
50 N.M. Joshi 102, M.G. Road, Pune
456 P.G. Deshpande 119, Narayan Peth, Pune
7890 M.R. Shinde 234, Parvati, Pune
Primary and secondary keys –
Each table has one primary key. A primary key is the combination of
one or more attributes whose value unambiguously locates each row in a table.
In the following table primary key of student table is roll_number. College_ID
is the primary key of college table.

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 Student Table Object Oriented
Database Management
Roll Number Student Name Address College_Id
Systems (OODBMS)
10 S.A. Patil 1102, Sadashiv Peth, Pune 1001
50 N.M. Joshi 102, M.G. Road, Pune 1002
456 P.G. Deshpande 119, Narayan Peth, Pune 1001
7890 M.R. Shinde 234, Parvati, Pune 1005
College Table
College_ID College Name Address
1001 National College 123, M.G. Road
1002 Model College 456, ShanwarPeth
1005 City College 678, Karvenagar
Roll number is a primary key of Student Table
College_ID is a primary key of College Table
College_ID is a foreign key of Student Table
The conversion of object class to table is shown in below figure. Class
student has attributes student name and address as discussed above. These
attributes are listed by table model and added to implicit object ID. It is required
to specify that the field roll_number cannot be null since it is a primary key.
Similarly, student_name also cannot be null. The name must be entered for
every student. However, the student_name is not a primary key because two
or more students may have the same name. The attribute 'address' can be null.
The domain is assigned to each attribute. The primary key is specified for each
table. The SQL code is used to create Student table. The index on student_name
enables quick retrieval for this attribute since it is frequently accessed. The
SQL also maps domain to data types.

Example of mapping from class to table

153
Database Management Advantages of OODBMS :
System
• Enriched modeling capabilities – The object–oriented data model allows
the 'real world' to be modeled more closely. The object, which encapsulates
both state and behavior, is a more natural and realistic representation
of real–world objects. An object can store all the relationships it has
with other objects, including many–to–many relationships, and objects
can be formed into complex objects that the traditional data models cannot
cope with easily.
• Extensibility – OODBMSs allow new data types to be built from existing
types. The ability to factor out common properties of several classes and
form them into a superclass that can be shared with subclasses can greatly
reduce redundancy within system is regarded as one of the main advantages
of object orientation. Further, the reusability of classes promotes faster
development and easier maintenance of the database and its applications.
Capable of handling a large variety of data types Unlike traditional
databases (such as hierarchical, network or relational), the object oriented
database are capable of storing different types of data, for example,
pictures, voice video, including text, numbers and so on.
• Removal of impedance mismatch – A single language interface between
the Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the programming language
overcomes the impedance mismatch. This eliminates many of the
efficiencies that occur in mapping a declarative language such as SQL
to an imperative 'language such as 'C'. Most OODBMSs provide a DML
that is computationally complete compared with SQL, the 'standard
language of RDBMS.
• More expressive query language – Navigational access from the object
is the most common form of data access in an OODBMS. This is in
contrast to the associative access of SQL (that is, declarative statements
with selection based on one or more predicates). Navigational access is
more suitable for handling parts explosion, recursive queries, and so on.
• Support for schema evolution – The tight coupling between data and
applications in an OODBMS makes schema evolution more feasible.
• Support for long – duration, transactions: Current relational DBMSs
enforce serializability on concurrent transactions to maintain database
consistency. OODBMSs use a different protocol to handle the types of
long–duration transaction that are common in many advanced database
application.
• Applicability to advanced database applications – There are many
areas where traditional DBMSs have not been particularly successful,
such as, Computer–Aided Design (CAD), Computer–Aided Software
Engineering (CASE), Office Information System (OIS), and Multimedia
Systems. The enriched modeling capabilities of OODBMSs have made
them suitable for these applications.
• Improved performance – There have been a number of benchmarks
that have suggested OODBMSs provide significant performance
improvements over relational DBMSs. The results showed an average
30–fold performance improvement for the OODBMS over the RDBMS.

154
 Disadvantages of OODBMS : Object Oriented
Database Management
• Lack of universal data model – There is no universally agreed data
Systems (OODBMS)
model for an OODBMS, and most models lack a theoretical foundation.
This disadvantage is seen as a significant drawback, and is comparable
to pre–relational systems.
• Lack of experience – In comparison to RDBMSs the use of OODBMS
is still relatively limited. This means that we do not yet have the level
of experience that we have with traditional systems. OODBMSs are still
very much geared towards the programmer, rather than the naïve end–
user. Also there is a resistance to the acceptance of the technology. While
the OODBMS is limited to a small niche market, this problem will
continue to exist.
• Lack of standards – There is a general lack of standards of OODBMSs.
We have already mentioned that there is not universally agreed data
model. Similarly, there is no standard object–oriented query language.
• Competition – Perhaps one of the most significant issues that face
OODBMS vendors is the competition posed by the RDBMS and the
emerging ORDBMS products. These products have an established user
base with significant experience available. SQL is an approved standard
and the relational data model has a solid theoretical formation and
relational products have many supporting tools to help.both end–users
and developers.
• Query optimization compromises encapsulations – Query optimization
requires. An understanding of the underlying implementation to access
the database efficiently. However, this compromises the concept of
incrassation.
Locking at object level may impact performance Many OODBMSs use
locking as the basis for concurrency control protocol. However, if locking
is applied at the object level, locking of an inheritance hierarchy may
be problematic, as well as impacting performance.
• Complexity – The increased functionality provided by the OODBMS
(such as the illusion of a single–level storage model, pointer sizzling,
long–duration transactions, version management, and schema evolution–
–makes the system more complex than that of traditional DBMSs. In
complexity leads to products that are more expensive and more difficult
to use.
• Lack of support for views – Currently, most OODBMSs do not provide
a view mechanism, which, as we have seen previously, provides many
advantages such as data independence, security, reduced complexity, and
customization.
• Lack of support for security – Currently, OODBMSs do not provide
adequate security mechanisms. The user cannot grant access rights on
individual objects or classes.
If OODBMSs are to expand fully into the business field, these deficiencies
must be rectified.

155
Database Management  Check Your Progress – 7 :
System
1. How OODBMS can be mapped to RDBMS ?
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10.10 Example of Railway Reservation System :

The mapping can be also explained with the example of Railway
Reservation system. Figure shows the table class mapping. Each row of the
table represents an object instance and each column in the table represents
to an attribute of the object.

Table Class mapping: Single Object and single Table

For simplicity, the mapping of single object to single table is shown.
However, in practice we are required to map multiple classes to a table in
RDBMS. The single table mapping to multiple classes is shown in Figure.

Table Class mapping : Single table Vs Multiple Classes

156
 Object Oriented
Database Management
Systems (OODBMS)

Table Verses multiple inheritance

 Check Your Progress – 7 :
1. Explain mapping of ODBMS to RDBMS for Railway reservation system.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. ________________ lock in which objects are managed in a cache.
(A) Null (B) Notify (C) Writes (D) Read
3. The data once created by a process survives for long till it is created
externally, is called ___________
(A) Meta (B) Transactional (C) persistence (D) None
4. _________ lock – Cause interruption of the program when a new value
is committed in OODB
(A) Null (B) Notify (C) Writes (D) Read
5. __________ locks allow processes to bulk copy data concurrently into
the same table.
(A) Bulk update (B) Bulk import (C) Bulk export (D) Bulk copy
6. __________ are those locks which are acquired during read operations
such as SELECT.
(A) Read locks (B) Shared locks
(C) Exclusive locks (D) None of above

10.11 Let Us Sum Up :

The database management system (DBMS) is a set of computer programs
that controls the creation, maintenance and use of databases of users and
computer–using organizations.
Some objects continue to exist even though the program that created them
is not alive.
The object consists of data values describing attributes of an entity, plus
operations that can be performed upon data. This encapsulation capacity allows
OO model to better handle more complex types of data (graphs, pictures, voice,
text etc.) than the other database structure. The OO model also supports
inheritance i.e. new objects can be automatically created by replicating some
or all of the characteristics of one or more parent objects. Mapping of multiple

157
Database Management inheritance into a single table is possible in RDBMS. Relational RDBMS is
System built on schema representing complex relationships between entities.
The relational data model was invented by E.F. Codd. The concept of
RDBMS is based on a table.
Complex data structures are handled effectively by OODB. OODB makes
use of Product data management for this purpose.
The user must have access to both OODB and RDB to manipulate data.
The developer therefore must develop applications that could source data from
all databases (OODB, RDB etc). The Multi–database (MDBS) is a database
system that sits on the top of existing relational and OODBMS but gives
impression of being a single database to the users.
OODBMS can handle wide range of data types supporting complex data
and structure. OODBMS is a result of blending OOP and database technology
to meet the application needs of systems defined in OOT. OODBMS has more
or less the same features of DBMS, but in addition, is in position to handle
OO features.
A three schema architecture is a standard architecture for related database
applications. Earlier, this architecture was proposed by the ANSI/SPARC
committee on DBMS.
Objects at one location should be able to refer to objects at another
location.
The object being independent and not linked with an application, once
method is defined, is usable universally in all applications.
Large complex systems requiring complex data support are handled
through distributed data sources or databases

10.12 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 10.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 10.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 10.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 10.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
See Section 10.6
 Check Your Progress 6 :
See Section 10.7
 Check Your Progress 7 :
1 : See Section 10.8
2 : null 3 : persistence
4 : notify 5 : bulk update

158 6 : Shared locks

 10.13 Glossary : Object Oriented
Database Management
1. Object oriented database management system (OODBMS) – applies Systems (OODBMS)
concepts of object–oriented programming, and applies them to the
management of persistent objects on behalf of multiple users, with
capabilities for security, integrity, recovery and contention management.
An OODBMS is based on the principles of "objects," namely abstract
data types, classes, inheritance mechanisms, polymorphism, dynamic
binding and message passing.
2. CAD – Computer–aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems
to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a
design.
3. CAM – Computer–aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer
software to control machine tools and related machinery in the
manufacturing of work pieces
4. OOSE – Object–oriented software engineering (commonly known by
acronym OOSE) is an object modeling language and methodology.
5. Object – It is an instance of class.
6. Class – In object–oriented programming, a class is an extensible program–
code–template for creating objects, providing initial values for state
(member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions,
methods).
7. Methods – Methods define the behavior of an object and are what was
formally called procedures or functions.
8. PDM – Product data management (PDM) is the business function often
within product lifecycle management(PLM) that is responsible for the
management and publication of product data. In software engineering,
this is known as version control.
9. Persistent Objects – The object store stores objects that have ability
to survive even though the program or system that created them is no
longer live. Such objects are called Persistent Objects.
10. Persistence Data – The data once created by a process survives for long
till it is created externally, is called persistence data.
11. Transient Data – The data that has no value once the process that creates
it is no more in existence is called Transient data
12. A Multimedia database (MMDB) – is a collection of related multimedia
data. The multimedia data include one or more lprimary media data types
such as text images, graphic objects (including drawings, sketches and
illustrations) anim ation sequences, audio and video.
13. A Multimedia Database Management System (MMDBMS) – is a
framework that manages different types of data potentially represented
in a wide diversity of formats on a wide array of media sources. It
provides support for multimedia data types, and facilitate for creation,
storage, access, query and control of a multimedia database
14. ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) – is a standard programming
language middleware API for accessing database management systems
(DBMS). The designers of ODBC aimed to make it independent of
database systems and operating systems.
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Database Management 15. API – API, an abbreviation of application program interface, is a set
System of routines, protocols, and tools for building software applications. The
API specifies how software components should interact and are used
when programming graphical user interface (GUI) components.
16. JDBC – Java Database Connectivity, a Java API that enables Java
programs to execute SQL statements. This allows Java programs to
interact with any SQL–compliant database.
17. Active X – is a software framework created by Microsoft that adapts
its earlier Component Object Model (COM) and Object Linking and
Embedding (OLE) technologies for content downloaded from a network,
particularly in the context of the World Wide Web.
18. CORBA – Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) is
an architecture and specification for creating, distributing, and managing
distributed program objects in a network.
19. DCOM – DCOM (Distributed Component Object Model) is a set of
Microsoft concepts and program interfaces in which client program object
s can request services from server program objects on other computers
in a network. DCOM is based on the Component Object Model (COM),
which provides a set of interfaces allowing clients and servers to
communicate within the same computer

10.14 Assignment :
Explain the concept of Object Oriented Database Management Systems
(OODBMS) in our own words with suitable example.

10.15 Activities :
Explain the main concepts of object oriented data model like object
structure, object classes, Inheritance, object Identity, object containment.

10.16 Case Study :

For each of the following application areas, explain why RDBMS is
inadequate. List all specific system components that would need to be modified.
(a) Computer aided design
(b) Multimedia databases.

10.17 Further Reading :

1. Fundamentals of Database Management Systems – M.L. Gillenson, Wiely
Publishing
2. Understanding Database management Systems – J.A. Vasta, Wadsworth
Publishing Company.

160
 BLOCK SUMMARY :
Unit 7 explains query language for databases that is SQL. SQL commands
are instructions, coded into SQL statements, which are used to communicate
with the database to perform specific tasks, work, functions and queries with
data. SQL commands can be used not only for searching the database but also
to perform various other functions like, for example, you can create tables,
add data to tables, or modify data, drop the table, set permissions for users.
SQL commands are grouped into four major categories depending on their
functionality :
• Data Definition Language (DDL) – These SQL commands are used for
creating, modifying, and dropping the structure of database objects. The
commands are CREATE, ALTER, DROP.
• Data Manipulation Language (DML) – These SQL commands are used
for storing, retrieving, modifying, and deleting data. These Data
Manipulation Language commands are : SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
and DELETE.
Unit 8 demonstrate the different constraints with practical aspects. The
Primary key, Foreign Key, Not Null and Check Constraints all explained in
detail.
Unit 9 explains the concept of transaction processing.Knowing the steps
that must be taken to process a transaction can greatly affect how a custom
application is developed. If a transaction is querying data only, using a read–
only transaction can greatly reduce the amount of processing overhead required
to run an application. If many users are running the same read–only query,
this savings on overhead can be a considerable amount.
Likewise, knowing more about how statements are optimized can save
a great deal of time in reaching the goals set for a new application. Because
optimization methods take a critical role in meeting those goals, it is imperative
that you take this into account.
Overall, knowing transaction processing steps is just plain helpful for
administrators and developers alike.
Unit 10 explains the need and concept of object oriented databases.
Object oriented databases are also called Object Database Management Systems
(ODBMS).Object databases store objects rather than data such as integers,
strings or real numbers. Objects are used in object oriented languages such
as Smalltalk, C++, Java, and others. Objects basically consist of the following:
Attributes and methods. Attributes are data which defines the characteristics
of an object. This data may be simple such as integers, strings, and real numbers
or it may be a reference to a complex object.
Methods – Methods define the behavior of an object and are what was
formally called procedures or function With traditional databases, data manipulated
161
Database Management by the application is transient and data in the database is persisted (Stored
System
on a permanent storage device).
In object databases, the application can manipulate both transient and
persisted data. Object databases should be used when there is complex data
and/or complex data relationships. This includes a many to many object
relationship.
Object databases should not be used when there would be few join tables
and there are large volumes of simple transactional data.
Object databases work well with: CAS Applications (CASE–computer
aided software engineering, CAD–computer aided design, and CAM–computer
aided manufacture), Multi–media Applications, Object projects that change over
time and Commerce.

162
 BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :

1. What is the use of order by clause ?

2. List all DML statements.

3. What is the use of group by clause ?

4. List the family of Transaction control statements.

5. What is object oriented databases ?

 Long Questions :

1. Explain Basic structure of SQL.

2. Explain the steps in transaction processing in detail.

3. Explain need and features of object oriented databases.

4. Compare RDBMS and OODBMS

BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.webbasedprogramming.com/Oracle–Unleashed/oun19fi.htm
http://repository.mdp.ac.id/ebook/programming–books/Best%20DataBase%
20Reference/Oracle%20Unleashed/oun19fi.htm
http://ecomputernotes.com/database–system/adv–database/object–oriented–
database–oodb
http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/DCOM–Distributed–Component–
Object–Model

163
Database Management  Enrolment No. :
System
1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 7 8 9 10

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

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164
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar BCAR-202/
Open University Ahmedabad DCAR-202

Database Management System

BLOCK 4 : DATA (WARE HOUSING AND MINING) AND

SECURITY

UNIT 11 TYPES OF DATABASE

UNIT 12 DATA WAREHOUSING AND DATA MINING

UNIT 13 DATABASE SECURITY

UNIT 14 RECOVERY MECHANISMS

 DATA (WARE HOUSING AND
MINING) AND SECURITY
Block Introduction :
Unit 11 gives overview of concepts of Data bases and its types and unit
12 gives more information of Data Mining and Data ware Housing and Unit 13
& 14 gives detailed discussion of Data Security and Recovery mechanisms. In
simple terms data warehouse is a single, complete and consistent store of data
obtained from a variety of different sources made available to end users in what
they can understand and use in a business context. A process of transforming data
into information and making it available to users in a timely enough manner to
make a difference is Data warehousing. Data Mining works with Warehouse Data.
Data mining is a process of discovering interesting patterns or knowledge from
a (typically) large amount of data stored either in databases, data warehouses, or
other information repositories. Data Warehousing provides the Enterprise with a
memory. Data Mining provides the Enterprise with intelligence.
Database security is a broad area that addresses many issues like various
legal and ethical issues regarding the right to access certain information, Policy
issues at the governmental, institutional, or corporate level as to what kinds of
information should not be made publicly available and System–related issues
such as the system levels at which various security functions should be enforced.
The need in some organizations to identify multiple security levels and to
categorize the data and users based on these classifications. For example, top
secret, secret, confidential, and unclassified. The security policy of the organization
with respect to permitting access to various classifications of data must be
enforced. Threats to databases can result in the loss or degradation of some or
all of the following commonly accepted security goals : integrity, availability, and
confidentiality.
A database can become unusable because of hardware or software failure,
or both. You may, at one time or another, encounter storage problems, power
interruptions, or application failures, and each failure scenario requires a different
recovery action. Protect your data against the possibility of loss by having a well–
rehearsed recovery strategy in place. A database recovery strategy should ensure
that all information is available when it is required for database recovery. It should
include a regular schedule for taking database backups and, in the case of
partitioned database systems, include backups when the system is scaled (when
database partition servers or nodes are added or dropped). Your overall strategy
should also include procedures for recovering command scripts, applications,
user–defined functions and stored procedure codes.
 Block Objectives :
After learning this block, you will be able to :

• Understand need and basic concept of Data ware housing.

• Understand various architecture and tools in Data ware housing.

• Understand the concept of Data Mining.

• Understand various tools in data mining.

• Understand the need and concept of Database Security and Recovery.

• Understand the techniques of Database Recovery.

Block Structure :
Unit 11 : Types of Database
Unit 12 : Data Warehousing and Data Mining
Unit 13 : Database Security
Unit 14 : Recovery Mechanisms
 Unit
11 TYPES OF DATABASE

UNIT STRUCTURE
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Centralized Database
11.3 Distributed Database
11.4 Personal Database
11.5 End–User Database
11.6 Commercial Database
11.7 NoSQL Database
11.8 Operational Database
11.9 Relational Database
11.10 Cloud Database
11.11 Object–Oriented Database
11.12 Graph Database
11.13 Let Us Sum Up
11.14 Suggested Answers to Check Your Progress
11.15 Glossary
11.16 Assignment
11.17 Activities
11.18 Case Study
11.19 Further Readings

11.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to :
• Understand modern trends in DBMS
• Understand the basic concept of Data Warehousing
• Understand practical applications of Data Warehousing.
• Understand the basic concept of Data Mining
• Understand practical applications of Data Mining

11.1 Introduction :
Depending upon the usage requirements, there are following types of
databases available in the market ?
• Centralised database.
• Distributed database.
• Personal database.
• End–user database.

165
Database Management • Commercial database.
System
• NoSQL database.
• Operational database.
• Relational database.
• Cloud database.
• Object–oriented database.
• Graph database.

11.2 Centralized Database :

The information(data) is stored at a centralized location and the users
from different locations can access this data. This type of database contains
application procedures that help the users to access the data even from a remote
location.
Various kinds of authentication procedures are applied for the verification
and validation of end users, likewise, a registration number is provided by the
application procedures which keeps a track and record of data usage. The local
area office handles this thing.

11.3 Distributed Database :

Just opposite of the centralized database concept, the distributed database
has contributions from the common database as well as the information captured
166
by local computers also. The data is not at one place and is distributed at Types of Database
various sites of an organization. These sites are connected to each other with
the help of communication links which helps them to access the distributed
data easily.
You can imagine a distributed database as a one in which various portions
of a database are stored in multiple different locations(physical) along with
the application procedures which are replicated and distributed among various
points in a network.
There are two kinds of distributed database, viz. homogenous and
heterogeneous. The databases which have same underlying hardware and run
over same operating systems and application procedures are known as
homogeneous DDB, for eg. All physical locations in a DDB. Whereas, the
operating systems, underlying hardware as well as application procedures can
be different at various sites of a DDB which is known as heterogeneous DDB.

11.4 Personal Database :

Data is collected and stored on personal computers which is small and
easily manageable. The data is generally used by the same department of an
organization and is accessed by a small group of people.

11.5 End User Database :

The end user is usually not concerned about the transaction or operations
done at various levels and is only aware of the product which may be a software
or an application. Therefore, this is a shared database which is specifically
designed for the end user, just like different levels' managers. Summary of whole
information is collected in this database.

11.6 Commercial Database :

These are the paid versions of the huge databases designed uniquely for
the users who want to access the information for help. These databases are
subject specific, and one cannot afford to maintain such a huge information.
Access to such databases is provided through commercial links.

11.7 NoSQL Database :

These are used for large sets of distributed data. There are some big
data performance issues which are effectively handled by relational databases,
such kind of issues are easily managed by NoSQL databases. There are very
efficient in analyzing large size unstructured data that may be stored at multiple
virtual servers of the cloud.

167
Database Management 11.8 Operational Database :
System
Information related to operations of an enterprise is stored inside this
database. Functional lines like marketing, employee relations, customer service
etc. require such kind of databases.

11.9 Relational Database :

These databases are categorized by a set of tables where data gets fit
into a pre–defined category. The table consists of rows and columns where
the column has an entry for data for a specific category and rows contains
instance for that data defined according to the category. The Structured Query
Language (SQL) is the standard user and application program interface for a
relational database.
There are various simple operations that can be applied over the table
which makes these databases easier to extend, join two databases with a
common relation and modify all existing applications.

11.10 Cloud Databases :

Now a day, data has been specifically getting stored over clouds also
known as a virtual environment, either in a hybrid cloud, public or private
cloud. A cloud database is a database that has been optimized or built for such
a virtualized environment. There are various benefits of a cloud database, some
of which are the ability to pay for storage capacity and bandwidth on a per–
user basis, and they provide scalability on demand, along with high availability.
A cloud database also gives enterprises the opportunity to support business
applications in a software–as–a–service deployment.

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 11.11 Object–Oriented Databases : Types of Database

An object–oriented database is a collection of object–oriented programming

and relational database. There are various items which are created using object–
oriented programming languages like C++, Java which can be stored in relational
databases, but object–oriented databases are well–suited for those items.
An object–oriented database is organized around objects rather than
actions, and data rather than logic. For example, a multimedia record in a
relational database can be a definable data object, as opposed to an alphanumeric
value.

11.2 Graph Databases :

The graph is a collection of nodes and edges where each node is used
to represent an entity and each edge describes the relationship between entities.
A graph–oriented database, or graph database, is a type of NoSQL database
that uses graph theory to store, map and query relationships.
Graph databases are basically used for analyzing interconnections. For
example, companies might use a graph database to mine data about customers
from social media.

 Check Your Progress – 4 :

1. Is A graph–oriented database, or graph database, is a type of NoSQL.
(A) True (B) False
2. Which is true about Object oriented database ?
(A) An object–oriented database is a collection of object–oriented
programming and relational database
(B) An object–oriented database is organized around objects rather than
actions, and data rather than logic.
(C) Both (D) None

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Database Management 3. The Cloud database have the ability to pay for storage capacity and
System bandwidth on a per–user basis, and they provide scalability on demand,
along with high availability.
(A) True (B) False
4. Which type of database is efficient in analyzing large size unstructured
data that may be stored at multiple virtual servers of the cloud.
(A) Centralized (B) Cloud (C) Relational (D) NOSQL DB
5. The operating systems, underlying hardware as well as application
procedures can be different at various sites of a DDB which is known
as ___________ DDB
(A) Heterogeneous (B) Homogenous
(C) Centralised (D) End User

11.13 Let Us Sum Up :

This unit is focus on different types of database. It explain the types
and usage of types of database.

11.14 Suggested Answers to Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress :
1 : True 2 : Both
3 : True 4 : NoSQL DB
5 : heterogeneous

11.15 Glossary :
Distributed databases : A distributed database is a type of database that
has contributions from the common database and information captured by local
computers. In this type of database system, the data is not in one place and
is distributed at various organizations.
Relational databases : This type of database defines database relationships
in the form of tables. It is also called Relational DBMS, which is the most
popular DBMS type in the market. Database example of the RDBMS system
include MySQL, Oracle, and Microsoft SQL Server database.
Object–oriented databases : This type of computers database supports
the storage of all data types. The data is stored in the form of objects. The
objects to be held in the database have attributes and methods that define what
to do with the data. PostgreSQL is an example of an object–oriented relational
DBMS.
Centralized database : It is a centralized location, and users from
different backgrounds can access this data. This type of computers databases
store application procedures that help users access the data even from a remote
location.

11.16 Assignment :
Understand the different dbms.

11.17 Activities :
Understand when to use which database
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 11.18 Case Study : Types of Database

List five database management system for five different domain context.

11.19 Further Reading :

1. Introduction to Database Systems by C. J. Date
2. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang – PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
3. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth – Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
4. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai – Galgotia Publication
5. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan – Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
6. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross –
BPB Publication

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 Unit
DATA WAREHOUSING AND
12 DATA MINING
UNIT STRUCTURE
12.0 Learning Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Concept
12.3 Architecture
12.4 Various Tools in Data Warehousing
12.5 Tools in Data Mining
12.6 Difference Between Data Mining and Normal Query
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
12.9 Glossary
12.10 Assignment
12.11 Activities
12.12 Case Study
12.13 Further Readings

12.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to :
• Understand modern trends in DBMS
• Understand the basic concept of Data Warehousing
• Understand practical applications of Data Warehousing.
• Understand the basic concept of Data Mining
• Understand practical applications of Data Mining

12.1 Introduction :
A data warehouse is formed through the integration of data from multiple
heterogeneous sources. The concept of "Data Warehouse" was first introduced
by Bill Inmon in 1990. He stated that a data warehouse is an integrated, subject
oriented, time–variant, and non–volatile collection of data. The Data helps
analysts to take decisions in an organization. It even supports analytical reporting,
structured and/or ad hoc queries and decision making.
An operational database goes through nonstop changes on a daily basis
because of the regular transactions that take place. In order to understand it
in a much better way let us assume an employee of a business who wants
to examine earlier response on any data such as a product, a supplier, or any
customer data, then the executive will have no data offered to analyze because
the previous data has been efficient due to transactions.

172
 A data warehouses offer us a general and consolidated data in Data Warehousing and
multidimensional view. Besides this it even provides us Online Analytical Data Mining
Processing tools. These tools are of great help to us in interactive and effective
analysis of data in a multi–dimensional space. This analysis is of great help
in data generalization and data mining.
The functions of Data mining such as association clustering, classification,
prediction can be included with Online Analytical Processing operations in order
to enhance the interactive mining of knowledge at multiple level of abstraction.
That's the reason why data warehouse has become an essential platform for
data analysis as well as for online analytical processing.

12.2 Concept :

Data Warehouse
=Data
Warehouse' and =Data Warehousing' have been defined differently
by different people. However few of the important definitions are given below :
According to Barry Devlin, –Data Warehouse is a single, complete and
consistent store of data obtained from a variety of different sources made
available to end users in a way they can understand and use in a business
context ||
The table design, dimensions and organization should always be consistent
enough throughout a data warehouse so that reports or queries across the data
warehouse are always consistent. It can also be viewed as a database for
historical data from different functions within the same company.
A Data Warehouse is nothing but a collection of data which is basically
used for important decision making of the organisation. A Data warehouse is
always :
• Subject–oriented
• Integrated
• Time–varying
• Non–volatile
The meaning of each term used above in the definition is as follows –
Subject–oriented – The data warehouse is mostly organized around the
major key subjects of the enterprise. Major subjects includes customers, patients,
students and products.

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Database Management Integrated – The data housed in the Data Warehouse are defined using
System consistent naming conventions, formats, encoding structures and related
characteristics.
Time–variant – Data in data warehouse contain a time dimension so
that they may be used as historical record of the business.
Non–volatile – Data in data warehouse are loaded and refreshed from
operational systems, but cannot be updated by end users.
 Understanding a Data Warehouse :
• It is a database, which is reserved split from the organization's operational
database.
• Even there is no recurring updating in a data warehouse.
• It has consolidate historical data that helps the organization to examine
its business properly.
• It provides executives to organize, understand, and use their data to take
strategic decisions.
• It helps in the integration of variety of application systems.
• This system helps in consolidated chronological analysis of data.
• A data warehouses is always kept split from operational databases because
of the following reasons :
• The Operational database is always constructed keeping in mind for well–
known errands and workloads. In contract, data warehouse queries are
often very complex and they present a general form of data.
• The Operational databases also support simultaneous processing of multiple
transactions. In case of operational database concurrency control and
recovery mechanisms are a must they have to be very robust and there
should be consistency of the database.
• The operational database inquiry allows reading as well as modifying
operations, while an OLAP query needs read only access of stored data.
• This should be kept in mind that operational database maintains current
data. On the other hand, a data warehouse maintains historical data.
Data warehousing is the method of constructing and using a data warehouse.
A data warehouse is constructed by integrating data from multiple heterogeneous
sources that support analytical reporting, structured and/or ad hoc queries, and
decision making. Data warehousing involves data cleaning, data integration,
and data consolidations.
 Data Warehouse Applications :
As discussed earlier, a data warehouse helps a lot to the business
executives in organizing, examining, and use their data for important decision
making. A data warehouse is of great helps as a sole part of a plan–execute–
assess "closed–loop" feedback system for the enterprise management. Data
warehouses have been broadly used in the following fields :
• The Financial Services
• The Banking Services
• The Consumer Goods

174
• The Retail Sectors Data Warehousing and
Data Mining
• The Controlled Manufacturing
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Explain the term Data Warehouse.
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12.3 Architecture :
Three–Tier Data Warehouse Architecture :
Generally a data warehouses has a three–tier architecture. The three tiers
of the data warehouse architecture are as follows.
• Top–Tier – This tier is the front–end client layer. This layer keeps the
query tools and reporting tools, analysis tools and data mining tools.
• Middle Tier – In the middle tier, we have the OLAP Server that is used
in either of the following ways.
a. Through Multidimensional OLAP also known as (MOLAP) model
in short, this starts the multidimensional data and operations.
b. Through Relational OLAP also known ROLAP in short, it is an
extended type of relational database management system. It maps
the operations on multidimensional data to the standard relational
operations.
• Bottom Tier – This architecture is treated as the data warehouse database
server. It is also a type of the relational database system. It is the back
end tools and utilities to feed data into the bottom tier and these back
end tools and utilities help in the process of the Extract, Clean, Load,
and refresh functions.
 The Three–Tier architecture of a data warehouse :

175
Database Management  Data Warehouse Models :
System
If we make a study from the point of view of data warehouse architecture
then we have the following models :
(a) First is Virtual Warehouse
(b) Second is the Data mart
(c) Thirdly is the Enterprise Warehouse
(a) Virtual Warehouse :
An operational data warehouse is identified as a virtual warehouse. It
is easy to create a virtual warehouse. Creating a virtual warehouse operations
require additional capacity on the database server.
(b) Data Mart :
Organization–wide data mart is a subset of the data. This subset of data
is important for an organization's specific groups in other words, data marts
include precise figures for a particular group. For example, marketing data mart
items, customers, and may include data related to sales. Data Mart are restricted
to subjects. The following points should be considered in applying data mart
• Mostly windows or Unix/Linux–based servers are used to implement data
marts. They are implemented on low–cost servers.
• The implementation data mart cycles are deliberate in short periods of
time, i.e., in weeks rather than months or years.
• The life cycle of a data mart might be very complex in long run but
if its planning and design are not organization–wide.
• The Data marts are very small in size.
• The Data marts are personalized by department.
• The source of a data mart is departmentally prepared data warehouse.
• Data marts are flexible.
(c) Enterprise Warehouse :
• The enterprise warehouse obtains all the information and the subjects
spanning from whole organization
• They gives us enterprise wide data integration.
• The data is included from operational systems and external information
providers.
• This data or information can differ from a few gigabytes to hundreds
of gigabytes, terabytes or even beyond that.
In the data warehouse environment usually specific architecture transforms
relational data model. There are several schema models designed for data
storage, but are most commonly used :
– Star Schema
The determination of which schema model should be used for a data
warehouse should be based upon the analysis of project requirements, accessible
tools and project team preferences.
 Star Schema :
Its architectural Diagram resembles very much to a star with a center
point of the scorching it is called a star schema. This architecture is the simplest
176
data warehouse schema. Star of the center points of the fact table and dimension Data Warehousing and
tables are the star. Fact tables in a star schema typically de– dimensional tables Data Mining
are normalized, the third normal form (3NF) are in. Despite the fact that the
star schema is the simplest architecture, it is most often used today and is
recommended by Oracle.

Fact and Dimension table

 Fact Tables :
Dimension tables are numerical facts and behavior of those foreign key :
A fact table typically has two types of columns. Aggregated level of detail
or the fact that a fact table can contain data.
 Dimension Tables :
Levels of the hierarchy and is not a dimension, then it is called flat
dimension or list. One dimension is usually the primary key of each of
dimension tables are part of a composite primary key of the fact table categorizes
the data that is a structure composed of one or more hierarchy. Dimensional
characteristics that help to describe the dimensional value. They usually
meaningful, literal values. Dimension tables are usually small in size, the fact
table.
General facts concerning the sale of tables to store data, the geographical
area (markets, city), customers, products, times, channels, data about the dimension
tables.
The main characteristic of the star schema :
1. Simple structure, easy to understand schema
2. Immense query and swagger : the small number of tables to join
3. The relatively long time to load the data in the dimension tables :
D – General, redundancy may cause the data table that is large.
4. The most often used in data warehouse implementation is widely supported
by a large number of business intelligence tools.
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Database Management  Check Your Progress – 2 :
System
1. Explain three tier architecture of Data warehouse in detail.
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12.4 Various tools in Data Warehousing :

Typically, a data warehouse, data extraction, transformation and loading
of data from one or more sources, known as ETL is loaded through the process.
To pull the data out of a database and place it in another database that automates
the process are combined into one device that serves three databases.
• Extract – to read data from a given source database and a desired subset
of information processing of data.
• Transform – it can be inserted into the database, so it is necessary to
form removed or is the process of converting data from your past.
Changes in regulations or lookup tables or by combining with other data.
• Load – Summary sorting process, strengthen the integrity check, and
construction of the index and data division. It also includes warehouse
refresh the data sources including updating.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. Explain the ETL process.
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12.5 Tools in Data Mining :

Files, databases, and other large–scale data stored in repositories, with
analysis and interpretation of such data can help in decision making and for
the return of the interesting knowledge to rapidly develop a powerful tool is
important.
Data mining also KDD (Knowledge Discovery in Databases), known as
the data in the database, previously unknown and potentially useful information
nontrivial underlying refers to remove. Data Mining and KDD are synonyms
of each other, data mining, knowledge discovery process is considered a real
part. The figures below a step in an iterative process of knowledge discovery
shows as data mining.

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 Data Warehousing and
Data Mining

Data Mining is the core of Knowledge Discovery process

The process of knowledge discovery in databases starting from raw data
collection and steps leading to new knowledge involves some form. Iterative
process includes the following steps :
 Data cleaning – It is also known as data cleaning, data unrelated to
the noisy data and are removed from the data collection, which is a
platform.
 Data integration – Here at this stage, multiple data sources, often
asymmetrical, can be collected or stored in a common source.
 Data Selection – This step is determined on the basis of data analysis
and data collection have been included.
 Data transformation – it is also called as data consolidation, the demand
for data mining process is transformed into the appropriate forms, which
is a stage.
 Data Mining – The intelligent technique to extract potentially useful
patterns are working, which is taken to be one of the important steps.
 Pattern evaluation – Here at this stage, knowledge representation tightly
interesting patterns are based on the measures, which are recognized.
 Knowledge Representation – It turns out that the knowledge / information
for the user has appeared in the final stage. The move users to understand
and interpret the data mining results, use visualization techniques to help.
This joint is common to combine some of these steps. For example, data
cleaning and data integration to generate a data warehouse as a pre–processing
stage can be together. Consolidation of data as in the case of data warehouses,
data selection is changed, the result of selection, or where the data selection
and data transformation can also be shared.
Revealed knowledge is available to the user once, iterative process
knowledge discovery in databases, which can be extended to the evaluation
measures, mining may be more sophisticated, new data selected or turned on,
or a new data source can be can be different, and in order to get more relevant
results, is included.

179
Database Management Data mining a vein of valuable ore mining a large database and search
System for information in the rocks really derives its name from the resemblance
between. Sifting through a large amount of the material or are inventively values
actually mean the point is to examine the contents. Mining for gold in rocks
usually "gold mining" and not "rock mining is called" since it follows, rather
than data mining "knowledge mining" should have been asked by analogy,
however, is a misnomer.
However, data mining has become traditional customary period, and even
that is such a more complete description of the process database (KDD) as
the pursuit of knowledge that greatly overshadowed more general terms a trend
rapidly. Other similar words referring to data mining : the data dredging,
knowledge extraction and pattern discovery.
In standard, data mining is a kind of media or data is not accurate. Data
mining information should be applied to any type of repository. Although
applicable to different types of data, the algorithms and approaches may be
different. In reality, the challenges presented by different types of data vary
greatly. Data mining relational databases, object–relational databases and object–
oriented databases, data warehouses, transactional databases, such as the World
Wide Web as unstructured and semi – structured repositories, such as advanced
spatial database, including the database to be used being studied databases,
multimedia databases, time–series database and textual databases, and even flat
files.
May be exposed to that type of pattern employed depend largely on data
mining tasks. By and large, there are two types of data mining functions :
Existing data that describe the general properties of descriptive data
mining.
Predictions based on data available at the conclusion that it is attempting
to predictive data mining.
Data mining functionalities and they are briefly presented in the following
list shows the variety of knowledge :
Used tools for data mining are :
Artificial neural networks – learn through training and resemble biological
neural network structure prognostic model non–linear.
Decision trees – tree–shaped structures that correspond to the set of
decisions. These decisions generate rules for the classification of a dataset.
Rule Induction – useful if the statistical significance of the return on
the rules of data.
Genetic algorithms – genetic combination optimization techniques,
mutation, and natural selection will depend on the concepts.
Nearest neighbour – a classification technique that classifies each record
in a historical database to the most depend on similar records.
 Data Mining Applications :
Data mining "knowledge from huge set of data extraction process" can
be defined as. To put it in other words, we say that data mining data mining
and knowledge that can help. This information can be used for any of the
following applications :

180
• The Analysis of Market Data Warehousing and
Data Mining
• The Detection of Fraud
• Retention of the valuable Customer
• The Control of Production
• The Exploration of Science
• The Risk management and Corporate Analysis
• The Analysis of Financial Data
• The Retail Industry
• The Industry of Telecommunication
• Analysis of the Biological Data
• Some Other Scientific Applications
• Detection of Intrusion
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. What is Data Mining ? Explain the steps in KDD process.
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12.6 Difference between Data Mining and Normal Query :

Virtually all modern, commercial database systems are based on the
relational model formalized by Codd in the 60s and 70s and the SQL language
which allows the user to efficiently and effectively manipulate a database. In
this model a database table is a representation of a mathematical relation, that
is, a set of attribute of items that share certain characteristics or attributes.
Here, each table column represents the relation and each record in the table
represents a member of this relation. Relational databases do not only allow
for the creation of tables but also for the manipulation of the tables and the
data within them. The most fundamental operation on a database is the query.
This operation enables the user to retrieve data from database tables by asserting
that the retrieved data needs to fulfill certain criteria. Thus Query Tools are
tools that help analyze the data in a database. They provide query building,
query editing, searching, and finding, reporting and summarizing functionalities.
In disparity to a query which basically returns the data that fulfills assured
constraints, data mining constructs models of the data in question. The models
can be viewed as high level summaries of the essential data and are in most
cases more useful than the raw data, since in a business sense they typically
represent reasonable and actionable items .Depending on the questions of
interest, data mining models can take on very different forms. They include
decision trees and decision rules for classification tasks, association rules for
market basket analysis, as well as clustering for market segmentation among
several other possible models.
Thus we previously unknown and interesting information from the data
mining of raw unprocessed data extraction is the function of which is to deal
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Database Management with an area of computer science, you can say that. Used as input data for
System the process usually is stored in the database. Data users who are inclined toward
the use of data mining. Look for hidden patterns in the data, various statistical
model / tool. Data miners is always profitable for businesses which ultimately
fruitful relationship between different data elements are interested in finding.
 Check Your Progress – 5 :
1. Differentiate data mining and normal query.
2. Full form of KDD
(A) Knowledge Discovery Database
(B) Knowledge DD
(C) KDD
(D) Kmean Data
3. Algorithm is
(A) It uses machine–learning techniques. Here program can learn from
past experience and adapt themselves to new situations.
(B) Computational procedure that takes some value as input and produces
some value as output.
(C) Science of making machines performs tasks that would require
intelligence when performed by humans.
(D) None of these
4. In following blanks find right sequence of option from given five option.
• At __________ step multiple data sources, often asymmetrical, can
be collected or stored in a common source.
• At __________ step is determined on the basis of data analysis and
data collection have been included
• At ________ step intelligent technique to extract potentially useful
patterns are working
• At ____________ step the user has appeared in the final stage.
(A) Data Integration (B) Data Selection
(C) Data Transformation (D) Data Mining
(E) Knowledge Representation
5. ETL full form.
(A) Extract Transfrom Load (B) extra load
(C) Extract Load Transform (D) None

12.7 Let Us Sum Up :

The terms =Data Warehouse' and =Data Warehousing' are defined in
different ways by different people.
Devlin, Data Warehouse is a single, complete and consistent store of data
obtained from a variety of different sources made available to end users in
a way they can understand and used in a business context.

182
 Table design, dimensions and organization should be consistent throughout Data Warehousing and
a data warehouse so that reports or queries across the data warehouse are Data Mining
consistent. A data warehouse can also be viewed as a database for historical
data from different functions within a company.
Data Warehouse is a collection of data that is used primarily in
organizational decision making.
Data warehouse is
• Subject–oriented
• Integrated
• Time–varying
• Non–volatile
• Bill Inmon, Building the Data Warehouse 1996
Data Warehousing is the process whereby organizations extract meaning
from their informational assets through the use of Data Warehouses. Structured
analytical reporting a data warehouse to support various different sources, and
/ or ad hoc queries, and decisions are made by integrating the data. The data
cleaning, data integration and consolidation of data included. Data available
with the help of decision support technologies used in a data warehouse. Using
these technologies quickly and effectively to the warehouse is of great help
to the authorities. It becomes very easier for them to gather the data, analyze
it and take decisions accordingly on the basis of information present in the
warehouse.
Generally a data warehouses adopts a three–tier architecture. From the
perspective of data warehouse architecture, data warehouse models are Virtual
Warehouse, Data mart and Enterprise Warehouse. Typically, the data in a data
warehouse is loaded through the process of ETL, i.e. extraction, transformation
and loading, from one or more sources of data.
Data Mining, also popularly known as Knowledge Discovery in Databases
(KDD), refers to the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown and
potentially useful information from data in databases. There is enormous amount
of data available in Information Industry and this data is of no use unless and
until it is converted into some useful information. Analysing this huge amount
of data and extracting useful information from it is necessary. Data Mining
is process of extracting the information from the huge set of data. In other
words we can say that data mining is mining the knowledge from data.
The Knowledge Discovery in Databases process comprises of a few steps
leading from raw data collections to some form of new knowledge. The iterative
process consists of the steps : Data cleaning, Data integration, Data selection,
Data transformation, Data mining, Pattern evaluation and knowledge
representation.
The data mining functionalities are Characterization, Discrimination,
Association analysis, Classification, Prediction, Clustering, Outlier analysis and
Evolution and deviation analysis. Applications of data mining are like Market
Analysis, Fraud Detection, Customer Retention, Production Control and Science
Exploration etc.

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Database Management 12.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :
System
 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 12.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 12.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 12.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 12.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
1 : See Section 12.6,
2 : Computational procedure that takes some value as input and produces
some value as output,
3 : Knowledge Discovery Database,
4 : Data Integration, Data Selection, Data Mining,Knowledge
representation,
5 : Extract Transform Load

12.9 Glossary :
1. Data Warehouse – It is a collection of data that is used primarily in
organizational decision making.
2. Data warehouse is : Subject–oriented, Integrated, Time–varying and
Non–volatile.
3. Data warehousing – it can be explained as the process of building and
using a data warehouse. The process of data warehousing involves data
cleaning, integration, and consolidations.
4. OLAP – Its full form is Online analysis processing.
5. Data mart contains a subset of organization – wide data. This type
of data is very important for specific groups of an organization.
6. Enterprise Warehouse – It collects all the information and the subjects
spanning an entire organization.
7. Classification – analysis means organization of the data in given classes.
8. Clustering – Similar to classification, clustering is the organization of
data in classes. However, unlike classification, clustering, the class labels
are unknown to the discovery of admissible classes depending on the
clustering algorithm.
9. Outliers – These cannot be shared in a given class or cluster the data
elements. Also known as exceptions or surprises, they are often very
important to recognize.

12.10 Assignment :
Write difference between Data Ware housing and Data mining with
suitable example. Search information on internet and relate it with real world

184
 12.11 Activities : Data Warehousing and
Data Mining
How data mining is useful in market analysis? Explain with example.

12.12 Case Study :

Study different types of data mining tools which perform tasks like
classification and association analysis.

12.13 Further Reading :

1. Fundamentals of Database Management Systems – M. L. Gillenson, Wiely
Publishing
2. Understanding Database management Systems – J. A. Vasta, Wadsworth
Publishing Company

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 Unit
13 DATABASE SECURITY

UNIT STRUCTURE
13.0 Learning Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Password Authentication
13.3 Operating System Authentication
13.4 Why Protect Passwords ?
13.4.1 Control
13.4.2 Protection
13.4.3 Integrity
13.4.4 Privileged Accounts
13.4.5 SYS
13.4.6 SYSTEM
13.5 Other Issues
13.5.1 Operating System Group : DBA
13.5.2 Object Security
13.5.3 Access Rights
13.5.4 Resolving Object Synonyms
13.5.5 System Security
13.5.6 Defined System Privileges
13.5.7 Object Security Model
13.5.8 Database Auditing
13.6 Recovery from Various Problems of Volatile and Non–Volatile Storage
Devices
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
13.8 Suggested Answers to Check Your Progress
13.9 Glossary
13.10 Assignment
13.11 Activities
13.12 Case Study
13.13 Further Readings

13.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to :
• Understand the concept of security of database
• Understand Password Authentication
• Understand Operating System Authentication
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• Understand the need for password protection Database Security
• Understand the concept of Object Security
• Understand the concept of Database Auditing
• Understand Access Rights
• Understand Object synonym
• Understand Transaction properties and recovery mechanism.

13.1 Introduction :
Although we have been living in extremely technological advanced era
where we are surrounded by so many satellite to monitor the earth and every
second billions of people are getting connected through information technology,
failure is expected but not at every time.
DBMS is considered to be one of the most complex system where
hundreds of transactions are being executed every second and the availability
of DBMS depends to a very great extent on its complex architecture and
fundamental hardware as well as system software. In the event of failure or
crashes amid transactions being executed, it is predictable that the system will
follow some sort of algorithm or techniques through which data could be
recovered from such crashes or failures.

13.2 Password Authentication :

Password authentication is one of the additional traditional method generally
used for user authentication. Most of the time passwords are comparatively
secure but then too they have some weakness that can make them more
vulnerable to breach or attack.
In most cases, the user creates a unique password. But remember that
people generally susceptible to attack password authentication, which makes
simple password like to keep. Use multiple databases, users often use the same
password over and over again and if a user's password is compromised, it makes
a massive security breach that the offending party is part of the password for
the database gives access.
To reduce the risk of any breach password below should follow some
of the rules :
• First, the length should be at least eight characters.
• Secondly, it should contain a combination of characters and numbers or
special characters that represent the actual spelling of words (such as
Block for bicycle).
• Thirdly, it should not contain easily understandable passwords.
• Lastly, it should be frequently changed.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. What are the general standards for giving passwords?
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Database Management 13.3 Operating System Authentication :
System
Operating system password authentication methods require an underlying
operating system level, it authenticated at the operating system level in mind
that the use of accounts is very important to protect the bearing. The Oracle
database account to an account that matches the operating system that exists
within the database to verify whether that means. For the operating system
to the database to verify the user. Successful match is found, the user is allowed
to use.
If used properly, the operating system is secure authentication intelligently.
Under this method to change a password is needed. Connect to the database
user name and password to continue just like a faucet is very simple.
 Check Your Progress – 2 :
1. How operating system is authenticated ?
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13.4 Why Protect Passwords ?

Authentication method and a long conversation about the accounts of
defense I After, why it is necessary to think it is very common. This database
is going to be a debatable issue, depending on the environment. At many sites,
the concept of safety is taken very seriously. Other sites, organizations, especially
those that are not traditional, the question needs. Control, security, and integrity
of the database to limit the use of three basic reasons.
13.4.1 Control :
The word several times every hour to control the users need to file
paperwork that evokes images of mainframe shops is a heavy–handed words.
DBA in day–to–day operations barrier and regret, no malicious intent or by
accident or due to excessive should not impose restrictions, however, a database
is simply too much power in the database can be corrupted
13.4.2 Protection :
In addition to issues of control, to limit the use of the database and the
database within a database for data protection is one of the most effective ways.
Most users would not maliciously damage the database, as a subversion of
an accident can be just as overwhelming.
13.4.3 Integrity :
Efforts to protect password protect the integrity of the data within the
database objects to. Because of the many privileges within the database while
users to arbitrarily manipulate database data allows. Generally these privileges
to update any table in any table and deletions include the system–level privileges.
With these privileges, a user object–level security can supersede and modify
the data in any database table.

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 To control objects within the database for data changes is one of the Database Security
most difficult task. After all, users should be able to use the data from the
database. Access control and defensive with physical database objects within
the same database as the data should be protected and any one design and
implement a security plan should be the paramount concern.
13.4.4 Privileged Accounts :
The Privileged accounts for the Oracle DBMS are of number of forms.
Some of them are conventional password authenticated accounts, some specific
database privileges are the operating system group while. Each site has its own
custom–defined or privileged DBA can access account.
13.4.5 SYS :
The database user =SYS' is the main proprietor of all base tables, user
views, and data dictionary views. At the time of creation of database these
tables and views are created during internal mechanisms.
13.4.6 SYSTEM :
Just like SYS, the SYSTEM account is shaped when the database is
created. The SYS user owns tables and views that orientation internal database
information, the SYSTEM account owns tables that are owned by Oracle tools,
such as SQL*Menu. Generally this schema is used to install software products
for most third–party tools.
 Check Your Progress – 3 :
1. What are the basic reasons for limiting database access ?
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13.5 Other Issues :

13.5.1 Operating System Group – DBA :
The Oracle provides us a third method of authentication and is very
specific in nature. Oracle provides convinced privileges and must be carefully
monitored.
UNIX / group file, specify the DB Group is a member of the user, the
database can connect to the interior. With special privileges to connect to the
database as SYS enables him an opportunity to use by the UK level. Oracle
DBA group normally steal user group. Startup and shut down operations on
the database to obtain necessary to connect the internal.
13.5.2 Object Security :
If a user on a specific database object security object that is responsible
for defining the specific rights. In Oracle Database Appliance, is a way of
default protection. A user that owns the database object database is full
privileges. The user, in turn, these objects to another database user can provide
any and all privileges. He has been denied access, which tries to access a
database object, the user receives an error message if any.
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Database Management 13.5.3 Access Rights :
System
One of the key aspects of the object privileges to accept fully understand
what privileges are available to the user's database. There are nine Oracle object
privileges
ALTER one such operation, lack of storage add adjusting column, which
includes performance and enables the user to change a database table.
DELETE SQL database objects using the Delete command to remove
rows from the user's rights.
EXECUTE Within the database to execute a stored procedure or package
enables the user.
INDEX enables the user to create a new index or to change or modify
a database table to an attainable index.
INSERT to create new rows in a database table enables.
REFERENCES Through a foreign key in another table, the attribute
information to the reference table gives the user the right.
SELECT Information within a database object that enables the user to
view the rows.
UPDATE – Users within a database object that enables to change the
existing lines.
ALL Is a database object privileges on the user's previous.
Multiple databases within a single grant option privilege is possible to
join. Example,
% sqlplus system
Password :........
SQL>grant select, insert, update on emp table to
efcko; Grant succeeded.
13.5.4 Resolving Object Synonyms :
Synonymous is nothing but just to be referred to some other enables
a database object is a designation. Private and public : There are two types
of synonyms. He uses a private synonym is created by the user, which is a
synonym; you can use it is made synonymous none other than the user, on
the other hand, is available to all users in a public synonym database.
13.5.5 System Security :
Where object opportunity deals with what a user can do to database
objects and system privilege deals with what actions a user can perform against
the database itself. The actions include connecting to the database, creating
the tables of database, and dropping an entire table space with all the database
objects in it.
Under Oracle6, the Oracle RDBMS resembled UNIX in its overall
security scheme. UNIX maintains that an account is either the root user or
a regular user. Admittedly, UNIX has evolved to enable a superior deal of
scalability by using things such as access control lists (ACLs) and the root
set user id programs. Oracle6 is set up so that all users are either the DBA
or not the DBA. With the release of Oracle7, it moves away from this
methodology. It is possible now to grant specific privileges to non–DBA users,
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thereby enabling them to perform certain applications without giving them full Database Security
DBA access.
13.5.6 Defined System Privileges :
In Oracle6, three system privileges are available. Over 80 system privileges
are available in Oracle7.
ANY Privileges
The ANY privileges are a type of special class of privileges within the
database system privileges. They are improved system privileges that gives the
user the ability to perform particular actions without restrictions. If a user has
these system privileges, he can override normal default security. So, he has
access to other database objects, regardless of whether an object–level grant
is made.
13.5.7 Object Security Model :
The DBA must also consider the other factors while setting up a security
plan. Not only the setup of the database users be considered, but also the
ownership of the database objects should be considered. Although there is no
right or wrong way or any other fundamental rule to go about this but the
following sections outline some of the concerns faced by the DBA when setting
up object ownership models.
 Protected Object Ownership Schema :
One of the security model which is implemented by many sites is the
protected schema sometimes know by the name ?pure schema'. Under this, the
DBA sets up an account that is not linked with any specific database user.
This account is used as an ownership account for all the database objects :
tables, views, and so on. Public synonyms are set up for each of the database
object, and grants are made to each user for each of the database object.
Therefore, a single user owns the objects, but the account can be constrained
by not issuing passwords to any users apart from those who perform database
object maintenance.
 Creating Roles :
Apart from defining the privileges essential for each role and selecting
suitably descriptive names, the process of creating a role is very simple. The
syntax is very similar to creating a database user. For example,
% sqlplus system
Password :........
Connected.
SQL>create role global
dept; Role created.
13.5.8 Database Auditing :
Auditing is reactive function. It gives DBA information about an activity
only after it has already occurred and this reactive information provides us
a snapshot of what has occurred, depending on the level of detail being audited.
It gives the DBA a basis for tracking the changes within the database.
Auditing extra rows to be inserted for each operation causes the database,
it auditing requirements such as performance overhead and physical storage
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Database Management to balance the odds being against becomes more important. Site–specific
System considerations require otherwise, unless the DBA is always limit the amount
of information must be audited. DBAs users are added to the database, which
tracks the higher level, it is not unusual to run audit trails. Database the SQL
statements being issued by all users to track the time it is more unusual. As
a rule of thumb, he suspected improper activity, the lower level of the DBA
should be applied to the audit, and the audit must be specific about which
is directed against.
To activate auditing for a database instance, the DBA must make certain
that the AUDIT_TRAIL parameter of the INIT.ORA parameter file is set to
DB or OS to indicate where the audit trail should be written. The default value
for this parameter is NONE
 Check Your Progress – 4 :
1. Explain object security model.
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13.6 Recovery from Various Problems of Volatile and Non–Volatile

Storage Devices :
A major responsibility of the database administrator is to prepare for
the possibility of hardware, software, network, process, or system failure. If
such a failure affects the operation of a database system, you must usually
recover the database and return to normal operation as quickly as possible.
Recovery should protect the database and associated users from unnecessary
problems and avoid or reduce the possibility of having to duplicate work
manually.
Recovery processes vary depending on the type of failure that occurred,
the structures affected, and the type of recovery that you perform. If no files
are lost or damaged, recovery may amount to no more than restarting an
instance. If data has been lost, recovery requires additional steps.
 Check Your Progress – 5 :
1. Explain the difference between the three storage types–volatile, nonvolatile
and stable.
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2. The log is a sequence of _________ recording all the update activities
in the database.
(a) Log records (b) Records (c) Entries (d) Redo
3. In the ___________ scheme, a transaction that wants to update the
database first creates a complete copy of the database.
(a) Shadow copy (b) Shadow Paging
(c) Update log records (d) All of the mentioned
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4. The ____________ scheme uses a page table containing pointers to all Database Security
pages; the page table itself and all updated pages are copied to a new
location.
(a) Shadow copy (b) Shadow Paging
(c) Update log records (d) All of the mentioned
5. The current copy of the database is identified by a pointer, called
____________ which is stored on disk.
(a) Db–pointer (b) Update log
(c) Update log records (d) All of the mentioned

13.7 Let Us Sum Up :

The structure of storage can be divided into various categories :
• Volatile storage – As the name suggests, this type of storage system
does not survive from system crashes and mostly placed very near to
CPU by embedding them onto the chipset itself for examples : main
memory, cache memory. They are considered to be very fast but can
only store a small amount of information.
• Nonvolatile storage – These memories have been made in order to
survive from system crashes. They are huge enough in data storage
capacity but slower in accessibility. Examples may include, hard disks,
magnetic tapes, flash memory, non–volatile (battery backed up) RAM.
• Stable storage – Survives everything. Stable storage cannot really be
implemented because all storage devices are made of hardware, and all
hardware is vulnerable to mechanical or electronic device failures. Database
systems approximate stable storage by writing data to multiple storage
devices simultaneously. Even if one of the devices crashes, the data will
still be available on a different device. Thus data loss becomes extremely
unlikely.

13.8 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 13.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
See Section 13.3
 Check Your Progress 3 :
See Section 13.4
 Check Your Progress 4 :
See Section 13.5
 Check Your Progress 5 :
1 : See Section 13.3 2 : Log records
3 : Shadow copy 4 : Shadow pagging
5 : Db–Pointer

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Database Management 13.9 Glossary :
System
ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment) : A disk drive interface standard
for IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics). A standard for storage devices that lets
them be treated as if they were hard drives on the system. Any ATA compatible
media can be read by any ATA device.
Access : Retrieval of data from or transfer of data into a storage device
or area such as RAM or a register.
Access Time : The amount of time, including seek time, latency and
controller time, needed for a storage device to retrieve information.
Adaptive Caching : A feature of hard disk drives that enables them to
improve performance and throughput by adapting to the application being run.

13.10 Assignment :
Identify and understand the recovery mechanisms which apply when?

13.11 Activity :
Create the tables and recover the tables and users.

13.12 Case Study :

Read and understand the real time database crash and how it was
recovered.

13.13 Further Reading :

1. Fundamentals of Database Management Systems – M. L. Gillenson, Wiely
Publishing
2. Understanding Database management Systems – J. A. Vasta, Wadsworth
Publishing Company

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 Unit
14 RECOVERY MECHANISMS

UNIT STRUCTURE
14.0 Learning Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Concept–Properties–States of Transaction
14.3 Introduction to Mechanisms
14.3.1 Log
14.3.2 Deferred Update
14.3.3 Immediate Update
14.3.4 Caching/Buffering
14.3.5 Checkpoint
14.3.6 Shadow Paging
14.4 Let Us Sum Up
14.5 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress
14.6 Glossary
14.9 Assignment
14.10 Activities
14.11 Case Study
14.12 Further Readings

14.0 Learning Objectives :

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand :
• Transaction management in DBMS
• ACID property in detail
• Transaction management mechanisms

14.1 Introduction :
Database systems, like any other computer system, are subject to failures
but the data stored in it must be available as and when required. When a
database fails it must possess the facilities for fast recovery. It must also have
atomicity i.e. either transactions are completed successfully and committed (the
effect is recorded permanently in the database) or the transaction should have
no effect on the database.
There are both automatic and non–automatic ways for both, backing up
of data and recovery from any failure situations. The techniques used to recover
the lost data due to system crash, transaction errors, viruses, catastrophic failure,
incorrect commands execution etc. are database recovery techniques. So to
prevent data loss recovery techniques based on deferred update and immediate
update or backing up data can be used.

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Database Management Recovery techniques are heavily dependent upon the existence of a special
System file known as a system log. It contains information about the start and end
of each transaction and any updates which occur in the transaction. The log
keeps track of all transaction operations that affect the values of database items.
This information is needed to recover from transaction failure.
• The log is kept on disk start_transaction(T) : This log entry records that
transaction T starts the execution.
• read_item(T, X) : This log entry records that transaction T reads the value
of database item X.
• write_item(T, X, old_value, new_value) : This log entry records that
transaction T changes the value of the database item X from old_value
to new_value. The old value is sometimes known as a before an image
of X, and the new value is known as an afterimage of X.
• commit(T) : This log entry records that transaction T has completed all
accesses to the database successfully and its effect can be committed
(recorded permanently) to the database.
• abort(T) : This records that transaction T has been aborted.
• checkpoint : Checkpoint is a mechanism where all the previous logs are
removed from the system and stored permanently in a storage disk.
Checkpoint declares a point before which the DBMS was in consistent
state, and all the transactions were committed.

14.2 Concept–Properties–States of Transaction :

A Transaction should be understood as a Logical unit of database processing
that includes one or more access operations (read –retrieval, write – insert or
update, delete).
A transaction (set of operations) may be stand–alone specified in a high
level language like SQL submitted interactively, or may be embedded within
a program. The Transaction boundaries are Begin and End transaction. An
application program may contain several transactions separated by the Begin
and End transaction boundaries.
 ACID Properties of Transaction :
A transaction may hold several low level tasks and additional a transaction
is a very little unit of any program. Any transaction in a database system must
always uphold some properties in order to ensure the correctness of its
completeness and data integrity. These properties are referred as ACID properties
and have been mentioned below :
• Consistency – It states that after finishing of the transaction, its database
must remain in a consistent state and there should not be any chance
of some data is incorrectly affected by the execution of transaction. If
the database is in a consistent state before the execution of the transaction,
it must stay in consistent state after the execution of the transaction.
• Durability – This states that in any case all the updates that have been
made on the database should be preserved even if the system fails or
restarts. If a transaction writes or updates some data in database and
commits any type of error then too that data will always be present in
the database.

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• Atomicity – Including many low–level operations of a transaction, but Recovery Mechanisms
the property of a transaction executed or not their actions are always
either means which should be treated as an atomic unit states that
although. Left partially completed transactions where the state should not
be in the database. States very clearly and properly or before the execution
of the transaction or the transaction execution / abortion / failure should
be defined after.
• Isolation – In a system of database where there is more than one
transactions being executed simultaneously, the property of isolation
states that all the transactions will be approved and executed as if it
is the only transaction in the system. None of the transaction will affect
the existence of any other transaction.
 Transaction Failure :
Whenever a transaction fails to perform or it reaches a point after which
it is unable to be performed successfully it has to abort. This is called transaction
failure where only few transaction or process are affected.
There are number of reasons because of which a transaction fails, they
are
• Logical errors – Whenever a transaction cannot completed because of
any type of code error or any internal error condition
• System errors – When the dbs itself ends an active transaction because
DBMS is not able to execute it or it has to stop because of some system
condition. For example, in case of deadlock or resource unavailability
systems aborts an active transaction.
• System Crash – There are several problems, which are external to the
system, and that may cause the system to stop abruptly and may cause
the system to crash. For example due to failure in power supply, failure
of underlying hardware or software failure.
• Disk Failure – During the very early days of technology evolution, it
was a very common problem being faced by people where hard disk
drives failure or storage drives failure was a very common issue. It include
formation of bad sectors, unreachability to the disk, disk head crash or
any other failure, which destroys all or part of disk storage.
 Transaction states :
A transaction must necessarily be in one of the following states :
• Active – This is the initial state, the transaction stays in this state while
it is executing or performing.
• Partially committed – This transaction comes after the final statement
has been executed.
• Failed – This occurs when the normal execution can no longer proceed.
• Aborted – This occurs after the transaction has been rolled back and
the database has been restored to its state prior to the start of the
transaction.
• Committed – after successful completion of transaction.
The state diagram corresponding to a transaction is shown in Figure.

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Database Management
System

We say that a transaction has committed only if it has entered the

committed state. Similarly, we say that a transaction has aborted only if it has
entered the aborted state. A transaction is said to have terminated if has either
committed or aborted.
A transaction gets started in the active state. When it finishes, it enters
the partially committed state and at this point, the transaction has completed
its execution, but it is still possible that it may have to be aborted, since the
actual output may still be temporarily hiding in main memory and thus a
hardware failure may preclude its successful completion.
The database system then writes out enough information to disk that,
even in the event of a failure, the updates performed by the transaction can
be recreated when the system restarts after the failure. When the last of this
information is written out, the transaction enters the committed state.
 Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Explain ACID properties of transaction.
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14.3 Introduction to Mechanisms :

 Database Recovery :
Purpose of Database Recovery is to bring the database into the last
consistent state, which existed prior to the failure and to preserve transaction
properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability).
In the event of crash of a system, it many have number of transactions
being executed and different files opened for modification of data items. As
we are aware that every transaction is made up of so many operations, which
are very atomic in nature. But according to the ACID properties of DBMS,
atomicity of transactions should always be maintained that is, either all operations
are executed or none.
After the recovery of a DBMS from a crash it should be in a position
to preserve the following :
• The system must make sure the states of all transactions, which were
being executed.

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• It may have happen that a transaction may have been in the middle of Recovery Mechanisms
any operation; so DBMS should make sure the atomicity of transaction
in this case is not lost
• DBMS should be able to make sure whether the transaction can be
completed or needs to be rolled back.
• None of the transactions would be allowed to leave DBMS in an
inconsistent state.
One should note that the two types of techniques, which can help DBMS
in recovering as well as maintaining the atomicity of transaction to a very great
extent, are :
• Proper maintenance of records or logs for each and every transaction,
and writing them onto some steady and safe storage before actually
modifying the database.
• Maintainence of the shadow paging properly, when the changes are done
on a volatile memory and later the actual database is updated.
Thus a database recovery is the process of eliminating the effects of a
failure from the database. A failure is a state where data inconsistency is visible
to transactions if they are scheduled for execution.
14.3.1 Log :
Most widely used structure for recording database modification is the
Log. The Log is a sequence of records and maintains a record of all the updates
activities in the database.
Following data recorded in Log :
• Transaction identifier – Transaction that performed write operation is
called Transaction identifier.
• Data item identifier – Unique identifier of data– item writer.
• Old value – Value of data – item prior to the write.
• New value – Value of the data–item after the write.
• Commit transaction marker or, abort or Rollback transaction marker.
• When the transaction Ti starts, it registers itself by writing a <Ti start>
log record
• And before Ti executes write(X), a log record <Ti, X, V1, V2> is written,
where V1 is the value of X before the write, and V2 is the value to
be written to X.
• Log record notes that Ti has performed a write on data item Xj, Xj had
value, V1 before the write, and will have value V2 after the write.
• When Ti finishes it last statement, the log record <Ti commit> is written.
• We assume for now that log records are written directly to stable storage
(that is, they are not buffered)
• Two approaches using logs
• Deferred database modification
• Immediate database modification

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Database Management 1. Deferred database modification – All logs are written on to a very
System steady storage and the database is updated as soon as transaction is
committed.
2. Immediate database modification – Each and every entry is a real
database modification. Is a database that has been adapted immediately
after each operation.
14.3.2 Deferred update :
This technique does not physically update the database on disk until a
transaction has reached its commit point. Before reaching commit, all transaction
updates are recorded in the local transaction workspace. If a transaction fails
before reaching its commit point, it will not have changed the database in any
way so UNDO is not needed. It may be necessary to REDO the effect of the
operations that are recorded in the local transaction workspace, because their
effect may not yet have been written in the database. Hence, a deferred update
is also known as the No–undo/redo algorithm
14.3.3 Immediate update :
In the immediate update, the database may be updated by some operations
of a transaction before the transaction reaches its commit point. However, these
operations are recorded in a log on disk before they are applied to the database,
making recovery still possible. If a transaction fails to reach its commit point,
the effect of its operation must be undone i.e. the transaction must be rolled
back hence we require both undo and redo. This technique is known as undo/
redo algorithm.
14.3.4 Caching/Buffering :
In this one or more disk pages that include data items to be updated
are cached into main memory buffers and then updated in memory before being
written back to disk. A collection of in–memory buffers called the DBMS cache
is kept under control of DBMS for holding these buffers. A directory is used
to keep track of which database items are in the buffer. A dirty bit is associated
with each buffer, which is 0 if the buffer is not modified else 1 if modified.
14.3.5 Check Point :
More than a transaction executed in parallel, when logs are interleaved
and recovery time after all the logs have been difficult to recover the system,
and then will start to recover. To avoid such a situation, most of the modern
DBMS 'checkpoints' use of the concept.
The proper maintenance of logs in real time and environment may
sometime fill out all the memory space on the system. And as the time passes
log file may be too big to be handled at all. Thus, checkpoint is one of the
mechanism where all the previous logs are removed from the system and stored
enduringly in storage disk. Checkpoint declares a point before which the DBMS
was in consistent state and all the transactions were committed.
 Recovery :
When a system with concurrent transaction crashes and recovers, it does
act in the following manner :

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 Recovery Mechanisms

• The recovery system makes reading the logs backwards i.e. from the end
to the preceding Checkpoint.
• It builds two lists, undo–list and redo–list.
• If a recovery system shows a log or record with <Tn, Start> and <Tn,
Commit> or just <Tn, Commit>, it puts the transaction ina redo–list.
• If the recovery system shows a log or record with <Tn, Start> but no
commit or abort log found, it puts the transaction ina undo–list.
Thereafter all the transactions in undo–list are undone and their logs are
removed. All transaction in redo–list, their previous logs are detached and then
redone another time and log saved.
14.3.6 Shadow Paging :
Shadow paging is a substitute to log based recovery techniques, which
has both advantages as well as disadvantages. It may require fewer disk
accesses, but it is very difficult to extend paging to allow multiple
contemporaneous transactions. The paging is very much alike to paging schemes
used by the operating system for memory management.
The idea is to maintain a two page tables during the life of a transaction
: the current page table and the shadow page table. When the transaction starts,
both tables are similar. The shadow page is never changed throughout the life
of the transaction but the current page is updated with each write operation.
Each table entry points to a page on the disk. When the transaction is performed,
the shadow page entry becomes a copy of the recent page table entry and the
disk block with the old data is released. If the shadow is stored in non–volatile
memory and a system crash occurs, then the shadow page table is copied to
the current page table. This ensures that the shadow page table will point to
the database pages analogous to the state of the database prior to any transaction
that was active at the time of the crash, making aborts automatic.

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Database Management  Check Your Progress – 2 :
System
1. Explain Log based recovery.
2. If a transaction does not modify the database until it has committed, it
is said to use the ___________ technique.
(a) Deferred–modification (b) Late–modification
(c) Immediate–modification (d) Undo
3. If database modifications occur while the transaction is still active, the
transaction is said to use the ___________technique.
(a) Deferred–modification (b) Late–modification
(c) Immediate–modification (d) Undo
4. ____________ using a log record sets the data item specified in the log
record to the old value.
(a) Deferred–modification (b) Late–modification
(c) Immediate–modification (d) Undo
5. In the __________ phase, the system replays updates of all transactions
by scanning the log forward from the last checkpoint.
(a) Repeating (b) Redo (c) Replay (d) Undo
6. _________________ module of a DBMS that restores the database to
a correct condition
(a) Transaction Manager (b) Recovery Manager
(c) Save Point (D) None

14.4 Let Us Sum Up :

It is very important to appreciate that there are two types of privileges :
First is system privileges and the second is object privileges. They are
considered to be the foundation of anything that a user can do while he is
connected to an Oracle database.
The concept of a security policy should not be taken an easy thing to
put into practice, especially in those environments in which one has never
existed. Even so, it is a crucial piece of the database setup that should not
be unnoticed.
Database security is a mission that the DBA must accept.
Password authentication is the more traditional method of user
authentication. Although passwords are relatively secure, they have shortcomings
that can make them more vulnerable to breach or attack.
DBA must also consider other factors when setting up a security plan.
Not only the setup of the database users should be measured, but also the
ownership of the database objects.
Aside from defining the privileges necessary for each role and selecting
appropriately descriptive names, the process of creating a role is simple.
The Auditing gives the DBA the power to track information within the
database. It gives information on who performed a certain operation and
function and when was it performed. This is an influential security feature of
the Oracle RDBMS, but this comes for a price.
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 A computer system like any other device is subject to failure. There are Recovery Mechanisms
varieties of causes of such failure like disk crash, power failure, software errors
etc. In addition to system failures, transaction may also fail due to violation
of integrity or deadlock.
The storage structure can be divided in various categories : Volatile
storage, Non–volatile storage and stable storage.
A Transaction is Logical unit of database processing that includes one
or more access operations (read –retrieval, write – insert or update, delete).A
transaction (set of operations) may be stand–alone specified in a high level
language like SQL submitted interactively, or may be embedded within a
program.
A transaction in a database system must maintain some properties in order
to ensure the accuracy of its completeness and data integrity. These properties
are refer to as ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability).

14.5 Suggested Answer for Check Your Progress :

 Check Your Progress 1 :
See Section 14.2
 Check Your Progress 2 :
1 : See Section 14.3.1 2 : Deferred-modification
3 : Immediate-modification 4 : Undo
5 : Redo 6 : Recovery Manager

14.6 Glossary :
1. Aborted transaction – A transaction in progress that terminates abnormally.
2. Checkpoint – A facility by which a DBMS periodically refuses to accept
any new transactions. The system is in a quiet state, and the database
and transaction logs are synchronized.
3. Database log – A log that contains before and after images of records
that have been modified by transactions.
4. Database recovery – Mechanisms for restoring a database quickly and
accurately after loss or damage.
5. Database security – Protection of database data against accidental or
intentional loss, destruction, or misuse.
6. Recovery manager – A module of a DBMS that restores the database
to a correct condition when a failure occurs and then resumes processing
user questions.
7. Transaction – A discrete unit of work that must be completely processed
or not processed at all within a computer system. Entering a customer
order is an example of a transaction.
8. Transaction boundaries – The logical beginning and end of a transaction.
9. Transaction log – A record of the essential data for each transaction
that is processed against the database.
10. Transaction manager – In a distributed database, a software module
that maintains a log of all transactions and an appropriate concurrency
control scheme.
203
Database Management 11. Atomicity – Either all operations of the transaction are properly reflected
System in the database or none are.
12. Consistency – Execution of a transaction in isolation preserves the
consistency of the database.
13. Isolation – Although multiple transactions may execute concurrently,
each transaction must be unaware of other concurrently executing
transactions. Intermediate transaction results must be hidden from other
alongside executed transactions.
14. Durability – After a transaction completes successfully, the changes it
has made to the database persevere, even if there are system failures.

14.7 Assignment :
Why Database security is important in DBMs? – Comment. How can
we recovery any database in case of failure

14.8 Activities :
Study different recovery techniques in detail.

14.9 Case Study :

Suggest a scheme for the secure storage of passwords.

14.10 Further Reading :

1. Database Management Systems – Rajesh Narang –PHI Learning Pvt Ltd
2. Database System Concepts by Silberschatz, Korth –Tata McGraw–Hill
Publication
3. An Introduction to Database Systems – Bipin Desai– Galgotia Publication
4. Database Management System by Raghu Ramkrishnan– Tata McGraw–
Hill Publication
5. SQL, PL/SQL : The Programming Language Oracle – Ivan Bayross– BPB
Publication

204
 BLOCK SUMMARY :
Uni 11 provides the introduction of database types and detail information
about different types of databases.
Unit 12 provides overview of Data Ware housing and Data mining.
Generally a data warehouses adopts three–tier architecture. From the perspective
of data warehouse architecture, data warehouse models are Virtual Warehouse,
Data mart and Enterprise Warehouse. Typically, the data in a data warehouse
is loaded through the process of ETL, i.e. extraction, transformation and loading,
from one or more sources of data. Data Mining, also popularly known as
Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD), refers to the nontrivial extraction
of implicit, previously unknown and potentially useful information from data
in databases. The iterative process of KDD consists of the steps : Data cleaning,
Data integration, Data selection, Data transformation, Data mining, Pattern
evaluation and knowledge representation. The data mining functionalities are
Characterization, Discrimination, Association analysis, Classification, Prediction,
Clustering, Outlier analysis and Evolution and deviation analysis. Applications
of data mining are like Market Analysis, Fraud Detection, Customer Retention,
Production Control and Science Exploration etc.
Unit 13 & 14 provides you the concept of Database security and recovery.
The database stored in the database need protection from unauthorized access
and malicious destruction or alteration. Database security refers to protection
from malicious access. To protect database, security measures can be taken
at several levels like database system, operating system, network, physical and
human .This unit also explained the concept of database recovery. The different
recovery mechanisms are also explained in unit 14.
A computer system like any other device is subject to failure. There are
varieties of causes of such failure like disk crash, power failure, software errors
etc. In addition to system failures, transaction may also fail due to violation
of integrity or deadlock. An integral part of database system is recovery scheme
that is responsible for detection of failures and for restoration of database to
state that existed before occurrence of failure. So it is responsibility of recovery
scheme to ensure atomicity and durability property. There are basically two
approaches for ensuring these properties : log–based schemes and shadow
paging.

BLOCK ASSIGNMENT :
 Short Questions :
1. Define the terms : Data Warehouse, Data Warehousing
2. What is data mining ?
3. What is ETL process ?
4. Why to protect passwords ?
5. What is check point ?
 Long Questions :
1. Explain the need of data warehouse and architecture of data warehouse.
2. Explain the steps in data mining or KDD process and give its applications.
3. Explain properties and states of transaction ?

205
Database Management  Enrolment No. :
System
1. How many hours did you need for studying the units ?

Unit No. 11 12 13 14

No. of Hrs.
2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading
of the block :

3. Any other Comments

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 DR.BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR
OPEN UNIVERSITY
'Jyotirmay' Parisar,
Sarkhej-Gandhinagar Highway, Chharodi, Ahmedabad-382 481.
Website : www.baou.edu.in