Kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids Specific Learning

Outcomes At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: • compare
the properties of liquids and solids with those of gases • apply the
kinetic molecular theory to describe liquids and solids • describe the
various intermolecular forces and factors that affect their strengths •
identify the types of intermolecular forces that may operate in a given
molecular substance • rank substances according to strength of
intermolecular forces; • illustrate the intermolecular forces between
molecules of a compound. Shape and Volume of Liquids and Solids The
common and simple way by which the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases
of matter are distinguished is by comparison of their shapes and
volumes. We recall the concepts that: 1. Matter in the gas state has
indefinite shape and volume. 2. Matter in the liquid state has indefinite
shape and definite volume. 3. Matter in the solid state has definite shape
and volume. The basic assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory
(KMT) common to the three states of matter are: they are composed of
molecules though not all times for solids and these possess kinetic
energy. The other assumptions are meant mainly to account for the
properties of gases, particularly those referring to the motion, the
amount of kinematic energy, the distance, and the attraction between
the molecules or particles. However, comparison in terms of these
assumptions shows the similarities and differences of matter existing as
gases, liquids, and solids. Thus, the shape and volume of matter in the
three states are explained as follows: 1. The shape and volume of gases
are not definite because the molecules are widely separated, have
negligible attraction for one another, and are constantly moving rapidly
in all directions so they can fill any shape and size of container. 2. Liquid
molecules are close enough to touch one another. They have attractive
forces to keep them together so that the total volume of a certain amount
of them is definite. Since they can still move, slipping and sliding over
one another, the liquid continues to conform to the shape of its
container. Section Objective At the end of this section, you should be able
to use the kinetic molecular model to explain the shape and volume of
liquids and solids. 2 | P a g e 3. Solid particles are closely packed because
of strong attractive forces among them. Their low kinetic energies cause
them to stay in fixed positions, resulting in definite shape and volume. At
the atomic level, however, vibrational motion of the molecules is
observed. Section Assessment 1. How do liquids and solids compare with
gases in terms of attractive forces? 2. How are attractive forces related to
the motion and the amount of kinetic energy of the particles?
Intermolecular Forces From the preceding section, we have noted that
the differences in properties of matter in the gas phase from those in the
liquid and solid phases can be attributed to liquid and solid molecules
having attractive forces between them, while gas molecules have
negligible or no attractions at all. We know that there are forces that
hold molecules together because gaseous substances condense to form
liquids which in turn, form solids. Now let us look into these forces
which are called intermolecular forces, or sometimes, noncovalent
bonds. Intermolecular forces include dipole-dipole forces, ion-dipole
forces, hydrogen bonding, and London dispersion forces. Collectively,
these intermolecular forces are also known as van der Waals forces,
named after a Dutch chemist, Johannes Van Der Waal (1837-1923). Van
der Waals forces are fundamentally electrical in natures; that is, they
result from the attraction between centers of opposite charge in two
molecules close to each other. When two nonpolar molecules approach
each other, the electron clouds in which the positive nuclei are
embedded repel each other. This distorts or polarizes each molecule
that gives rise to included dipoles and weak Van der Waals forces which
momentarily exist between them. The greater the number of atoms in a
molecule, the more readily it is polarized. Hence, in general, Van der
Waals forces increase with increasing molecular weight. In other words,
Van der Waals attractive forces are formed when the molecules are close
enough such that one molecule produces varying electrical fields within
itself as it is affected by Section Objectives: At the end of this section, you
should be able to: 1. Describe and differentiate the types of
intermolecular forces, and 2. Predict the intermolecular forces possible
for molecules. 3 | P a g e the electrical fields of the adjacent molecules.
 Thus, the induced polarization of molecules produced by the
fluctuations of charges cause those close enough and properly oriented
molecules to attract each other. The Van der Waals type of attraction
between nonpolar groups is a nonspecific attractive force between two
molecules that are about 3 to 4 Angstrom apart. It is a weak interaction
with a bond energy of about 1 kcal/mol for a pair of atoms. It is
considered weaker than electrostatic and hydrogen bonds, but
nonetheless, important. Dipole-dipole Forces Dipole-dipole interaction
is the attraction of bond dipoles in different molecules. Bond dipoles
arise from the unequal sharing of electrons by covalently bonded atoms.
The tendency of dipoles to be perfectly oriented with respect to one
another is observed to be effective at reasonably larger distances than
Van der Waals forces. The following are illustrations of the manner by
which dipole-dipole forces act. Figure 1.1. Dipole-dipole Attraction
Figure 1.2. HCl Dipole Another representation of dipole-dipole
interaction between HCl molecules is: ( The solid lines represent
covalent bonds; the dotted lines are dipole-dipole forces.) For water
molecules, the dipole-dipole interaction is represented as: In which the
hydrogens from the + end and the O forms the -end of the water dipole.
Ion -Dipole Forces These forces exist when polar molecules are attracted
to ions. The positive pole is attracted to a negative ion (anion), while the
negative pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation). 4 | P a g e Ion-dipole
interactions are involved in solution processes like in the case of sodium
chloride dissolving in water. When, for example, sodium chloride crystal
is placed in water, the polar ends of the water molecules exert attractive
forces on the surface ions of the crystal (Oδends attracts Na+ ions as
shown in Figure 1.5. (A); Hδ+ ends attracts Cl- ions as shown in Figure
1.5.(B) and pull them away from each other, preventing them from
rejoining as each ion is surrounded by water molecules. London
Dispersion Forces (LDF) or London Forces, or simply Dispersion Forces
LDF, also called London Forces or simply dispersion forces, are weak
attractions that are used to explain the attraction between nonpolar
molecules as it is apparent that even nonpolar molecules can have
dipoles for short periods of time. Dispersion forces increase with
 increasing molecular mass and decrease with increasing distances
between the molecules. This explains why the boiling and melting points
of homologous nonpolar molecules (e.g., straight-chain hydrocarbons)
increase regularly with increasing mass. Although dispersion forces are
only one type of van der Waals forces, some books use the term van der
Waals forces exclusively for dispersion forces. Hydrogen Bond or
Hydrogen Bridge The hydrogen bond is a weak bond formed when a
hydrogen with partial positive charge (a hydrogen bonded to a small,
highly electronegative atom) is close to an atom in a molecule with lone
pairs of electrons or with excess electronic charge (negative). It is
formed as a result of weak electrostatic interaction between the
partially positive hydrogen and the negative group or lone pair of
electrons. It is a weak type of electrostatic attraction (2 to 10kcal/mol).
The strength of the H bond is influenced by the electronegativity of the
atom to which it is bonded. The H bond can be looked upon as bridge
between twoo highly electronegative atoms, either F, O, or N, with the
latter being covalently bonded to other hydrogens. Examples of H bonds
are shown below. In set A, H bonds are between molecules; Set B, the
bonds are between different molecules. 5 | P a g e These intermolecular
forces are weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds, but their
importance cannot be underestimated. They are responsible for
determining whether a molecular compound is a gas, a liquid, or a solid
at a given temperature. They also account for the differences in some
physical properties of matter in the different phases.