Green Infrastructure Planning Practices in Adama Town

[The case of Migira Pond area]

Gifty Mathewos

A Thesis Submitted to
Department of Architecture, Urban Design and Planning
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master’s in Urban Planning and Design

Office of Graduate Studies

Adama Science and Technology University

Adama
June, 2019
 Green Infrastructure Planning Practices in Adama Town
[The case of Migira Pond area]

Gifty Mathewos

Advisor: Dr Berhane Mehary [PHD]

A Thesis Submitted to
Department of Architecture, Urban Design and Planning
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master’s in Urban Planning and Design

Office of Graduate Studies

Adama Science and Technology University

Adama
June, 2019

ii
 Approval of Board of Examiners

We, the undersigned, members of the Board of Examiners of the final open defense by Gifty
Mathewos have read and evaluated her thesis entitled “Green Infrastructure Planning
Practices in Adama Town, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia [The case of Migira Pond
area].” and examined the candidate. This is, therefore, to certify that the thesis has been
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Degree of Master’s in Urban
Planning and Design.

Supervisor/Advisor Signature Date

______________________ __________________ ____________________

Chairperson Signature Date

______________________ __________________ __________________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

______________________ __________________ __________________

External Examiner Signature Date

_______________________ __________________ __________________

iii
Declaration

I hereby declare that this MSc Thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a
degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been duly
acknowledged.

Name: Gifty Mathewos

Signature: __________

This MSc Thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as thesis
advisor/supervisor.

Name: Dr Berhane Mehary [PHD]

Signature: __________________

Date of submission: --------------------

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Above everything, I thank my Almighty God for being and guiding me all the time during
my academic study and at the time of this research.

I am grateful to my advisor, Dr Berhane Mehary [PHD] for his overall and unlimited support.
It is also my pleasure to acknowledge officials of the Adama Town Administration and the
residents who have been willing to assist in providing me information without reservation.

I would like to thank my husband Ato Ameyu Wakjira for his support, love and
encouragement throughout my study time. My thanks and appreciation also goes to my dad
Ato Mathewos Tera and to all my families for all-rounded concern, technical & moral
supports.

v
 Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

Acknowledgement...............................................................................................................................v
List of Tables.......................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................... xi
Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................ xiii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................................1

1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the Study ..................................................................................................2

1.2 Problem Statement ...........................................................................................................3

1.3 Objective of the Study ......................................................................................................4

1.3.1 Specific Objectives: .........................................................................................4

1.4 Research Question ............................................................................................................4

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study ...................................................................................5

1.6 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................5

1.7 Report structure ................................................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................7

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................7
2.1 Definition and Main Issues of the Research .....................................................................7

2.1.1 What is Green infrastructure? ..........................................................................7

2.1.2 Green infrastructure approaches.......................................................................9

2.1.3 Forms of Green Infrastructure ..........................................................................9

2.1.4 Framework for green infrastructure planning ................................................11

2.1.5 Principles of green infrastructure planning ....................................................12

2.1.6 Quality indicators of Green Infrastructure planning ......................................14

2.1.7 Green Infrastructure Development Standards ................................................15

2.1.8 Urban agriculture as Green infrastructure ......................................................16

vi
 2.2 Blue-Green System in Urban Context ............................................................................18

2.2.1 Watershed management .................................................................................20

2.3 Sustainability Concepts and Definitions ........................................................................20

2.3.1 Tensions and Challenges ................................................................................21

2.4 Factors affecting green infrastructure planning..............................................................22

2.4.1 Land use – Land cover ...................................................................................22

2.4.2 Climatic modification.....................................................................................23

2.5 Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Green infrastructure ..............................24

2.6 Benefits of Green Infrastructure .....................................................................................24

2.7 How to Scale up the result of the Study .........................................................................25

2.8 Empirical Experience of Urban Green Infrastructure ....................................................28

2.8.1 Case studies ....................................................................................................28

2.8.2 Lessons drawn ................................................................................................30

CHAPTER THREE ...........................................................................................................................31

3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ...........................................................................................31
3.1 Definition of Case Study ................................................................................................31

3.2 Case Study Selection Criteria .........................................................................................31

3.3 Study Approach and Methods ........................................................................................32

3.4 Source of Data ................................................................................................................32

3.5 Sampling Technique and Method ..................................................................................32

3.6 Sample Size and Techniques of Data Collection ...........................................................33

3.7 Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................34

3.8 Method of Data Analysis ...............................................................................................34

3.9 Difficulties and adjustment during field work ...............................................................35

3.10 Research Design ...........................................................................................................36

3.11 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................37

CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................................38

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION......................................................................................................38
4.1 Contextual Review .........................................................................................................38
vii
 4.1.1 Description of the Study Area ........................................................................38

4.2 Physical Site Analysis ....................................................................................................41

4.2.1 Geological Setting of Adama Town ...............................................................41

4.2.2 Soil type .........................................................................................................44

4.2.3 Rainfall ...........................................................................................................44

4.2.4 Temperature ...................................................................................................45

4.2.5 Sunshine hours ...............................................................................................46

4.2.6 Wind speed and direction ...............................................................................46

4.2.7 Construction material .....................................................................................46

4.2.8 Hydrology ......................................................................................................46

4.3 General Characteristics of the Case Site ........................................................................49

4.3.1 Slope analysis .................................................................................................50

4.3.2 Neighborhood characteristics ........................................................................52

4.4 Characteristics of the Dwelling Unit ..............................................................................57

4.4.1 Construction materials ...................................................................................57

4.4.2 Access roads and track paths..........................................................................58

4.4.3 Utility services ...............................................................................................58

4.5 Demographic and Socio-Economic Situation of Respondents .......................................60

4.5.1 Population ......................................................................................................60

4.5.2 Age of respondents .........................................................................................60

4.5.3 Gender composition .......................................................................................60

4.5.4 Martial status .................................................................................................61

4.5.4 Socio-Economic Status of Respondents .........................................................61

4.6 Existing Situation of Green Structure ............................................................................63

4.6.1 Multi-functionality aspects of current green space planning practices ..........64

4.6.2. Green- grey integration in current green space planning practice .................66

4.6.3. Social inclusiveness of current urban green spaces planning practices ........68

4.6.4. Connectivity aspect of current green spaces planning practices ...................70

viii
 4.7 Existing Situation of Blue Structure...............................................................................70

4.7.1 Existing problems associated to Migira Pond ................................................75

4.7.2 Solid and Liquid waste management nearby Migira Pond.............................77

4.7.3 Urban agricultural activities attached to Migira Pond....................................78

4.7.4 Measures Taken to Overcome Problems associated to Migira Pond .............80

4.8 Barriers preventing the adoption of green infrastructure planning ................................90

CHAPTER FIVE ...............................................................................................................................92

5. DESIGN PROPOSALS.................................................................................................................92
5.1 Proposed Solutions for the study area ............................................................................92

5.1.1 Design and planning solution at Community Level .......................................95

5.1.2 Design and planning solution at Household Level .......................................109

5.2 Scaling Up ....................................................................................................................112

5.2.1 Parameters for scaling up this project ..........................................................113

5.3 Ecological Services ......................................................................................................114

CHAPTER SIX ...............................................................................................................................115

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..........................................................................115
6.1 Conclusion....................................................................................................................115

6.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................117

REFERENCE ..................................................................................................................................119
APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................................xv
Appendix I............................................................................................................................xv

Appendix II ..........................................................................................................................xx

Appendix III ..................................................................................................................... xxiii

Appendix IV ..................................................................................................................... xxiv

Appendix V ........................................................................................................................xxv

Appendix VI ..................................................................................................................... xxvi

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLES PAGE

Table 2.1: Green areas (Open spaces within Blocks) standard ........................................................ 15
Table 2.2: Sport & Recreational facilities (Stadium and Play field) Standard ................................. 15
Table 3.3: Software used for analysis .............................................................................................. 35
Table 4.4: Slope classification of Ganda Migira .............................................................................. 51
Table 4.5: Existing Land Use Summary of the Town ...................................................................... 54
Table 4.6: General Land use summary of the newly added boundary ............................................. 54
Table 4.7: Existing land use classification of Ganda Migira [Kebele-02] ....................................... 57
Table 4.8: Population Distribution of Adama by Kebele, 2016 G.C ............................................... 60
Table 4.9: Demographic information of respondents in the study area April- June 2019 ............... 61
Table 4.10: Socio-Economic information of respondents in the study area April-June 2019.......... 62
Table 4.11: Location and area coverage of proposed public/City park of Adama, June 2004. ........ 82

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

Figure 2.1: Physical forms of green infrastructure ........................................................................... 10

Figure 2.2: Framework for green infrastructure planning ................................................................ 11
Figure 2.3 Benefits of Blue-Green system in urban context ............................................................ 19
Figure 2.4: Benefits of green infrastructure ..................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.5: Aurora green infrastructure development ...................................................................... 29
Figure 2.6: Portland green infrastructure development .................................................................... 29
Figure 2.7: Gauteng city region green infrastructure development .................................................. 30
Figure 3.8: Research Design ............................................................................................................ 36
Figure 3.9: Conceptual Framework of Green infrastructure ............................................................ 37
Figure 4.10: Location Map ............................................................................................................... 38
Figure 4.11: Location map of Adama Town in Its National and Regional Settings ........................ 39
Figure 4.12: Location and Integration Map of the case Site ............................................................ 40
Figure 4.13: Geology in the Vicinity of Adama ............................................................................... 42
Figure 4.14: Photo of fault line with land opening at Migira seasonal pond area ............................ 43
Figure 4.15: Climate of Adama: Average Rainfall (mm) ................................................................ 45
Figure 4.16: Photo of some considerable urban agriculture development ....................................... 47
Figure 4.17: Photo of seasonal flooding at Migira Pond area .......................................................... 48
Figure 4.18: Photo of Migira Pond area in dry season ..................................................................... 49
Figure 4.19: 3D physiographic variation of Adama Town .............................................................. 50
Figure 4.20: Slope analysis of Ganda Migira ................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.21: The Proposed Previous Structure Plan of Adama Town ............................................. 52
Figure 4.22: Adama Town Existing Land Use Map ........................................................................ 53
Figure 4.23: Adama Town Existing Land use and Expansion area Map ......................................... 55
Figure 4.24: Existing land use of Ganda Migira .............................................................................. 56
Figure 4.25: Photo of construction materials of illegal housing in Migira Pond area ...................... 58
Figure 4.26: Photo of access roads and liquid waste drainage line in Migira Pond area ................. 58
Figure 4.27: Photo of Green structure in Migira Pond area ............................................................. 65
Figure 4.28: Green structure in Ganda Migira ................................................................................. 66
Figure 4.29: Photo of Green-grey integration in Migira Pond area ................................................. 67
Figure 4.30: Surface water potential map of the Adama Town ....................................................... 71
Figure 4.31: Discharge coming from different catchments toward Migira Pond ............................. 73

xi
Figure 4.32: Photo of two drainage canals diverted to Migira from Expressway ............................ 73
Figure 4.33: Photo of Blue Structure of Migira Pond area .............................................................. 74
Figure 4.34: Blue structure in Ganda Migira ................................................................................... 75
Figure 4.35: Photo of solid and liquid waste management around Migira Pond ............................. 78
Figure 4.36: Photo of Urban agricultural activities attached to Migira Pond .................................. 79
Figure 4.37: Proposed formal and informal green of the revised structural plan of Adama ............ 81
Figure 4.38: Picture of RRC store .................................................................................................... 88
Figure 4.39: Drainage inappropriately diverted to Migira Pond ...................................................... 89
Figure 4.40: Migira Pond during heavy rain .................................................................................... 89
Figure 4.41: Photo of Green spaces in Migira Pond ........................................................................ 91
Figure 5.42: Recommended buffer width ........................................................................................ 94
Figure 5.43: Current status of Migira pond ..................................................................................... 95
Figure 5.44: A well-designed multiple pond system ........................................................................ 96
Figure 5.45: 2d and 3d Rendering of multiple pond system ............................................................ 97
Figure 5.46: Impermeable membrane .............................................................................................. 99
Figure 5.47: Adjustable weir regulating water level in a pond, H=1.7m ......................................... 99
Figure 5.48; 3d rendering for landscape design ............................................................................. 100
Figure 5.49: Visual reference of bio retention facility ................................................................... 101
Figure 5.50: Visual reference of multiple pond system ................................................................. 102
Figure 5.51: Visual reference for multiple-benefits of pond system .............................................. 103
Figure 5.52: Typical examples of terrace farming ......................................................................... 104
Figure 5.53: Mountain terracing..................................................................................................... 104
Figure 5.54: 3d Rendering for sloping land ................................................................................... 105
Figure 5.55: Poultry production shed. ............................................................................................ 106
Figure 5.56: 3d Rendering for recreational space .......................................................................... 107
Figure 5.57: Recreational space for community engagement ........................................................ 108
Figure 5.58: Home garden using used plastic bottling’s ................................................................ 109
Figure 5.59: Raised bed using the vertical spaces .......................................................................... 110
Figure 5.60: Intensive and extensive green roof ............................................................................ 111
Figure 5.61: Small scale poultry production housing unit ............................................................. 112

xii
 ACRONYMS

ATA Adama Town Administration

CSA Central Statistical Agency

FGD Focus Group Discussion

GI Green Infrastructure

GIS Geographic Information System

GS Green Structure

KIIs Key Informant Interview

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MSE Micro and Small Enterprise

MUDH Ministry of Urban Development and Housing

NUPI National Urban Planning Institute

ORAAMP Office for the Revision of Addis Ababa Master Plan

OUPI Oromia Urban Planning Institute

SP Structural Plan

UGI Urban Green Infrastructure

UN United Nations

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

WHO World Health Organization

xiii
 ABSTRACT
Green infrastructures (GI) are eco-friendly structures of urban areas which can deliver
multiple benefits from the valuable urban space it occupies, compared with single purpose
of engineering infrastructure. However inhabitants resided in Town of Adama in general
and Migira Pond area in particular have not been benefited from the integration of economic
(urban agriculture as GI), social (health and aesthetic) and environmental (resilience to
climate change) as components that a livable urban center should provide to its population.
These is due to inadequate environmental friendly urban design and planning that considers
green infrastructure (GI). The overall research objective is therefore to assess the existing
condition and to design green infrastructure for Migira Pond area in Adama Town. The
research is believed to contribute to broaden knowledge base of various stakeholders on
green infrastructure so that urban development plan and design should integrate all
ecosystem services proportionally to that of grey infrastructure. The study focused on a
participatory approach where various actors and stakeholders were involved at different
stage of this research. The researcher employed both qualitative (focus group discussion,
key informant interview, case study) and quantitative research methods. The study employed
random sampling methods to select individuals which can provide necessary information on
the units of study with sample size of 48 respondents for fill survey questionnaire. The results
of the study indicated that due to inadequate emphasis given to design and planning across
the Town, informal settlements that mushroomed messed up the land use plan elsewhere in
the site covered by this study too. The level of community awareness on protecting green
spaces has been found very low and hence they used to dump solid wastes, and Migira Pond
at large scale is converted to grey and black water due to failed sanitation system, weak
waste management, and poor protection methods. Green and blue infrastructures are nature
given resources that need to be protected, developed, and managed by all stakeholders to
make urban environments more resilient, sustainable, livable and equitable. Findings of the
study will add information on how the main principles of green infrastructure have been
incorporated in current planning practices in Adama Town. Moreover, the findings will
inform policy makers in their decision making process on how to consider green
infrastructure planning principles to protect urban spaces. The future, Green infrastructure
may hold new opportunities, for example, in terms of new technologies to improve its
delivery, streamline its management and monitoring, and facilitate community involvement.
What is clear is that green infrastructure will need to be a flexible and dynamic resource
that is capable of adapting to the changing demographic land use system and landscape of
Migira pond area as well as Adama Town of the future.

Key words: Green Infrastructure, Migira pond, Flooding, Urban agriculture, Sustainability.

xiv
0
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

Cities are important habitats for arrays of human, physical, socio-economic, political and
cultural capitals. Given this fact, it is important to think carefully about the human and nature
interplaying in city formation and maintaining the balance between various man-made
actions and the transformation of the physical environment in the process of urbanization.
Cities however, stand in the face of serious threat in the form of unplanned urbanization and
land use that leads to ecological imbalances and climate change. Unplanned urbanization
has been costly in all parameters of sustaining a healthy environment for human and
ecologically friendly use of natural capital. Many cities in developing countries have faced
tremendous challenges related poor land use plan where industries and residential site are
located in neighborhoods, mushrooming slums, no system of green infrastructure, poorly
designed roads and drainage systems etc. The sustainability concept has generally been
defined to include components of environmental protection, economic development, and
social equity, commonly referred to as the ‘triple bottom line.’

Green Infrastructure [GI], a concept referring to managed networks of green space and their
associated ecosystem services (Benedict & McMahon, 2006) has been highlighted as
important in achieving overall sustainability goals. Furthermore, Green Infrastructures are
eco-friendly structures that safeguard the living in the non-living built-up urban areas. These
beneficial structures have been challenged by the process of urbanization in the cities of Sub-
Saharan Africa (Todaro MP, 1997)1. These is because urban green infrastructure planning
and ecosystem is at an infant level (Haase et al., 2014; Pauleit et al., 2017). As a result, the
concepts and principles of urban green infrastructure planning are poorly understood in most
of the sub-Saharan African countries (Shackleton et al., 2017). Ethiopia is one of the most
rapidly urbanizing countries in sub-Saharan Africa [Lamson-Hall, P., Angel, S., DeGroot,
D., Martin, R., & Tafesse, T. (2018)] where urbanization is largely taking the place through
unplanned urban growth which aggravates environmental problems (Ministry of Urban

1
Todaro MP, (1997), Policy research division working paper, population council, New York
1
Development and Housing, 2015). Literature on green infrastructure planning in Ethiopia is
quite scarce and therefore the role of green infrastructure addressing these challenges is still
largely unknown. Available literatures focused on issues such as adaptation to climate
change (Lindley et al., 2015), conditions and opportunities of green infrastructure in relation
to water resilient cities (Herslund et al., 2017).

This paper attempts to understand the current status of green infrastructure planning
practices and needs for and ways to achieve improvement from the perspective of planning
and to explore the benefits of green infrastructure [GI] particularly emphasizing in Migira
Pond area of Adama Town. Furthermore, the study will try to address some urban spatial
design issues such as aesthetic performance of green infrastructure [GI] and other socio-
cultural issues of landscape design in line with global concern of adaptation to climate
change.

1.1 Background of the Study

Adama was established as a railway station depot in 1916 G.C. Its establishment and
development has been influenced by conducive economic, social and geographical
conditions. Because of its strategic location, economic and administrative importance, the
Town is one of the fast growing urban centers in Ethiopia. At this time, the Town is serving
as gateway to overseas, it is one of a main commercial, manufacturing, trade shows, bazar,
conference and educational centers next to Addis Ababa. In addition, access to railway,
having the best and fastest road connection with Addis Ababa, being surrounded by
agricultural potential areas, and the service that the Town Administration has been striving
to agglomerate contributed to Adama to become an ever-warm, busy Town. Adama Town
is on one the largest development corridors of Ethiopia, hence attracting business promoters,
professional of various educational backgrounds, causal labourers etc. The Town has been
expanding horizontally in order to accommodate the increase in population as a result of
natural population growth and in-migration. This partly contributed to the increase of
informal settlements in different areas of the Town especially at the peripheries. This trend
demonstrates the significant impacts on sustainable development and become threat to
compromise the quality of life within the Town. Thus, urban green infrastructure is identified
as an alternative nature-based and cost-effective remedy to some of these negative
consequences (Pakzad & Osmond, 2016).
2
Urban green infrastructure in Adama Town is an emergent issue. This is partly due to lack
of appropriate green infrastructure approach that well integrates into the planning and
governance system. Owing to this fact, benefits that can be obtained from green
infrastructure resource are still mostly missed. Therefore, this study explores the current
situation of urban green infrastructure development practices and helps to identify the
opportunities and constraints in the utilization of green infrastructure development in the
Town. The study also helps to consider the interest and preference of communities on green
infrastructure planning and development and provide a new idea for town planning,
architecture, policy-makers, and managers and landscape specialists to consider the existing
gaps in their future planning and development activities.

1.2 Problem Statement

Adama Town is located along the main development corridor and on the high way to port,
hence it has been expanding very rapidly into large urban centre attracting investors,
producers, professionals and labourers. Though attracting investment and development
promoters is a good idea for the town to flourish, shifting plots that have been allotted for
residential and green areas to industries is among the malpractice in terms of town planning
and design.

Green infrastructures are very well known to provide environmental, social and economic
benefits to communities (forest research, 2010). However, the green infrastructure of Adama
Town is not developed, managed and protected very well to fulfil the environmental, social
and economic benefits to the community [Adama Structure Plan Revision Project City Wide
Study Report November, 2017]. Inadequate implementation capacity of each land use for
the purpose it has been planned and designed remained problematic, hence the green areas
were shifted to other land uses. As a result the natural ecosystems become scattered across
the landscape and displaced by new land-use developments (Geneletti, 2004; Lafortezza et
al., 2008).

Storm water in poorly designed sewage systems dismantles roads, business buildings, and
residential houses as well as erodes soil forming gullies. Poor drainage also increases the
risk of polluting water. Improving the functionality and spatial connectivity among various
land uses are prerequisite to mitigate the effect of climate change and in turn to increase the

3
value of the goods and services that ecosystems provide (Grimm et al., 2008; Hodgson et
al., 2009).

The green infrastructure therefore, is a smart solution for today’s land use planning. Above
all, it offers us the opportunity for balancing the ecosystem. It is through such dynamic
system of managing urban and pre-urban land use ecologically sustainable, all-inclusive and
spatially coherent town development plan can be achieved.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The overall research objective is to assess the existing condition and to design green
infrastructure [GI] for Migira pond area, in Adama Town.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives:

1. To assess the existing green, grey and blue structure of the case site in respect to
Adama Town’s functional and physical structures.
2. To consider the opportunities (socio-economic benefits, environmental and aesthetic
values) with respect to green infrastructure development and possible barriers to
sustain and develop Migira Pond.
3. To develop design and planning solution for green infrastructure development by
considering the beneficial aspect of the pond.

1.4 Research Question

Based on the problem statement, the findings of this thesis will try to answer the following
research questions. These are:

1. What is the present status of the green infrastructure in the Town and how is the
green infrastructure going to be used in the study area?
2. What are the factors affecting green infrastructure development along Migira Pond
area?
3. How to design Migira pond area with self-sustaining and environmentally friendly
programs so that these could improve quality of life of the residents?

4
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study is restricted to the selected Kebele of Adama Town. The study will
focus on Adama with particular emphasis to the socio-economic, environmental, and
aesthetic performance of green infrastructure in Migira Pond area. The core intent of the
study is on green infrastructure planning practices by underlining the residents benefit after
developing green infrastructure design options.

Limitation of the Study is that the Adama Town administration officials were going through
a basic administrative reform paradigm that it was difficult to talk to the right person at the
right time with right mood. Unfortunately, people who were not happy with the reform were
not willing and/or open to respond to the questionnaires and usually push the interview to
the lower level employees. I felt time shortage and observed reluctance of some respondents
[Town dwellers] to share their time due to time pressure with their own businesses.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The research of green infrastructure planning and design into urban development will
contribute to knowledge available in the study area regarding the economic, social and
environmental benefits from urban green infrastructure. The outcome of the study may also
be used for policy considerations, for planning and designing urban green infrastructure and
create awareness for the residents about the multifunctional values of green areas in Migira
pond area as well as in Adama Town. It is also a partial fulfillment required for MSc in
Urban Planning and Design for the researcher that will have academic significance to be
used as a reference for those interested in green infrastructure development in urban settings.

1.7 Report structure

This research report is organized in to six parts. The first chapter comprises general
introduction of the green infrastructure and concept of sustainability, based on the literatures
related to my topic. This section also includes: background of the study, statement of the
problem, objectives of the research, research questions, scope and limitations, and
significance of the study. In the second chapter, I discuss my core issues and get further
information from different perspectives and various approaches on the subject understudy.
Description of the case site, data collection methods and procedures of the study make up

5
the third chapter. The fourth section takes account of Migira pond area as a case site which
is used to investigate the subject matter. This section also includes analysis, findings, and
discussions. Chapter five includes design solutions and guidelines leading to the sixth section
which point out the concluding remarks and recommendations.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is keen to the discussion of the theoretical and conceptual issues used to frame
the study. The study has made use of various theoretical insights in order to understand the
subject understudy from different perspectives, which will be discussed in the following
sections.

2.1 Definition and Main Issues of the Research

2.1.1 What is Green infrastructure?

The ideas for green urban structures began in the 1870’s with concepts of urban farming and
garden allotments2 though this concept of Green Infrastructure (GI) has been practiced in
1990’s in the United States of America [USA] as an emerging livable Town development
practice, different urban development professionals have defined Green Infrastructure [GI]
in very close related manner.

1. Naumann et.al (2011a)3 defined Green Infrastructure (GI) as “Green Infrastructure

is the network of natural and semi-natural areas, features and green spaces in rural
and urban, and terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine areas, which together
enhance ecosystem health and resilience, contribute to biodiversity conservation and
benefit human populations through the maintenance and enhancement
of ecosystem services. Green Infrastructure can be strengthened through strategic
and coordinated initiatives that focus on maintaining, restoring, improving and
connecting existing areas and features, as well as creating new areas and features”.
2. Green Infrastructure describes the network of natural landscape assets which
underpin the economic, socio-cultural and environmental functionality of our cities
and towns-i.e. the green spaces and water systems which intersperse connection and

2
HiltrudPotz and Pierre Bleuze2012. Urban green –Blue grids for sustainable and dynamic cities. Delft: Coop for life.
3Naumann, S., D. McKenna, et al. (2011a). Design, implementation and cost elements of Green Infrastructure projects.
Final report Brussels, European Commission.
7
 provide vital life support for humans and other species within our urban
environments. ‘Individual components’ of this environmental network are
sometimes referred to as ‘Green Infrastructure assets’, and these occur across a range
of landscape scales—from residential gardens to local parks and housing estates,
streetscapes and highway verges, services and communications corridors, waterways
and regional recreation areas etc.’4.

Urban green infrastructure has been suggested to provide multiple benefits to urban
residents’ through creation of interconnected network of green spaces (Benedict &
McMahon, 2002; Gill, Handley, Ennos, & Pauleit, 2007; Kato, 2011; Mell, 2008). Its
elements can include a variety of green spaces such as parks, open spaces, playing fields,
pocket spaces, small incidental green space and neighborhood gardens that are linked by
tree-lined streets and waterways, around and between urban areas (Said & Mansor, 2011).

Well-planned and managed urban green infrastructure needs to be considered as an

integrative part of the town, since it is indispensable for the functioning of the town in a
sustainable manner (Sandstrom, 2002). In recent times, green infrastructure has been
identified as a specific strategy to support resilience in cities (Ahern, 2007). The integration
and strategic planning and delivery of networks of connected green space described as green
infrastructure has become a major discourse in urban greening and is increasingly accepted
as a policy and planning approach (Davies et al., 2015; Lennon, 2014). Thus, to successfully
plan and implement a high-performing urban green infrastructure capable of delivering
multiple benefits, adoption of a set of principles in planning become necessary (Pauleit et
al., 2017). These principles relate to the content as well as the process of planning (Ahern,
2007; Benedict & McMahon, 2012; Kambites & Owen, 2006; Lafortezza, Davies, Sanesi,
& Konijnendijk, 2013; Mell, 2008; Pauleit, Liu, Ahern, & Kazmierczak, 2011). In parts of
Europe, North America and Asia, green infrastructure planning principles and approaches
have been receiving more attention and green infrastructures is considered as essential urban
infrastructure (Lafortezza et al., 2013).

4
Australian Institute of Landscape Architects Green Infrastructure Report (2012).
8
2.1.2 Green infrastructure approaches

Ely and Pitman (2012) identified three main approaches to implementing green
infrastructure

1. Ecosystem services approach (ESS). This approach emphasizes the services that
nature and natural cycles provide to society (Costanza et al., 2014, Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). These services can be found globally (e.g., carbon
cycle), or locally where they can be restored and maintained within urban settings to
provide benefits in that setting.
2. Green Spaces Network approach. This perspective emphasizes the importance of
conserving and linking green spaces and nature corridors in cities to improve the
functioning of ecosystems. This approach is consistent with the more traditional
infrastructure approach in which networks are built in order for a city to function
(Benedict and McMahon, 2002).
3. Green engineering approach. This viewpoint considers GI to be a subset of
traditional engineering infrastructure whereby typical practices have green elements
added to them which can provide ecosystem services such as cooling through the
installation of green roofs and living walls (Margolis and Robinson, 2007).

2.1.3 Forms of Green Infrastructure

The different physical forms of GI are very diverse, however, the main categories are
described below (European Commission, 2012:

a) Public parks and gardens, including urban parks, open space reserves, cemeteries and
formal gardens.
b) Greenways, including river and creek corridors, cycle-ways and routes along major
transport (road, rail and tram) corridors.
c) Residential and other streets, comprising street verges and associated open space
pockets.
d) Sports and recreational facilities, including ovals, golf courses, school and other
institutional playing fields, and other major parks.
e) Private/semi private gardens, including shared spaces around apartment buildings,
backyards, balconies, roof gardens and community gardens.
9
 f) Green roofs and walls, including roof gardens and living walls.
g) Squares and plazas, including both public and private courtyards and forecourts.
h) Natural green space, including national parks and nature reserves, wetlands and
coastal margins.
i) Utility areas, including quarries, airports, and large institutional and manufacturing
sites. This category also includes unused land reserved for future use.
j) Agricultural and other productive land, including vineyards, market gardens,
orchards and farms

Figure 2.1: Physical forms of green infrastructure

Source: Green Infrastructure: An integrated approach to land use

10
2.1.4 Framework for green infrastructure planning

Green infrastructure planning offers a conceptual framework to be adapted to local context,

as illustrated below. This framework is driven by the four core principles. Combined, the
principles act in two directions: 1) to respond to the particular urban challenges and 2) to
underpin practical actions on the ground.

Figure 2.2: Framework for green infrastructure planning

Source: Australian Institute of Landscape Architects Green Infrastructure Report (2012).

11
2.1.5 Principles of green infrastructure planning

I. Green-Grey integration

Green infrastructure planning seeks to integrate and coordinate urban green spaces with
other infrastructure, such as transport systems and utilities.5

Integrating infrastructure can lead to multifunctional solutions which provide various

benefits simultaneously (multi-functionality). For example, vegetated road buffers can
improve aesthetic values, reduce noise and air pollution, while dispersed planting strips or
rain gardens in high flood-risk neighborhoods can enhance the storm water management
capacity of conventional grey systems and buffer climate change effects (Climate Change
Adaptation).

Two key features which distinguish Green Infrastructure from its ‘grey’ counterparts are
multi-functionality and connectivity. Prominently,

a) Green Infrastructure [GI] can deliver multiple benefits from the valuable urban
space it occupies, compared with single purpose engineering infrastructure.
b) Green Infrastructure [GI] also ‘value adds’ by linking and connecting existing
green assets, which provides benefits both for people, by enhancing public use
opportunities, and for the environment by improving urban ecosystem health and
countering habitat fragmentation.
II. Connectivity

“…involves both structural and functional connections between green spaces, in order to
create added value from an interlinked system;

...targets clearly defined functions and benefits for humans and wildlife, recognizing the
different kinds of connectivity (ecological, social and abiotic) and the potential for synergies
between them;

5 Benedict, M. A., McMahon, E. T., 2006. Green infrastructure: Linking landscapes and communities. Washington, D.C.
Island Press, p37.
12
…matches aims and strategies to different spatial scales – regional, city and local – and
ideally is integrated across them”6.

III. Multi-functionality

Multi-functionality concerns the ability of green infrastructure to provide several ecological,

socio-cultural, and economic benefits concurrently. A green infrastructure planning process
expressly considers how to deliver these benefits instead of leaving it to chance. This is not
simply a case of ‘the more functions the better’. Potential trade-offs and conflicts between
functions need to be assessed, as well as the capacity of different green infrastructure
elements7. For instance, using land for intensive recreation may conflict with the protection
of species sensitive to disturbance. These kinds of conflicts can sometimes be avoided by
physically separating incompatible uses (e.g., through zoning, visitor management or
agreements with land users), or by planning them so as not to happen at the same time (e.g.,
when breeding or flooding is expected). This means it is not only the functions themselves
and the associations between them that are important, but also their spatial and temporal
dimensions.

Further, the benefits of multi-functionality should be considered in relation to who needs

them and who has access to them. Otherwise, green infrastructure planning could deliver
benefits only relevant or accessible to certain groups in society 8(Social Cohesion). To avoid
this trap, a strong element of public participation is critical (Social Inclusion).

Therefore, Urban green infrastructure has economic and livelihood, environmental, social
and cultural benefits. Therefore, Green infrastructure provides benefits to people,
ecosystems and the economy. It is a key component for sustainable growth of communities.

IV. Social inclusion

Social inclusion in general refers to the involvement of a wide range of social groups
(including vulnerable ones that are often excluded) in all spheres of life. Making green
infrastructure planning socially inclusive demands attention to the needs of these different

6
Benedict, M. A., McMahon, E. T., 2006. Green infrastructure: Linking landscapes and communities. Washington, D.C.
Island Press, p37.
7
Hansen, R., Pauleit, S., 2014. From Multi-functionality to Multiple Ecosystem Services, A Conceptual Framework for
Multi-functionality in Green Infrastructure Planning for Urban Areas. AMBIO 43, 516-529.
8
Rodriguez, J.P., et al, 2006. Trade-offs across space, time, and ecosystem services. Ecology and Society 11 (1), art. 28.
13
groups. Of particular concern are those with the most difficulties accessing information and
articulating their interests, such as immigrants or ethnic minorities; or people who are
homeless, unemployed or poor. If not carefully managed, initiatives to involve citizens in
planning produce results that favor some and not others, by further empowering those in
advantaged positions, or encouraging resistance from narrow interest groups to policies
designed for the public interest9. In order to avoid these pitfalls, it is essential that governing
institutions are capable of not only listening to a range of interests, but also channeling and
balancing them.

Social inclusion is related to social cohesion, yet these are not the same. The latter concerns
the outcome of green infrastructure planning with regard to its social effects (Social
Cohesion), while socially inclusive green infrastructure planning is instead a process of
including all social and cultural groups people in decision-making – one end goal of which
is green infrastructure that is equally accessible to them and meets their various needs (Multi-
functionality).

2.1.6 Quality indicators of Green Infrastructure planning

While the four core principles provide a fundamental basis for green infrastructure planning,
certain supporting quality indicators should be also taken into account:

1. Multi-scale: green infrastructure planning aims to link different spatial levels,

ranging from metropolitan regions to individual sites.
2. Multi-object: All types of urban green and blue spaces, regardless of ownership and
origin, can be considered as part of a green infrastructure network.
3. Inter- and Trans disciplinary: green infrastructure planning aims at linking
disciplines, as well as science, policy and practice. It integrates knowledge and
demands from different fields, such as landscape ecology, urban and regional
planning, and landscape architecture, and is ideally developed in partnership between
local authorities and other stakeholders.

9
Cook, B., Kothari, U. (eds), 2001. Participation: the new Tyranny? Zed Books Ltd. New York.
14
2.1.7 Green Infrastructure Development Standards

 Urban and regional planning shall incorporate green infrastructure (GI) early on in
the process. Enough areas for green open spaces shall be set aside and incorporated
in the town’s/cities’ spatial plan. This shall be seen as a legitimate investment
[MUDH, 2015].

 Urban green infrastructure (UGI) shall be managed and administered in the interests
of the local community and shall address its needs [MUDH, 2015].

 Urban green infrastructure (UGI) shall be managed in accordance with

environmentally sustainable measures. Its design should promote biodiversity and
nature conservation [MUDH, 2015].

 Private Green shall be encouraged by creating campaigns to promote for more plants
and less impermeable surfaces in private compounds [MUDH, 2015].

Table 2.1: Green areas (Open spaces within Blocks) standard

Minimum Area per person

Variables
1st level urban center 2nd level urban center 3rd level urban center
Green area 2m2 per person 2m2 per person 1m2 per person
Variables Minimum Area per person
Source: Land use Planning Standards for structure plan preparation, OUPI, 2011

Table 2.2: Sport & Recreational facilities (Stadium and Play field) Standard

Levels of Urban Minimum

No Types of open Space
center Area (ha)

1 First Grade 10 District level play field; Zonal stadium; Regional

stadium; International stadium, Olympic sport complex
2 Second Grade 10 District level play field; Zonal stadium; Regional

3 Third Grade 1 stadium;

District level play field;
4 Grade Four 1 District level play field;
Source:-Land use Planning Standards for structure plan preparation, OUPI, 2011

According to World Health Organization [WHO], cited in Good Practice of Urban greening
(IADB), 1997, cities should provide 9m2 of undeveloped (unpaved) open space for each

15
inhabitant. WHO also suggested that, designing green area networks, residents should live
within a 15-minute walk from any green space. Likewise, National Urban Planning Institute
[NUPI] neighborhood green areas should provide 2m2, for every person/resident.

FUPI 2006, Structure Plan Manual also suggests 15-20% of the urban land use should be
apportioned for urban green area. Thus, incorporating adequate urban green area in the urban
land use system is mandatory. Moreover, once every piece of urban land is developed for
built up and other infrastructures, it may be difficult and/or expensive to develop new green
areas unless there are planned from the very beginning.

On the other hands, the Federal Ministry of Construction and Urban development also
announce that the general land use standards of urban planning should be based on 30%,
30%, 40% i.e. (30% green area, 30% physical infrastructure, 40% built up areas) for newly
established urban centers. However, 25%, 25%, 50% i.e. 25% green area, 25%
infrastructure, 50% built up areas is recommended in the city.

2.1.8 Urban agriculture as Green infrastructure

According to Mougeot (2000), the general definition of urban agriculture is the growing of
plants and the raising of animals for food and other uses within cities and peri-urban areas.
It also includes the production delivery of inputs, the processing and marketing of products.

Nowadays, urban agriculture is an innovative green infrastructure practice that is undergoing

a renaissance due to a confluence of factors. 10Most importantly it lies to address a variety
of issues which are seen as critical to the ongoing sustainability and livability of urban
environments such as public health, healthy food access, green space, air and water quality,
economic development, and community engagement. It represents a tangible and accessible
opportunity for town residents to improve household, food and nutrition security. In addition
to this, urban agriculture is considered as a component of green infrastructure [GI] and new
approaches to urban design and development in the context of climate change adaptation. It
also embodies an understanding of urban environments which seek to integrate cities into a
continuous, productive landscape of ecosystem services.

10
The potential for urban agriculture in New York City.
16
Urban agriculture is therefore, increasingly being seen as an emerging business opportunity
in urban areas of the developing nations. While the economic challenges compared with
farming in rural areas are considerable, a variety of factors are making farming in cities an
increasingly viable enterprise from an economic perspective. The most significant of these
is that consumers in urban areas are becoming increasingly conscious of the health,
environmental, and social impacts of the industrial food system and are actively seeking
alternatives.

Case study- Seeing Green: Urban Agriculture as Green Infrastructure

11
Seeing Green is a research project that studies specific urban agricultural sites in the
New York city area in order to demonstrate how urban agriculture should be considered
as a viable and important component of a City’s green infrastructure.

Focus on one of New York’s greatest environmental challenges which is its combined
sewage overflow (CSO) problem. The outdated sewer system is designed to collect
storm water runoff, domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater in the same pipe on
its way to a sewage treatment plant. When the rain is heavy, though, volume exceeds
capacity and untreated wastewater flows right into the waterways.

Lesson learned from the case study

Green infrastructure is a term that refers to a wide range of technologies and systems to
improve water quality through the capture and reuse of storm water. In an effort to
support farming in the city and help scale it up, the research set out to prove
scientifically the environmental benefits of rooftop and other urban farms, in particular
their ability to manage storm water, with their research project Seeing Green.

Urban agriculture standards

a) Competent authorities shall promote urban agriculture in order to function as part of

the food security system and urban safety net [MUDH, 2015].

11
Seeing green-urban agriculture as GI
17
 b) Competent authorities should create bigger networks of urban agriculture, away from
fragments and pieces towards a cohesive whole system. Solutions should be found
based on interconnectedness of the systems as whole units, rather than separate units
[MUDH, 2015].
c) Effective implementation of urban agriculture shall include educational campaigns
and legislative action, so that all categories of the population have long-term access
to a plot and joint activities are carried out by a number of public and private
stakeholders [MUDH, 2015].

2.2 Blue-Green System in Urban Context

Water is one of the most essential elements of life. Clean and adequate fresh water plays a
paramount importance to the survival of all living organisms and the smooth functioning of
ecosystems and economies (Curry, 2010 cited in Munir Younis Abdullahi 2014)12. The
natural physicochemical properties of water render its vital importance to sustain the living
planet Earth and every form of life on its face, including human beings. Its vital role in many
human activities including agriculture, industry, domestic, electric power generation,
transport and recreation shows that to what extent water is an integral part of human life.
The normal functioning of a natural system such as a human body depends entirely on the
availability of adequate quantity and quality of water.

A Blue-Green system aims to recreate a naturally-oriented water cycle while contributing to

the amenity of the structure by bringing water management and green infrastructure together.
This is achieved by combining and protecting the hydrological and ecological values of the
urban landscape. So, green infrastructure is not just about green spaces like parks and open
spaces, but it also incorporates blue infrastructure including sustainable urban drainage,
swales, wetlands, rivers, canals and their banks, and other water courses.

Recently, Cities are vulnerable to many types of shocks and stresses concerning
environmental issues. They are disconnected from their ecology for various reasons. This
point is emphasized by Gandy (2004) thus “…the relationship between water and urban
space can be understood by features such as new moral geographies and modes of social

12
Munir Younis Abdullahi (2014), Inner City Riverside Development and Land Use Transformation: in the context of
Addis Ababa
18
discipline based upon ideologies of cleanliness”. Most modern cities have centrally
controlled drainage systems. This invisible water infrastructure system disconnects urban
land-use from the logic of the watershed as well as people’s experience from the ecological
processes of the landscape (Stokman, 2008). While in others case, water bodies have become
so polluted that they are becoming problematic part of the urban fabric. Therefore, cities
account for a significant share of total water use and, often, misuse. As pointed out,
unsustainable management of the water resource threatens the economic activities that take
place in cities, many cities in developing countries face challenges; these include rapid
population growth, squatter areas of significant size or scale, rapid economic growth, unwise
town planning, and the negative impacts of climate change. In such cities, simply keeping
pace with the increasing demands that are placed on the water resource seems a nearly
impossible task.

Figure 2.3 Benefits of Blue-Green system in urban context

Source: Australian Institute of Landscape Architects Green Infrastructure Report (2012).

19
2.2.1 Watershed management

The relationship between urban water management and the health of urban environments
has only recently become a focus of researchers; however, this area has developed quickly
with numerous issues being investigated (Wong, 2011). Relevant water issues include:
 access to secure and clean water supply;
 clean water environment;
 flood protection;
 urban design strategies; and
 mitigating urban heat.

Green infrastructure [GI] is increasingly being recognized as an alternative to traditional

engineering approaches to urban water management through integrated water cycle
management and Water Sensitive Urban Design (Water by Design, 2010). The physical form
of GI in terms of urban water management includes, but is not limited to, bio filtration
systems, storm water harvesting, passive landscape irrigation, permeable surfaces and green
roofs.

Water management and water sensitive urban design (WSUD) is a key form of green
infrastructure, which has many benefits that increase the resilience and network aspect of
green infrastructure.

Blue component standards

a) Existing water features should be integrated into the green open space landscape
[MUDH, 2015].
b) Extra installation of water features shall be restricted because of high maintenance
costs of water features (e.g. fountains, ponds etc.) [MUDH, 2015].

2.3 Sustainability Concepts and Definitions

Sustainability has been widely touted as a goal and ideal in urban planning, and defining and
implementing the concepts has become a global topic of concern. Many interpretations of
sustainability exist, and these definitions help to serve as a foundation for achieving
sustainable development (Elliot, 2006). The most frequently cited definition of sustainable
development and a foundation for future conceptions of sustainability comes from WCED
20
[World Commission on Environment and Development]’s 1987 report, Our Common
Future, which proposes that “development is sustainable when it meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs” (WCED,
1987, p. 8, Elliott, 2006, Agyeman, Bullard, and Evans, 2003). In addition to its
environmental focus, the WCED [World Commission on Environment and Development]
definition includes concepts of economic development and social equity, signifying an
important shift from traditional conservation-focused definitions, such as that of the 1980
World Conservation strategy (Agyeman, Bullard, and Evans, 2003). The commission
focuses on giving “overriding priority” to the needs of the world’s poor as well as “the
environment’s ability to meet present and future needs” (WCED, 1987, p. 62). Further
emphasizing the inclusion of equity, the report states that “even the narrow notion of physical
sustainability implies a concern for social equity between generations, a concern that must
logically be extended to equity within each generation” (WCED, 1987, p. 62). Elliot (2006)
highlights the inherent tensions presented in this concept of sustainability, including the
conflicting interests between present and future generations, between human well-being and
environmental protection, and among socio-economic classes.

2.3.1 Tensions and Challenges

Sustainability literature highlight the importance of focusing simultaneously on the goals of

environmental protection, economic development, and social equity. However, these ideals
include inherent conflicts and tensions, creating challenges for their implementation in
practice.

Several authors acknowledge the challenges in addressing the tensions among the ideals of
environment, economy, and equity and offer critiques of the sustainable development
concept and its implementation.

Campbell’s (1996) definition of sustainable development emphasizes the inherent tensions

in the goal of supporting environment quality, social equity, and economic development,
using a triangular model to describe these three priorities and their associated conflicts
inherent in planning. Campbell (1996) describes the conflicts between each ideal. First, he
calls the conflict between economic growth and equity ‘the property conflict,’ which is the
tension caused by a society that both defines property as a private commodity and also relies

21
“on government intervention (e.g. zoning, or public housing for the working class) to ensure
the beneficial social aspects of the same property,” (Campbell, 1996, p. 416). According to
Campbell (1996), this conflict between growth and equity “defines the boundary between
private interest and public good” (Campbell, 1996, p. 416). According to Campbell (1996),
this conflict between growth and equity “defines the boundary between private interest and
public good” (p. 416). Second, the conflict between economic growth and environmental
protection is described as ‘the resource conflict’-- that businesses need to conserve resources
for future use, but they resist regulation (Campbell, 1996, p. 417). Finally, Campbell names
the conflict between social equity and environmental preservation, ‘the development
conflict,’ and defines it as the difficulty of providing both economic subsistence and
sustainable conditions for the natural environment simultaneously (Campbell, 1996, p.418).

The goal for planners, then, is to balance these three systems. Campbell’s interdisciplinary
view of planning links social theory with environmental science and policy, as he suggests
“that planners should do better in combining social and environmental models” (Campbell,
1996, p. 420). Stressing the significance of the development conflict, Campbell (1996)
emphasizes planners’ role in helping to solve environmental and economic equity issues
simultaneously through arranging procedures for stakeholder decision-making. He also
emphasizes planners’ abilities to “put forth specific, far-sighted designs that promote the
sustainable town” (Campbell, 1996, p. 430), and to understand conflicts at a regional scale
and the potential for use of technology, strategies based around an outcomes approach. Thus,
for Campbell, the planner’s task consists of a combination of procedural facilitating and
guidance toward sustainable outcomes. Overall, he states, “In the battle of big public ideas,
sustainability has won: the task in the coming years is simply to work out the details, and to
narrow the gap between its theory and practice” (Campbell, 1996, p. 421).

2.4 Factors affecting green infrastructure planning

2.4.1 Land use – Land cover

Common approaches to mapping green infrastructure in urbanized landscapes regularly

focus on measures of land use or land cover and associated functional or physical traits.
Emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases from energy, industrial, agricultural, and other
activities, and humans also affect climate through changes in land use (activities taking place

22
on land, like growing food, cutting trees, or building cities) and land cover (the physical
characteristics of the land surface, including grain crops, trees, or concrete). For example,
cities are warmer than the surrounding countryside because the greater extent of paved areas
in cities affects how water and energy are exchanged between the land and the atmosphere.
This increases the exposure of urban populations to the effects of extreme heat events.

Decisions about land use and land cover can therefore affect, positively or negatively, how
much our climate will change and what kind of vulnerabilities humans and natural systems
will face as a result. Impacts of land use- land cover includes

1. Effects on communities and ecosystem services

 Choices about land-use and land-cover patterns have affected and will
continue to affect how vulnerable or resilient human communities and
ecosystems are to the effects of climate change.
2. Effects on Climate Processes
 Land-use and land-cover changes affect local, regional, and global
climate processes.
3. Adapting to Climate Change
 Individuals, businesses, non-profits, and governments have the capacity
to make land-use decisions to adapt to the effects of climate change.
4. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Levels
 Choices about land use and land management may provide a means of
reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas levels.

2.4.2 Climatic modification

A large body of research has been undertaken to examine the climatic effect of green
infrastructure in urban settings. Green infrastructure [GI], including trees, green roofs, as
well as Water Sensitive Urban Design practices have been found to modify urban climates
through:

 urban heat island mitigation;

 reduced energy use and emissions; and
 air pollution interception and mitigation (McPherson et al., 2005).

23
Therefore, green infrastructure has the potential to ameliorate the effects of climate change
in urban environments, thereby increasing resilience and livability, and reducing energy
consumption.

2.5 Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Green infrastructure

In the past, green spaces have often been valued for limited uses, such as for sport/recreation,
or simply for their aesthetic appeal. The term green infrastructure reflects the fact that green
spaces can perform a number of functions, often simultaneously. One site could be providing
several functions at once, providing us with multiple benefits. The real benefit of green
infrastructure to planning is that it can help deliver other local, regional and national policy
objectives, not just those related to green space. The challenge is ensuring that green
infrastructure is capable of providing functions which will meet numerous planning
objectives; that requires thorough design, planning and management.

2.6 Benefits of Green Infrastructure

Developing and improving green space in key locations within urban and semi urban areas
are argued to have significant benefits which are reflected in increasing property and land
values. Investment in green space can lead to higher returns for the property sector. Greener
areas have a better image and attract more visitors, bringing with the retail and leisure
spending and providing job and rental opportunities. This in turn increases land and property
values (NENW, 2008: 9). More specifically green infrastructure [GI], being a spatial
structure providing benefits from nature to people, aims to enhance nature’s ability to deliver
multiple valuable ecosystem goods and services, such as clean air or water.
This in turn will:
 Protecting ecosystem state and biodiversity
 Improving ecosystem functioning and promoting ecosystem services
 Promoting societal well-being and health
 Supporting the development of a green economy and sustainable land and
water management.

24
Figure 2.4: Benefits of green infrastructure
Source: Australian Institute of Landscape Architects Green Infrastructure Report (2012).

One of the key attractions of green infrastructure [GI] is its ability to perform spatial
functions in the same spatial area. In contrast to most “grey” infrastructure which usually
have only single objective, green infrastructure [GI] is multifunctional such promoting
compatibility between grey and green infrastructure [GI] to deliver benefits to wide range of
stakeholders, general public as well as the natural environment.

2.7 How to Scale up the result of the Study

Given inadequate of large-scale green infrastructure programs and research analyzing their
performance, it is uncertain whether one can estimate potential benefits from a community-
wide program simply by scaling up smaller-site design solutions. In other words, the benefits
from a specific project may or may not have a linear relationship to the scale of a project.
The relationship would have higher tendency of being linear if the site on which scale up has
been implemented would have similar attribute with the study site. Instead of having a linear
relationship, it is also possible that green infrastructure could function an opposite way. This
would be the case if the benefits accrued from a practice have a proportionately greater effect
on a large scale than they would if practiced over a small area. In effect, the green
infrastructure practice would provide the maximum level of benefit only after achieving a
certain scale of implementation. For example, the water quality improvement from a
constructed wetland would be significantly and disproportionately larger than the water
quality improvement from a smaller-scale rain garden.

25
When a decision is made to expand green infrastructure [GI] in project areas, there are two
Ways of doing it. The first is to expand the original project areas, or create separate new
ones. That choice depends on what is best for each individual municipality and can be
decided by the task force. I believe, creating new project areas may be preferential, as it
allows a community to focus efforts on higher need areas, areas that create the most storm
water, or areas of varying geology or land use. A community will most likely have several
critical need areas, which may or may not be adjacent to each other, and the multiple project
area approach provides flexibility in meeting those needs. An equally important
consideration within spatial scaling is the concept of an ecological threshold, which can be
described as “the point at which there is an abrupt change in an ecosystem . . . or where small
changes in an environmental driver produce large responses in the ecosystem” (Groffman et
al 2006).

Case study: Grand Rapids, Michigan

The city of Grand Rapids has been promoting the use of green infrastructure for a number
of years, which can be seen in the Grand Rapids Sustainability Plan and Green Grand
Rapids Master Plan. Green infrastructure projects such as green roofs, rain gardens,
pervious pavement parking lots, and rain barrels on public and private properties have
been implemented without a structure to systematically calculate the benefits of water
volume reduction on overall water quality. The city of Grand Rapids is utilizing the GIPS
approach to increase the number of green infrastructure projects and to quantify those
benefits on a larger scale.

Grand Rapids Baseline Calculation Methodology

The Rational Formula was used by an experienced staff member because it is a widely-
used method of estimating peak runoff flow rates from a given rainfall event. The flow
rate is calculated using the simple equation:

Q=C*I*A

26
 Where Q is the runoff volume (gallons or cubic feet); C is the runoff coefficient (a higher
number represents a more impervious surface); I is the rainfall intensity (we used a 1-inch
rainfall, of unspecified duration); and A is the area (acres).

This method does not take into account such other variables as antecedent moisture
conditions and time of concentration. While more accuracy could be useful, we believe
that municipalities are better served by using a relatively simple calculation of the baseline
so that it matches with similar calculations of the volume retention capacity of proposed
green infrastructure projects, and a valuable comparison can be made.

In Grand Rapids, the first project area is a sewer shed and was divided into 22 sub-sewer
sheds. Each of the sub-basins was visually scanned to estimate its predominant land use
and density. Determining run off coefficient and volume of runoff for a 1-inch storm for
each sub-basin in both cubic feet and gallons was the next step. Since this is just the
volume of storm water that runs off the land, which isn’t affected by the intensity of the
rainfall nor any time differences, these sub-basin volumes can be added to get an estimate
of the total runoff generated. This total volume is used as the baseline for runoff under
existing (pre-green infrastructure) conditions.

In the Grand Rapids project, we estimated the reduction in runoff volume to be achieved
by the green infrastructure and subtracted that volume reduction from the total runoff for
the study area. Accurate calculations of the reductions from individual projects will be
available from engineering designs for those projects, but they can also be estimated
during the earlier planning stage using a tool such as the Green Values® Calculator.

Conclusive Summary

The benefits of a specific project may or may not have a linear relationship to the scale of a
project. Before directly implementing design solution proposed for an area for other areas,
the status and characteristics of an area need to be studied well and the feasibility of solution
need to be ensured. And different modification mechanisms and considerations need to be
thought deep to attain working solution for specific site I want to implement the project.

27
2.8 Empirical Experience of Urban Green Infrastructure

Ideas for green urban structures began in the 1870s, with concepts of urban farming and
garden allotments. The development of green infrastructure has varied in its focus in the UK,
Europe and North America. This diversity has been described as being heavily dependent on
the main planning issues in each of these geographical regions. The UK has seen green
infrastructures development through the ideas of Garden Cities and the protected
designations of green spaces (Howard, 1985). In Europe, the development of green
infrastructures has been linked with the development of the urban greening agenda and the
need to develop integrated green space effectively with in high density landscapes (Beatley;
2000; 2009).

In contrast to the UK and Europe, green infrastructure is a concept originating in the United
States in the mid-1990s has its foundations in landscape conservation (Benedict and
McMahon, 2006). The term ‘green infrastructure’’ is sometimes expanded to multifunctional
‘green infrastructure. Multi-functionality in this context refers to the integration and
interaction off different functions or activities on the same piece of land.

2.8.1 Case studies

I. Aurora, Illinois USA

Faced with aging infrastructure, an already impaired local water way and projected
population growth, Aurora wanted to strengthen its downtown economy while providing
environmentally and economically sustainable solutions to its storm water management
issues.
The City’s leaders recognized the potential value green infrastructure could provide in
solving some of these issues and began to analyze where GI might be appropriate. The
resulting plan, highlighted in Aurora’s Rooftops to Rivers program, seeks to bring green
infrastructure to scale and attain quantifiable, replicable results.

28
 Figure 2.5: Aurora green infrastructure development
Source: The Value of Green Infrastructure
II. Portland, Oregon USA
As in most urbanizing areas, Portland’s increasing development has led to greater volumes
and velocities of storm water runoff, which has threatened critical waterways. Combined
sewer overflows have also decreased water quality in the region. In search of methods to
alleviate these environmental strains, the City of Portland Bureau of Environmental Services
analyzed the key ecosystem benefits of replacing traditional grey infrastructure with green
infrastructure in their ten year “Grey to Green” program, which encourages innovative storm
water management. In addition to ecosystem benefits, the city has begun to research the
many additional social and economic benefits that GI can provide. For example, in its
“Energy and Greenhouse Gases” section, the report calculates the energy savings from the
Grey to Green’s proposed 43 acres of green roofs. The calculations estimate an annual
savings of 63,400 kWh (ENTRIX 2010). The next step would be to translate this energy-
savings benefit into a monetary value by multiplying by a price per kilowatt-hour. While as
yet no monetary value has been assigned for these benefits, the city is working toward a
better understanding of the underlying additional value green infrastructure can provide its
communities.

Figure 2.6: Portland green infrastructure development

Source: The Value of Green Infrastructure

29
 III. Gauteng city region, South Africa
They assess both the natural and constructed landscapes and how the services provided by
green assets are perceived, understood and valued. They extend their understanding beyond
environmental protection and conservation by viewing green landscape features as a network
of infrastructure, something essential to city development.

They conclude by translating “green benefits” into spatial planning terms, and suggests ways
of guiding future green infrastructure planning and management in South Africa. It deals
with transforming current planning approaches, understanding the importance of green
infrastructure, identifying who will benefit from green infrastructure planning, preparing the
new generation and ways to plan for green(er) cities through practical planning and
initiatives.

Figure 2.7: Gauteng city region green infrastructure development

Source: planning for green infrastructure: options for South African Cities

2.8.2 Lessons drawn

The preceding analyses indicate that interventions on green infrastructure demand need:

 Political commitment and support;

 Ensuring social acceptance through community participation and other stakeholders;
 Designing green infrastructure programs in integration and holistically with the
overall city development strategies (policy frameworks, city-wide land use
development plans, socioeconomic and institutional interventions etc.);

30
 CHAPTER THREE

3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 Definition of Case Study

The study is conducted on squatter settlement area mainly through on site observation and
mapping on selected case area. The detailed analysis of the study area is given below in sub
section 4.1.1 where I described the location, population, socio-economic status and
environmental conditions of the site. The reason for selecting this particular site as
mentioned in section 1.2 above is because of its worsening environmental problems
(Squatter status and condition of green infrastructure, accumulation of waste that is
threatening the health of residents and people passing by, environmental degradation of the
area etc.).

3.2 Case Study Selection Criteria

Urban forest, parks, street trees and buffer vegetation’s provide clean air for breathing, have
aesthetic values and places for recreation, and can be source of income and use as carbon
sinks. Due to almost non-existence of environmental friendly urban design and planning for
Adama Town in general and Migira Pond area in particular, the above mentioned and many
other benefits have not been tapped. What has been the focus of the municipal administration
is the number of plots transferred to individuals and the amount of lease collection per square
meter not the quality of the environmental goods for the citizens.

Even in the newly developed areas in Town, the proportion of green areas is almost
insignificant. I as a young researcher want to assess the opinion of the general public on
green infrastructure (GI), the proportion they would suggest on the total areas that are to be
developed, how to link the green infrastructure [GI] planning practices into sustainability
concept for the benefits of the people, what problems are threatening the communities as the
result of the low focus given to green infrastructure [GI] by the planners and designers of

31
Adama Town. Thus, Migira Pond area has been selected for my research because it has
multiple characteristics I am interested in to study.

3.3 Study Approach and Methods

The study focused on a participatory approach where various actors and stakeholders were
involved at different stage of this research exercise. I employed both qualitative (focus group
discussion, key informant interview, case study) and quantitative research methods. Thus,
the study used mixed research methods and triangulated the findings of the quantitative with
that of the qualitative analysis.

3.4 Source of Data

For this study both primary and secondary data sources were collected from various sources
to achieve the intended objectives. Primary data was obtained from key informant interviews
[Appendix II] and personal observation [ Appendix V] while secondary data were obtained
from reviews of different documents, policies, strategy, regulation, standards and guidelines
related to current green infrastructure planning practices [Appendix VI]. The documents
were analyzed with regard to the concept and principles of green infrastructure and were
selected from the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, and Oromia Urban Planning
Institutes by consultation with experts from different sectors. The following criteria were
used for selection: First, the planning documents should represent strategies, which refer to
the planning, implementation and management of green infrastructure on a national,
regional, and city level, and second it should be put into force and still be in use. In addition
thematic studies were collected from municipality.

3.5 Sampling Technique and Method

Both Non- Probability and Probability sampling methods were conducted. The Non-
Probability sampling method is based on purposive sampling methods to select individuals
which can provide necessary information about the issue being studied. The researcher
purposely selected environmental protection authority officers, urban planners, town
infrastructure officers and land development and management officers for interview in order
to get data on the values of recreational parks and street trees, the present status of
recreational parks, runoff management, urban farming, and challenges for the development

32
and management of green areas in the study area. Probability/Random sampling method is
used because it is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative sample in
which each and every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

3.6 Sample Size and Techniques of Data Collection

For this study the researcher employed questionnaire based survey, interview checklists for
focus group discussions (FGD) and key informants’ interviews (KII), and documenting own
observations during site visits. Multiple data collection techniques were used in order to get
reliable information on the quality, accessibility, use, challenges, management as well as the
community perception on urban green infrastructure and other study questions covered by
this research.

To get a reliable data the researcher selected 70 respondents from the study area. For the
qualitative approach I used Creswell (1998) recommendation which is 5 – 25 participants.
Therefore, for the key informant interview 3 individuals from the department of
greenery/environmental protection authority office, 3 urban planners, 4 individuals from
Adama Town infrastructure office and 4 land development and management officers were
selected for interview purposely (Appendix II). Key informants were selected based on their
knowledge and involvement in urban planning, green infrastructure planning and
management, and/or issues of current green infrastructure practices. The main instrument
used to interview the officials was semi-structured interviews, which contained open-ended
questions whereby the respondents were given the chance to discuss all issues of concern.
The main topic of the semi-structured interviews was on how far the principles of green
infrastructure are incorporated in current green infrastructure planning documents and
practices. Moreover, the key informants were asked about barriers that hinder the adoption
of green infrastructure both at planning and practice level. The key informants were also
asked to propose solutions to overcome the constraints that hinder the adoption of green
infrastructure planning. Furthermore 8 participants were selected for focus group discussion
from different sectors of Adama Town Administration and interested individuals on the
study (Appendix IV).

In addition, for the quantitative approach 48 respondents living in Migira pond area
especially on the environmentally prone were selected to respond to the questionnaire

33
prepared by the researcher. 8 participants were selected for focus group discussions (FGD)
from the respondents who responded to the questionnaire survey (Appendix III). Small
sample size is selected because in Migira pond area the dwellings have similar characters
and I expect most people have similar answers and the decisions that will be made based on
the results do not have significant consequences on the well-being rather it will benefit the
society at all . In addition the time given for the study is limited. In the quantitative approach
I evaluated the socio-economic profile and perception about green-blue infrastructure and
their access to green infrastructure.

Data from the key informant interviews were analyzed using the theoretical proposition
strategy recommended by Yin (2003), which requires interview data to be analyzed under
key themes. Based on this strategy, the responses from key informant interviews were
categorized under themes such as integration of the urban green infrastructure planning
principles, and existing barriers and solutions for their effective application. For further
analysis and discussion, the data obtained from key informant interviews were supplemented
by personal observation.

3.7 Ethical Considerations

The following ethical guidelines were out into place for the research period.

1. The Dignity and wellbeing of the respondents’ was protected at all times
2. The research data remained confidential throughout the study and the researcher
obtained participants permission to participate in the study voluntarily.
3. The research study is independent and impartial.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis is the process of systematically reaching and arranging the responses of
questionnaire, interviews, observation, focus group discussion and other materials that the
researcher collected to enrich the study. After the data were collected from various sources
information has been organized and analyzed using different software packages like,
ArcGIS, AutoCAD, Sketch Up, Adobe illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, U-lead video studio
and Microsoft office. The organized data took certain form and the researcher built the
explanation for this form of data. In qualitative research, coding is a useful way of organizing

34
data (Mikkelsen, 2005). Statements that were given by different informants were organized
according to particular categories of themes. Thus, some meaningful responses have been
placed in the analysis as quotes.

Table 3.3: Software used for analysis

No Software type Version Purpose

ArcGIS 10.4 For creating, editing, manipulating, mapping,
analyzing and disseminating geographic information
AutoCAD 2007 For preparation of 2d and 3d plans
Sketch Up 2014 To provide 3d view
Adobe illustrator 2016 Graphic driven software used primarily for creating
vector graphics
Adobe Photoshop 2016 Image editing software
Microsoft Office 2016 Used to create documents and presentations, to
organize, format and calculate data with formulas.
U-lead 2017 For capturing, preparation, and editing
Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

3.9 Difficulties and adjustment during field work

Some residents were reluctant to give any information, but after I explained the purpose of
my survey and showed my identification card as well as the supporting letter from my
university, then I managed to build better rapport to overcome their fears and concerns. I
slowly built my rapport with them and at the end they were very much cooperative and
supportive.

In general I observed that the people do not trust people coming outside of their
neighborhoods. Since the settlement is informal, several people have feeling of insecurity on
their property because of the bad experience they have had in the past with the government
officials.

35
3.10 Research Design

Figure 3.8: Research Design

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

36
3.11 Conceptual Framework

Green
Infrastructure

Literature Review

Green Green People’s Concept of

Methods of
Infrastructure Infrastructure response Sustainability
spatial
and land use benefits and towards urban and standard of
evaluation
components functions greenery and living
spaces

Qualities of Green Infrastructure and its land use components to

physical, social, and cognitive functioning and residents’ well-being

Data collection: Quantitative and Qualitative

Result and discussion

 Descriptive and inferential data analysis Using Ms. Excel,

Ms. Word and SPSS.
 Spatial data analysis using Arc GIS, AutoCAD

Design solution

 Attributes of green infrastructure preferred by residents.

 Model of green infrastructure networks that relates to human
preference for open green spaces.

Figure 3.9: Conceptual Framework of Green infrastructure

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

37
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Contextual Review

4.1.1 Description of the Study Area

Adama is one of the largest and most populated Towns in Oromiya National Regional State.
It is located at 8o33`35``N - 8o36`46``N latitude and 39o11`57``E – 39o 21`15``E longitude.

Figure 4.10: Location Map

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)
38
The case site is commonly called Ganda Migira [Kebele 02]; which is located at the South
eastern part of Adama Town Administration [ATA]. It is relatively in low elevation area
therefore, seasonal flooding from different catchments including diversion of manmade
ditches are collected into this area. Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] is one of the periphery Kebeles
surrounded by Dabe Solloque in the east, in north by Kebele 11 and 13, in west by Kebele
03 and in south by Boku Kebele.

Figure 4.11: Location map of Adama Town in Its National and Regional Settings
Source: Food Security Attainment Role of Urban Agriculture: A Case Study from Adama Town by Mesay Mulugeta

It is important to investigate the integration and linkage of the study area with the vicinity
localities as well as with the Town’s spatial structure. Especially the service, infrastructure
and facility distribution in relation to the vicinity areas and the linkage and accessibility to
the planning area are important elements so as to ensure integrity with the influence area.
The study area is easily accessible by local transportation means (vehicle, horse pulled cart)
and it has good connectivity with other parts of the Town with major Arterial Street. The

39
figure below shows the site integration and setting from different important services, public
spaces and landmarks; the Town center, municipality, university, and other important public
offices reside.

Figure 4.12: Location and Integration Map of the case Site

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] is also characterized by illegal settlement in addition to its
seasonal flooding. The key characteristic that delineates an illegal settlement is that the
occupier’s lack of ownership of the land parcel on which they have built their houses. These
could be vacant government or public land, or marginal land parcels like railway setbacks

40
or "undesirable" marshy land. Thus when the land is not under "productive" use by the
owner, it is appropriated by squatters for building houses.

In the case of Adama, the term illegal invasion of land refers to two basic processes. The
first step includes the development of rural settlements and/or illegal land occupation, which
usually starts, with the establishment of small rural/semi-rural housing units and settlements.
The second step consists of illegal land transfer from these original settlers to others/new
settlers. The lack of any legal document certifying the right to the land occupied by the
residents is taken as the major characteristics for defining illegal settlements in Adama. As
per information, from Town Administration shows that more than half of the households in
unplanned periphery areas of Adama have no user rights to the plot they occupy. This implies
that all these housing units were built illegally. Since my case study area is populated by
informal settlers, some residential units are developed at the environmental sensitive area
near Migira Pond. Besides, concerning the land use, some incompatible uses like traditional
animal fattening within the residential quarter were observed during my site visits especially
at the west of Migira Pond. Therefore, it is vital to take in to consideration the issues
discussed here while proposing new techniques and designing solution for green
infrastructure.

4.2 Physical Site Analysis

4.2.1 Geological Setting of Adama Town

Adama is located within the Main Ethiopian Rift valley which extends from the southern
Afar Rift to Konso highland in southern Ethiopia. The Town lies on plain land made up of
volcanic rocks formed by geodynamic movements. These conditions have been some of the
reasons why the Town is said to be vulnerable for earthquake. The Town lies on the
quaternary volcanic rocks that were formed with the formation of the rift. Thus, the
sediments that dominate the floor of the rift are alluvial and lacustrine deposits. The major
tectonic lines, which are aligned in NE-SW direction in the Rift floor, form numerous local
graven and horst structures (Rift-in-Rift structures) [OUPI, 2017].

The central volcanoes are rooted along these tectonic lines and are characterized by collapsed
calderas, among which the Boku caldera occupies the southern part of Adama in the Main
Ethiopian Rift (MER). The volcanic products from the Boku volcano can be grouped as
41
alkaline and per alkaline rhyolite lava domes, flows, and pyroclastic falls, which cover the
floor complex ignimbrite deposits [OUPI, 2017].

The geology of the Project area /planning area constitutes the lower most part of the tertiary
volcanic succession of the Ethiopian Plateau and it essentially belongs to the pre-Oligocene
and Oligo-Miocene volcanic stages. Younger Stratoid Basalt rocks are observed in the
vicinity of the area. Pyroclastics and Associated Sediments are found in and around the study
area. It consists mainly of tilted beds of acid pyroclastic rocks like ignimbrite and acidic
agglomerates with sedimentary intercalations at the upper part. Minor basaltic rocks are also
found [OUPI, 2017].

The drift geology overlies the solid geology and the former consists of alluvial and lacustrine
deposits i.e. sand, silt clay, diatomite, and limestone and beach sand [OUPI, 2017].

N.B: Q = Alluvial and lacustrine deposits; Qd = Tuff and pyroclastic rocks

Figure 4.13: Geology in the Vicinity of Adama

Source: NDP Report of Dabe Soloqe, Adama, December 2015.

42
4.2.1.1 Geological structure of the study area

I observed land opening (crack) on the residences fence around Muslim Mosque in Migira
Pond area. Information from the municipality shows this crack happened in 2005 (E.C);
which has an extension from Adama Science and Technology University up to Bollo School.
This opening (crack) ends at Migira Pond as shown in the figure below is where the seasonal
flooding accumulated and sinks into the ground.

Figure 4.14: Photo of fault line with land opening along fault alignment at Migira seasonal pond area
Source: Adama Town administration

The occurrence of repeated step faulting makes it clear that the study area is located on still
active and deep tectonic zone. In the study area there was severe refolding of rock bodies.
This refolding of rock has shown foliation structures which area characterized by tension
and laminar fractures. These fractures, in the central part of the Main Rift Valley, are
represented by Wanji Fault Belt (Mohr, 1971; Di Paola, 1972).

As per information from Adama Town administration, a large number of thermal springs
and fluid flows are associated with these geological structures which discharge hydrothermal
fluids and flows of seasonal flooding through these structures. The geological structures,
especially fault lines in the study area, have negative impact in infrastructure development
and building construction. It also plays great role in water circulation. Therefore, the Town

43
Administration should have to give attention to these structures in plan preparation, in land-
use proposal and height regulation of building in order to minimize failures and destructions.
Appropriate adoption of green infrastructure is also needed to mitigate current and future
challenges in order to meet boarder community goals and manage existing development.

4.2.2 Soil type

The major soils categories of Adama district are Andosols, Cambisols and Luvisols. Most
of the soils of the district are Andosols, which cover 677.64km2.The remaining 234.37 km2
and 56.26 km2, are respectively covered by Cambisols and Luvsols. The origin of soils of
the rift valley floor, they usually develop from volcanic ashes and have limited depth; they
are poorly drained and workable which limit their agricultural potentialities. Cambisols and
Luvisols belong to one soil family Cambisols and are young compared to other tropical soils,
in some cases due to lack of cementation have weak or no structure and this reduces their
agricultural value. Though most Luvisols have problems related to root distribution that
reduces their agricultural potential, compared to some tropical soils, they are good
agricultural soils. In areas of steep slopes Luvisols are however unproductive13.

The project site is covered with light dark clay soil, which is very thick layer and has the
expansive nature that swells when wet and cracks when dry. The function of green
infrastructure is therefore, to prevent soil erosion, by creating connection and integration
with the existing nature and restoring the nature by conservation works in the degraded
environment.

4.2.3 Rainfall

The average annual rainfall at Adama is about 866.25 mm. The maximum monthly average
rainfall is about 200 mm. Most of the rain occurs in summer season (June to September)
[taken from NDP report of Dabe Solloque, 2015].

13
Egis International in association with IAU-IdF and UrbaLyon, NDP Report of Dabe Soloqe, Adama, December 2015:
44
 Figure 4.15: Climate of Adama: Average Rainfall (mm)
Source: NDP Report of Dabe Soloqe, Adama, December 2015:

4.2.4 Temperature

The mean annual temperature is 21C. It can be classified as semi-humid to semi-arid

climate, which characterizes the altitude range between 1300 to 1800m a.s.l. In Adama the
hottest month with the maximum mean temperature of 31C is May. The monthly minimum
mean temperature is Nov & Dec with the temperature of 11.5C. The maximum temperature
varies between 25.8C and 31C while the minimum monthly values vary between 11.5C
and 17C [taken from NDP report of Dabe Solloque, 2015].

N.B: [In general, the Town enjoys hot and dry weather for the greater part of the winter and
warm and sunny climate in summer, which grants the Town with attractive weekends and
summer resort release.]

45
4.2.5 Sunshine hours

The values from Adama station (1990-2002) showed that the annual average sunshine hour
is about 36901 hrs. Making the daily average of sunshine hours vary between 6.5 and 9.5
hours. 14

4.2.6 Wind speed and direction

According to NDP Report of Dabe Soloqe, Adama, December 2015 the wind speed in
Adama is high with seasonal variation. The minimum wind speed occurs during September
(1.65m/s), while the wind with high velocity occurs during December, January and February
(3.05-3.2 m/s). The values calculated over 10 years (1990 to 1999) indicate that the mean is
2.31 m/s (the maximum wind speed recorded was about 10m/s). The prevailing wind
direction of the Town is Northeasterly with seasonal variation.

4.2.7 Construction material

NDP report of Dabe Soloqe shows rocks, basalt, ignimbrite, rhyolites, scoria, pumice, sand,
sand, gravel, clay, soil and selected materials are construction materials available in
abundance in close range purposeful for construction of roads, houses and other
infrastructure. These materials are mainly obtained from the hinterland. Few quarries of
basalt, ignimbrite and rhyolites are found in Adama Town. Most of these quarrying activities
are carried out at artisanal level at the foot of ridges and gullies. The quarrying activities are
degrading the land, aggravating deforestation and endangering the physical infrastructures.
Thus, it needs immediate intervention for better management of the resources. The
intervention includes: abandoning quarrying undertakings in sensitive areas, selection of
appropriate quarry sites and preparation of norms and standards for upgrading the quality of
materials, and devising strategies for economic exploitation of the resource and
rehabilitation works should be made in the old quarry sites.

4.2.8 Hydrology

Awash is located in the Awash River Basin to which seasonal streams and floods flow to.
Awash River irrigates most agricultural fields and sugar cane plantation in the Upper and

14
Egis International in association with IAU-IdF and UrbaLyon, NDP Report of Dabe Soloqe, Adama, December 2015
46
Lower Awash Basin and source of drinking water for human and animals in East Shewa of
Oromia and Afar Regions. The river is source of irrigation for medium and small-scale
farms as well as source of drinking water for both human and animals.

Figure 4.16: Photo of some considerable urban agriculture development within the Town boundary
Source: OUPI, Nov, 2017

4.2.8.1 Groundwater Hydrology

The level of ground water ranges from 20m around Melka Hida area to more than 100 meters
around Technical College. The general ground water flow direction is deduced to be
southward. The groundwater resources that mainly found following the Awash River, has
not been exploited to the best level of its potential. Rather increasing human intervention has
made it more vulnerable for contamination. There are about 10 boreholes at Melka Hida well
field, which are located at some 7 Km southwest of the Town. These wells were sources of
freshwater for the Town. Currently, this source is reserved and can be used any time in the
future due to its high potential. Hence, the well field should be protected from contamination.
Therefore, the site should be restricted by avoiding different establishments that can
potentially pollute the existing groundwater system. However, well-managed industries that
have no any groundwater threatening pollution effect can be established in northern and
north western sector of the well field [taken from NDP report of Dabe Solloque, 2015].

4.2.8.2 Natural Hazards (Flooding)

The nature of the topography has created three drainage sub catchments. One is that drains
to Awash River and the other two closed basins. Absences of the appropriate storm water
drainage network and loose nature of the ground, lack of natural outlet and unplanned human
intervention have largely made Adama Town vulnerable to flooding and significant amount
of land is being threatened by erosion.

47
Flooding is a significant natural hazard in Adama attributing to its location within the flat
lying rift. The main causes of flooding in Adama Town are both natural and manmade as
shown below;

 Rainfall (precipitation)
 Soil types (with low permeability or impermeable)
 Poor drainage design in the Town
 Climate change (affecting precipitation)
 Floodplain encroachment (building on floodplains)
 Change of land use (deforestation, compaction of soil)
 Inadequate planning controls within whole catchment area (local & national) and
 Inadequate drainage capacity (urbanization) & siltation (natural)

In the study area, most of the runoff comes from northeast of (Adama Science and
Technology University site), Golba Tegene and some parts of the central and eastern parts
of the Town draining to Migra Pond. The runoff from various directions develops into
damaging flood storm that could have the power of creating deep gorges with high discharge
when it reaches at Migira Pond increasing the size of the backflow of water to settlement
areas close to the pond. . As per the information gathered from dwellers and elders, the
seasonal flooding has been increasing from time to time. The reasons for this were
deforestation, land-use change, natural drainage closure (diversion).

Figure 4.17: Photo of seasonal flooding at Migira Pond area; accumulated there from different catchments
Source: OUPI, Nov, 2017

48
Unlike other areas; some parts of the accumulated seasonal flooding of Migira Pond
dries-out during dry season for two major reasons. The first one is from evapo-transpiration
and sinking through geological structures and the second one is that the soil of Migira is
clayey silt which has swell-shrinkage properties.

Figure 4.18: Photo of Migira Pond area in dry season

Source: Own data [April-June 2019]

In order to solve the problem, storm water drainage network and artificial outlet should be
installed. In addition, watershed management works should have to be conducted in the
Adama catchment, especially on the ridges and drainage channels.

4.3 General Characteristics of the Case Site

Adama is found within the Wonji Fault Belt which is one of the main structural systems in
the Ethiopian Rift Valley. Its physiographic condition is, therefore, mainly the result of
volcano tectonic activities that occurred in the past, and also partly the result of the
deposition of sediments, which are considered largely of fluvial and lacustrine origin. Adama
is regarded as seismically active area concerning earthquake hazards with the probability
occurrence of 0.99 in every 100 years (NDP Report of Dabe Soloqe, Adama, and December
2015).

Adama has an elevation variation from 1442m to 2048m above mean sea level and with
about 606m elevation difference between the low elevation and high elevation. The high
elevation is found in the northern while the low elevation is found in the eastern and southern
part of the study area [OUPI 2017].

49
Figure 4.19: 3D physiographic variation of Adama Town
Source: [OUPI 2017].

4.3.1 Slope analysis

SlopeMore than 90% of the site is covered with flat, and gently sloping which is comfortable
for farming, large scale housing development, and also industrial development. Area with
slope of 15 and above needs special physical conservation treatment to improve land cover
otherwise it could be exposed to water erosion. In order to addresses issues at the site scale,
it is important of connecting and integrating planning and design practices to advance green
infrastructure.

50
 Figure 4.20: Slope analysis of Ganda Migira
Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

Table 4.4: Slope classification of Ganda Migira

Slope classification Pixel Area Pixel Count Area _Sq. Area _Ha %age
0-2 111.7192542 26106 2916542.85 291.654285 87.39%
2-5 111.7192542 2050 229024.4711 22.9024471 6.86%
5-15 111.7192542 1283 143335.8032 14.3335803 4.29%
15-20 111.7192542 406 45358.01721 4.53580172 1.36%
>20 111.7192542 29 3239.858372 0.32398584 0.1%
Total 3337501 333.7501 100.00%
Source: Own data (April-June 2019)
51
4.3.2 Neighborhood characteristics

4.3.2.1 Land use plan assessment

The general existing land use of Adama Town includes Residential both pure and mixed,
Commerce & Business, Administration, Services, Environment, Manufacturing & Storages,
Road Network and Transport, and others (water bodies, projects under construction and
gorges).

Figure 4.21: The Proposed Previous Structure Plan of Adama Town

Source: Adama Town Structural plan [June 2004]

52
The general existing land use with in the previous structure plan boundary is about 13,366.51
hectares of land in which its general land use is categorized in to eight (8) classes. Each land
use category is summarized by the Table 4 as well as its general land use map is presented
by Figure 18.

Figure 4.22: Adama Town Existing Land Use Map

Source: Adama Town Administration [Adapted from the existing land use of the Town]

53
Table 4.5: Existing Land Use Summary of the Town
No General Land Use Area (m2 ) Area (Ha.) %age
1 Housing
a. Pure Residential 25202189.13 2520.22 18.85
b. Mixed Residence 743520.02 74.35 0.56
2 Commerce & Business 1073527.90 107.35 0.80
3 Administration 1202416.50 120.24 0.90
4 Service 5154032.80 515.40 3.86
5 Open Spaces & Environmental 74794019.25 7479.40 55.96
Sensitive Areas
6 Manufacture & Storage 5188484.23 518.85 3.88
7 Road Network, Transport & Utilities 16258482.82 1625.85 12.16
8 Others (Water Bodies, Projects 4048527.35 404.85 3.03
Under Construction & Gorges)
Total 133665200 13366.51 100
Source: Adama Town Administration [Adapted from the existing land use of the Town]

The Newly Delineated Boundary of Adama Town Structure Plan

 The new boundary of Adama Town is 30,865.37 hectares [17,498.85 of hectares

of new expansion is added to the already existed boundary of 13366.52 hectares].

Table 4.6: General Land use summary of the newly added boundary
No General Land use Existing land use New Expansion Total Area
13,366.52 17,498.85 30,865.37
Source: Adama Town Administration [Adapted from the existing land use of the Town]

54
Figure 4.23: Adama Town Existing Land use and Expansion area Map
Source: Adama Town Administration [Adapted from the existing land use of the Town]

55
4.3.2.2 Existing land use plan of Ganda Migira

The following figure illustrates the existing land use plan of Ganda Migira. Among the land
uses Residences, Migira pond, open green spaces and industries occupy predominately the
existing area.

Figure 4.24: Existing land use of Ganda Migira

Source: Own data (April-June 2019) [adopted from Adama Town Structural plan]

56
According to the 2004 G.C structural plan of Adama Town the existing cattle fattening area
of Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] was proposed as mixed use but, not implemented as per plan.

Table 4.7: Existing land use classification of Ganda Migira [Kebele-02]

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

4.4 Characteristics of the Dwelling Unit

4.4.1 Construction materials

According to the available information from Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] in 2016 G.C, among
the total household 85% of settlements are illegally settled and the remaining 15% are legally
settled with knowledge of Adama Town Administration [ATA] like School, Mosque,
Church, Production Center, and so on. Because of lack of security of tenure the walls of most
houses are built of wood and plastered with mud. However, there are few houses that were
plastered with cement. In general, from the surveyed housing units about half of residential
houses’ physical condition was rated to be fair as observed during the survey.

57
Figure 4.25: Photo of construction materials of illegal housing in Migira Pond area
Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

4.4.2 Access roads and track paths

This part of the area does not have even proper track paths. Even if these are available, many
of them do not have proper maintenance and therefore difficult to walk through during the
rainy season. Lack of standard access to units is the problem for many residents in this
neighborhood.

Figure 4.26: Photo of access roads and liquid waste drainage line in Migira Pond area
Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

4.4.3 Utility services

Squatter settlements, due to their inherent “non-legal” status, have services and infrastructure
below the "adequate" or minimum levels. Such services are both network and social
infrastructure, like water supply, sanitation, electricity, roads and drainage; schools, health
centers, market places etc.

58
4.4.3.1 Water supply

In this neighbourhood 48% of the respondents use stand pipes as a source of domestic water
supply and about 33.4% had water pipes in the compound while only 18.6% of respondents
had water supply system in their dwellings. The problem they encounter with water supply
is not the quality but frequent water cuts out as it is provided on shift which is not regular.
No one knows when the water comes and when it goes. The problem of water has become a
chronic for the majority of the people in Adama despite the efforts that the government is
increasing the sources of water.

4.4.3.2 Power supply

A majority of the houses (about 73%) have access to electricity having their own private
meter while 27% of the respondents responded that they get power from shared meter.
Similar to that of water blackout days and nights are not known for electricity too.

4.4.3.3 Toilet facility

Talking about toilet facilities, a large portion of the respondents I surveyed have access to
toilet facility and use dry pit latrines within compounds and shared by more than one
household.

4.4.3.4 Solid and liquid waste disposal

The responses compiled after interviewing respondents showed that a large amount of solid
waste is being collected by private solid waste collectors charging comparatively fair for the
service they provide. 66.67% use the service of private agents for disposing solid and liquid
wastes while only 8.33% of respondents use the service provided by the municipal agency
disposing wastes. 25% of respondents unfortunately disposes wastes to nearby Migira pond
or right on streets or into ditches.

4.4.3.5 Cooking places

Food preparation requires high standard of personal hygiene and sanitation facilities. The
ownership of cooking place or kitchen was assessed and the results indicated that about 50%
of respondents use private kitchens while only 20.83% use shared kitchens and 29.16% do
not own kitchens. This means, many of the households are at one time or another using their
living or bedrooms as kitchens.
59
4.5 Demographic and Socio-Economic Situation of Respondents

4.5.1 Population

The population of Adama Town is evenly distributed though all kebeles. The following table
shows the population distribution and households (4.5 family size). As stated by Adama
Town transport study report in Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] there are 4780 households with a
total population 21,508.

Table 4.8: Population Distribution of Adama by Kebele, 2016 G.C

Source: Adama Town flood mitigation proposal, 2016

4.5.2 Age of respondents

I investigated the ages of respondents to be able to find out what proportion of the settlement
is capable of taking part in improvement efforts of green infrastructure as well as diversifying
urban agricultural production. I have been able to clarify the size of the population that is at
the height of its working and earning capacity.

According to my survey 75% of the respondents were between the ages of 15-60 years.
Therefore the majority of respondents are found in the productive age category in the study
site.

4.5.3 Gender composition

A larger proportion of the urban poor are women as the jobs they have, if they have any, are
paying much less than men. They often have temporary jobs and lack job security as a result.
This is because women have not been included into the wider national economy, especially
in education. Women in Adama too, especially those with less education, have more
difficulty in accessing formal sector employment than men because the majority of women
do not have access to even primary education. These and other cultural factors have resulted
in a higher proportion of women having less employment opportunities than men. The
majorities of those employed are in the informal sector such as petty commodity production,

60
domestic services and fuel wood collecting. In my case study area, I have found out that the
proportion of men to that of women is slightly higher.

4.5.4 Martial status

It was found that about 50% of respondents interviewed were married while 18.75% are
widowed. From such small study population, having 18.75% women who have lost their
husbands indicates a sort of unhealthy social situation. The widows probably have lost their
husbands to HIV and AIDS or to civil wars waged about 2 decades ago.

Table 4.9: Demographic information of respondents in the study area April- June 2019
Demographic characteristics Frequency Percent

Gender
Male 27 56.25
Female 21 43.75
Total 48 100

Age Range
0-14 9 18.75
15-60 27 75
Above 60 3 6.25
Total 48 100

Marital Status
Married 24 50
Divorced 3 6.25
Widowed 9 18.75
Single 12 25
Total 48 100

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

4.5.4 Socio-Economic Status of Respondents

4.5.4.1 Employment Status

One of the crucial aspects of poor households is their inability to access financial resources
to carry out repairs or to make extension to their original houses. Financing often addresses
the needs of those with regular income and secured employment. With a growing level of

61
poverty and lack of access to credit the poor are left with limited choices for improving their
shelter situation (cited in Samson Ayenachew June 2014)15.

In my case study area I found out that 29.17%, 18.75% and 40.63% of the respondents were
employed by the government, private sector and self-employed respectively while 12.49%
were unemployed.

4.5.4.2 Workers in household

From among the respondents 62.5% have the household heads as the main income earners
in the household. A further 12.5% are households in which spouses are the principal income
earners. A small portion of 6.25% is supported by income from offspring of working age
while about 18.75% is unknown. From among the households, those without employment
are likely to suffer most for lack of financial capacity to better their living conditions.

4.5.4.3 Income

In terms of sources of income 47.9% of respondents generated their income from wages and
pensions while 16.7% and 25% from own formal and Informal businesses respectively.
Transfers or gifts from others were cited as a source of income by 8.3%of the respondents
and 2.1% of respondents generated their income from other sources.

Table 4.10: Socio-Economic information of respondents in the study area April-June 2019
Socio-economic status of respondents Frequency Percent
Employment type
Government 14 29.17
Private sector 9 18.75
Self employed 19 40.63
Unemployed 6 12.49
Total 48 100

Worker in the Household

Family Head 30 62.5
Spouse 6 12.5
Worker 3 6.25
Unknown 9 18.75
Total 48 100

15
An Overview of Urban Poverty in Addis Ababa, (2001)
62
Income Range
Below 1200 23 47.9
1200-2500 18 37.5
Above 2500 3 6.25
Unknown 4 8.35
Total 48 100

Income Source
Wage including pension 23 47.9
Own business/formal 8 16.7
Own business/informal 12 25
Gift from others 4 8.3
Other 1 2.10
Total 48 100
Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

4.6 Existing Situation of Green Structure

The existing land use category identified the green land use category covers about 55.96%
of the total existing land use. It is dominant category concerning its coverage [Table 4 &
Figure 18]. However, the information I have got from the Adama Town Administration there
is a decline of green infrastructure. Population increase at an alarming rate, skyrocketing
value of land in the Town, lack of proper attention for urban green in designing and planning
urban areas and the prevalence of informal settlement which leads mushrooming on each
and every unoccupied sites and open areas are among the major reasons for the reduction
and decline of urban green structures.

The existing green structure of the case site is analyzed on how far the principles of green
infrastructure are incorporated in the current green space planning documents and practice
level, Some policies, strategies and standards related to the green infrastructure development
were driven from Girma, Y., Journal of Urban Management, September, 2018, [Urban green
infrastructure planning in Ethiopia: The case of emerging towns of Oromia special zone
surrounding Finfinne,].

63
4.6.1 Multi-functionality aspects of current green space planning practices

As the officials from Adama Town administration and Adama Town land development and
management stated, multiple benefits and functions provided by different green spaces have
been taken into account during the preparation of different planning documents, which are
related to green spaces.

1. The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, which was formulated in 1997, has an

objective to plan and create green spaces within urban areas that provide recreational
activities, habitats for plants and animals and improve urban microclimates.
2. The Urban Greenery and Beautification strategy, which was formulated in 2015, has
an objective to develop green spaces, which reduce environmental degradation,
pollution, urban floods, and which promote environmental sustainability in the urban
area.
3. The Ethiopian National Urban Green Infrastructure Standard, which was formulated
in 2015, has an objective to create ecologically well-functioning, aesthetically
pleasing, and socially beneficial green spaces in cities and provide suitable, sufficient
and ecologically viable green spaces for recreational, social, economic and
environmental needs of the community.
4. The Green Infrastructure Based Landscape Design Supporting Manual, which was
developed in 2011, also proposes to develop street tree plantings for shading,
mitigating the urban heat island effect, reducing runoff and sequestering carbon.

The planning documents look like to be supportive of multi-functionality and an

understanding of the ability of green spaces to provide multiple functions and services was
present in almost all documents.

According to the information obtained from key informant interviews and observation of the
field visits show that, only a few functions of urban green space (e.g. fragmented buffer zone
which separate Migira Pond from its residents, illegal cattle breeding and few farming
activities in dry season) were practiced. As the result, many urban green infrastructure
components such as recreational, sports fields/playgrounds and also their contributions to
storm water infiltration or mitigation to the seasonal flooding and heat island effect have
been neglected in practice but taken into consideration in the structural plan of the Town.

64
Based on the survey result, most of the respondents have lower understanding on multiple
benefits of green infrastructure due to lack access, knowledge and properly managed green
spaces.

Figure 4.27: Photo of Green structure in Migira Pond area

Source: Own (April-June 2019)

The study shows that while planning documents are aimed at addressing the issues of multi-
functionality, in practices the multiple benefits of green spaces are neglected. The finding is
similar to a study by Liu (2008) which found that attention given to multiple functions of
green areas is present more in statutory planning than in practice. In contrast, a review of
urban green space planning practices in 20 European cites by Davies et al. (2015) and Hansen
et al. (2016) shows that several ecological and social functions or services of green space are
mentioned in plans and taken into account in practice.

65
 Figure 4.28: Green structure in Ganda Migira
Source: Own (April-June 2019) [adopted from Adama Town Structural plan]

The above figure shows the existing green structure of Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] with total
area of 62.48ha. Out of this, 60.94ha is for Green, Open Space/Reserved Areas, Recreation
and Environmental Sensitive area whereas cattle fatting covers area of 1.54ha.

4.6.2. Green- grey integration in current green space planning practice

Regarding the integration of green space with other urban grey structure the analyzed
strategies, standards and guidelines, which have been related to current green spaces
planning practices contained little information. For instance:

66
 1. The Urban Greenery and Beautification Strategy has an objective to protect towns
and cities from flooding by integrating green spaces with grey structure through the
development of permeable surface and plantation.
2. The Ethiopian National Urban Green Infrastructure Standard requires improving
storm water management and enhancing storm water quality through the regulation
of river flow and protection of riverbanks. Moreover, the standards state how urban
and regional planning should incorporate green infrastructure early in the process of
designing of infrastructures like new roads, transit facilities and other projects by
assuring enough space (both above ground and underground) and enough resources
for green.
3. The Public Right of Way Management and Establishment Manual, which was
developed in 2016 by the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, has also an
objective to encourage vegetation planting along the road sides and proper
integration of both grey and green elements of the public right-of-way based on the
current condition of green infrastructures in Ethiopia. These measures should reduce
the urban heat island effect as well as noise and pollutants along roadways, and also
improve air quality.

The information acquired from key informant interviews and personal observation from the
field visit of the case study area shows that integration of green spaces and grey infrastructure
has been practiced only in main road to Ganda Migira and around the Migira Pond. So these
developed vegetated road buffer and fragmented buffer around the pond are used to improve
aesthetic quality reduce noise and air pollution, and seasonal flooding.

Figure 4.29: Photo of Green-grey integration in Migira Pond area

Source: Own (April-June 2019)

67
Even though such attempts of green-grey integration have been found, in general their
application is at an early stage indicating that there is still a considerable gap of collaboration
between the grey and green spaces sectors such as transport, urban planning, housing, energy
and water. In particular, the study found that infrastructural integration was limited to certain
functions (like storm water integration) in the document and particular networks (like road
networks) in practice, whereas there is no emphasis on expanding green-grey synergies on
other built-up structures such as green building, green energy and the like.

4.6.3. Social inclusiveness of current urban green spaces planning practices

Studies show that social inclusiveness enhances effective management of green

infrastructure and promotes community stewardship for green infrastructure components
(Enger, 2005). This study was also aimed at assessing how the concept of social
inclusiveness has been integrated into current green space planning practices. The results of
the document analysis indicates that more than half of the planning documents, which relate
to current green space planning practices, have considered the issue of social inclusiveness
in different ways. For instance:
A. The Ethiopia National Urban Green Infrastructure Standard states that urban green
infrastructure shall be managed and administered in the interests of the local
community and shall address its needs. The long-term collective interests of the local
community shall be prioritized over the interests of any specific interest group or
sector of society.
B. The Growth and Transformation Plan (II) that was formulated in 2016 by the
National Planning Commission of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has
planned to increase the coverage of green infrastructure and recreational areas in
urban centers of the country. Enhancing the awareness and participation of the
community and stakeholders has been identified as important measures of green
space planning in the document.
C. The Urban Greenery and Beautification Strategy has an objective to involve the
community and stakeholders in sustainable ways during the development of urban
green spaces. Moreover, the strategy states that urban greenery planning can be
successful only when there is active participation of the community and the
stakeholders.

68
 D. The Participatory Urban Planning Manual that was formulated in 2007 by the
Ministry of Urban Development and Housing has the objective of involving
disadvantaged groups into decision-making during urban plan preparation, which
includes planning of green spaces. Moreover, the manual has an objective to pay
attention to the priorities, needs and constraints of the Town’s population, especially
to low income groups during urban plan preparation, which includes green space
planning.

The above reviewed planning documents emphasize social inclusion and community
cohesion in urban areas by involving community members and other stakeholders in
planning and management processes as well as fostering a sense of community, the idea of
social inclusiveness is less emphasized in practice. The evidence collected through semi-
structured interview shows that formal communication among different sectors (e.g. the
Planning and Land Management and Administration offices) are limited at different levels
of government. For instance, one of the key informants said:

“….we do not have access to major information on green spaces such as required
standards and norms. This is because the formulation, preparation and approval of the
plan is made at regional level by Oromia Urban Planning Institute [OUPI] excluding the
direct responsible experts of the sector such as land administration and greenery
department.” (Key informant interview: May, 2019)

Likewise, the key informant interviews showed that most of the local communities did not
participate in green spaces planning (and establishment/ management) and that there is a
widespread disengagement of the local community in the preservation of green spaces in
their areas. Furthermore, the local communities were not informed about issues concerning
green spaces planning and management by the Town Administration. For instance, one of
the respondent said that:

“….I grew up in this Migira village and I lived all my life here but I have never seen any
resident of this village being involved in green space planning and management.”
(Questionnaire Survey: May, 2019).

69
These indicate that community participation in planning which is an essential element of
social inclusiveness and an essential process for identifying community need and interests
and for matching plans with them was very week. In addition, the planning process lacked
adequate accountability to the community while the plans lacked statutory status and
mandatory implementation requirement making the community for influencing urban
development in general very slim.

As Fuwape and Onyekwelu (2011), Mensah (2014) and Zakka, Permana, Majid, Danladi,
and Bako (2017) indicate poor community participation in green space management is a
common problem in many African cities. In contrast, partly due to long urban history, in
many European cities especially cities in the United Kingdom, residents and community
groups are highly involved by local Town authorities in the conservation of green
infrastructure components (CABE, 2010a). Similarly, a study conducted by Davies et al.
(2015) on 20 European cities shows that citizen participation in urban green infrastructure
planning is widely implemented.

4.6.4. Connectivity aspect of current green spaces planning practices

During my analysis of different documents from municipality on issues related to

connectivity of different green spaces were not given due consideration. None of the
documents considered how to link green spaces physically and/or functionally. According
to information obtained from the key informant, the idea of a network and connectivity was
difficult during planning process. Because, there is a highly fragmented green space system
in the Town as confirmed by key informant and also lack of adequate knowledge at national
and local levels resulting from the newness of the concept of making green space has
significantly affected the plan implementation practices.

4.7 Existing Situation of Blue Structure

As the officials from Adama Town infrastructure department stated; Adama Town is drained
by a number of different sized seasonal streams and erosion formed gullies which usually
start from the sides of the sloppy scarps, ridges and domes. Most of these streams are valley
type and there is artificially developed drainage way which serves as the only outlet. During
large storms almost all runoff from the surrounding high slopes drain in to the Town causing
flash flood. These seasonal streams initially begin as rills and gully on the slopes and
70
progressively join to the main streams that have dissected the low lying flat land which
ultimately fed into the Awash River. While some the streams and gullies sink in the lower
slopes [like Migira area].

The main streams have relatively deep wide and V-shaped valleys. In places the whole
profile of the sediment is cut down to the hard core while on the other hand the smaller
streams and gullies are characterized by narrow down cutting valleys which sometimes have
nearly verticals walls.

The northern and western part of the area contain relatively well developed drainage pattern.
The western part characterized by nearly parallel streams running NNE-SSW that have short
tributaries which start from the side of the bounding ridges. The streams drain to the Awash
River. In the northern part of the area, Mermersa is the main stream in to which seasonal
water from the surrounding high lands drains. It flows mainly to the east and later it drains
in to swamp in north western part of the study area. Drainage of eastern and south eastern
parts of the area is not well developed. Many streams and gullies which are usually non-
graded sink in to the loose deposits in the low lands. Particularly those small streams that
emanates from the eastern of Dibibisa dome sink in to the sediments along north_ east line
giving a probable alignment of buried fault or fracture zone [OUPI, 2017].

Figure 4.30: Surface water potential map of the Adama Town

Source: Adama Town Structural plan

71
The topography orientation of the area is rugged as it encompasses an area flat and gently
sloping east wards and presence of hills and ridges. The western part of the area forms Migira
flood plain where as in the eastern part it is intercepted by shallow and deep cut gullies.
Adama Town Administration has two macro watersheds, namely Awash and Migira macro-
watersheds.

The existing pond in ‘Migira’ and related drainage system in upper and middle catchments
were the target areas of study. As per information from Adama Town Administration, the
Eastern – Western parts of watershed of Adama Town Administration [ATA] directs finally
towards ‘Migira’ pond from various sources of flooding from upper catchments of:
1. From the southern direction of the Town, the upper catchment includes Boku shenen,
across express high way, being constructed by China road construction. From Lugo,
above Boku Michael (Kebele 03, Tikurabay, RRC (Erdata mastebaberia), and below
Boku Michael;
2. From the northern direction of the Town from Dhaga Adi, Bolle, around Derartu
Building, Kebeles 13, 14, ASTU areas, passing through Kebele 13 then to 14, finally
to Migira.
3. From central part of the Town, Adama Boset Elementary School, below Pikok,
joining those drainages coming from the direction of Tikurabay.

72
 Figure 4.31: Discharge coming from different catchments toward Migira Pond
Source: Own (April-June 2019)

The pond is under capacity to accommodate high discharge coming from different streams.
According to the field observation and reviewed documents the highest flow or stream
contributor is from the upstream which is artificially directed or diverted from the
expressway.

Figure 4.32: Photo of two drainage canals diverted to Migira from Expressway
Source: Flood mitigation project of Adama Town, 2016

The inlet level of the flow streams to this pond is below the maximum pond water level.
Hence, it serves as a channel for backflow towards the residences. Moreover, there is large

73
amount of sediment and rubbishes accommodated in the pond. The cumulative of these all
creates the backflow effect to RCC store and its surrounding.

Figure 4.33: Photo of Blue Structure of Migira Pond area

Source: Own (April-June 2019)

As shown in the above figure, Migira Pond at the larger scale is being converted to grey and
black water due to improper sanitation system, weak waste management, and poor protection
methods. It is common to see industrial, domestic and municipal wastes being dumped into
the drainage. Therefore my study site is exposed to such problems in the fullest extent
particularly when there is heavy rain.

As per the questionnaire survey, Migira pond is one of the threat for Migira residents because
as its level increases during the rainy season; it overflows back to the surrounding residents.
Their attitude or interest regarding the problem were

 41.6% of the respondents want a solution for the existing flood problem as well as
issues related to informality without resettlement,
 37.57% of the respondents want to be accommodated in nearer area without affecting
their social relationships,
 20.83% of the respondents also need resettlement in anywhere.

74
 Figure 4.34: Blue structure in Ganda Migira
Source: Adama Town Structural plan

The above figure shows the existing blue structure of Ganda Migira [Kebele 02]. Migira
seasonal water body covers area of 54.69ha, whereas the swampy area covers 0.2ha.

4.7.1 Existing problems associated to Migira Pond

From the feasibility study and existing data, the problem associated with the existing
Migira’s pond is not only the drainage systems in Migira watershed, but associated with
Adama Town drainage system as a whole. Some concepts related to the problems were

75
driven from Flood Protection and Drainage System in Adama Town and Surroundings,
studied by Technical Committee, April, 2014 are:

 Adama Town doesn’t have drainage Master plan and the existing constructed
drainage structures do not have a proper record of the drainage network and hydraulic
capacity.
 Migira’s pond drainage system, in particular is not properly panned and designed i.e.
the main out fall drains to Migira that collect storm water from central and northern
direction of Town and lay at lower place of Migira Pond.
 The drainage systems in Adama Town as a whole and Migira pond in particular have
been illegally connected to untreated sanitary sewage from industry and business
centers and dumping of domestic wastes from house households in drainage system
which hinder smooth flow of storm water in drainage system and pollute water inter
the retention pond and Awash River.
 Maintenance and cleaning services of drainage network not properly implemented to
lack of comprehensive management in each Kebele, so lot of drainage line seen fall
and full of rubbish (solid waste) and domestic wastes.
 As it is observed, during feasibility study, the current condition of Migira’s pond bed
is filled with the big amount of sediments, disorder, rubbish and organic matter, in
which resulted the bed level of the pond is above the bed level of the main in flow.
That is why the retention pond storage capacity is not sufficient to accommodate the
amount of water drains from upper catchment.
 There is a sign of landslide (crack) forming folds around Migira pond; this
embankment is long and joined two kebeles, which is inconvenient for the inhabitants
and areas social life.
 Because of defined and associated problems around Migira pond flood cause stream
bank erosion, degrade environment and water quality, damage residence resources,
changing stream bed morphology and ecosystem, causing trouble, further health risks
especially in the last 3 or 4 years
 From the previous laboratory Tests the soil which occupies the pond area is clayey
silt soil having medium plasticity nature, non-dispersive and is impermeable. There

76
 are wide opening cracks in the pond area depicting the presence of fissure/fault line
underneath the thick soil cover.

4.7.2 Solid and Liquid waste management nearby Migira Pond

Increasing amount of solid and liquid waste is being generated as a result of rapid rate of
urbanization and expanding industries of various sizes in Adama Town. This in turn
presents greater difficulties for waste disposal as there is malfunctioning sewerage system
in the Town. Weak governance system, frequent staff turnover, ineffective institutional
capabilities have opened ways to out of control urbanization processes and also illegal
mushrooming settlement in Adama. Had the urbanization process been guided by well-
planned and designed urban land use is in place and the Town Administration could have
introduced the modern way of city life and raised awareness and developed skills. Adama
remains one of the loving home and business centers for all residents.

As it was observed and data obtained from Adama urban sanitation and greenery department
the major types of solid and liquid wastes in the Town are generated from
residential/households, commercial/business centers, institutions, industries, street
sweeping, institution, construction and demolition, health facilities and municipality itself.
Drainage channels constructed for conveying runoff water in some parts of the Town
longtime ago has been damaged. The majority of the population of the Town use onsite
sanitation facilities (waste is disposed of within individual plots) and a very minor proportion
use offsite facilities (waste is transported to another site); while a significant proportion use
open fields and storm water drains.

Based on my observation, domestic wastes from the households and sewer lines are the
major sources of pollution. This drainage line seems no more an opportunity unless the Town
government or concerned officials take measure to raise awareness of the residents to
cooperate with the local administration to hold accountable those who dispose wastes. The
officials must rehabilitate to make the sites to become centre of attraction not repelling.
Unemployed youth can be supported to own, manage and generate income to improve their
living standard and that of their families.

77
Figure 4.35: Photo of solid and liquid waste management around Migira Pond
Source: Own (April-June 2019)

4.7.3 Urban agricultural activities attached to Migira Pond

Some cities have adopted urban agriculture as a strategy to decrease urban unemployment,
to improve urban food security, and nutritional status and to generate income for the urban
poor in general and the disadvantaged groups such as women, and the disabled.

In Adama according to the structural plan, urban agriculture accounts about 1.45% of the
environmental land use category and almost nil of the total land use under the study. It is
safe however, to say that many poor urban households engage in local production of food,
vending and related activities (e.g. production of food grains, vegetables, dairy and feed
supply) as the main or complementary strategy to secure food supply for their families and/or
to earn cash.

In the case site only 12 respondents that have economic activities attached to Migira Pond.
Some of the major activities include vegetable gardening, animal fattening, dairy farm and
poultry production. Due to poor environmental sanitation, disposing wastes to drainage line,
and poor economic return; 75% of respondents around Migira Pond did not want to risk their
health by producing the products because they feel that the water source is not clean and
suspect high level of pollutant elements in it.

78
Figure 4.36: Photo of Urban agricultural activities attached to Migira Pond
Source: Own (April-June 2019)

4.7.3.1 Potentials and Challenges of developing urban agriculture in the case site

Potentials of developing urban agriculture in the case site

Urban Agriculture could be one of sustainable green infrastructures in Migira Pond area by
providing multiple advantages to the inhabitants and people visiting the area daily for various
reasons. Redesign and planning if integrates urban agriculture as Green Infrastructure [GI]
would enhance the economy of each household participating in vegetable and fruit farming
on walls and roofs. Urban farming and woodlots contributes as buffer on Migira Pond
protection if it is practised along properly. The cooperation and willingness of inhabitants is
decisive as well as provision of technical and capacity building support to the individuals
interested in promoting urban agriculture is crucial to achieve effective urban agriculture and
Green Infrastructure [GI] linkage. This enormous potential for enhancing Green
Infrastructure [GI] through promoting urban agriculture improves the livelihood of the
participating urban farmers as well as increasing the effectiveness of climate change
adaptation. Increasing land cover and protecting pond area would increase the benefits
(socio-economic, environmental, aesthetic and recreational) that are hardly found in the
study sites of Ganda Migira [Kebele 02] as well as across the Town in general.

Challenges of developing urban agriculture in the case site

Despite the positive attitude, urban agriculture as an income generating activity face a
number of challenges. These include:

 Lack of technical assistance such as improved and appropriate technologies for

strengthening production;
79
  Lack of research support on urban agriculture in order to generate new technologies
and methods of work;
 Lack of incentives and/or support to encourage the sector considering its contribution
towards meeting the needs of the Town’s inhabitants, particularly the poor and
unemployed;
 The high level of water pollution due to poor coverage by adequate sanitation in
many areas, the uncontrolled discharge into the water ways from public toilets,
broken sewerage and storm drains, factories and offices, health centres, garages,
institutions such as schools and colleges etc., all of which increase the contamination
of vegetable products by pathogenic organisms
 Lack of skilled technicians for promoting and training urban agriculture skills;
 Challenges to established producers, such as urban dairy farmers, due to resettlement
and relocation into unsuitable areas to continue.

4.7.4 Measures Taken to Overcome Problems associated to Migira Pond

To mitigate the problems related to Migira Pond area, a number of alternative options and
intervention measures, from previous studies haven reviewed.

1. Adama Town structural plan [2004 G.C]

The structural plan revision work in 2004 was targeted at exploiting the potentials of Adama
to get a worldwide, national, regional, and local importance by improving quality of the built
and natural environment. The completion of the structural plan has led to the preparation of
detailed studies on specific issues to facilitate the implementation process of the revised plan
of Adama. One of the issues identified for study is the development of city /Public Park in
the Town. The 2004 structural plan reserved (confirmed) the proposals of 1995 master plan
with some improvements and proposed additional parks.

80
 Figure 4.37: Proposed formal and informal green of the revised structural plan of Adama
Source: Adama Master plan revision project, August, 2004

Total area of the proposed parks [formal green] is 1281.6 ha [which is 9.6% of total proposed
area (i.e. 42.72m2per person)]. Each park will have unique function with appropriate area
to carry it out. For instance, the proposed park in Migira covers an area of 115.4 ha (67.2 ha
plain and 48.2 ha cliff). The plain part of this site is also waterlogged necessitating
appropriate drainage system. The size of the park opens the opportunity of developing it for
various park functions. The proposed sewage and drainage lines of the eastern side of the
Town will pass through this site necessitating maximum integration of the two functions
[Adama Master Plan revision project, August, 2004].

81
Table 4.11: Location and area coverage of proposed public/City park of Adama, June 2004.

Proposed city Park Area coverage Location

Dembela city park (Dembela plain) 85.1 Kebele 09
Migira Park (Migira plain and ridge) 115.4 Kebele 02

Community park (College park) 18.4 Previous

Kebele 03
Source: Adama Master plan revision project, August, 2004

As per information from the study of environmental team in August, 2004 G.C accessibility
of the site in 2004 was almost nil. The proposed road network in 2004 does not enhance the
accessibility to the park but will improve the access to the vicinity. The site at that moment
was being used for agriculture purpose by the nearby peasant settlements.

Remark

Even if the Revised Structural plan indicated detailed direction for green frame development
for the Town, it has not been implemented so far. Unpredicted population growth in the case
site resulted conversion of prime agricultural, wetlands and forest to urban use such as
housing, road and industry. The existing green cover is half less than the proposed in 2004
therefore, it is important to integrate and consider urban green development as integral part
in the land use planning if Adama Town Administration is willing not to repeat the same
mistakes that have been done in Addis Ababa over the last 130 years.

2. “EIA study by HAWAS engineering plc. Before 2012 G.C”

The technical feasibility study of the project [Diverting Migira Pond to other side of the
mountain] was conducted by HAWAS engineering plc. [A consulting firm hired by
Adama Town Administration].

Three technical options suggested by HAWAS engineering plc. Were:

a. Excavating the ridge saddle to have an opened channel

b. Tunneling the existing ridge
c. Pumping of the storm water through the top of the ridge
82
Remark

HAWAS engineering plc. Presented three technical options without preparing detail study
of the potential impacts of the project by taking the most feasible one from the three options.
In my opinion the above three alternatives, under a, b, c, are simply relocating the pond, i.e.
creating another artificial pond, similar to the existing pond behind Migira hill or shifting
the crisis to other community and environment on the other side of the hill. To my knowledge
all three options have similar except they are different in implementation tactic and cost of
relocation of the water.

3. “EIA report in Diverting Migira Pond to other side of Mountain”; Promoter

Adama Town Administration, by G-two Investment and environmental
consultancy, April, 2012

Lack of safe diversion of Migira Pond water and related infrastructure facilities are remained
to be among the critical problems identified by the Town administration. Therefore the Town
admiration decided and committed to open channel for safe discharge of water from the pond
by hiring a consultancy firm which undertakes detail environmental impact assessment
[EIA] and prepare resettlement action plan [RAP] for the project affected people [PAP].
The EIA report document was taken from HAWAS engineering plc. and EIA was
conducted by G-two Investment and environmental consultancy.

Major Problems identified by G-two Investment and environmental consultancy are:

1) Due to absence of outlets at the lowest point of the eastern catchments of Adama Town,
the flow accumulates in a depression, which has two major drawbacks:
a. This depression has become a breeding place for mosquito,
b. It creates large swampy area that could be development/expansion area for
the Town,
2) Back flow of storm water from Migira Pond to Adama Town

G-two Investment and Environmental Consultancy identified the potential impacts of the
project by taking the most feasible one from the three technical options suggested by
HAWAS engineering plc.

83
Option -2: Tunneling the existing ridge was selected because it has no adverse effect on
the ridge continuities, no conflicting issues with other services like ring road and
green park projects, and least expensive compared to the above two options.

Remark

This option is also simply relocating Migira Pond and identified problems [such as pollution,
waste and malaria] to other side of the mountain. Social issues and economic damage as well
as environmental related risks were not considered. In addition to this the cost implication
of about birr 20.05million birr was huge. With much lesser or about equal amount of money
Migira pond area could have been developed into environmentally friendly, economically
paying and social sound project.

4. “Design of Adama Migra Pond Inundation and Flood Control Project, by

Water works Design and Supervision Enterprise, May, 2013 G.C”.

According to this study four alternative options were suggested, which are summarized and
analyzed below:

a. Pumping and detention Pond: which includes construction of detention pond and
installation of pumping station, with 40m head to cross the Migira Hill.

Advantage Disadvantage
High Construction cost
Needs pump station
Remove inflow water from the pond Failure of the pump may take place
Foreign currency is required
24 hours monitoring & standby

b. Tunneling: it is underground passage dug through a hill, which is dug for water
way without disturbing the upper surfaces of the Migira Hill.

84
 Advantage Disadvantage
Give access to the outflow, Requires foreign technology,
Reduce large excavation [no adverse Technically not feasible, from geological
effect on Migira Hill]. setting.

c. Open or cut and cover Hill Crossing: is deep excavation and construction.

Advantage Disadvantage
Deep excavation [40m length and 15m-60m
Give access to the inflow water from
width to incoming flood].
the pond.
Forms a big dissection of the ridge that could
conflict with other anticipated services like
ring road and city park project.

d. Diverting storm water (drainage) toward Awash River, The possibility of

diverting storm water partially or totally from Migira catchment to Awash River.

Advantage Disadvantage
Big construction cost to divert the direction
Minimize the inflow of water from Technically not feasible due to topographic
the upper catchments feature

Remark on the above four alternatives:

 Draining Migira Pond artificially can only be considered as pond relocation, another
pond will be formed in downstream areas, especially in Dongore Tenku and Dongore
Rukete farmer’s association and at the southern edge of part of Dabe Soloke rural
farmers associations.
 Constructing detention reservoir is additional cost.
 Construction required substantial quantities of material and extracting significantly
affect in several way including changing landscape.
 Expected detention areas are reserved for the expansion of Wolenchiti sugar
corporation, farmers’ farming & grazing lands.
 Immediately behind Migira Hill there is a ring road to be affected.

85
  Diverting is unpredicted; because topographic feature of the Town requires to have
a place equal or lower than Migira retention [a minimum about 5.5 km length of
drainage channel] is needed.

5. “Flood Protection and Drainage System in Adama Town and Surroundings’’

in 2014

This study was conducted by Adama Science and Technology University [ASTU] and
Adama Town Administration [ATA], as joint project. According to this study four
alternatives were suggested, which are summarized and analyzed below:

a) Construction, maintenance & rehabilitation

Advantage Disadvantage
Saving Life & resources of the inhabitants Quality measures can’t be attained due to
in Migira [Kebele-02] time constrains

b) Resettlement of the residences, being affected and to be affected.

Advantage Disadvantage
Expenses to resettle the inhabitant [provide
Permanent solution for the inhabitants and land and compensation]
local Government Rehabilitation expenses after resettlement
Disturb social bond of people

c) Control Migira Pond and Preserve Natural aesthetics of area

Advantage Disadvantage
Turn Migira Pond to natural water harvesting.

Do not affect farm, grazing land of downstream

and infrastructures, behind Migira Silt and sold particle deposit from upper
and middle catchment

86
 Relatively need low capital investment for Urgent relocation and compensation for
construction of dyke, upper catchment and dwellers that live in and around Migira
control mechanism Pond
Preserve natural aesthetic and beauty Might be sources of malaria, typhoid
and diarrhea diseases

d) Partly divert the drainage

Advantage Disadvantage
Expenses and natural degradation
Minimize the pressure on Migira Pond Relatively need high maintenance and
administration cost

Remark on the above four alternatives:

The above four alternatives usually focuses on the usage of the pond. Since ponds are a
major asset which provides enormous opportunity in water security sector. Similar to Migira
Pond, poor quality ponds suffer degradation to an extreme level due to surface water
pollution and because of their small volumes compared to lakes and rivers. The above
alternatives majorly lacks detail strategies, planning principles and design mechanisms to
give solution for the problem associated to Migira pond and on the usage of the pond.

6. “Adama Town flood mitigation project proposal” October, 2016

Adama Town has experienced serious incidents of flood and caused major disturbances,
destroying property and resulting in loss of life. Extreme flood events in Adama Town result
in loss of life and cause substantial property damage. In June of 2016 G.C, flooding tragically
resulted in the loss of lives and properties in Adama Town. In an effort to identify potential
mitigation measures to this natural disaster, a steering committee and flood mitigation
technical task force with nine members has been established. The technical committee
consisted of representatives from ASTU, Adama Town Administration and Awash Basin
Authority (AwBA) established and conducted studies to propose flood mitigation measures.

 Identified Problems and Proposed short term Solutions in Migra Pond and Surrounding
area were:
87
 I. Over toping of Migira to RRC store

The flooding occurred around this pond is mainly due to over flow of Migira Pond which
damaged RRC compound.

Figure 4.38: Picture of RRC store

Source: Flood mitigation project of Adama Town, 2016

Proposed short term solutions

 Making dyke along fence of RRC at east direction to drainage line feeding Migira Pond
with selected material
 Cleaning silt and treating water way comes from upper catchment

II. Adama Industrial Park

This receive water from upper catchment of Industrial Park to Migira through artificial water
way. High volume of water from wide watershed is joined to discharge at Migira Pond which
will increase the discharge at Migira and erode the stream course favor the formation of large
gorges in settlement area

88
 Figure 4.39: Drainage inappropriately diverted to Migira Pond
Source: Flood mitigation project of Adama Town, 2016

Proposed short term solutions:

 Diversion works from the drainage of expressway to Dabe natural stream/waterway

 Provision of silt trap structure along the course
 Closing the artificial waterway that drains to Migira

I. Surrounding of Migira Pond

The pond is under capacity to accommodate high discharge from different streams. The inlet
level of the flow streams to this pond is below the pond level. Moreover, there is high amount
of rubbish and sedimentation. The cumulative of these all creates the backflow effect to RRC
store and its surrounding.

Figure 4.40: Migira Pond during heavy rain

Source: Flood mitigation project of Adama Town, 2016
89
Proposed short term solutions

 Creation of awareness of waste disposal mechanisms

 Data collection about settlers
 Displacement and rehabilitation of the settlers under risk
 Maintaining the external dyke

Remark

Here, Migira Pond is identified with its overtopping nature to the nearby RRC and Adama
industrial park areas. The nature of this pond is gradually changing by indicating the
increasing of its level and its closed nature that has no outlet to the other catchment. In this
study it is highly recommended for Migra Pond to study the geological, geotechnical,
hydrogeological and geophysical nature of the subsurface nature.

4.8 Barriers preventing the adoption of green infrastructure planning

In the search for further development of urban landscapes, the concept of green infrastructure
planning has become central in policy documents and as a planning tool (Lindholm, 2017).
Nevertheless, there are a number of barriers associated with implementing the concept and
its planning principles in the current green space planning practices of the study area. The
barriers have been related to the following potential factors.

1. First, lack of awareness and poor involvement. The poor involvement of the local
community coupled with limited awareness of the benefits of green infrastructure has
made the local community to view urban green space planning and protection as the sole
responsibility of government. Regarding this, a key informant from greenery department
reported that:
“…., the concept of green infrastructure is new to most of us. As a result, low
attention has been given to integrate properly the main principles of green
infrastructure planning in the current green space planning practice” (Key informant
interview, May 2019)

Because of these low levels of awareness, the community has the habit of using green spaces
sometimes for illegal activities such as dumping solid wastes, and storing and selling
construction materials, illegally holding Green Infrastructure [GI] areas.
90
Figure 4.41: Photo of Green spaces in Migira Pond
Source: Own (April-June 2019)

As per information from the greenery department, many plants have been planted each year,
the survival rate on these plants has been low due to less or no care for seedlings once they
are planted since no one is to be held accountable for common property in this country in
general. Government officials who plant trees do not make official agreement with local
communities on mechanisms of managing and protecting seedlings or the effort of providing
environmental education is limited.

2. Second, lack of professional skills and experience. The environmental advantage and
multi-functionality benefits of green infrastructure planning demands skilled
professionals equipped with different disciplines such as landscape ecology, urban and
regional planning, and landscape architecture (Pauleit et al., 2017).

3. Third, shortage of budget. Budget is a fundamental issue in putting any plan into action.
If green infrastructure is to be taken forward then the question for providing adequate
funding needs to be addressed (Mohamed, 2011).

4. Fourth, absence of collaboration among various governmental sectors. The planning and
implementation of green infrastructure is not the sole responsibility of single sector, it
has to be planned and implemented in an integrated way with different sectors such as
transport, housing, water and energy both at regional and local levels (Benedict &
McMahon, 2012).

91
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. DESIGN PROPOSALS

5.1 Proposed Solutions for the study area

Like described before, Adama Town is highly affected by flood, soil and other natural
resources degradation due to improper utilization and miss-use of natural resources. The
runoff from rural areas is the leading source of impairments which affects the Town by
flooding problems.

Migira pond is one of the threat to Adama Town because as its level increases during the
rainy season; it overflows back to the surrounding residents of the Town especially to the
RRC [erdata mastebaberia] and also to individuals who built houses without being given site
plan or even user right to the plots [they own particularly on buffer zone and reserved areas
around Migira Pond]. Such problems are usually solved with help of carefully designed
strategies in short and long flood mitigation plans and also considering different planning
approaches that can address informal and illegal developments. For sustainable flood
mitigation, detail scientific approach using all necessary data is required. However, in
Adama short term plan were used for the existing problem for specific rainy season.

The above six studies [presented in the above sub section 4.7.4] on Migira Pond, more than
half of them focused only on flood mitigation measures which is to relocate Migira Pond on
the other side the mountain which requires detail geotechnical investigation of the subsurface
nature of the pond area before doing the engineering structures. In addition they propose to
resettle inhabitants in environmentally sensitive area to some other place which call for
socio-economic studies before taking any measure. Correspondingly only few studies put
alternatives on the usage of pond but, implementation mechanisms, standards and regulatory
tools were not incorporated. In the above studies attention given to urban green infrastructure
development is very low. The development of urban green infrastructure activity is
demonstrated through conservation of existing green belts in cites/towns, planting
multipurpose tree, landscaping design, exercising urban agriculture, establishment of public
92
and private parks and gardens, all these component of green infrastructure [GI] has a great
contribution to stabilize and regulate the cities/ towns weather condition and preserve urban
ecosystem services. To ensure sustainable economic development and bring stable society it
is important to implement community based participatory green infrastructure [GI]
development. Its aims to minimize flood and erosion hazard and improve the livelihood of
residence of the area through comprehensive and integrated natural resources development
and productivity enhancement measures for improved income generation opportunities and
also to optimize the use of the existing natural resources and untapped potential in both
degraded areas and the remaining potential areas.
Therefore, I have developed design and planning solutions to inform the decision makers so
that Migira pond and its environs will be developed to benefit communities in income
generating through well-designed urban agriculture, physical and biological conversation of
the pond area that contributes to the expansion of green infrastructure and increase
aesthetical value of blue infrastructure. The design and planning solutions for treating pond
area, promoting urban agriculture as major contributors to green infrastructure [GI] and
improvement of blue infrastructure have been suggested as follows:

 Most scientific recommendations for minimum buffer widths range from 15 to 30 meters.
It is ‘conservative’ option, provides good protection to the pond and good habitat
preservation, although heavy rain, floods, or poor management of contaminant sources
could not easily overwhelm the buffer.

a) Zone 1, begins at the edge of pond and shall extend for a minimum distance of 6
m, measured horizontally on a line perpendicular to the water course or water
body. This mainly undisturbed vegetated area aims to protect the physical and
ecological integrity of the river ecosystem.

b) Zone 2, the middle zone, shall extend immediately from the outer edge of zone 1
for a minimum distance of 18 m (up to several hundred meters, depending on
pond protection objectives, stream type, soil type, or topography). This managed
area of native vegetation protects key components of the pond ecosystem and
provides distance between upland development and the pond side zone. Its
function is to remove sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants from surface and

93
 groundwater. This zone, in combination with Zone 1, also provides most of the
enhanced habitat benefits. But it shall also allow for recreation and aesthetic
benefits.
c) Zone 3, the outer zone, shall extend for a minimum distance of 6 m immediately
from outer edge of zone 2. This zone prevents encroachment into the riparian
buffer, filters runoff from adjacent land, and encourages sheet flow of runoff into
the buffer.

6m
18m
6m

30m

Figure 5.42: Recommended buffer width

Source: Own data (April-June 2019) adapted from MUDH, 2015.

 The buffer zone should not act as a preservation area, but rather the area should structure
communal and public spaces of the Town;
 Urban farming should be promoted along the pond edge by integrating it with the green
buffer zone;
 Practical green programs like community recreational open space, children play ground,
etc. could be combined along the buffer zone area to activate and increase the usability
of the space.
 Introducing fish production in Migira pond. Stocking fishes can provide many
recreational opportunities as well as improve water quality. The minimum recommended
buffer width for fish production is 45m.
 Animal fattening must be relocated to the South-Western parts of the Town following
the prevailing wind direction. This is because currently few of them are scattered within

94
 the residential quarters that need to be taken due consideration because of their
incompatibility.
 Familiarizing Poultry production both at household and community level.
 Provision of silt trap structure, maintaining external dyke and cleaning silt and treating
waterway come from upper catchment must be done to rehabilitate pond area.

5.1.1 Design and planning solution at Community Level

1. Rehabilitation of Migira Pond

Ponds are one of the most reliable and economical sources of water. Ponds are now serving
for a variety of purposes, including water for livestock and for irrigation, fish production,
fire protection, energy conservation, wildlife habitat, recreation, increase property values,
increase environmental awareness, and enhance Town‘s attractiveness as tourist
destinations, erosion control, improve flood storage capacity and landscape improvement.
Thus, protecting ‘Migira Pond ‘results in safe and better environment for rich biodiversity,
reduces climate change impact and provides service for the society.

Figure 5.43: Current status of Migira pond

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)
95
Currently, there are three cells intended to solve flood and to remove sediments and
rubbishes that will create a backflow effect. But this design does not serve multiple functions,
including storm water quality treatment, peak flow attenuation, and wildlife habitat creation.
Figure 38 illustrates a typical multiple pond system, showing a well-designed and landscaped
pond that can be an aesthetic feature.

Figure 5.44: A well-designed multiple pond system

Source: Volume 4: Storm water Best Management Practices

96
Multiple pond systems consist of several wet pools that are constructed in a series following
a forebay. The advantage of these systems is that they can improve treatment efficiency by
better simulating plug flow conditions as compared to a single large wet pool. Also, these
systems are in series, that provide longer flow paths and two or more storage cells for water
quality and quantity treatment.

Figure 5.45: 2d and 3d Rendering of multiple pond system

Source: Volume 4: Storm water Best Management Practices

Components of Multiple pond system:

 Permanent pool – prevents re-suspension of solids

 Live storage above permanent pool – sized for a percentage of water quality volume and
flow attenuation. Percentage depends on type of wet pond chosen
97
 Forebay – settles out larger sediments in an area where sediment removal will be easier
 Spillway system – spillway system(s) provides outlet for storm water runoff when large
storm events occur and maintains the permanent pool.

Design considerations

 Pond dimension: the necessary water retention volume of a pond will depend on
such factors as:
a) Design rain event: How large is the damage if flooding occurs in the
catchment area?
b) Discharge rate and volume during the duration of a design rain event
c) Necessary retention time in the pond is essential for water treatment.
d) Most important design parameter for ponds is the depth. Commonly used and
most preferred permanent water depth is between 1.2 and 2.5 m. Accordingly,
storage volume will form above this level – between the permanent water
level and pond banks. Ponds that are designed for water retention and
treatment are often divided in two different sections – shallow section and
deep section with a bank or gabion wall in between. The shallow section
should be at least 0.5m deep.
 Cross sections: Slopes for the ponds are generally constructed within the angle of
natural sloping processes, so it is crucial to do proper geological investigation.
a) The slope of side should not be less than 3 to 1.
b) If the pond is also being used for swimming and fishing then at least one
shore should be flat and accessible for people.
c) For long term, pond`s bed and slopes must be impermeable.

98
Figure 5.46: Impermeable membrane
Source: Handbook on sustainable urban drainage [2007-2013]

 Inlets and outlets: In cities storm water enters retention ponds typically via sewers
or open ditches. It is recommended to construct an inlet manhole right before the
pond for primary water treatment and filtration of large particles. The very last
culvert before inlet into the pond should be equipped with bars for physical filtration
reasons, not to let debris into the pond.

Figure 5.47: Adjustable weir regulating water level in a pond, H=1.7m

Source: Handbook on sustainable urban drainage [2007-2013]

 Water treatment potential:

a) Oxygen is crucial element to ensure water treatment.
b) When storm water is retained for a longer period of time eventually natural
treatment processes take place. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds gets
absorbed by shoreline and shallow zone plants, suspended elements and sand

99
 precipitates onto the bed. These are the reasons why pond regularly needs to
be cleaned and water plants removed. Grass mowing on the sides must be
done every single summer.
c) If there is a possibility for oil related pollution filters must be applied to take
up runoff during the first 15 minutes of a rain event, because it`s the most
polluted.
 Landscape design: Beautiful landscape with open water and harmonic greenery can
be ensured throughout the year and in any time of the day. In such places walking
trails and proper seating for viewing the pond must be implemented.

Figure 5.48; 3d rendering for landscape design

Source: Volume 4: Storm water Best Management Practices
100
  Construction, exploitation and maintenance: During the construction and digging
also the maintenance plan should be designed as to ensure regular mowing, cleaning
and water regulation activities.
 Security and civic engagement: The pond should be a beautiful and functional piece
of landscape design.
 Bio retention facilities: provides sufficient treatment effect for following runoff
pollutants: sediment, litter, metals, bacteria, oil, and organics.
 It is one of a management practices of sustainable urban drainage system;
typically consists of a grass buffer layer and a ponding area, constructed as:
organic layer and plants, with underlying planting soil and sand (gravel) bed
layers. Passing through the filter strip reduces the velocity of runoff; runoff
flow is evenly distributed along the ponding area.

Figure 5.49: Visual reference of bio retention facility

Source: Handbook on sustainable urban drainage [2007-2013]

Function of pond

Generally the benefits of pond storage facilities can be divided into two major categories.

 The first function is related to quality including decrease downstream channel

erosion, Control of sediment deposition, and improved water quality through storm
water filtration (wet ponds only), provide an attractive habitat for wildlife in urban
watercourses, Create better places to live, work and play.

101
  The other category is related with quantity. Ponds will reduce peak runoff rate
increases caused by urban development, Mitigate downstream drainage capacity
problems, Reduce or eliminate the need for downstream outfall improvements,
Provide opportunities for evapo-transpiration from vegetation and surface water,
Recharge natural groundwater/aquifer (where appropriate), and Sympathetic to the
environment and the needs of the local community.

Figure 5.50: Visual reference of multiple pond system

Source: Handbook on sustainable urban drainage [2007-2013]

I recommend Migira Pond to be used for two major purposes [see Figure 45]. The first one
is mainly for economic purposes – as fish farms, fishing waters, for watering the urban farm
and providing water for animals and secondly as a decorative pond which is a recreational
element.

102
Figure 5.51: Visual reference for multiple-benefits of pond system
Source: Own data (April-June 2019) adapted from Handbook on sustainable urban drainage [2007-2013]

2. Terrace farming

Terrace farming is one of the positive green programs for both as livelihood solution and
green coverage for the existing situation within Migira Pond Area. In the east of Migira pond
there is a mountain however, as population of the Town increased, some informal inhabitants
settled nearby the mountain. There is an effort to reclaim the lost beautification by
protecting/reserving the mountain although terracing shall be considered to implement storm
water management practices on steep slopes.

103
 Food production along the pond edge Trees and terraced farming of Tokyo

Figure 5.52: Typical examples of terrace farming

Source: Scientific design for bench terrace. (Ted C. Sheng, 2002)

Terracing slows rainfall and runoff by breaking the gradient of long steep slopes in steps.
Ditching on a bench terrace may not be necessary since the benches are constructed to
typically slope inward toward the top of slope in order to divert runoff water along the bench
rather than down the slope. Vegetation is then more easily established and maintained.

Figure 5.53: Mountain terracing

Source: Own data (April-June 2019) [adapted Scientific design for bench terrace. (Ted C. Sheng, 2002)]

Some types of agriculture terraced farming are often the best use for sloping land. They
stabilize the slopes, prevent erosion, and absorb air pollution while providing jobs and food.
Although the presence of tree cover improves the Town’s climate and temperature.

104
Figure 5.54: 3d Rendering for sloping land
Source: Scientific design for bench terrace. (Ted C. Sheng, 2002)

3. Small Scale Poultry Production

Poultry is an important farm species in almost all countries. It is an important source of

animal protein, and can be raised in situations with limited feed and housing resources.
Chickens are ‘waste converters’: They ‘convert’ a scavenged feed resource base into animal
protein. They are therefore by far the most important species for generating income. People
raise chickens all around the world under widely varying circumstances. Their main
objective is generally the same: maximum production for minimum costs and with minimum
risks.

Poultry of all types require housing that will protect them from the wind and rain, as well as
the effects of rapid changes in temperature. The house should be dry at all times, and provide
good ventilation while being free from strong wind.

The design and structure of the poultry shed for the MSEs/ community level production is
6m*10m for feeding space and 3m*4m of roosting space for both laying and meat chicken.

105
3D detail for poultry production in small scale

Feeding space for both Laying and Meat Chickens

Different roosting space for both laying and meat Chicken

Top Veiw of the Poultry Shed

Figure 5.55: Poultry production shed.

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

106
 4. Recreational spaces for community engagement

Recreational spaces have long been recognized as major contributors to the physical and
aesthetic quality of urban neighborhoods. But a new, broader view of it has recently been
emerging. This new view goes well beyond the traditional value of recreational spaces as
places of recreation and visual assets to communities. It focuses on how policymakers,
practitioners, and the public can begin to think about recreational spaces as valuable
contributors to larger urban policy objectives, such as job opportunities, youth development,
public health, and community building. (Wallace, 2004).

Figure 5.56: 3d Rendering for recreational space

Source: Scientific design for bench terrace. (Ted C. Sheng, 2002)

As per information from the focus group discussion with officials of Adama Town
Administration [ATA] the existing structure plan of the Town proposes Migra city Park in
connection with Migira Hills. However, it is not implemented and functional rather large
tracts of public or semi-public land in Migira pond area is reserved for landscaping or urban
extension purposes by the Town Administration which can be used as a significant space for
urban agriculture to ensure high quality of urban public spaces. In addition to home, using
community spaces for urban food production and constructing green programs with the
community will increase sense of belongingness among the participants. Therefore, these
activate and increase the usability of space. Therefore, I plan to support urban agricultural
activities with the surrounding brownfields and Migira pond to successful reuse of the
property while encouraging new development and creating new job opportunities for site
scale green infrastructure installation jointly with improving its aesthetic value.

107
Strategies regarding urban agriculture activities in recreational spaces /parks

 Add flexible outdoor spaces within park for promotion, sale and distribution of local
food.
 Develop policy and procedures for establishment of community gardens within
neighborhood parks
 Explore options for agriculture related improvements when renovating or
constructing new public developments.

Figure 5.57: Recreational space for community engagement

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)
108
5.1.2 Design and planning solution at Household Level

Home Based production provides a low-cost, sustainable strategy for increasing household
food security by providing direct access to food (Marsh, 1998). I try to identify approaches
and opportunities to incorporate green infrastructure in to household level.

1. Raised bed garden

‘Raised bed garden’ refer to vegetation that grows directly onto a building's facade or to
vegetation that is grown on a separate structural system that can be freestanding and adjacent
or attached to the building’s facade. Vertical space can be used effectively to grow food.
Recent hydroponics techniques minimize space needs with plastic tubes that can be
suspended on walls. Some city farmers of India attach long, narrow planters or boxes to their
walls which is an eye-opening experience in how resourcefully home surfaces and
community spaces can used to create spaces with these settings. During my site visit I found
out the residences have the potential to use vertical spaces for home based food production.

Figure 5.58: Home garden using used plastic bottling’s

Source: Own data (April-June 2019) [adapted from srfconsulting.com]

Planning and Design for raised garden

 Consider a location with levelled surface and with adequate sunlight.

 In terms of bed size, 1.2m is a common width. Lumber is often cut in 1.2m
increments, and you also want to be able to access the garden without stepping into
the bed.
109
 Length isn’t as important. Plots are often 1.2m wide by 2.4m long or 1.2m wide by
3.6m long.
 The depth of the bed can vary. 0.2m is a minimum. Plants need at least a 0.2m- to
0.4m rooting zone, so 0.4m is ideal.
 Before you establish the bed, break up and loosen the soil with a garden fork so that
it’s not compacted. Go about 0.2 to 0.25 meters deep. For improved rooting, some
gardeners like to remove the top layer (about a spade’s depth), dig down another
layer, and then return the top layer and mix the soil layers together.

Figure 5.59: Raised bed using the vertical spaces

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

110
 2. Green roofs

A ‘green roof’ is a roof or deck onto which vegetation is intentionally grown or habitats for
wildlife are established. Each green roof is unique and provides a different type of habitat,
water storage capacity and energy saving potential. Green roofs offer significant economic
benefits, including a longer roof life and heating and cooling energy savings.

Design considerations

 Roof slope
 Structures on roof have to withstand high wind uplift because of their exposed
positions. A strip of gravel, stones or pavers around the edge of the roof can prevent
such wind damage.
 Irrigation is needed during establishment of vegetation for some roofs and if the
plants have been properly established, there should be no need for irrigation except
in the most arid climates.
 Avoiding flammable materials as part of green roof components and a border of 0.5-
1.0 m of stones or gravel must be maintained around parapet borders, rooftop
windows, chimneys, etc.

Figure 5.60: Intensive and extensive green roof

Source: Townshend, 2007

111
 3. Poultry production at household level

Poultry production at household level is also proposed as income generating activity. During
my site visit some of my respondents where interested in raising chickens at household level;
the idea of poultry production appealed too many as they knew that there is a market demand.

Figure 5.61: Small scale poultry production housing unit

Source: Own data (April-June 2019)

5.2 Scaling Up

Most parts of Adama Town has a poor green infrastructure with massive environmental,
socio-economic problems associated with poor development and management of green
infrastructure. Therefore, scaling up green infrastructure and implementing the blue-green
approach could benefit the Town in multifaceted ways. Adama could more efficiently,

112
effectively and sustainably manage the available resources across multiple Town
departments; by improving public accessibility and town wide use green infrastructure.
Similarly other urban areas in Ethiopia should also consider green infrastructures as the core
of their engagement so that they can be sustainable and resilient to climate change.

5.2.1 Parameters for scaling up this project

 Core areas containing large functioning system and high population density
 In high population density land is always limiting factor. Therefore, to
develop Green Infrastructure [GI], vertically raised gardening would be
solutions
 Identifiable water resource issues
 Areas which exhibit one or more community water resource problems such
as significant pollutant load being discharged, informal settlement, and
flooding.
 Poor living condition
 Socio-economic or quality of life benefits to low income dwellers that might
be associated with the implementation of green infrastructure benefits.
 Flood prone areas with sloppy topography
 Poached buffer zone along water bodies need to be protected/reserved
 Undeveloped areas not occupied by buildings or pavement
 Unrestricted construction of informal settlement in flood prone area

Key strategies for scaling up Green and Blue Infrastructure

1. Develop an integrated green infrastructure for the whole catchment. (riverbanks, pond
scape, gorge, mountains, neighbourhoods);
2. Integrate public open space with strategy for adaptation to climate change and
improvement of microclimate of the Town;
3. Incorporate small scale Green infrastructure [GI] enterprises for supporting local
economy.

113
5.3 Ecological Services

 Reduces Energy Use:

 When properly placed, green structures provide shade, which can help cool
the air and reduce the amount of heat reaching and being absorbed by
buildings
 Green units release water into the atmosphere, resulting in cooler air
temperatures and reduced building energy consumption.
 Improves Air Quality:
 Like other vegetated green infrastructure features, infiltration practices can
improve air quality through uptake of criteria air pollutants and the deposition
of particulate matter. Green elements absorb air pollutants and intercept
particulate matter which improves air quality and reduces the amount of
greenhouse gases.
 Improves Community Livability:
 When well-maintained, bio retention and infiltration practices improve local
aesthetics and enhance recreational opportunities within communities.
 There is also the potential for these practices to help reduce noise
transmission through sound absorption and to improve social networks.
 Green corridors provide beauty and privacy, which improve community
aesthetics, provide a sense of place and well-being, which can strengthen
community cohesion
 Green network increases recreational opportunities for communities by
improving pathways, creating places to gather and providing shade during
warm weather.
 Provide opportunities for urban foraging and food production.
 Public Education Opportunities:
 Green infrastructure provides an opportunity to develop community
awareness and understanding around the importance of sustainable water
resource management, home based food production.
 Provide an opportunity for residents to contribute to the benefits of
neighborhood place-making via green infrastructure.

114
 CHAPTER SIX

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion

Green infrastructures are public goods that encompass many features in the built
environments at varieties of scales. Green Infrastructure as public green space makes an
important contribution to economic, social and environmental well-being of Adama Town.
Besides they should be strategically planned and delivered on a range of scales to provide
usable space with support for natural and ecological processes. By considering different
development layouts and scaling up strategies, green infrastructures can be used to deliver
multiple functions to achieve sustainable communities across the Town and across the board
throughout the country to other emerging urban centers.

The purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which green infrastructure planning
principles in Migira pond area of Adama Town were identified as space planning. The study
also helps to identify the opportunities and constraints in utilization of green infrastructure
development in the case site .The problems related to Migira pond area were identified
through field survey/ primary and secondary data collection and the results were analyzed.

The nature of the topography is very flat and is located in a closed basin. During the rainy
season storm water collected from various catchments increases the volume of the water of
Migira Pond that flows back flooding some residential areas. Due to poor land use planning
at the close proximity of Migira Pond, open grazing leads to soil erosion and dumping of
domestic wastes are among those contributing to silting up of the pond that in turn invaded
more area as the flood water flows back. Inadequate drainage and waste management
systems exacerbated the flow back causing destruction to residential houses and stores of
Relief and Rehabilitation center.

The initiative to enhance green infrastructure across the study area is still at its lower level.
Illegal land invasions, irregular land subdivisions and all other forms of unsafe occupation

115
have contributed to diminishing area allotted for green infrastructure. This problem is partly
attributed to the limited implementation capacity and insensitive of the officials at the
municipality to the development of green infrastructure. The study results indicated that
there were various stakeholders with diverse interests in this site, but none of them has come
up with workable plan to improve the socio-economic and environmental situation of Migira
project since 2004.

Green infrastructure offers the opportunity to build community cohesion, maintain and
create landscape features which guarantee ecosystems to deliver services such as clean
water, clean air, and attractive recreational areas. It therefore I design and recommend green
infrastructure to offer cultural diversity of space, natural mitigation of and adaptation to
climate change and also to encourage access for everyone, the agenda that is a priority for
all humanity.

116
6.2 Recommendations

Based on insights gained from literature, stakeholders’ interviews and field observation the
following recommendations are made to transform the current planning practices of green
space to urban green infrastructure planning.

1. The current trend toward natural flood management provides an opportunity for policies
to incorporate pond scape. Migira pond corridors should be protected and rehabilitated,
which is necessary multifunctional green support for urban green structure.

2. The capacity of the existing drainage systems of Adama Town should be strengthened
and also expanded. Besides, provision of silt trap structure, maintaining and upgrading
the external dykes, cleaning waterway, construction of infiltration basin of retention
pond must be done to rehabilitate pond area.

3. Incorporating income generating activities: Connecting and integrating the existing

green and livelihood supporting activities like communal gardens, open communal
recreational spaces, poultry and fishery.

4. Introducing terrace farming along the Migira hill which is positive green program both
as food security and urban green coverage

5. Introducing green walls and green roofs by using green infrastructure techniques to
increase green area index and to improve economic condition of the residents.

6. Improving public education and access to information, social learning and community
engagement, positive experience of asset performance, changing perception of Blue-
Green.

7. Solving budget shortages: to overcome the limitation of finances the Town

Administration should allocate sufficient annual budget that can enable the greenery
department to perform its activities effectively.

8. Professional capacity building: availability of sufficient number of skilled professionals

is a prerequisite for advanced green infrastructure planning.

117
The green infrastructure can only be achieved if efforts are integrated and embarked on with
commitment. Declaration and plans are not sufficient if not timely implemented. Green
Infrastructure as a base for quality of life should be the day-to-day concern of the society
and extend beyond yearly celebrations and declaration.

118
 REFERENCE

 Adama Town flood mitigation project proposal October, 2016. [Unpublished].

 Adama Structure Plan Revision Project City Wide Study Report November, 2017
[unpublished].
 Agyeman, J. (2009) Toward a Just Sustainability. Presentation. Worcester
Polytechnic Institute.
 Agyeman, J. (2013). Introducing Just Sustainability’s: Policy, Planning and Practice.
(Zed Books).
 Agyeman, J., Bullard, R. D., & Evans, B. (2003). Just sustainability’s: Development
in an unequal world. London: Earth scan.
 Ahern, J. (2007). Green infrastructure for cities: The spatial dimension. In cities of
the future: Towards integrated sustainable water and landscape management.
London, UK: IWA Publishing.
 Australian Institute of Landscape Architects Green Infrastructure Report (2012).
 Beatley, T. (2000). Green urbanism: Learning from European cities. Washington,
DC: Island Press.
 Beatley, T., & Manning, K. (1997). The ecology of place: Planning for environment,
economy and community. Washington, DC: Island Press.
 Benedict, M. A., & McMahon, E. T. (2002). Green infrastructure: Smart
conservation for the 21st century. Renewable Resources Journal, 20(3), 12–17.
 Benedict, M. A., McMahon, E. T., 2006. Green infrastructure: Linking landscapes
and communities. Washington, D.C. Island Press, p37.
 Benedict, M. A., & McMahon, E. T. (2012). Green infrastructure: Linking
landscapes and communities. Washington, DC: Island Press.
 Birch, E. L., & Wachter, S. M. (2008). Growing greener cities: Urban sustainability
in the twenty-first century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
 CABE Space (2010b). Green information gap: Mapping the nation’s green spaces.
London: CABE.
 Campbell, S. (1996). Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and
the Contradictions of Sustainable Development. In Campbell, S., & Feinstein, S. S.
(2012). Readings in planning theory. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers.
119
 Chris Walker, 2004; beyond recreation a broader view of urban parks, Urban
institute, the Wallace foundation, Washington DC
 Cooke, B., Kothari, U. (Eds.), (2001). Participation: The New Tyranny Zed Books,
New York.
 Costanza, R., De Groot, R., Sutton, P., Van Der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S.,
Kubiszewski, I., Farber, S. & Turner, R. K. 2014. Changes in the global value of
ecosystem services. Global Environmental Change,26, 152-158.
 Daniels, T. (2008). Taking the initiative: why cities are greening now. In Birch, E.
L., & Wachter, S. M. (2008). Growing greener cities: Urban sustainability in the
twenty-first century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
 Davies, C., Hansen, R., Rall, E., Pauleit, S., Lafortezza, R., De Bellis, Y., & Tosics,
I. (2015). The status of European green space planning and implementation based on
an analysis of selected European city-regions. EU FP7 project GREEN SURGE,
Deliverable D, 5.
 EC 2012. The Multi-functionality of Green Infrastructure. Science for Environment
Policy In-depth Reports.
 Egis International in association with IAU-IdF and UrbaLyon, NDP Report of Dabe
Soloqe, Adama, December 2015.
 Eisenman, T. (2013). Frederick Law Olmsted, green infrastructure, and the evolving
city. Journal of Planning History, 12(4), 287-311.
 Elliott, J. A. (2006). An introduction to sustainable development. London:
Routledge.
 Ely, M. E. & Pitman, S. 2012. Green Infrastructure: life support for human habitats.
Botanic Gardens of Adelaide, Department of Environment, Water and Natural
Resources European Commission’s Directorate-General Environment
 Flood Protection and Drainage System in Adama Town and Surroundings, studied
by Technical Committee, April, 2014,
 Forest Research (2010).Benefits of green infrastructure. Aavailable on line
http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/urgp
 Fuwape, J. A., & Onyekwelu, J. C. (2011). Urban forest development in West Africa:
Benefits and challenges. Journal of Biodiversity and Ecological Sciences, 1(1), 78-
94

120
 Geneletti D (2004). Using spatial indicators and value functions to assess ecosystem
fragmentation caused by linear infrastructures. International Journal of Applied Earth
Observation and Geo-information 5: 1-15.
 Gill, S. E., Handley, J. F., Ennos, A. R., & Pauleit, S. (2007). Adapting cities for
climate change: The role of the green infrastructure. Built Environment, 33(1), 115–
133.
 Girma, Y., Journal of Urban Management.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2018.09.004
 Grimm NB, Foster D, Groffman P, Grove JM, Hopkinson CS, Nadelhoffer KJ, Pataki
DE, Peters DP (2008). The changing landscape: ecosystem responses to urbanization
and pollution across climatic and societal gradients. Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment 6: 264-272.
 Haase, D., Larondelle, N., Andersson, E., Artmann, M., Borgstrom, S., Breuste, J.,
& Elmqvist, T. (2014). A quantitative review of urban ecosystem service
assessments: Concepts, models, and implementation. AMBIO, 43(4), 413–433.
 Hansen, R., Pauleit, S., 2014. From Multi-functionality to Multiple Ecosystem
Services, A Conceptual Framework for Multi-functionality in Green Infrastructure
Planning for Urban Areas. AMBIO 43, 516-529.
 Hansen, R., Rolf, W., Santos, A., Luz, A. C., Szaraz, L., Tosics, I., & Pauleit, S.
(2016). Advanced urban green infrastructure planning and implementation:
Innovative approaches and strategies from European cities. EU FP7 project GREEN
SURGE, Deliverable D, 5.2.
 Herslund, L., Backhaus, A., Fryd, O., Jorgensen, G., Jensen, M. B., Limbumba, T.
M., & Yeshitela, K. (2017). Conditions and opportunities for green infrastructure –
Aiming for green, water-resilient cities in Addis Ababa and Dares Salaam.
Landscape and Urban Planning. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.10.008.
 HiltrudPotz and Pierre Bleuze2012. Urban green –Blue grids for sustainable and
dynamic cities. Delft: Coop for life.
 Hodgson JA, Thomas CD, Wintle BA, Moilanen A (2009). Climate change,
connectivity and conservation decision making: back to basics. Journal of Applied
Ecology 46: 964-969.
 Holmberg, J. and Sandbrook, R. (1992). Sustainable development: what is to be
done? In Holmberg, J. (ed.) Policies for a small planet. London: Earth scan.

121
 Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow: (being the second edition of "To-
morrow: a peaceful path to real reform"). London: S. Sonnenschein.
 Kambites, C., & Owen, S. (2006). Renewed prospects for green infrastructure
planning in the UK planning practice and research, 21[4], 483-496.
https://doi.org/10/.1080/02697450601173413.
 Kato, S. (2011). Green infrastructure for Asian cities: the spatial concepts and
planning strategies. In Journal of the 2011 international symposium on city planning
(pp.161–170).
 Lafortezza, R., Carrus, G., Sanesi, G., & Davies, C. (2009). Benefits and well-being
perceived by people visiting green spaces in periods of heat stress. Urban Forestry
Urban Greening, 8(2), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2009.02.003.
 Lafortezza R, Corry RC, Sanesi G, Brown RD (2008). Visual preference and
ecological assessments for designed alternative brownfield rehabilitations. Journal
of Environmental Management 89: 257-269
 Lafortezza, R., Davies, C., Sanesi, G., & Konijnendijk, C. (2013). Green
Infrastructure as a tool to support spatial planning in European urban regions. Forest
– Bio-geosciences and Forestry, 6(2), 102–108.
https://doi.org/10.3832/ifor0723-006.
 Lamson-Hall, P., Angel, S., DeGroot, D., Martin, R., & Tafesse, T. (2018). A new
plan for African cities: The Ethiopia urban expansion initiative. Urban studies.
http://doi.org/10.1177/00420980185760.
 Lennon, M. (2014). Green infrastructure and planning policy: A critical assessment.
Local Environment, 20(8), 957–980.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2014.880411.
 Lindholm, G. (2017). The implementation of green infrastructure: Relating a general
concept to context and site. Sustainability, 9(4), 610.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su9040610.
 Lindley, S. J., Gill, S. E., Cavan, G., Yeshitela, K., Nebebe, A., Woldegerima, T., &
Abo-El-Wafa, H. (2015). Green infrastructure for climate adaptation in African
cities. Urban vulnerability and climate change in Africa (pp. 107–152). Switzerland:
Springer International Publishing.
 Margolis, L. & Robinson, A. I. 2007. Living Systems, Basel, Birkhauser.

122
 McLaren, D. (2003). Environmental space, equity, and ecological debt. In Agyeman,
J., Bullard, R. D., & Evans, B. (2003). Just sustainabilities: Development in an
unequal world. London: Earth scan.
 Mcpherson, E. G. 2005. Trees with benefits. American Nurseryman, 201.
 Mell, I. C. (2008). Green infrastructure: Concepts and planning. FORUM e-journal,
8(1), 69–80.
 Mensah, C. A. (2014). Urban green spaces in Africa: Nature and challenges.
International Journal of Ecosystem, 4(1), 1–11.
 Mikkelesen, B. (2005). Methods for Development Work and Research: A New Guide
for Participation. (2nd edition). New Delhi: Sage Publication.
 Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, 2015. National Urban Green
Infrastructure Standard Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Mohamed, S. (2011). Green infrastructure planning in developing countries;
developing green concept in Kurdistan region-Iraq (Master’s thesis).
 Munir Younis Abdullahi (2014), Inner city Riverside Development and Land Use
Transformation: in the context of Addis Ababa
 Naumann, S., D. McKenna, et al. (2011a). Design, implementation and cost elements
of Green Infrastructure projects. Final report Brussels, European Commission.
 Pakzad, P., & Osmond, P. (2016). Developing a sustainability indicator set for
measuring green infrastructure performance. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 216, 68–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.12.009.
 Pauleit, S., Liu, L., Ahern, J., & Kazmierczak, A. (2011). Multifunctional green
infrastructure planning to promote ecological services in the city. Urban Ecology,
272–285. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199563562.003.0033.
 Pauleit, S., Hansen, R., Rall, E. L., Zolch, T., Andersson, E., Luz, A., Vierikko, K.,
(2017). In H. Shugart (Ed.). Urban landscapes and green infrastructure USA: Oxford
Research Encyclopaedia of Environmental Science.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.23.
 Portney, K. E. (2003). Taking sustainable cities seriously: Economic development,
the environment, and quality of life in American cities. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
 Radford, K. G. and P. James (2013). "Changes in the value of ecosystem services
along a rural-urban gradient:

123
 Rodriguez, J.P., et al, 2006. Trade-offs across space, time, and ecosystem services.
Ecology and Society 11 (1), art. 28.
 Rouse, D. C. (2013). Green Infrastructure: A landscape approach. Chicago, IL: The
American Planning Association.
 Said, I., & Mansor, M. (2011). Green infrastructure in cities and towns in Southeast
Asian countries: Quest for research
 Sandstrom, U. G. (2002). Green infrastructure planning in urban Sweden. Planning
Practice and Research, 17(4), 373–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697450216356.
 Shackleton, C., Blair, A., De Lacy, P., Kaoma, H., Mugwagwa, N., Dalu, M., &
Walton, W. (2017). How important is green infrastructure in small and medium-sized
city’s? Lessons from South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.12.007.
 Todaro MP, (1997), Policy research division working paper, population council,
New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0504-0.
 United Nations (1992). Rio Declaration on Environment and Development -
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I) Chapter I, Annex I - UN Documents: Gathering a body of
global agreements. Retrieved from http://www.un-documents.net/rio-dec.htm.
 Water by Design 2010. A Business Case for Best Practice Urban Stormwater
Management. Brisbane: South East Queensland Healthy Waterways Partnership.
 Wong, T. H. F. 2011. Blueprint 2011. Stormwater Management in a Water Sensitive
City. Melbourne: The Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, Monash University.
 Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd edition.). Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications.
 Zakka, S. D., Permana, A. S., Majid, M. R., Danladi, A., & Bako, P. E. (2017). Urban
greenery a pathway to environmental sustainability in sub Saharan Africa: A case of
Northern Nigeria Cities. International Journal of Built Environment and
Sustainability, 4(3), https://doi.org/10.11113/ijbes.v4.n3.211.

124
 APPENDIX

Appendix I

Questionnaires prepared for Migira residents [local communities]

Dear Respondent, I thank you in advanced for your cooperation, and honesty in answering
the following questions. The aim of collecting information through this questionnaire is to
conduct Academic research on Green Infrastructure planning practices and its impact in
Ganda Migira. I am among graduating class students, as such I would like to assure you that,
the information that you provide me will be kept confidential. No need of writing your name.

I thank you in advance!!!!!!!

I. Household characteristics

xv
12. How long have you been living here as household/family?
o Less than 1 Year
o 1-10 Years
o 11-20 Years
o 21-30 Years
o >30 Years
II. Income, expenditure and savings

1. What are the main income sources of your family?

(Read all the options to the interviewee. 1 very important, 2 important, 3 least important, 4.
Not important)

Level of Importance
1.Wage/salary
2. Micro and Small Enterprises
3.Penssion
4.Trading /merchant
5.Rental income
6.Assisstance of relatives /remittance
7. agricultural income
8. Safety Net program
9. Other (please specify)

2. What is the average monthly income of the household? (Other than subsistence
production)

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Do you do any subsistence production? Please state the approximate equal value of your
subsistence production (enter zero if not produced).

Fruits Egg, milk and Meat Other Total

vegetables… milk products [please specify]

III Housing and infrastructure

1. What is your ownership status of your house?
1 ( ) Owner of the house
2 ( ) Renter
3 ( ) Provided by employer
4 ( ) User not paying rent
5 ( ) Other…………………………………………….

2. What is the main building material? (The surveyor should make observation and confirm
it with the interviewee - tick only one)
xvi
 1 ( ) Brick
2 ( ) Concrete
3 ( ) Wooden
4 ( ) Stone
5 ( ) Soil
6 ( ) Other (specify)…………………………………………
7 ( ) I do not know

3. What is the domestic water source in your house?

1 ( ) Plumbing inside the house (bathroom, kitchen, WC)
2 ( ) Water pump
3 ( ) Well water
4 ( ) Village fountain
5 ( ) Water tank
6 ( ) Interior tap water (one tap)
7 ( ) Interior water supply system (multiple taps)
8 ( ) Plumbing outside the house
9 ( ) OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY)....................................................

4. Do you have any problems with water supply?

1. Yes 2. No (Go to next)

5. What are your problems with water supply? (Tick as much as relevant. Can be more than
one)

1 ( ) Water cuts. How frequent?

2 ( ) Not clean
3 ( ) Expensive
4 ( ) Difficult to access
5 ( ) Law quality (hardness)
6 ( ) Other (please state)……………………………………………………..

6. Do you use pond water for drinking purposes?

1. Yes (Go to Q*9) 2. No (please state your drinking water source).

7. What are your problems with drinking pond water? (Tick as much as relevant. Can be
more than one
1 ( ) Not clean
2 ( ) Expensive
3 ( ) Difficult to access
4 ( ) Law quality (hardness)
5 ( ) Other (please state)……………………………………………………..

8. What type of sanitation facility do you have?

1. ( ) Interior WC with toilet flush tank

xvii
 2. ( ) Exterior WC with toilet flush tank
3. ( ) Interior toilet without flush tank
4. ( ) Exterior toilet without flush tank
5. ( ) Public WC
6. ( ) Other (please specify).....................................................................

9. What type of wastewater system do you have in your house?

1 ( ) Common sewerage system

2 ( ) Septic tank disposed regularly by municipality
3 ( ) Septic tank disposed regularly by him/herself
4 ( ) Discharged directly to a river / land
5 ( ) Other (please specify)………………………………………………………….
6 ( ) I do not know

10. How are the solid wastes disposed?

1 ( ) Municipality collects regularly

2 ( ) Disposed to a predefined landfill
3 ( ) Disposed to a wild disposal area
4 ( ) Disposed irregularly
5 ( ) Disposed to the river/lake
6 ( ) Burning
7 ( ) Other ……………………………………………………
8 ( ) I do not know

11. Do you have electricity in your house?

1. Yes 2. No (Go to Q*14)

12. Do you experience any problems with power supply?

1. Yes 2. No (Go to Q*15)

13. What kind of problems do you experience? (Tick as relevant, you may tick more than
one)

1 ( ) power cuts. How frequent?

2 ( ) Low voltage
3 ( ) Changing voltage
4 ( ) Other. Please specify …………………………………………………………….

14. What is your source of energy for cooking? (Tick one)

1 ( ) fuel wood
2 ( ) kerosene
3 ( ) Buta gas
4 ( ) Electricity
5 ( ) Other…………………………………

xviii
 IV Green and blue structure
1. Do you or a member of your household has any agricultural land or do urban farming?
1. Yes 2. No (Go to the next)
2. What do you think would be the benefits of the urban farming?
1.For your family 2. For the village 3.For the country

3. Are you aware of any green infrastructure services?

……………………………………………………………………

4. Is there a public open space in your village? Are you satisfied with it?
……………………………………………………………………………

5. What does green infrastructure contribute to the livelihood of the residents?

………………………………………………………………………………….

6. What do you think about the artificial pond?

 ( )Curse
 ( )potential
 ( ) Other…
7. For what purpose do you use the artificial pond?
 ( )Domestic use(for drinking and cooking)
 ( )Sewage/as waste disposal site
 ( )Source of water
 ( )for crop irrigation
 ( )Washing closes/vehicles
 ( )None
8. What do you think are the major problems of artificial pond in your neighborhood?
…………………………………………………………………………………
9. Why do you think people throw garbage and dispose wastes into the artificial pond?
…………………………………………………………………………………
10. What are other environmental problems you have in your village?
………………………………………………………………………………...
11. Do you have any social problems in your village, if so what are they?
………………………………………………………………………………..
12. Do you have any economic problems in your village, if so what are they?
………………………………………………………………………………….
13. Do you have any agricultural problems in your village, if so what are they?
………………………………………………………………………………...

xix
Appendix II

Interview for Greenery department [beautification, park and cemetery development and
management] officers, urban planners and land development and ownership administration
officers of the Adama Town.

Questionnaire No: ...........................................................................................................

Date of Interview: ...........................................................................................................

Name of Interviewer: ......................................................................................................

Name of Interviewee: ......................................................................................................

Address: .......................................................................................................................

Phone Number ............................................................................................................

Name of Village: ................................................................................................

Name of District: ............................................................................................................

I. Historical Profile

1. When was the village founded? Ask for a short history of the village.

II. Demography/General Profile

1. How many people are there in the village? How many households are there?

2. Has the population of the village increased or decreased in the last 10 years? Why?

III. Administration / Leadership

1. Are there any groups, organizations, associations or cooperatives in the village? What
are these? (E.g. women’s savings groups, Idir Iqub, etc.).
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Other than those mentioned above, do you know any influential people or representatives
of interest groups in the village?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Does your district have an Environmental plan that you know of? Have you been
consulted about it?
……………………………………………………………………………………..

xx
IV Local Economy/ Livelihoods
1. What are the main jobs that people in the community do? Do certain groups
specialize in certain jobs?
…………………………………………………………………………………

2. Which groups do certain jobs?

………………………………………………………………………………...

V. Environmental Management
1. Do you inform and train your staff about green infrastructure?

Yes No

How do you think about the awareness of employees of federal, regional and city level
administration on the concept of green infrastructure planning principles?

……………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Which urban green infrastructure planning principles are integrated in current green space
planning documents and practices?

Multi-functionality————— Green-grey integration———

Social inclusiveness——————— Connectivity—————
How are the concepts incorporated in current green space planning documents and
practices?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
3. What are the main gaps and limitations of current green space planning practices in
integrating green infrastructure planning principles?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………

4. To what extent are the principles of green infrastructure implemented on the ground? And
what mechanisms are in place to ensure implantation of plans?

..................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................

xxi
5. How does your institution work for integrating green infrastructure planning principles
into planning documents and practices?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..

6. Do you think there is community participation in planning and development of green

infrastructure?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
7. How do relevant institutions communicate during urban green infrastructure planning
and development process?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
8. What are the funding mechanisms for developing urban green space? How do you think
about if adequacy to undertake green space projects?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..

9. How do you think the collaboration of different government sector in planning and
implement of green infrastructure planning principles?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….
10. Do you think professionals’ in your institution are adequately qualified to integrate
green infrastructure planning principles in planning?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
11. What do you think are the main barriers to adoption of green infrastructure planning
principles both at planning and practices level?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
12. What do you think are possible measures to overcome the barriers?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………..

xxii
Appendix III

Focus group discussion for Migira residents [local communities]

1) What is your perception of how the plan/ green infrastructure planning will affect your
group or neighbourhood?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….
2) How do you see the planning process and public involvement?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….
3) How were you involved in the planning process? How did the group’s involvement affect
the plan?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………
4) In what ways you think to improve Migira pond area?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………....

xxiii
Appendix IV

Focus group discussion for Adama Town administration officials

I. What are the factors that delay the development of green infrastructures in general?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
II. What are the problems that affect the management of green infrastructures
particularly urban agriculture in general and in Migira pond particularly?
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………
III. In your opinion, what are the opportunities and challenges to develop and manage
artificial pond areas?
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………
IV. What is the importance of green infrastructure for the household/ community?

………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..

xxiv
Appendix V

Field observation checklist

1. The absolute location of the case site
2. Altitudinal location
2.1. Lowest point ………………………
2.2. Highest point ……………………..
3. Slope analysis
4. Existing natural features
4.1. Gorge, mountains, valleys and the like
5. Geology
5.1. Hazards prone areas
5.2. Seismic area
5.3. Flood prone area
5.4. Soil types
6. Blue structure
6.1 Status of blue infrastructure
6.2 Services they are giving
6.3 How much land it cover?
7. Green infrastructure
7.1 Status of green infrastructure
7.2 Services they are giving
7.3 How much land it cover?
7.4 Comparison with other surrounding parts of Adama
8 Challenges and opportunities
o Types of challenges and opportunities
o Extent of challenges and opportunities
9 Design solutions
A. Applied solutions for challenges by Ethiopian professionals either on the site or on
the surrounding areas
B. Planned design solutions which are not applied yet
C. Experiences from different projects done for similar thematic issue in different parts
of the world.
xxv
Appendix VI

Planning documents reviewed and analysed in this research

No Planning documents Year
1 Ethiopian Environmental Policy 1997
2 Urban Plan Proclamation 2005
3 Participatory Urban Planning Manual 2007
4 Green Infrastructure Based Landscape Design 2011
5 Ethiopian National Urban Green Infrastructure Standards 2015
5 Urban Greenery and Beautification Strategy 2015
6 Growth and Transformation plan II 2016
7 Adama Structure Plan Revision Project City Wide Study 2017
Report.
8 Oromia Urban Planning Institute- Environmental Study 2017

xxvi