SHAKUNTALA DEVI'S

The Book of
Shakuntala Devi’s
Book of Numbers
Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Numbers,
But was Difficult to Understand
We can’t live without numbers. We need them in our daily
chores, big and small. But we carry in us a certain fear of
numbers and are never confident about using them.
Shakuntala Devi, the internationally famous mathematical
wizard, makes it easy for us— and interesting.

This book contains all we always wanted to know about

numbers but was difficult to understand, and which was
nowhere available. Divided into three parts, the first will
tell you everything about numbers, the second some
anecdotes related with numbers and mathematicians, and
the third a few important tables that will always help you.

Shakuntala Devi popularly known as “the human

computer.” is a world famous mathematical prodigy who
continues to outcompute the most sophisticated
computers. She took only fifty seconds to calculate the
twenty-third root of a 201 digit number. To verify her
answer, a computer in Washington programmed with over
13,000 instructions took ten seconds longer. Shakuntala
Devi firmly believes that mathematics can be great fun for
everybody.

"... makes very, interesting reading and provides valuable

information.”
Hindu
 By the same author
in
Orient Paperbacks
Puzzles to Puzzle You
Astrology for You
Perfect Murder
Figuring: The Joy of Numbers
More Puzzles to Puzzle You
 Shakuntala Devi’s
BOOK
O3F
NUMBERS
Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Numbers
But Was Difficult to Understand

ORIENT PAPERBACKS
A Division of Vision Books Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi • Bombay
“And.Lucy, dear child, mind your arithmetic... what would
life be without arithmetic, but a scene of horrors?"
- Sydney Smith

ISBN-81-222-0006-0
1st Published 1984
2nd Printing 1986
3rd Printing 1987
4th Printing 1989
5th Printing 1990
6th Printing 1991
7th Printing 1993
The Book of Numbers : Everything you always
wanted to know about numbers but was
difficult to understand
© Shakuntala Devi, 1984
Cover Design by Vision Studio
Published by
Orient Paperbacks
(A Division of Vision Books, Pvt Ltd.)
Madarsa Road, Kashmere Gate, Delhi-110 006.
Printed in India by
Kay Kay Printers, Delhi-110 007.
Covered Printed at
Ravindra Printing Press, Delhi-110 006.
 COIVTEIVTS

Author’s Note 6

Everything about numbers 7

Anecdotes about numbers and those

who worked for them 99

Some important tables for ready reference 121

 ATJTHOK’S NOTE

Many go through life afraid of numbers and upset

by numbers. They would rather amble along through
life miscounting, miscalculating and in general mis­
managing their worldly affairs than make friends with
numbers. The very word ‘numbers’ scares most people.
They’d rather not know about it. And asking questions
about numbers would only make them look ignorant
and unintelligent. Therefore they decide to take the
easy way out-not have anything to do with numbers.

But numbers rule our lives. We use numbers all

the time throughout the day. The year, month and date
on which we are living is a number. The time of the
day is a number. The time of our next appointment is
again a number. And the money we earn and spend is
also a number. There is no way we can live our lives
dispensing with numbers.

Knowing more about numbers and being acquaint­

ed with them will not only enrich our lives, but also
contribute towards managing our day to day affairs
much better.

This book is designed to give you that basic infor­

mation about numbers, that will take away the scare of
numbers out of your mind.
 wulm
□LDlOSLAXf
EJ> M TH JL 2k AuCBL
1
WHAT IS A NUMBER ?

A number is actually a way of thinking, an idea,

that enables us to compare very different sets of
objects. It can actually be called an idea behind
the act of counting.

2
WHAT ARE NUMERALS ?

Numerals are used to name numbers, in other

words, a numeral is a symbol used to represent a
number. For example, the numeral 4 is the name
of number four. And again four is the idea that
describes any collection of four objects. 4 marbles,
4 books, 4 people, 4 colours, and so on. We recog­
nize that these collections all have the.quality of
‘fourness’ even though they may differ in every
other way.

WHAT ARE DIGITS

Digits are actually the alphabets of numbers. Just

as we use the twenty-six letters of the alphabet to
build words, we use the ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9 to build numerals.

9
4
IS 10 A DIGIT ?

No. fO is a numeral formed from the two digits 1

and 0.

5
WHAT IS THE COMMONLY USED BASIS OF OUR
NUMBER SYSTEM ?

The commonly used basis of our system of numera­

tion is grouping into sets of ten or multiples of ten.

6
HOW ARE NUMBERS TRANSLATED INTO WORDS ?

Any number, however large it may be, given in

numerical form may be translated into words by
using the following form :

10
Thus the number 458, 386, 941 can be expressed in
words as ‘Four hundred fifty eight million, three
hundred eighty six thousand, nine hundred forty
one.

7
IS IT ALRIGHT TO CALL 3+2 ‘THREE AND TWO’ ?

No. 3+2 is always called ‘Three plus two’. There

is no arithmetical operation called ‘and’.

8
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUMERALS
USED IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE ?

Besides our own number system, known as the

Hindu-Arabic system, the Roman numerals are also
used sometimes. They are occasionally seen in
text books, clock faces and building inscriptions.

9
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF ROMAN NUMERALS
AND HOW ACTUALLY IS THE COUNTING DONE
IN THIS SYSTEM ?

Roman numerals originated in Rome and were used

by the ancient Romans almost 2,000 years ago. In
this system seven symbols are used :

It
 I V X L C D M

The numbers represented are 1, 5 and multiples of

5 and 10, the number of fingers on one hand and on
two hands. There is no zero in this system. The
other numerals like 2, 3, 6 are represented with
these above symbols by placing them in a row and
adding or subtracting, such as :

1=1 6 = VI (V4-I)
2 = II 7 = VII(V+I+I)
3 = III 8 = VIII (V+I+I+I)
4 = IV (one subtracted 9 = IX (1 subtracted
from five) from X)
5 =V 10 =X
19 = XIX; 27 = XXVII; 152 = CLII
and so on.

Roman numerals were used by bankers and book­

keepers until the eighteenth century as they did not
trust symbols like 6, 8 or 9 that could easily be
changed to other numbers by a dishonest accountant

10
WHERE DID OUR OWN NUMBER SYSTEM
ORIGINATE ?

Our present numerals known as the Hindu-Arabic

numerals is said to have originated from the Arabs,
Persians, Egyptians and Hindus. It is presumed

12
that the intercourse among traders served to carry
the symbols from country to country, and therefore
a conglomeration from the four different sources.

However, the country which first used the largest

number of numeral forms is said to be India.

11
WHERE DID THE CONCEPT OF ZERO ORIGINATE ?

The concept of zero is attributed to the Hindus.

The Hindus were also the first to use zero in the
way it is used today. Some symbol was required in
positional number systems to mark the place of a
power of the base not actually occurring. This was
indicated by the Hindus by a small circle, which
was called ‘Sunya’, the Sanskrit word for vacant.
This was translated into the Arabic ‘Sifr* about 800
A.D. Subsequent changes have given us the word
zero.

12
IS IT BAD TO COUNT ON THE FINGERS ?

No. Not really. It is slow and it can also be im

convenient, but it is the natural way to start, it is
very useful in memorising one digit additions.

13
13 '
WHAT ARE CARDINAL NUMBERS AND ORDINAL
NUMBERS ?

An ordinal number gives us the rank or order of

a particular object and the cardinal number states
how many objects are in the group of collection.
To quote an example, ‘fifth’ is an ordinal number
and ‘five’ is a cardinal number.

14
WHERE DO THE + AND — SIGNS COME FROM!

The + symbol came from the Latin word ‘et’ mean­

ing and. The two symbols were used in the fifteenth
century to show that boxes of merchandise were
overweight or underweight. For overweight they
used the sign + and for underweight the sign — .
Within about 40 years accountants and mathema­
ticians started using them,

15
WHERE DID THE 4- SIGN COME FROM ?

The fraction | means two divided by 3, and 4- looks

like a fraction.

14
16
WHO DISCOVERED THE SYMBOL = FOR EQUALS I

Robert Recorde, the mathematician, invented it in

1557. He decided that two equal length parallel
lines were as equal as anything available.

17
WHAT ARE PERFECT NUMBERS AND AMICABLE
OR SYMPATHETIC NUMBERS ?

A perfect number can be described as an integer

which is equal to the sum of all its factors except
itself. For example, the number 28 is a perfect
number since
28 = 1+2+4+7+14
Amicable or sympathetic are two numbers each of
which is equal to the sum of all the exact divisors
of the other except the number itself. For example,
220 and 224 are amicable numbers for 220 has the
exact divisors 1,2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55 and
110, whose sum is 284 and 284 has the exact divisors
1, 2, 4, 71 and 142 whose sum is 220.

18
WHAT SIGN IS 0, + OR — SIGN ?

Neither. Zero is not a sign at all, because adding

15
 and subtracting it changes nothing. Multiplying by
it gives zero and dividing by it is not allowed at all.

19
HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE PRIME NUMBERS
AND COMPOSITE NUMBERS ?

An integer can be called a prime number when it

has no integral factors except unity and itself, such
as 2, 3, 5, 7,11, or 13. And numbers which have
factors such as 9, 15, 25, 32 are composite numbers.
About twenty-two centuries ago, a Greek geogra­
pher-astronomer named Erastosthenes used a sieve
for sifting the composite numbers out of the natural
numbers. Those remaining, of course, are prime
numbers.

20
HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE SIEVE OF
ERASTOSTHENES ?

The most effective known method of locating

primes, this procedure separates the primes out of
the set of all whole numbers.

The whole numbers are arranged in six columns

starting with two, as shown. Then the primes are
circled and all multiples of 2 are crossed out. Next
the number 3 is circled and all the multiples of 3

16
are crossed out. Next the same thing is done to 5
and 7. The circled numbers remaining are the
primes.

21
WHY DO THEY CALL IT A SIEVE ?

Mathematicians cal) this procedure a SIEVE be­

cause it is a way of filtering the primes from the
other whole numbers.

17
22
WHY ISN’T ONE A PRIME NUMBER ?

If one is allowed as a prime, then any number

could be written as a product of primes in many
ways. For example :
12= Ix2x2x3
or 12= Ixlx2x2x3
or 12= Ixlxlxlxlx2x2x3
The fact that factoring into primes can only be
done in one way is important in mathematics.

23
HOW DID THE WORD ‘PRIME’ FOR PRIME
NUMBERS ORIGINATE ?

It originates from the Latin word ‘primus’, mean­

ing first in importance. Primes are the important
main ingredient of numbers, for every number is
either a prime or a product of primes.

24
WHAT IS A PRIME-FACTOR ?

A prime number that is a factor of another number

is called a prime factor of the number. For example,
the number 24 can be expressed as a product of its
prime factors in three ways:

18
 24 24 24
3x8 4X6 2x12

24 24 24
3x8 4x6 2x12
3x2x4 2x2x3x2 2x3x4
3x2x2x2 2x3x2x2

.-. 24= 2x2x2X3

25
WHAT IS A FACTOR TREE ?

Factor tree is a very helpful way to think about

fractions. For example, if we want to take out the
factors of 1764 here is the way to go about it:

First we divide by the smallest prime, which is 2.

17644-2 = 882. We write down the 2 and the
quotient 882.

Then we divide the quotient 882 by 2 again.

882 4- 2 == 441. On a new row we write down
both 2’s and the quotient 441.

19
Next, 'since 441, the last quotient cannot be any
longer divided by 2, we divide it by the next prime
number 3, continue so on, and stop when we at
last find a prime quotient. In the end the tree
should look like this—

1764 = 2x2 x 3x3x7x7 = 2zx32x'7a

20
You will note that at each level of the tree the
product of the horizontal numbers is equal to the
original number to be factored.

The last row, of course, gives the prime factors.

26
WHY IS IT THAT ANY NUMBER RAISED TO THE
POWER ZERO IS EQUAL TO 1 AND NOT ZERO ?

The answer is very simple. When we raise a number

to the power 0, we are not actually multiplying the
particular number by 0. For example, let us take
2°. In this case-we are not actually multiplying the
number 2 by 0.
We define 2° = 1, so that each power of 2 is one
factor of 2 larger than the last, e.g., 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32...

27
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN I
ALGORITHM AND LOGARITHM ?

Algorithm is a noun meaning some special process

of solving a certain type of problem. Whereas
logarithm, again a noun, is the exponent of that
power of a fixed number, called the base, which
equals a given number, called the antilogarithm.
I n 10 = 100, 10 is the base, 2 is the logarithm and
100 the antilogarithm.

21
28
WHAT IS SO ‘NATURAL’ ABOUT NATURAL
NUMBERS ?

Natural numbers are positive integers, in other

words whole numbers which may be cardinal num­
bers or ordinal numbers.

29
THEN WHAT ARE UNNATURAL NUMBERS. ?

There is no such term called unnatural numbers,

but there is a term called negative numbers. The
introduction of negative numbers is due to the need
for subtraction to be performable without restric­
tion. In the case of positive numbers the subtrac­
tion a — b — c can only be carried out if a is greater
than b. If, on the other hand, a is smaller than b
we define c = — (b—a), for example 7—9 = (—2).
Here the ‘— sign’ on the left hand side of the equa­
tion represents an operation, and on the right hand
side it forms part of the number itself. In the case
of the positive numbers the associated sign + may
be omitted, but such is not the case with negative
numbers.

30
WHAT IS A MANIAC

MANIAC is an acronym for Mathematical Analy­

zer, Numerical Integrator and Computer.

22
It is an automatic digital computing machine at the
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.

31
WHAT IS AN ARITHMOMETER ?

It is a computing machined

32
WHAT IS DUO-DECIMAL SYSTEM OF NUMBERS ?

it is a system pf numbers in which twelve is the base

instead of ten. For example, in DUODECIMAL
system 24 would mean two twelves plus four, which
would be 28 in the decimal system.

33
WHAT IS ED VAC ?

It is a computing machine built at the University

of Pennsylvania for the Ballistic Research Labora­
tories, Aberdeen Proving ground. EDVAC is an
acronym for ELECTRONIC DESCRETE VARI­
ABLE AUTOMATIC COMPUTER.

34
WHAT IS AN EXPONENT ?

The exponent is a number placed at the right of

23
and above a symbol. The value assigned to the
symbol, with this exponent is called a power of the
symbol; although power is sometimes used in
the same sense as exponent. For example,
a* — axaxaxa or a multiplied by itself four
times. In this case the exponent is 4.
Exponent is also known as the INDEX.
If the exponent is a positive integer, it indicates that
the symbol is to be taken as a factor as many times
as there are units in this integer. However, when
the exponent is negative, it indicates that in addition
to operation indicated by the .numerical value of
the exponent, the quantity is to be reciprocated.
For example:
3-» = (9)-i == 1 or 3-2 = (3-i)2 = yi = i

35
WHAT IS A FAREY SEQUENCE

The Farey Sequence of order n is the increasing of

all fractions P/q for which 0 p/q gl, q N,
and p and q are non-negative integers with no
common divisors other thanl. For example, the
Farey Sequence of order 5 is:
2. I. > 1. 2. I. 1 2. 2. 4
S’
1
i
1’ 5’ 4 3 5’ 2’ 5’ 3’ 4’

24
 36
WHAT IS FIBONACCI SEQUENCE,?

The sequence of numbers 1, 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,

34 ... . each of which sum is the sum of the two
previous numbers. These numbers are also called
Fibonacci numbers. The ratio of one Fibonacci to
the preceding one is a Convergent of the continued
fraction:
I+l + f + f

The sum of the Fibonacci Sequence can be directly

obtained from Pascal’s triangle given below:

HKkAAAAufflH
RkAAAAAin
Ek A A A AA AJB
25
37
WHAT IS PASCAL’S TRIANGLE ?

This is a triangular array of numbers composed of

the coefficients of the expansion of (a+b)n, n= 0,
1, 2, 3 etc.
Each sum of the slant diagonal is a Fibonacci
number. The consecutive sums are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
13,21,34, 55.

38
WHAT IS PARENTHESES ?

Parentheses is the symbol ( ), indicating that the

enclosed sums or products are to be taken
collectively.

2 (6+4—3) = 2x7 = 14

39
WHAT IS PARITY ?

When two integers are both odd or both even they

are said to have the same parity. However if one is
odd and the other even, then they are said to have
different parity.

26
40
WHAT IS A FINITE SERIES ?

Finite series is a series that terminates at some

assigned term.

41
AND WHAT IS INFINITE SERIES ?

Infinite series is a series with an unlimited number

of series.

42
WHAT IS AN ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE ?

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers in

which two consecutive terms always have .the same
difference.

43
IN WHAT WAY DOES ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
DIFFER FROM ARITHMETIC SERIES ?

The Arithmetic Series is actually the unevaluated

sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence.

27
44
WHAT IS ABSCISSA ?

Abscissa means the measure meant to a point from

the zero point. Or it can also be the point of
intersection of the coordinate lines in graphs or
analytical geometry, the measurement being along
the horizontal axis, usually called the X axis.

WHAT ARE ABSTRACT NUMBERS ?

They are numbers used without connection to any

particular object as — 3, 8, 2. But when these
numbers are applied to anything as 3 apples, 8
men, 2 cars, they become concrete numbers.

46
IS IT ALRIGHT TO CALL 12, AS ‘TWELVE OVER
FOUR ? 4

No. It’s a division and it is best to call it‘twelve

divided by four’?

WHY DO WE SUBTRACT IN THE DIVISION

PROCESS?

Division is actually a repeated subtraction. When

28
you divide 80 from any number, you are actually
subtracting 8 ten times. Division is only a quicker
way of subtracting.

48
WHAT ARE ALIQUOT PARTS ?

Aliquot is actually a part of a number or quantity

which will divide the number or quantity without
a remainder. It can also be called a submultiple.
For example 4 is an Aliquot or submultiple of 16.

49
HOW DID THE SIGN sj FOR ROOTS ORIGINATE ?

The word root originates from the word radix in

Latin. Around 1525 they began to abbreviate it
with the letter 8 in handwriting. Soon y led to
■—to y to -y/

50
WHAT IS ANTECEDENT IN THE LANGUAGE OF
ARITHMETIC ?

Antecedent is the first two terms of a ratio. Thus

in the ratio of 3 to 4 written 3:4 the term 3 is the
antecedent. It is also the first and third terms of a
proportion. Thus 3:4 : :5:6, 3 and 5 are the an­
tecedents and 4 and 6 are the consequents.

29
 51
WHAT ARE ‘RAGGED DECIMALS ?

Ragged decimals are those that have varying num­

bers of digits to the right of the decimal point. Here
is an example of the addition of ragged decimals:
3.62
57 837
4.96
.0043

66.4213

52
WHAT IS AN EQUIVALENT FRACTION

Fractions that have the same value but are written

differently are equivalent.
For example:
11 _ S — 10 — 20
1 2 4 8'

are equivalent.

WHAT DOES ‘ONE DECIMAL PLACE’ MEAN

It means one digit to the right of the decimal point.

For example, 3.5 has one decimal digit, 3.53 has
two decimal digits and so on.

30
54
WHAT ARE SIGNED NUMBERS?

Signed numbers are actually a book keeping concept

which were used in book-keeping by the ancient
Greeks, Chinese and Hindus more than 2,000 years
ago. Merchants wrote positive numbers in black
and negative numbers in red in their account books.
Many banks still use red to show negative credit.

55
WHAT IS ‘ARBITRARY’ ?

In Arithmetic Arbitrary means not governed by any

fixed rule or standard—chosen according to one’s
own will.

56
WHAT IS ‘REPEATING DECIMAL’ ?

A repeating decimal is one in which some sequence

of digits is endlessly repeated.
For example:
0.333 = 3 and 0.272727=0.27

are repeating decimals. The bar over the number

is a shorthand way of showing those numbers are
repeated.

31
57-
WHAT IS ‘ARITHMETICAL MEAN’ ?

The Arithmetical Mean of any number of quanti­

ties is the sum of those quantities divided by their
number. It can be called the sum of any number of
consecutive terms of an Arithmetical Progression
divided by the terms taken.

58
WHERE DOES THE PHRASE ‘PERCENT’ COME
FROM ?

PERCENT comes from the Latin words PER

CENTUM meaning ‘by the hundred’ or ‘for every
hundred’. The number expressed as a percent is
being compared with a second number called the
standard or BASE by dividing the base into 100
equal parts and writing the comparison number as
so many hundredths of the base.

59
DOES ‘OF’ ALWAYS MEAN MULTIPLY ?

It can mean many things. However, when it is used

in percent problems, it always means a multiplica­
tion is coming up.

32
60
HOW DID THE SYMBOL « % ’ORIGINATE ?

The symbol *%’ means ‘100’. It started as 100

then loo, then2-in the 17th century and finally

0/0 or %.

61
CAN WE PERFORM THE FOUR OPERATIONS OF
ADD, SUBTRACT, MULTIPLY AND DIVIDE PER­
CENT NUMBERS ?

No, you cannot. Percent only helps you to com­

pare two numbers, and so it cannot be used in the
normal arithmetic operations. There always has to
be some reference or base given in order for the
percent number to have any meaning at alt

62
WHAT IS THE PRACTICAL USE OF PERCENT
CALCULATIONS ?

The practical use of Percent is in the calculation of

a part or percentage of some total. Here are some
typical of practical problems that can be solved by
percent calculations:
(a) Supposing a door to door sales person is paid
12% commission on all sales, how much does he
earn on a total sale of £ 500-00 ?

33
 (b) The list price of a motor car is £ 3,298/-. On a
"special sale it is offered ata discount of 20%.
What is the sale price ?
(c) Supposing you borrow £ 300 and the bank speci­
fies that you repay it at £ 30 per month plus
interest at 6% per month on the unpaid balance
what interest do you actually pay ?

63
WHAT IS ‘CHANGE OF SIGNS’ ?

If a bracket is preceded by a minus sign then all the

signs inside a bracket change from—to + or + to —
when the bracket is removed. A plus sign in front
of a bracket causes no change of sign inside the
bracket when it is removed. For example :

—(6—2+3) becomes—6+2—3 but+(3—4—8)

remains 3— 4— 8. When there is no sign of + or—
in front of a term, it can always be assumed as a
plus term.

64
WHAT IS ‘CONVERGENT SERIES’ ?
An infinite series is said to be convergent when the
sum of the first n terms cannot exceed some finite
quantity numerically, no matter how great n may
be.

34
65
AND WHAT IS ‘DIVERGENT SERIES’ ?

On the other hand, Divergent series is one the sum

of whose first n terms either increases indefinitely
or oscillates indefinitely between finite limits, as n
increases indefinitely.

66
WHAT IS ‘CROSS-MULTIPLICATION’ ?

When you multiply the numerator on one side of

an equation, by the denominator on the other side
of the equation, cross multiplication takes place.
This operation is carried out for both sides of an
equation in order to eliminate fractions;

67
HOW CAN ONE REMEMBER WHICH IS THE
NUMERATOR AND WHICH IS THE DENOMINA­
TOR ?

The way to remember it would be Denominator is

the down part. D for down.

68
WHAT ARE ‘CUMULATIVE SYMBOLS’ ?

They are marks or signs (x) meaning multiplied by

or (4-) meaning divided by.

35
69
WHEN YOU SAY ‘DEDUCE’ IN ARITHMETIC,
WHAT ACTUALLY DO YOU MEAN ?

Deduce actually means to infer something from in­

formation obtained. In other words, to derive or
draw a conclusion by reasoning from given princi­
ples.

70
HOW DOES ‘DEDUCE’ RELATE TO DEDUCTION ?
Deduction is a noun derived from the verb ‘Deduct’.
If derived from Deduce it means to infer, to draw
conclusions by reasoning from given principles. To
sieve out all the unnecessary information from a
problem and draw out the plain facts.
However, when this word is derived from Deduct,
it means subtracting or taking away.

WHAT IS ‘BINARY SYSTEM’ OF ARITHMETIC ?

Binary means consisting of two parts or things. The

Binary number system is actually a system of nota­
tion which uses the base 2 combined with place
value of notation. Since the scale is 2, there are
only two digits or ‘bigits’ 0 and 1. If there is one
more than 1, we turn from the unit’s place to the
two’s place, thus

36
 1 + 1 = 10
To convert any number such as 31 (scale 10) to
scale 2, repeated division by 2 is necessary.
31 ~ 2 = 15 R1
15 + 2= 7R1
7 + 2 = 3 R1
3 4- 2 == 1 R1
Therefore 31 (Scale 10) = (lx24)+(lx23) (lx2z)
+(lx2)+(lxl) = 11,11 in scale 2.
BASE 10 BINARY SYSTEM
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1,000
9 1,001
10 1,010
11 1,011
12 1,100
13 1,101
14 1,110
15 1,111
16 10,000
17 10,001
18 10,010
19 10,011
20 10,100

37
72
WHAT USE IS THE BINARY SYSTEM IN MODERN
WORLD ?

The main use of the Binary System, is its usefulness

in electronic computing machines. When an elec­
tric circuit is open, in other words, when there is no
current, the situation may be regarded as signifying
0. A closed circuit signifies 1.

73
WHAT IS ‘PLACE VALUE’ ?

The common scale of notation we use in our day-

to-day life is the Denary System — base 10. In this
system each digit used is said to have a PLACE
VALUE which is a power of 10.

74
BESIDES THE DENARY SYSTEM, WHAT ARE THE
OTHER SYSTEMS OF NOTATION ?

Binary System (Base 2), Ternary (Base 3), Quarter­

nary (Base 4), Quinary (Base 5), Senary (Base 6),
Septenary (Base 7), Octonary (Base 8), Nonary
(Base 9), Undenary (Base 11) and Deudonary (Base
12).

38
75
WHAT IS ‘DISTRIBUTIVE LAW’ ?

It means that addition and subtraction may be per­

formed in any order.

76
HOW DOES IT RELATE TO THE DISTRIBUTIVE
LAW OF MULTIPLICATIONS ?

There is no relationship really. This means alto­

gether another thing. Distributive Law of Multiplica­
tions means that the multiplication of a compound
expression by a factor is the sum of the partial
product of each terms of the expression by the
factor. For example: (a+b+c)d = ad+bd+cd

77
WHAT DOES ‘e’ STAND FOR IN ARITHMETIC ?

e is the base of the Napier or Hyperbolic system of

logarithms, e = 2.71821828459045.

78
WHAT IS ‘ELIMINATE’ ?

In Arithmetic Eliminate means to get rid of one or

more unknown quantities from two or more
simultaneous equations.

59
 79
WHAT IS ‘PERMILLAGE’ ?

Permillage is the fraction with a stated numerator

and an understood denominator of 1000. Just as %
is the recognised mark for ‘percent’ %0 is the sign
for ‘Per mill’ (Latin, MILLE, a thousand).

80
WHAT IS THE ‘AUSTRIAN METHOD’ OF
SUBTRACTION ?

The ‘Austrian Method’ of subtraction is generally

used by shopkeepers in Europe while giving change
to a customer. In the ‘Austrian Method’ instead of
SUBTRACTING the amount of the purchase from
the amount of the coin or bill given in payment,
they add from the amount of the purchase upto the
next higher money unit, then to the next, and so on
until they come to the amount of the coin or bill
given in payment.
For example, if the amount of purchase is £ 3-23 and
the bill given in payment is £10-00. They give the
customer the following money units for his change:
5 pence and 2 pence to make the sum £ 3-30, then
two 10 pence to make the sum £ 3-50, then a 50
pence to make the sum £ 4-00 and finally six one
pound notes to bring the sum upto £ 10-00.

40
 81
WHAT IS A ‘GRAPH’ ?

A graph is the pictorial representation of Statistics.

For example, if we want to show the comparative
rainfall in a certain district from month to month,
we draw a graph depicting a row of vertical glass
tubes, one for each month, each of them shaded, to
a depth which represents the number or inches of
rainfall for that month.
Many other statistics can be reduced to simple
graphs.

82
ARE STATISTICS ALWAYS DEPICTED IN GRAPHIC
IN VERTICAL FORMS OR ARE THERE OTHER
WAYS OF REPRESENTING THEM ?

There are two other ways. Graphs may be expressed

in curved lines and horizontal bars also. When
statistics are reduced to a simple group of figures,
the correct form of graph will present itself without
any trouble.

83
WHAT IS ‘EVALUATE’ ?

Evaluate means to work out a sum to its simplest

form. In other words, to get the exact vlaue of a
sum.

41
84
WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘Casting out nines’ ?

‘Casting out the nines’ is a method of checking

answers to multiplication, addition and subtraction.
It is based on the idea of finding the sum of the
digits in a number and then adding the digits in the
resulting sum, etc., until a one digit number results.
This addition of the digits in a number is further
simplified by first discarding or casting away any
digits whose sum is 9. The remainder is set down,
in each case as the check number. For example,
if you want to verify the following multiplication:
8216x4215 = 34630440, this is how you proceed.
84-2+1 +6 = 17, casting out the nines leaves 8 as
check number.
4+2+1+5 = 12, casting out the nines levels 3 as
check number.
34-44-6+34-04-44-44-0 = 24, casting the nines
leaves 6 as check number.
3x8=24,2+4 = 6 which was the check number of
the original product. So the multiplication is
correct.

WHAT ARE ‘FIGURATE NUMBERS’ ?

They are just numbers or a series of numbers formed.

42
from an arithmetical progression of which the first
term is unity and the difference a whole number,
by taking the first two, first three, first four, etc.,
terms and forming a new series or progressions,
and so on, by being formed in the same way. The
numbers of each sequence, when represented by
points, can be systematically arranged in various
geometrical figures such as triangles, pentagons,
tetrahedrons, etc. Synonym of Polygonal Numbers.

86
WHAT ARE ‘CRYPTOGRAMS’ ?

Cryptograms are mathematical puzzles which are

concerned with the association of the letters of the
alphabet with the digits. In simple cryptogram each
letter is replaced by one of the digits 0; 1,2, 3, 4, 5,
6,7,8,9 and n digit is represented by more than
one letter. Of course, the cryptogram Should make
mathematical sense.

87
WHAT LED TO ‘TEN’ AS THE BASE OF THE
GENERALLY USED NUMBER SYSTEM ?

The use of the fingers on both hands in counting led

to the use of ‘ten’ as the base of the number system.
Latter on symbols were used to represent numbers.
In a certain tribe the word meaning ‘three’ was the
word used for ‘middle finger’.

43
88
WHAT IS THE ACTUAL USE OF ZERO IN THE
NUMBER SYSTEM ?

Zero is used as a place holder when there is no fre­

quency to record in a place in a number. For
example, in the 809 0 holds ten’s place,
showing that there were no tens to record in the
number. Zero is the symbol which makes it possible
to show values in our number system without the
use of an artificial means to identify place value.

89
HOW DID THE WORD ‘DIGIT’ ORIGINATE IN
REFERENCE TO NUMBERS ?

The word ‘digit’ is derived from the Latin word

‘digitus’ which means ‘finger’.

90
WHAT IS AN ‘ABACUS’

The Abacus is a counting frame to aid in Arithmetic

Computation—largely used in China and Japan. A
simple form of Abacus consists of a series of parallel
wires or rods fastened in a wooden frame. There
are counters or beads which are moved along each
rod. The position of each rod represents a certain
place value.

44
91
WHAT EXACTLY IS THE FUNCTION OF A DECIMAL
POINT ?

A number system is not complete unless it may be

used to express fractional parts of a unit by means
of place values. The decimal point identifies the
one’s place and therefore it serves as a separatrix
between a unit and a part of a unit.

92
WHAT ARE ‘MAGIC SQUARES’ ?

Magic Squares consist of a number of integers

arranged in the form of a square in such, a way that
the sum of the numbers in every row, in every
column and each diagonal is the same. Magic Squ­
ares originated as an amusement in old times when
mystical ideas were associated with particular num­
bers. Even before the Christian Era Magic Squares
were constructed in China. Then introduction into
Europe appears to have been in the early part of
the fifteenth century.
A Magic Square engraved on a silver plate was
sometimes prescribed as a charm against the
plague.

45
93
WHAT IS A ‘DIABOLIC MAGIC SQUARE’ ?

The Diabolic Magic Square also, known as the Pan­

diagonal Magic Square, is the one that satisfies
the condition that the square should be magic along
the broken diagonals as well as along the two ordi­
nary diagonals. In other words, if a Diabolic Magic
Square is cut into two pieces along a line between
any two rows or any two columns, and the two

15 10 3 6

4 5 16 9

14 11 2 7

1 8 13 12

46
pieces are interchanged, the real square so formed
will also be pandiagonally magic.

In the magic square given here, the sum of the

numbers in each row, column and in the two
diagonals is 34. And the sum of the numbers in the
■six broken diagonals formed by the numbers 15, 9,
2,8, the numbers .10, 4, 7,13, the numbers 3, 5,14,
12 the numbers 6, 4,11,13, the numbers 3, 9,14,
8, and the numbers 10, 16, 7,1 all add upto 34.
A similar Diabolic Magic Square was inscribed at
Khajuraho, India, around the twelfth century.

94
WHAT DOES ‘GEOMETRICAL MEAN’ MEAN IN
ARITHMETIC ?

The Geometrical Mean of any number or numbers

is the root of their product which is represented by
their number. For example, the Geometrical Mean
of two numbers is the square root of the product of
the two numbers. The Geometrical Mean of three
numbers is the cube root of the product of the
three numbers.

95
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF MEASURE ?

The measure had its origin in something concrete

47
unlike numbers, which are abstract. To start with
some parts of the human body was used as a basis
for establishing a suitable standard for a measure
of distance, and as each particular standard for a
measure was established an effort was made to
divide the standard into smaller units of measure.
As such since there is no direct relationship between
our system of number and our collection of
measures, and as man learned to use different
measures, he tried to make an arbitrary relation­
ship between different units. Thus, the ratio of the
foot to the yard became 1 to 3, and the ratio of the
foot to the mile 1 to 5280.

96
WHY DOES A MILE HAVE TO BE 5280 FT ?

That’s rather a funny number.

Roman soldiers counted 1000 double steps as a
mile, from the Latin MILLE meaning THOUSAND,
and a double step is between 5 and 6 ft. King
Henry VII of England, in the fifteenth century-
changed it to exactly 8 furlongs, 8 X 220 yards
which are equal to 5280 ft.

97
HOW DO THE ‘UNITY FRACTIONS’ RELATE TO
FRACTIONS ?

If the numerator of a simple fraction is unity, it is

48
called a unity fraction. A complex fraction can be
changed to a unity fraction by inverting the deno­
minator or/and multiplying, or by multiplying
numerator and denominator by the least common
multiple of all denominators in the complex frac­
tion. For example:
( + 1) = (12 x (1 4- p) = |

98
THERE ARE GENERALLY TWO UNITY FRACTIONS
IN EVERY EQUATION. THEN HOW DO WE KNOW
WHICH ONE TO USE ?

Use the one that makes it possible for you to

cancel the units you do not need.
The equation 1 yard = 3 ft.
It • t 1 Yd . 3 ft ‘
It gives two fractions ——. and ------
3 ft 1 Yd
Both are, of course, equal to 1. In this case try one
of the two fractions. If it works good. If not, try
the other one.

99
HOW DOES THE METRIC SYSTEM COMPARE
WITH THE ENGLISH SYSTEM ?

The metric is related to our system of numbers,

49
whereas the English system of Linear measures, in
reality is not a system but a collection of indepen­
dent measures. The units in the metric system are
interrelated, and so they constitute a system. The
comparison of the English System to Metric System
is as follows :

English System Metric System

12 inches—1 foot 10 millimetres —1 centimetre
3 feet —1 yard 10 centimetres—1 decimetre
51 yards —1 rod 10 decimetres —1 metre
320 rods-—1 mile 10 metres —1 decametre
10 decametres —1 hectametre
10 hectametres—1 kilometre

The metric system has been in use less than 150

years, whereas the English System of measures is as
old as our number system.

100
HOW DID THE METRIC SYSTEM ORIGINATE ?

A Committee of Scientists in France, in the early

part of the nineteenth century, formulated a
system of measures, which is a decimal system—the
same base as our number system. Since the metre
is the Standard Unit in this system of linear
measure, it came to be known as the METRIC
System. In this system the measure is disassociated

50
from any tangible object, such as the length of an
arm or a foot.
A Meter, the Standard Unit of the Metric System
is one-ten millionth of the distance from the equator
to the pole along the meridian.

101
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF THE METRIC
SYSTEM OVER THE ENGLISH SYSTEM ?

Since Metric System was constructed as a decimal

system by scientists who knew that number in
general, and that it can be applied anywhere to any
situation in which quantitative relationships are
present, it is a much more practical system. On the
other hand, the English System is a product of
necessity, with its standards originating from tangi­
ble concrete things which had no relationship to
our number system. The originators of these
measures, perhaps, were unaware of the generality
of a decimal system. Therefore, in this system we
have unrelated units.

102
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF THE BASIC UNIT OF
TIME ?

The basic practical unit of time is the mean Solar

day. We define all other time units in terms of it.

51
A mean solar day is based on the average time
needed for the earth to turn once on its axis.

103
WHAT IS A ‘COMPLEX FRACTION’ ?

A complex fraction has a fraction or mixed number

for one or both of its terms, thus:

(—);or (74.); or (—)

5 03
6 4

104
WHAT IS ‘IMPROPER’ ABOUT AN IMPROPER
FRACTION ?

A fraction is called an improper fraction, when its

numerator is greater than its denominator. For
example, | or |. On the other hand a fraction is
called a ‘proper’ fraction when it has a numerator,
smaller than its denominator.

105
WHAT ARE ‘HARMONIC MEANS’ ?

When the Harmonic Progression is inverted and

thereby turned into an Arithmetical progression,

52
then after finding the required number of means by
the method for Arithmetic Means, and these are
inverted, they become the Harmonic Means
required.

106
WHAT ARE ‘EMPIRICAL PROBLEMS' ?

There are problems that are not necessarily suppor­

ted by any established theory of laws but are based
upon immediate experience rather than logical
conclusions. Such problems are known as Empiri­
cal Problems. To give an example, if you come
across a problem which says ‘with the ten digits, 9,
8, 7,6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, express numbers whose sum
is unity: each digit being used only once, and the
use of the usual notations for fractions being
allowed with the same ten digits express numbers
whose sum is 100’.
There is no limit to the making of such questions,
but their solutions involve little or no mathematical
skill. These are considered Empirical Problems.

107
WHAT ARE ‘ARITHMETICAL FALLACIES’ ?

Sometimes certain problems are put leading to

arithmetical results which are obviously impossible.
Such problems are known as Arithmetical fallacies.

53
 Here is an example:
Q.Prove 1=2
Proof
Suppose that a = b
Then ab — a2
.-. ab—b2 = a2—bs
.-. b (a—b) = (a+b) (a—b)
.-. b = a + b
.-. b = 2b.-. 1 = 2

108
WHAT ARE ‘ARITHMETICAL RESTORATIONS’ ?

The class of problems dealing with the reconstruc­

tion of arithmetical sums from which various digits
have been erased are called Arithmetical Restora­
tions. This kind of exercise has attracted a good
deal of attention in recent years.

109
WHAT IS ‘GOLDBACH’S THEOREM ?

That every number greater than 4 can be expressed

as the sum of two odd primes. For example :
5 = 3 + 2, 7 = 5 + 2, 9 = 7 + 2

54
 110
WHAT IS ‘TOWER OF HANOI’ IN ARITHMETIC ?

‘Tower of Hanoi’ is an Arithmetical puzzle brought

out by M. Claus in 1883. The problem goes like
this:
‘There are three pegs fastened to a stand, consisting
of eight circular discs of wood, each of which has
a hole in the middle through which a peg can be
passed. These discs are of different radii, and
initially they are placed all on one peg, so that the
biggest is at the bottom, and the radii of the succes­
sive discs decrease as we ascend: thus the smallest
disc is at the top. This arrangement is called the
TOWER. The problem is to shift the discs from
one peg to another in such a way that a disc shall
never rest on one smaller than itself, and finally to
transfer the tower i.e. all the discs in their proper
order from the peg on which they initially rested to
one of the other pegs’.
The number of separate transfers of single discs
which one must make to effect the transfer of the
tower is:
18446744073709551615

111
WHAT ARE ‘PRIME PAIRS’ ?

A de Polignac has conjenctured that every even

55
number is the difference of two consecutive primes
in infinitely many ways. Suppose we take the even
number to be 2, this means that there are infinitely
many pairs of primes that are consecutive odd
numbers such as 5, 7; II, 13; 17, 19; 29, 31; 41, 43;
59, 61; 71, 73; these are called prime pairs.

112
WHAT IS ‘KARAT’ ?

In the Troy weight, which is used by jewellers in

weighing precious metals and stones, a Carat is
equal to 3.168 grains. The term Karat is a variation
of Carat and in form is used in comparing the parts
of gold alloys which are in gold.
The comparison is based on the use of 24 Karats to
mean pure gold, and therefore 14 Karats means
pure gold by weight or 14 parts pure gold and 10
parts alloy.

113
WHAT IS A ‘CONDITIONAL EQUATION’

An equation is a symbolic statement that two

quantities are equal in value. When an equation is
true for all values of the letters, it is an identity, for
example: 4a + 9a = 13a, However, when this is not
the case, it is known as a Conditional Equation.
For example:

56
x + 5 = 3x — 3. In this case the formula is true
only if x — 4. Only then 4 + 5 = 12 — 3 or 9=9

114
WHAT IS A ‘FACTRORIAL’ ?

Factorial is the product of all positive integers from

1 up to a given number n, inclusive. Factorial is
denoted by the symbol n !

115
HOW DOES FACTORIAL RELATE TO FACTORING?

There is no connection at all. Factoring is another

•thing altogether. Factoring is actually the process
of finding two or more expressions whose product
is a given expression. '

116
WHAT ARE ‘GILLS’ ?

Gills is a term used in Liquid Measure. Sixteen

fluid ounces or 1 pint is equal to 4 Gills.

57
117
HOW DO YOU EXPLAIN pi (tt) IN A SIMPLE WAY?
Many practical problems are concerned with the
measurements of a circle. And the basic to the
measurements is the fact that the ratio ofthe circum­
ference to its diameter is a constant. No matter what
the size of the circle the ratio remains the same. In
mathematics, this ratio is represented by the Greek
letter it (pi).
However this constant is not an integer and much
effort has been spent to find the value of this ratio.
It has been evaluated to a large number of decimal
points by electronic calculators.
The story of the accuracy to which the value of pi
is known is an interesting one.
In the Bible, the value of pi is used as 3 Archimedes
had declared the value of pi as less than 31 but
greater than 312. The value generally used today
3.1416 was known at the time of Ptolemy (A.D.
150).
In 1949, with the use of the Computer Eniac, a
group of mathematicians calculated 2037 decimals
of pi in 70 hours.
And recently Daniel Shanks and John Wrench have
published pi to 100,000 decimals. It took them 8
hours and 43 minutes on an IBM 7090 system to
compute this result.

58
However for practical use the approximation of pi
3.1416 is sufficient.

118
WHAT IS THE ‘LUDOLPHIAN NUMBER’ ?

At the end of Sixteenth Century Rudolph Van

Ceulen calculated 35 decimal place for pi. In his
will, he requested that these 35 numbers be engraved
on his tombstone. This was done. In Germany
they still refer to this number as ‘Ludolphian Num­
ber’.

119
WHAT ARE SIGNIFICANT DIGITS’ ?

‘Significant Digits’ is used in context to, decimal

numbers. The significant digits of a decimal number
are those beginning with the first one, reading from
left to right, which is not zero and ending with the
last are definitely specified.
For example:
.444 has three significant digits
2.8943 has five significant digits
0.005182 has four significant digits.

59
120
WHAT IS ‘ROUNDING OFF’ IN ARITHMETIC ?

To ‘Round off’ a decimal number means to correct

it to a specified number off significant digits. The
following rule is followed:
a. The number of non-zero digits are retained and
the rest on the right of this are discarded.
b. If the digit to the immediate right of the last
digit retained is greater than 5, the last digit
retained is increased by 1.
c. If the digit to the immediate right of the last
digit retained is less than five, the last digit is left
unchanged.

121
WHAT IS AN ‘INCOMMENSURABLE’ NUMBER ?

This is actually a ratio, which is not expressed

exactly by two whole numbers.
For example:
1: :Z or 2.56:5.74 or 2:5
3 o
having no common measure.

60
122
WHAT IS A ‘TRANSFINITE CARDINAL NUMBER’ ?

A Cardinal number of an infinite set is called a

Transfinite Cardinal Number.

123
WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘RELATIVELY PRIME’
NUMBER ?
When we reduce a fraction, for example:
60 (2ax5)x3 3 _ 3
4880~ (22—5)x(22 x 61)~ 22x61- 244

Since 3 is the only prime factor of the numerator

and 3 is not a factor of the denominator, the
fraction is in its lowest terms. Since the nume­
rator and the denominator do not have any common
prime factors they are said to be ‘relatively prime*.

124
WHAT IS ‘FOUR-COLOUR’ PROBLEM ?

About the middle of the 19th century, this problem

known as the ‘Four colour’ problem related to map
making was proposed and remains insolved to this
date. The problem involves the colouring of maps
using at most four colours. When two countries
have common boundaries, they must have different

61
colours. When two countries have only single
points in common they may use the same colour.
No one, so far, has been able to produce a map
that would require more than four colours. But no
one has been able to prove that four colours are
sufficient for all maps.
However, it has been proved that if a map could be
drawn that would require five colours, there would
have been at least 36 countries on it. And it has
also been proved that five colours are sufficient for
all maps, but may not be necessary.

125
WHAT IS A ‘GOOGOL’

Googol is one of the largest numbers that has ever

been named. It has been defined as 1 followed by
one hundred zeros;
10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000
However, a googol can be expressed using exponents,
as
IQiOO

62
126
WHAT IS A GOOGOLPLEX’

Even larger than the googol is googolplex. It is

defined as 1 followed by a googol of zeros. It is
claimed that there would not even be room between
the earth and the moon to write all the zeros in a
googolplex!

127
HOW WOULD YOU NAME A SIXTYONE DIGITS
NUMBER SUCH AS THIS: 7, 346, 648, 004; 560, 986,
215, 348, 444, 286, 445, 305, 146, 039, 140, 046, 960, 678,
582, 256, 003 ?

SEVEN VIGINTILLION, THREE HUNDRED

FORTY SIX NOVEMDECILLION, SIX
HUNDRED FORTY EIGHT OCTODECILLION,
FOUR SEPTENDECLLION, FIVE HUNDRED
SIXTY SEXDECIELION, NINE HUNDRED
EIGHTYSIX QUINDECILLION, TWO HUND­
RED FIFTEEN QUATTOUR DECILLION,
THREE HUNDRED FORTY EIGHT DUODE-
CILLION, FOUR HUNDRED FORTY FOUR
UNDECILLI ON, TWO HUNDRED EIGHTY­
SIX DECILLION, FOUR HUNDRED FORTY
FIVE MONILLION, THREE HUNDRED AND
FIVE OCTILLION, ONE HUNDRED FORTY
SIX SEPTILLION, THIRTY NINE SEXTIL­
LION, ONE HUNDRED FORTY QUINTIL-

63
LION, FORTY SIX QUADRILLION, NINE
HUNDRED SIXTY TRILLION, SIX HUND­
RED SEVENTY EIGHT BILLION, FIVE
HUNDRED EIGHTY TWO MILLION, TWO
HUNDRED FIFTY SIX THOUSAND AND
THREE.

128
WHAT IS AN ‘INDEPENDENT VARIABLE’ ?

A quantity which may have any value we care tc

give it is an Independent Variable. The value of
the corresponding variable is given is fixed as soon
as the value of the independent variable is known.
For example in the equation x + 5 = y we give x
the value 9, then automatically the dependent
variable y becomes 14.

129
WHAT IS A ‘TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBER’

A number which is not algebraic is called transcen­

dental. In other words a transcendental number
satisfies no algebraic equation whose coefficients
are rational numbers.

64
130
A CERTAIN NUMBER IS ATTACHED TO THE
MAIDEN GODDESS ATHENE. WHAT ARE SOME
OF THE OTHER NUMBERS ATTACHED TO ?

Number SEVEN is attached to the maiden Goddess

Athene ‘because seven alone within the decade has
neither factors nor product’. Five suggested mar­
riage, the union of the first even and first genuine
odd number. One was identified with reason. Two
with opinion—a wavering fellow is Two, he does
not know his own mind. And FOUR with justice,
steadfast and square.

131
HOW DID THE WORD ‘CALCULATE’ ORIGINATE ?

When people first began to count, little by little

they found out how to add, subtract, multiply and
divide. And in some countries special devices were
invented to make computation easier, especially in
dealing with large numbers. The Romans used a
counting frame, which is today known as Abacus,
in which units, fives, ten and so on were represen­
ted by heads, which could be moved in grooves.

These heads were called CALCULI which is plural

for CALCULUS or pebble. Since CALC means
lime and marble is a kind of lime-stone, it is clear
the heads were of marble.

65
This is the origin of the word CALCULATE.

132
WHAT IS CUNEIFORM WRITING OF NUMERALS ?

It is a kind of a wedge shaped writing of numerals,

which developed in the Mesapotamia valley, and was
very much in use in ancient times. Lack' of other
writing materials led the people to stamp inscrip­
tions on clay bricks with sticks which usually were
triangular with sharp edges.
The Cuneiform numerals for 1,2 and 3 are V W
vvv.

133
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN IN­
TEGER AND AN INTEGRAL ?

The integer is a whole number as opposed to a

fraction such as 3, 6, 8, 15, 1284. Whereas integral
means consisting of a whole number or an undivi­
ded quantity.

134
WHAT IS ‘INTERPOLATION’ ?

It is avero meaning, filling in the intermediate

terms of a series of numbers or to insert the inter­
mediate terms of a series.

66
135
WHAT IS AN ‘EQUIVALENT FRACTION’ ?

Such traction that have the same value, but are

written differently are equivalent. For example :
114 = 4.
§ = 1°
8
= 22
16

136
IS THERE ANY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERCENT
AND PERCENTAGE ?

Yes there is a good deal of difference, though they

sound alike. Percent shown with the symbol % is a
rate like 10%, whereas percentage’ is a number ex­
pressed as a percent of seme other number.

137
HOW DID THE WORD ‘TON’ ORIGINATE ? WHY
SHOULD THERE BE 2,000 POUNDS IN A TON, AND
WHY NOT 1000 ?

The word ton originates from the word tub. And

a wine maker’s tub which is also known as tun
traditionally fills 250. One gallon bottles of wine
each weighing about 8 pounds.

67
 138
WHAT IS A ‘LITERAL EQUATION’ ?

A Literal Equation is an equation in which letters

are used to represent numbers. In mathematics
that arise in business and work it is often necessary
to find the value of a Literal Expression when the
numerical values of the letter variables are given.
This process is known as ‘evaluating’ the equation.

139
WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘ANTILOG’ ?

‘Antilog’ is generally written in front of a number

and it means ‘Look up in the table the value of the
base when raised to the power represented by the
number’.

140
WHAT IS ‘SAND RECKONER’

Archimedes wrote, a short treatise in which he

made an estimate of the number of grains of Sand
in the world. This treatise is known as ‘Sand
Reckoner’. In this work he hit upon two of the
most powerful peculiarities which is a part of the
modern number script. He declared that all high
numbers should be represented by multiples of
simple powers of ten, and he also hit upon the law

68
which underlies the modern calculating device
called logarithms.

141
WHAT IS ‘CLYPSYDRAS’ ?

The Alexandrians and the Chinese invented

‘Clypsydras’ to replace the sundial, which were
kept going by a flow of water;

142
‘WHAT IS ‘MANTISSA’ ?

The positive fractional part of the logarithm is

called MANTISSA. For example to find the
logarithm of 9.876 in the table, we look down the
lefthand side of the table, through the eblumn of
double figures beginning with 10, until we find 98.
At the top of the page there are columns headed
by the numbers 0 to 9. We look along the line
beginning 98 till we come to the column headed 7.
The number given in this place is 9,943. This is the
Mantissa of the logarithm of 9.87.

143
WHAT IS ‘RHYND PAPYRUS’ ?

In the ancient times the Egyptian writer Ahmes

69
wrote down the laws of measuring things. This is
known as Rhynd papyrus. However the plain man
could not decipher this writing.

144
WHAT IS ‘INVOLUTION’ ?

The method used for obtaining any power for any

quantity is known as ‘Involution’. The power of a
number is obtained by multiplying the logarithm
of the number by the index representing the power
required. The product thus acquired is the loga­
rithm of the number required.

145
WHAT IS ‘MYRIAD’ ?

An immense number, innumerable number, is

called Myriad. It can also mean ten thousand.

146
WHAT ARE ‘QUARTER SQUARES’ ?

The product of two numbers is equal to the

difference of one-fourth the squares of their sum
and their difference:
i (a + b)2 — J (a —b)2. This fact has been used

70
to reduce multiplication to addition with the aid
of tables of quarter squares. The method is very
old. There are many tables of quarter squares and
the most extensive table lists quarter squares of
integers upto 200,000. The method is very useful
and economical.

147
WHAT ARE ‘QUARTERNIONS’

If you do not use the properties of order and the

commutative law of multiplication, we obtain an
interesting further extension of the complex number
system known as Quarternions q.v. in abbreviation.
Quarternions are of the form a+ bi + cj + dk
where a, b, c, d are real.

148
WHAT IS THE ‘THEORY OF NUMBERS’ ?

The Theory of Numbers is concerned with the

study of the properties of integers or whole num­
bers. The proofs of many of the Theory use the
deepest resources of mathematics. However, some
of the most interesting conjectures are still un­
proved.
Topics of the Theory of the Numbers can be listed
as follows?

71
/.Divisibility and Primality:
a. Elementary Definitions; Factorizations into
Primes.
b. Residue Classes; Eulers Theorem
c. Congruences in one unknown
d. Quadratic Residues; The Quadratic Recipro­
city Law
e. Factorization of Numbers; Mersenne Primes

II. Representation by forms:

a. Binary Quadratic forms
b. Genera of Quadratic forms; Formulas for
Number of Representations
c. The Numbers Represented by a Quadratic
Form: universal forms Representation of
zero.
d. Automorphs and Reduction of indefinite
Binary Quadratic Forms
e. Diophantine Equations

III. Topics in Analytic Number Theory:

a. Gauss’s Class-Number Conjencture
b. Distribution of Primes; Asymptotic Formulas

IV. Additive Theory of Numbers:

a. Partitions
b. The waring problem and related problems

72
 c. The Goldbach problem

V. Diophontine Approximation:
a. Geometry of Numbers
b. Diophontine Approximation
VI. Generalisations of Arithmetic:
a. Algebraic Numbers
b. Ideals
c. Algebras and their Arithmetics

149
WHAT IS ‘DYADIC NOTATION’ ?

Dyadic Notation is another name for Binary Notation.

150
WHAT IS ‘FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM’ ?

In the margin of his copy of ‘Diophantus’ Fermat

wrote: ‘If n is a number greater than two, there
are no whole numbers a, b, c such that an 4- bn
= c". I have found a truly wonderful proof which
this margin is too small to contain’. Unfortunately,
he died soon after, and this theory has never been
proved, though almost every great mathematician
for the last three centuries has attempted a proof.

73
Some skeptics, however, believe Fermat himself
never, solved.

151
WHAT ARE ‘DIGITAL COMPUTERS’ ?

A digital computer consists of three parts:

1. Store
2. Executive Unit
3. Control
The store is a store of information and memory.
The executive unit is a part which carries out the
various individual operations involved in a calcula­
tion. And it is the duty of the Control that the
instructions fed to the machine are obeyed correctly
and in the proper order.

152
WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘ASSOCIATIVE LAW’ ?

Associative Law means that the terms of an expres­

sion means connected by plus or minus signs can
be grouped in any manner.
For example:
a-r b — c + d — c + f = (a + b) — c + (d —e)
+ f— a (b — c) + d — (e — f)

74
153
WHAT IS THE ‘ASSOCIATIVE LAW OF MULTIPLI­
CATION’ ?

Here the meaning is that the factors of a product

can be grouped in anyway we please.
For example:
(3a X 4bc) xd =bxdx3xax4xc
= (bd) (3ac) 4

154
WHAT DOES ‘COMMUTATIVE LAW’ MEAN ?

The terms or parts of an expression wmch are

connected by plus or minus signs can be written in
any order is the Commutative Law. For example:
3 — 6 + 10 = — 6 + 3 + 10 = 10 +3—6=7

155
WHAT IS THE ‘COMMUTATIVE LAW OF MULTI­
PLICATION’ ?

The factors of any product may be taken in any

order—this is the Commutative Law of Multiplica­
tion.
For example: 3a x 4bc xd = 3xaX4xbx
cxd = 12abcd

75
15$
WHAT IS ‘DISTRIBUTIVE LAW’ ?

That addition and subtraction can be performed in

any order.

157
WHAT IS DISTRIBUTIVE LAW OF MULTIPLICA­
TION’ ?

That the product of a Compound expression and a

factor is the algebraical sum of the partial products
of each term of the compound expression and the
factor. For example:
(a 4- b 4- c) d = ad 4- bd 4- cd

158
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE ‘INDEX LAW OF
DIVISION’ ?

That if in the numerator and the denominator of a

fraction the same letter occurs, then the answer is
the difference of the indices of the letters. For
example:
a5 „ b« 1
—r— a3 or ry= vr- or
a2 b7 b3
a3b* b*
asb2 a2

76
159
WHAT IS ‘INDEX LAW OF MULTIPLICATION’ ?

That the final index of a letter occuring more than

once in a product is the sum of the indices of that
letter.
For example :
a2 X a5 X a7 = a2+s't7 — a14 ora2b3 X a7b3

160
CAN YOU ADD, DIVIDE OR MULTIPLY PER CENT
NUMBERS ?

No. It cannot be done. Normal arithmetical opera­

tions cannot be carried out with per cent numbers.'
Per cent helps you compare two numbers. For
example when you say ‘Sixty per cent of the people
who attended the function were women’. What you
are actually doing is you are comparing with the
total number of people who attended the function.

161
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEASURE­
MENT NUMBERS AND ORDINARY NUMBERS ?

Measurement numbers are very much like the ordi­

nary numbers in arithmetic. They can be added,
subtracted, multiplied and divided. However

77
 whilejdoing these operations one has to convert all
measurement numbers into the same units. For
example we cannot add 4 ft. and 9 inches to 6 of
anything. We have to convert so that both measuro-
ments are either in foot units or inch units.

162
WHY IS THERE NO METRIC TIME UNIT ? IN
OTHER WORDS, WHY CAN’T WE USE MULTIPLES
OF TEN INSTEAD OF 60 SECONDS, 60 MINUTES,
24 HOURS, 7 DAYS IN A WEEK AND 365 DAYS IN
A YEAR ?

It was suggested once. And indeed it would be a

more practical system. But every country in the
world uses the present system and no one wants a
change.

163
WHAT IS THE ‘CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE*

When we set the oven at 375° degrees temperature

to bake a cake or learn from a doctor that we have
a fever of 103° or it is 70°F in Bangalore we are
using the concept of temperature. To read the body
temperature we have standard thermometers which
are marked with numerical temperature scales agre­
ed upon around the world. There are two temper­
ature scales Fahrenheit and Centigrade.

78
164
HOW DID THE FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE
TEMPERATURE SCALES ORIGINATE ?

The first modern temperature scale is Fahrenheit

scale. This was devised in 1714 by a scientist named
Gabriel Robert Fahrenheit. Fahrenhiet temperature
scales is in common use for weather reports, medi­
cal thermometers and cook books. However this
scale was improved by Anders Celsius, a Swedish
Astronomer and his new temperature scale has been
adopted in many countries of the world. However,
most English speaking countries have continued to
use the Fahrenheit scale and refer to the Celsius
scale as Centigrade meaning 100 units temperature
scale.
The Centigrade temperature unit has been set up
using two reference temperatures: the temperature
at which water normally freezes to ice was set as
0°C and the temperature at which water normally
boils was set 100°C.
100 units on the Centigrade scale corresponds to
180 units on the Fahrenheit scale.

165
IS THERE ANY QUICK ARITHMETICAL METHOD
OF CONVERTING FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE
OR FROM CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT ?

Yes, there is a way. The two temperature scales are

connected by a simple algebraic equation :

79
 C+ 40 L. Where C
- ‘
F + 40 9
stands for the Centigrade temperature and F is the
equivalent of Fahrenheit temperature. In order to
convert Fahrenheit temperature degrees into Centi­
grade degrees all one has to do is rearrange the
above equation as
C = 5 (F—32)
9

166
WHAT IS THE MEASUREMENT USED IN SELLING
LUMBER ?

Lumber is sold according to a special measure of

volume called the board foot. The number of board
feet= Thickness in inches
width in feet X length in feet
In case we want to calculate in board feet a Lumber
that is 8 foot long 2 by 4 this is how we go about
it:
4
Number of board feet = 2 in x - --- ft X
12
64 ...
8 ft = ——ft. = 5.3 board foot.
12
2 inches is the thickness in inches

80
 4 _ . .
----- ft is the width in feet
12
8 ft. is the length in feet.

167
WHAT IS A ‘LITERAL COEFFICIENT’ ?

A letter which has fixed value is a Literal Coefficient.

Usually the letters at the beginning of the alphabet
are used for this purpose. For example to save
time, when you want to write down 56398246 each
time in a sum or if its value although fixed is un­
known then this number may be called a, b, c, or
any other letter of the alphabet.

168
WHAT IS ‘MENSURATION’ ?

Mensuration is the skill of measuring the length of

lines, areas of surfaces, and volumes of solids from
simple data of lines and angles.

169
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONOMIAL
EXPRESSION AND MULTINOMIAL EXPRESSION ?

Monomial is an expression just one term such as 3,

4, 6x etc. Whereas Multinomial is an expression

81
of-more than three terms such as 3a+6b+9cd+
4abc

170
WHAT IS A ‘NUMERICAL COEFFICIENT’ ?

Numerical coefficient is an arithmetical number

used in an expression such as 3, 8, 26.

171
WHY IS NUMBER 13 CALLED UNLUCKY ?

No one knows the exact reason, though some one

gave me a flimsy one that it being the fifth prime
number it was unlucky. However quite frankly I
think it is really strange and unjustified. Many
buildings in Europe and USA have no 13th floors,
hotels have no rooms numbered 13, many people
refuse to take car numbers that contains number 13,
and people often refuse to start a journey or a new
business on the 13th day of the month. In my
own case, however, 13 has been a very lucky num­
ber.

In ancient Greece the 13 day of the month was con­

sidered unlucky for sowing but lucky for reaping.

82
172
9
THE NUMBER 99 IS CONSIDERED A VERY INTE­
RESTING NUMBER. WHY ?

Ninth power of the ninth power of nine is the

largest in the world of numbers that can be expres­
sed with just 3 digits. No one has been able to
compute this yet. The very task is staggering to the
mind
The answer to this number will contain 369 million
digits. And to read it normally it would take more
than a year. To write down the answer, you would
require 1164 miles of paper.

173
WHAT IS THE BIGGEST KNOWN PRIME NUMBER ?

Tables containing the 664580 primes upto 10,000000

have been prepared. The largest known prime is :

2127—1 =17014118346046923173168
7303715884105727

174
HOW ARE THE SMALLEST MEASUREMENTS
EXPRESSED ?

There are two units used in the measure of all small

83
distances, the micron fa) and the Angstron Unit
o
(A. u.). A micron is the millionth of a metre and
there are about 25000 microns in an inch. One
Angstron unit equals one ten thousand millionth of
a metre. One micron equals 10,000 times the length
of an Angstron Unit.
Breadth of a hair = 75b
Diameter of red blood corpuscle = 2m
Diameter of spherical bacterium = 0.5^
Diameter of molecule of water = 0.00205m
or 2.5 A.m-

175
IS 1729 UNLUCKY

1729 is the only known number that is a sum of

two cubes in two different ways.
13» + 93 = 3729; i23 + 13= 1729
This is popularly known as Ramanujan’s number.
The great Indian Mathematician, was sick in the
hospital, Prof. Hardy, his tutor paid him a visit.
Prof. Hardy told Ramanujan that he rode a taxi to
the hospital with a very unlucky number, 1729.
Ramanujan’s face lit up with a smile and he said
that it was not an unlucky number at all, but a
very interesting number, the only number that can

84
be represented as the sum of two different cubes in
two different ways.

176
IS IT TRUE THAT SOME PEOPLE BELIEVE THAT
ODD NUMBERS ARE LUCKY ?

Yes, even from olden days some people believe that

odd numbers are lucky. Here is a stanza from
‘Lover, Rory O’More’ written in 1839.
Then Rory, the rogue, stole his arm round her neck,
So soft and so white, without freckle or speck;
And he look’d in her eyes, that were beaming with
light,
And he kissed her sweet lips—don’t you think he
was right?
“Now, Rory leave off, sir, you’ll hug me no more,
That’s eight times today that you’ve kissed me
before.”
“Then here goes another,” says he, “to make sure,
For there’s luck in odd numbers,” says Rory O’More.

177
WHAT IS AN ‘ABUNDANT NUMBER’ ?

When a number itself is greater than the sum of its

factors, it is said to be an abundant number. It can
also be called excessive number or redundant
number.

85
178
WHAT IS ‘AMPERE’ ?

Ampere is the unit measure of electric current. The

absolute ampere which is the legal standard of
current since 1950 is the current in each of two long
parallel wires which carry equal currents and for
which there is a force of 2.10 -7 newton permeter
acting on each wire. However before 1950. the
legal standard of current was the international
ampere which is the current when passed through
a solution of silver nitrate deposits silver at the rate
of 0.001 118 grammes per second. One international
ampere equals 0.999835 absolute ampere. Other
units of electric current are milliamp(mA)= I0-’ A
and microamp (nA) = 10A-6

179
WHEN YOU SAY ‘NEWTON PERMETER’, WHAT
EXACTLY IS NEWTON PERMETER ?

Newton permeter is a unit force. A force of one

newton is a force which will give an acceleration of
one meter per second to a mass of one kilogram.

86
180
WHAT IS THE GAME CALLED ‘NIM’ ?

‘Nim’ a favourite game of mathematicians, is said

to have originated in Japan.
In this game two players draw articles from several
piles, each player in turn taking as many as he
pleases from any one pile. The player who draws
the last article is the loser.
If the numbers of article in each heap is expressed
in the Binary scale, the game readily lends itself to
mathematical analysis.
There is one other way of playing this game. Three
or more numbers in decimal system are written
down, and two players move alternatively. Each
player may reduce one and only one of the integers
by any amount he wishes except zero. The winner
is the one who obtains all zeros. ?

181
WHAT IS ‘ANNUITY’ ?

Annuity is the sum of money payable in a series of

payment at regular intervals, under an annuity
contract setting forth the amount of the annuity,
its cost and the conditions under which it is to be
paid. This contract is also known as the Annuity
Policy when the annuity is a temporary one.

87
182
WH^T IS A ‘PICTOGRAM’ ?

Pictogram is any figure showing numerical relations

such as graphs.

183
•WHAT IS ‘POUNDAL’ ?

Poundal is a unit of force. The force which, acting

on a mass of one pound for one second, will
increase the velocity of the mass one foot per
second is called a force of one Poundal.

184
WHAT IS ‘AHMES RHYND PAPYRUS’ ?

It is said to be the oldest mathematical book written

about 1550 B.C.

185
WHAT IS ‘ALEPH’ ?

It is the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet written

as ON°O. The cardinal number of all countably
infinite sets is called ALEPH-NULL or ALEPH
ZERO. It is written as oN°a. The cardinal number
of all real numbers is designated by C.

88
186
"WHAT IS A ‘COIN-MATCHING GAME’ ?

This is a two person game, in which each of the

players tosses a coin of like value and if the two
coins show like faces, either both heads or both
tails, the first player wins, but if they show unlike
faces the second player wins.

187
WHAT IS AN ‘ABRIDGED MULTIPLICATION’ ?

This is a process of multiplying whereby you drop

a digit of the multiplier after each multiplication.
You only drop such digits which do not affect the
degree of accuracy desired. If in a product you
need only two decimal place accuracy, you only
need to retain the third place throughout the multi­
plication.

188
WHAT IS ‘ORACLE’ ?

‘ORACLE’ is an automatic digital computing ma­

chine at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the
USA. ORACLE is an acronym for Oak Ridge
Automatic Computer and Logical Engine.

89
 189
WHAT, IS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN PERMUTA­
TION AND COMBINATION ?

Permutation is an ordered arrangement of all or

part of a set of things. For example all possible per­
mutations of the letters a, b and c are: a, b, c, ab,
ac, ba, be, ca, cb, abc, aeb, bac, cab and cba.
Combination of a set of objects is any selection of
one or more of the objects without regard to order.
The number of combinations of ‘n’ things ‘r’ at a
time is the number of sets that can be made up
from the ‘n’ things, each set containing ‘r’ different
things and no two sets containing exactly the same
T’ things. This is equal to the number of permuta­
tions of the ‘n’ things taken ‘r’ at a time, divided by
the number of permutations of ‘r’ things taken ‘n’
at a time

190
WHAT IS THE MEANING OF PROBABILITY

Here is a quotation about Probability by Bishop

Butler:
“That which chiefly constitutes Probability is ex­
pressed in the World Likely, i.e. like some Truth,
or true Event; like it, in itself, in its Evidence, in
some more or fewer of its Circumstances. For when
we determine a thing to be probably true , . . ‘Its
from the Mind’s remarking in it a Likeness to some

90
other Event, which we have observed has come to
pass.”
If an event can occur in -a’ ways and the chance of
it not occurring is in ‘b’ ways the probability of it
a b
occurring is —— and of its failing is --------
a + b a-f-b
Therefore, in a group of 29 waiting outside a mo­
vie house to buy ticket for the movie only five
tickets are available, then the probability of any one

particular person getting a ticket is —-—

24
and of his not getting a ticket is ——■

For another example, if one handkerchief is to

be drawn from a bag containing two white hand-
kerchieves and three black handkerchieves the pro­
bability of drawing a white handkerchief is ? and
the probability of drawing a black handkerchief is
3/5.

191
WHAT IS ‘RADIX’ ?

Radix is any number which is made the fundamen­

tal number or base of any system of numbers. For
example, 10 is the Radix of the decimal system of
numeration. It can also be described as the base
of a system of Logarithms.

91
192
WHAT IS ‘RECIPROCAL’ ?

The Reciprocal literally means Complimentary,

inverted or mutually interchangeable. However in
arithmetic it is used to denote different kinds of
mutual relations The reciprocal of a number is the
number whose product with the given number is
equal to 1. For a fraction, the reciprocal is the
fraction formed by interchanging the numerator
and denominator in the given fraction.
For example the reciprocal of 2 is 1 /2 or 0.5
a ... . f b
___ is the reciprocal ot-----

193
WHAT IS ‘REGULA FALSI’ ?

Literally translated it means ‘rule of false position’.

In Arithmetic it is the method of calculating an un­
known by making an estimate and working from
it and properties of the unknown to secure the
value of the latter.

194
WHAT IS A ‘SCALE’ ?

The scale is a system of marks in a given order, at

92
known intervals. It is used in the aids used for
measuring quantities like rulers and thermo­
meters.

195
WHAT IS ‘SEPARATRIX’ ?

The mark that separates like the comma, full-stop,

colon or a semicolon. The decimal point is also
called a Separatrix sometimes.

196
SEXAGESIMAL, DOES IT HAVE ANYTHING TO DO
WITH SEX ?

No. Sexagesimal means ‘pertaining to the number

sixty.’ For example ‘Sexagesimal system of Num­
bers’. This is a number system using sixty for a
base instead of ten.

197
WHAT IS A ‘SUB-FACTORIAL’ ?

To find the Sub-Factorial of an integer, supposing

‘n’ is the integer the Sub-Factorial of n=n! x

93
 For example the Sub-factorial of 4=4! (|! +i!+|!)
=24 4- ’+-!>- =9
(2 6 24)

198
WHAT IS A ‘SUB SEQUENCE’ ?

A sequence within a sequence.

For example |. . .1 /(2n is a subsequence of 1,

i, i, • • • 1/n)

199
WHAT IS A ‘SUB-MULTIPLE’ ?

It is a number or quantity which divides another

exactly. For example:
8 is a sub-multiple of 72 and a + x is a sub-mul­
tiple of a2—x2.

200
WHAT IS ‘SURD’

Surd is the root of a number which can only be

found approximably. It can also be called a nume­
rical expression containing an irrational number.
It is sometimes used as a synonym of irrational
number.

94
201
WHAT IS ‘THEORY’ ?

Theory is the principles concerned with a certain

concept, and the facts postulated and proved about
it.

202
WHAT IS A ‘VANISHING FRACTION’ ?

Vanishing fraction is a fraction which becomes zero

in the end.

203
WHAT IS ‘UNIQUE’ IN ARITHMETIC’?

Consisting or leading to one and only one result.

The product of two integers are unique, but the
square root or a cube root of an integer is not.

204
WHAT IS ‘UNITARY’ ?

Relating to a unit or units. Undivided.

95
205
WHAT IS ‘WARING’S PROBLEM’ ?

This problem was solved by Hilbert in 1909. The

problem, however, was first proposed by Waring,
of showing that, for any integer n, there is an inte­
ger K (n) such that any integer can be represented as
the sum of not more than K(n) numbers, each of
which is an ‘nth’ power of an integer. Any integer
can be represented as the sum of not more than 4
squares, and as the sum of not more than 9 cubes.

206
WHAT IS ‘ZENO’S PARADOX OF ACHILLES AND
THE TORTOISE’ ?

This is what is known as the Zeno’s famous puzzle.

Zeno showed that the mathematical treatment of
space and time required that they be broken up
into infinite sets of points and instants.
A tortoise has a head start on Achilles equal dista­
nce from a to b and both start running. Achilles
runs after the tortoise. Though Achilles runs faster
than the tortoise, he would never catch up with the
tortoise, since while Achilles goes from a to b, the
tortoise goes from b to c, and Achilles goes from b
to c the tortoise goes from c to d and so on. This
process never ending. Well, there is only one expla­
nation to the fallacy—that motion is measured by
space intervals per unit of time and not by numbers
of points.

96
207
WHAT ARE ‘MNEMONICS’ ?

Mnemonics are devices for memorizing bits of infor­

mation by associating them with things that are
easier to remember. The most common Mnemonic
device for remembering a series of digits is a sent­
ence or a rhyme in which the number of letters in
each word corresponds to the digits in the desired
order.
In the sentence ‘May I have a large container of
coffee?’ the value of P (rr) to seven places of decimals
are contained. The number of letter in each word
corresponds to the successive integers in the decimal
expansion of n.
Sir James Jeans came out with the following sente­
nce, in which the value of tt is contained upto 14
decimal places : How I want a drink, Alcoholic of
course, after the heavy chapters involving Quantum
Mechanics’ 3 14 15 92 65 35 89 79.
Adam C Orn of Chicago published in the Literary
Digest of Chicago of the 20th January 1906 issue on
page 83, the following poem that contains to 30
decimal places :
Now I—even I, would celebrate
In Rhymes unapt the great
Immortal Syracusan rivalled never more,
Who in his wonderous lore
Passed on before,

97
 Left men his guidance
How to circles mensurate. 3 14 J 5 92 65 35 89 75
43 23 94 62 64 338 3279

208
WHY IS NUMBER 99 CALLED DOCTOR’S NUMBER ?

For a doctor the number 99 is very important,

because when he listens to the chest of a patient
through Stethoscope, he asks the patient to say
repeatedly ninety nine. The normal resonance this
vocalisation would cause is increased if the under­
lined lung has solidified or became pneumonic. In
other words vocalisation of ninety nine helps the
doctor to diagnose pneumonia at the bedside.
If you have ninetynine sounding louder than the
normal in a particular area you know that the lung
in that area has become solidified or pneumonic.
Pneumonia is the commonest cause of ninety nine
becoming louder in any area of the lung.

98
ANECDOTES
 Did You Know That...

In the 20th Century there are only seven years

whose numbers are a mathematical oddity because
their numbers signify a prime number. The first
one of its kind was the year 1951. The other six
are 1973,1979, 1987, 1993, 1997 and 1999.
□
If you were to count one number per second
and counted seven hours per day, do you know
how long it would take you to count to a billion?
About 109 years. .
□
The earth has existed for 2000000000 years.
Scientists have worked it out, though approximately.
□
It is estimated that the width of the human hair
is yinch. Do you know how many hairs placed
side by side would measure an inch?

About 330
□

101
Scientists have worked out, though approxi­
mately, that life on earth has existed . .. 300000000
years.
□
Human life has existed on earth, scientists have
worked out, though approximately . . . 300,000
years.
□
The distance between the earth and sun is about
150,000,000 Kilometres.

□
The cubic inch of average human blood is said
to contain eighty thousand red corpuscles. If an
average adult has 210 cubic inches blood, do you
know how many red corpuscles are there in the
body of an adult?
About 17000000000000 corpuscles.

The surface area of the globe, counting all conti­

nents and oceans is about 500 million kilometres.

The ‘Cipher’ means zero. The word ‘Cipher’,

comes from the Arabic ‘Sifr’ and our word zero is
derived from this word.

102
The red corpuscles in the human body is said
to have the thickness of 00008 inch. Do you know
approximately how high would all the corpuscles
in an average adult’s body be if they could be piled
on top of one another without compression?

About 110,000,000 feet.

□
Supposing you had five billion pounds and you gave
away a £500 note every minute, do you know how
long it would take to give all your money away?
Approximately 19 years.
□
Frank A Lone of New York denies that the
decimal expansion of pi is 3.14159 ... as is widely
believed. He has computed more accurately by
squaring pi, multiplying the result by 6, then
dividing by 5 to get 3.14164078644620550.
□
Many centuries even before the birth of Christ
the ancient Egyptians had attained a high degree
of civilization. Among their various accomplish­
ments was a form of picture writing known as
hieroglyphics. Included in this, to satisfy their
number requirements, was a set of numerical
symbols.
□
It is believed that the Hindu-Arabic symbols

103
for numbers has been used as early as five or six
centuries before the birth of Christ. In the earliest
stages' however the Hindu-Arabic system of number
notation did not contain a symbol for zero. Wit­
hout the zero the system was not of very much use.
The earliest known use of the Hindu-Arabic zero
occurs in an Indian inscription dated 876 a.d.
And the indisputable superiority of the Hindu-
Arabic system over all others is a consequence of
introducing the zero concept and symbol.
□
Zero is the only natural number that can be
added to any natural number to yield a sum that
is the same as the second natural number.
□
Our present system of rod measurement origi­
nated in sixteenth century Germany where the follo­
wing rule served to establish the length and relation­
ship between the foot and rod :

‘If you stand at the door of a church on a Sunday,

and have sixteenth men stop-tall ones and short ones
•—as they leave after service, and have them stand
so that their left feet are toe to heel behind each
other, the length obtained shall be the right and
lawful rod with which to measure sure and survey
land. Furthermore, the sixteenth part of that
distance shall be the right and lawful foot’

104
The inch came to us from the Unica which in
Roman parlance was the twelfth part of some
whole. Thus the inch is till today, the twelfth part
of the foot.
□
Recorded history of mathematics, in India,
goes as far as 600 B.c. In this era Lord Buddha
preached his spiritual message and also initiated a,
tradition in mathematics by his own work in arith­
metic. It is stated in the Buddhist sacred book
Lalitavistara that when Buddha was of the age to
marry, he desired to marry Gopa. Gopa had over
500 other suitors. Therefore her father decided to
hold an examination for all the suitors including
Buddha, in order to select a worthy bridegroom for
his daughter.

The subjects of the examinations included Arith­

metic, Music and Archery. Buddha easily van­
quished all his rivals except the great mathemati­
cian Arjuna. Buddha was matched against him
and challenged to demonstrate his scientific skill.

Tn order to gain a victory over Arjuna, Buddha

selected a very complicated operation in Arithmetic.
He proceeded on to describe the number of ‘Pri­
mary Atoms’ which placed end to end, would form
a line with length equal to the Ancient Hindu equi­
valent to a mile. He recited ‘seven Primary Atoms
make a very minute grain of dust. Seven of these
grains of dust whirled up by the wind . . .’ He

105
continued. When he reached the length of a mile,
all /he 7’s listed by Buddha yielded a product of
about 50 digits.
□
The greatest of the ancient Hindu mathemati­
cians is reputed to be Bhaskaracharya. He was
also fa/nous as a poet and a philosopher. Bhas-
karacharya’s Lilavati, a treatise on mathematics is
an immortal book—considered to be the greatest
contribution ever made to the science of mathe­
matics by a Hindu.

How the treatise of Bhaskaracharya Lilavati

derived its name has an interesting story behind it!

Lilavati, jn actual fact was the name of Bhaskara-

charya’s daughter. His only daughter. When she
was born, two well-known astrologers had cast her
horoscope. They had predicted that the stars
under which Lilavati was born, were not favour­
able for her to lead a married life. And therefore
they advised Bhaskaracharya riot to get his daugh­
ter married. This was a great shock to Bhaskara­
charya, as Lilavati was his only daughter. There­
fore he pleaded with the Astrologers to calculate
at least one auspicious moment, when the stars
would favour her marriage.
Four days the astrologers calculated and came out
with the auspicious moment—one and only auspi­
cious moment!

106
When Lilavati reached her twelfth year, Bhaskara-
charya arranged her marriage with a friend’s son
in a nearby village.

On the date set for the wedding, the bridegroom’s

party arrived in the hall, in a procession, and
Lilavati was seated in the embrace of her uncle,
who was to give away the bride. A screen was
barring the first glimpse from her bridegroom.

To determine the exact moment, when the cere­

mony could start, the astrologers and priests set an
hour glass besides Lilavati. Lilavati leaned over
and gazed at the Boating cup from time to time, to
see how near she was approaching the propitious
moment.

After quite some time had past, one of the astro­

logers looked into the hour glass and cried ‘Alas
the propitious moment has come and gone’! He
lifted the vessel from the water. No liquid had
entered the vessel and therefore no liquid had
flown through the cavity.

As Lilavati sitting in the embrace of her uncle, in

her anxiety, had bent several times over the cup,
a pearl had dropped from her ornaments and
blocked the opening through which the fluid should
have passed. And now the auspicious hour had
gone unnoticed and it was forever too late!

To console the unhappy Lilavati, to whom normal

107
pleasures of married life was denied forever, Bhas­
karacharya, a man of great wisdom promised to
work upon a book in mathematics and name it
after her!

Through years of labouring he created the book

that has brought immortal fame to Lilavati. And
the world is richer by the great work!

The following is a well-known problem from

Lilavati:

‘A necklace was broken during an amorous

struggle. One-third of the pearls fell to the
ground, one-fifth stayed on the couch, one-sixth
was found by the girl, and one-tenth recovered by
her lover; six pearls remained on the string. Say of
how many pearls the necklace was composed.*

Here is another one :

‘Beautiful maiden with beaming eyes, tell me which

is the number that, multiplied by 3, then increased
by three-fourths of the product, divided by 7, dimi­
nished by 1 /3rd of the quotient, multiplied by itself
diminished by 52, the square root found, addition
of 8, division by 10 gives the number 2?’
□
The over-anxiety on the part of Brahmins—the
scholarly caste—in India to keep the knowledge a
secret from their bretheren of the other castes and

108
various feuds and family wars made them resort
to the use of a secret code known as the Sutras.
Thus the secret coded Sutras in mathematics and
other allied scientific literature took shape. While
it was helpful in making the study of the various
sciences simpler, precise and more standardised, it
was impossible for even the most learned scholars
to interpret the literature—unless someone decodi­
fied the sutras. While the Brahmins could protect
the treasure of their knowledge from others, know­
ledge got locked in the hands of a few experts who
possessed the keys for decodification. Thus various
valuable science, art and literature remained miles
away from the common man.

The following is a hymn, an example of codified

knowledge in mathematics:

Gopi Bhagyamaduv rata Shringishodadi Sandiga

Kala Jeevitarava Tava Galaddhalara Sangara

The above Sanskrit hymn is meant as a praise to

Lord Krishna. And it would be very difficult for
one to imagine the hidden meaning in it. But when
decodified, it gives the value of Pi (tt) to 30 places
of decimals.
□
Pythogoras not only thought of numbers in his
mind, but he also felt the numbers in his heart. He
was emotionally attached to numbers. They were
more just symbols for him. He saw life in them. He

109
•often expressed his feeling for numbers in poetic
fashion. He heard the ‘Music of Spheres’. He saw
in the cardinal integers ‘Images of Creativeness*.
He invested the numbers with various properties.
This is the way he explained them:

■ONE: Stood apart as the source of all numbers

and represented reason.
TWO: Stood for man
THREE: For women
FOUR: Stood for justice, since it is the product
of equals.
FIVE: Represented marriage, since it is formed
by the union of two and three.
□
During the reign of King Ptolemy (300 B.C.)
Euclid founded a School in Alexandria. He also
taught in his own school. The textbook he wrote
on mathematics ‘Elements’ became a great asset in
the world of mathematics.

There is an interesting story. King Ptolemy once

asked him if there is a short cut to Geometry than
that of the elements. Euclid replied, ‘There is no
royal road to Geometry’. Another interesting story
concerns him and his pupils. After learning the very
first proposition in Geometry, the pupil asked him
what will he gain by learning these things. Euclid

110
called his slave and said ’‘Give him three pence
since he must need make gains by what he learns’.

Euclid’s great work ‘Elements’ contains 13 volumes

and his textbook has remained in use almost un­
changed for more than 2000 years.
□
Hypatia (410 A.D.) enjoys the place of being
the first woman mathematician in recorded history.
Her special work in mathematics includes com­
mentaries on the work of Diophantes, particularly
Diophontine Algebra.

She became the head of the Neoplatonic School in

Alexandria. The lectures she delivered in the capa­
city of the Head of the Alexandria School attracted
distinguished men from all over the continent.
Unfortunately her glorious life came to an unhappy
ending. A group of fanatical mob of anti-pagans
attacked and brutally slashed her to death with
oystershells and burnt her piecemeal.

All her scientific writings were lost.

□
Everyone knows that Omar Khayyam was the
author of immortal Rubaiyat but few are acquainted
with the fact that he was a great mathematician and
astronomer of his time, and the most original of all
the Saracen mathematicians. He devised a calendar
superior to the one we use. His work in the field of

111
Algebra was the greatest contribution to the subject
between the fifth and fourteenth centuries. Here is
a stanza of his regarding his calendar.

‘Ah but my computations, people say,

Reduce the year to better reckoning-hay
‘Tis only striking from the calendar
Unborn tomorrow and dead yesterday.’
□
Rene Descartes, who enjoys the distinction of
being called ‘Father of Modern Mathematics’ was
a versatile man who had creative instincts in other
fields as well such as—Philosophy, Physics, Cosmo­
logy, Chemistry, Physiology and Psychology. The
mathematical family, which ReneDescartesinitiated
Analytical Geometry became exceedingly prolific in
the future days.

Rene Descartes’s father, a very rich French gentle­

man expected his son also to lead a leisurely life.
And Rene was a weak child. He started his formal
schooling only at the age of eight!

Having always been delicate in health, he develop­

ed the habit of spending most of his mornings lying
around in bed. He did this particularly whenever
he wished to think.

One such morning set a turning point in his life.

On that morning he discovered Analytical Geo­
metry. Lying on the bed his eyes caught a fly

112
crawling on the ceiling of his room. He set himself
the problem of describing the path of the fly in the
language of mathematics, when the idea of analyti­
cal geometry came to his mind!
□
Issac Newton, often cited as the greatest genius,
the human race has ever produced, was also famous
for his absentmindedness. A very popular one relates
that he cut two holes in his door, one for his cat
and a little one for her kitten.

Another story goes that one evening, when he was

entertaining his guests to dinner, he left the table
to fetch a bottle of wine from the cellar. On his
way to the cellar he completely forgot where he
was going. Then he straight went to his room,
donned the surplice and appeared in his chapel.

Of all the stories about Newton’s forgetfulness the

most interesting one is about him and a Miss
Storey, step-daughter of a Mr Clarke, the village
apothecary, with whom Newton was lodging. At
that time he was nineteen and attending the Gram­
mar School. He is said to have fallen in love with
Miss Storey and had become engaged to her. But
after sometime he forgot all about it. Although he
remembered his fancy for her, throughout his life,
he never could recall the promise he had made to
her, to marry her.

113
Miss Storey had to marry a lesser genius and con­
sole' herself.
□
Albert Einstein, one of the greatest figures of
the world, in Mathematics and Physics was well-
known for his simple ways and unassuming nature.
There are many stories told about his simplicity by
the people who lived in his neighbourhood in Princ­
eton. The most popular story is the one about him
and a little girl who lived in his neighbourhood.

It is said that the little girl’s mother noticed that the

child often went to Einstein’s house. The mother
wondered about this and questioned her daughter.
The child replied ‘I had trouble with my home
work in Arithmetic. People said that at No. J12
there lives a very big mathematician, who is also
a very good man. I went to him and asked him
to help me with my homework. He was willing
and explained everything very well. It was easier
to understand than when our teacher explained
it in school. He said I should come whenever I
find a problem too difficult’. The child’s mother
was panic-stricken, and rushed to Einstein’s house
to apologise for her daughter’s behaviour. But
Einstein said ‘You don’t have to excuse yourself.
I have certainly learned more from the conversa­
tion with the child, than she did from me’.
□
Ramanujan, the great Indian mathematician

114
began correspondence with G. H. Hardy, the Fel­
low of Trinity College. His first letter to Hardy,
dated January 16,1913 goes as follows:
“Dear Sir,
“I beg to introduce myself to you as a clerk in the
Accounts Department of the Port Trust Office at
Madras on a salary of only $ 20 per annum. I am
now about 23 years of age. I have had no Univer­
sity education but I have undergone the ordinary
school course. After leaving school I have been
employing the spare time at my disposal to work
at Mathematics. I have not trodden through the
conventional regular course which is followed in
a University course, but I am striking out a new
path for myself. I have made a special investiga­
tion of divergent series in general and the results I
get are termed by the local mathematicians as
‘startling’... '

I would request you to go through the enclosed

papers. Being poor, if you are convinced that
there is anything of value I would like to have my
theorems published. I have not given the actual
investigations nor the expressions that I get but I
have indicated the lines on which I proceed. Being
inexperienced I would very highly value any advice
you give me. Requesting to be excused for the
trouble I give you.
I remain, Dear Sir, Yours truly,
S. RAMANUJAN

115
 To the letter attached was 120 theorems.

Ramanujan used to say that goddess Namagiri the

goodess of Namakkal inspired him with the formu­
lae in dreams. It is a remarkable fact that on ris­
ing from bed he would frequently note down results
and verify them. This pattern repeated itself thro­
ughout his life.
□
Everyone knows Lewis Carroll as the creator
of the immortal Alice in Wonderland but very few
people know him also as a mathematician. His
pen name was derived by translating his given
name Charles Lutwidge into Latin — Carulos Lu-
dovicus — and then reversing and anglicizing the
result.
He was a mathematics teacher and a writer on
mathematical subject. The subject which interested
him most was that of the logical foundations of
mathematics. He also possessed rare mathematical
insight. ■
His dual personality gave rise to many legends, and
one story claims that Queen Victoria delighted with
Alice in Wonderland, ordered that Carroll's next
book be delivered to her as soon as released. She
was somewhat taken aback to receive The Elements
of Determinants (with their application to simultane­
ous Linear Equations and Algebraical Geometry).
□

116
The Indian Mathematician Sessa, the inventor
of the game of Chess, was ordered by the King of
Persia to ask a recompense whatever he might wish.
Sessa modestly requested to be given one grain of
wheat for the first square of the board, two for the
second, four for the third, and so on doubling each
time upto the sixty fourth square. The wise men
of the King added the numbers 1,2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
64 etc and found the sum of the series to sixty-
four terms to be 18446744073709551615 grains of
wheat. Taking 9000 grains in a pint we find the
whole number of bushels to be over 320000000000
00, which is several times the annual wheat produc­
tion of the whole world.
□
Julius Caesar, with the help of the astronomer
Siosenejes, introduced the method of reckoning
known as the Julian Calendar. The year being
365.2422 Solar days, he took 365 such days for a
common year and 366 days for a leap year, so that
the average length of a year was 365.25 days. In
the Julian Calendar all years divisible by 4 were leap
years, and in the Gregorian calendar, years divisi­
ble by 4 are leap years unless they are divisible by
100 and not 400. Thus, in the Gregorian calendar
the years 4600 and 2000 are leap years but the
years 1700, 1800 and 1900 are common years. In
1582 the Julian calendar was ten days slower than
the Gregorian, after 1700 it became 11 days slower
and since 1900 it has been thirteen days slower.
Hence January 1,191’7 of the Gregorian calendar
corresponds to December 19, 1916 of the Julian.

117
In Great Britain the change of the Julian to the
Gregorian calendar was not made until 1752. In
September of that year eleven days were omitted
from the almanacs.
□
What are the chances of your winning the big
prize if you buy one of the 5,000,000 tickets of the
sweepstakes? Just about one in 4000,000

What are your chances in winning in Roulette?

Thirlysix times the amount wagered is about one
in 36.

What are the chances of your getting thirteen cards

of the same suit in Bridge? About 1 in 153,000,000
000.

What is your chance of getting a straight flush in

Poker.? About one in 62000. Four of a kind about
one in 4000. A full house about one in 600. Three
of a kind, about one in 50. Two pairs about one in
20.
□
When Pythogoras was walking home one day,
he was passing through a blacksmiths’ shop. He
stopped with delight when he heard the ring of the
hammers on the anvils make a harmonious sound.

Five blacksmiths were at work and as it happened

they were all using different sized hammers. Pytho-

118
goras was fascinated by the sound made by the
hammers which was like a musical chime. He
soon realised that because each hammer was of a
different weight each had a different ring when it
hit the anvil. And the heavier the hammer the lower
the note it made.

However he also realised that there was one ham­

mer which was spoiling the harmony of the sound.

Pythogoras requested the blacksmiths to let him

try some experiments with their hammers. They
agreed.

He weighed each hammer in turn and found that

the hammer that spoilt the chime had a weight
which did not fit into a simple order of numbers.
With further experiments, Pythogoras soon learnt
how to make a musical scale using different sized
hammers. This is one of the earliest and greatest
discoveries in music.

119
 B^OR
READ Y
K EE ER EIV CE
 MULTIPLICATION TABLE

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
7 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
9 0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
11 0 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144
 To divide Jby Simply

10, 100,1000, etc. move decimal point one, two,

three, etc. places to the left in
dividend.
0.1, 0.01,0.001, etc. move decimal point one, two,
three, etc. places to the right
in dividend.
3i multiply by 3 and divide by 10.
33| multiply by 3 and divide by 100.
333i multiply by 3 and divide by 1000.
I6| multiply by 6 and divide by 100.
12i multiply by 8 and divide by 100
multiply by 12 and divide by
100.
25 multiply by 4 and divide by
100.
50 multiply by 2 and divide by
100.
125 multiply by 8 and divide by
1000.

124
To multiply by Simply

10,100,1000, etc. move decimal point one, two,

three, etc. places to the right in
multiplicand.

0.1,0.01, 0.001, etc. move decimal point one, two,

three, etc. places to the left in
multiplicand.
5,50, 500, etc. multiply by 10, 100, 1000, etc.
and divide by 2

25,250, etc. multiply by 100,1000, etc. and

divide by 4.

125 multiply by 1000 and divide by

8.
33|, 16|, I2f, 8|, 6| multiply by 100 and divide by
3, 6, 8, 12, 16.

125
A number is if
divisible by

2 last figure is 0 or one divisible by 2.

3 sum of its -digits is divisible by 3.

4 number represented by last two digits is

divisible by 4 or both are zeros.
5 last digit is 0 or 5.
6 it is an even number the sum of whose
digits is divisible by 3.
7 (no known rule)
8 number represented by last three digits
is divisible by 8.
9 sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

126
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF COMMON
FRACTIONS

1 H = .34375 ii = .6875
64 = .015625 32 16
1 = 3 = .375 23
32
.03125 8 32
.71875
1 12 3 =
is = .0625 32
= .40625 4
.75
3 = .09375 7 25 _
32 16 = .4375 32
.78125
1 15 13
8 = .125 32
= .46875 16
— .8125
5 1
32
= .15625 2
= .5 27
32
_ .84375
3 17
T5 = .1875 32
= .53125 7 __ .875
8
T_ 9
32
.21875 T6 = .5625 29
32
—
.90625

i .25 19
32
= .59375 15
16
_
.9375
il =: .28125 5 31 —
8
= .625 32 .
.96875
_s 21
16 — .3125 32
= .65625 63
64
__ .984375
4

127
 PER CENTS AS FRACTIONS

5% = 0.05 = 1 33f% = 0.334 = 4

20
60% = 0.60 5

84% = 1 37j% = __ 5
0.08| = 12
0.375 = 10 624% = 0.625 8

12j% = 0.125 = 1
8
40% = 0.40 = 2 75% = 0.75 ~ 4

= 0.162 = 1 0.412 = _s __ 4
6
412% = 80% = 0.80 5

1 0.50 = 1 834% = 0.834 __ 5

20% = 0.20 = 5
50% - 6

58J% = = 7
25% = 0.25 = 14 0.584 = TZ 874% = 0.875 8
 MULTIPLES OF it

No. Value Log No. Value Log

3.1416 0.4971 1 0.3183 9.5029 — 10

1
2 6.2832 0.7982 2
1.5708 0.1961
1
3 9.4248 0.9743 3 1.0472 0.0200
2
4 12.56<4 1.0992 4
0.7854 9.8951 — 10
15.7080 1 0.6283
5 1.1961 5
9.7982 — 10
18.8496 1.2753 1 0.5236 9.7190 — io
6 6
1,3422 1
7 21.9912 7
0.4488 9.6521 — 10
1 0.3927
8 25.1328 1.4002 8
9.5941 — 10
1
9 21.2744 1.45 U 9
0.3491 9.5429 — 10
9.8696 0.9943 1.7725 0.2486
(1) If the multiplier and the multiplicand have the
same sign, the product is positive.
(2) If the multiplier and the multiplicand have oppo­
site signs, the product is negative.
{3) If the dividend and the divisor have the same sign,
the quotient is positive.
(4) If the dividend and the divisor have opposite signs,
the quotient is negative.

FOR EASY MEMORIZATION

Multiplication Division
+ x + = + + +
+ x — = — + 4- — = —
— X '] = --- — 4- + = —
— X — =: 4“

ABOUT ZERO

(1) Any number plus zero equals the number.

(2) Any number minus zero equals the number.
(3) Zero minus any number equals the negative of the
number.
(4) Any number times zero equals zero.
(5) Zero divided by any number except zero equals
zero.
(6) The operation of dividing by zero is not defined
and is not permitted.

130
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning

milli m denotes0.001
cent! c denotes 0.01
deci d denotes 0.1
deka dk denotes 10
hecto h denotes 100
kilo k denotes 1000

10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 metre

10 centimetres — 1 decimetre (dm) =0.1 metre
10 decimetres = 1 metre (m)
10 metres = 1 dekametre (dkm) = 10 metres
10 dekametres = 1 hectometre (hm) = 100 metres
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre (km) = 1000,
metres

1 cubic decimetre equals 1 litre,

1 litre of water weighs 1 kilogram,
1 are is an area of 100 square metres.

131
 Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

103 = 1000 log 1000 = 3

102 = 100 log 100 = 2
101 = 10 log 10 =1
10° = 1 log 1 =0
10-*= 0.1 log 0.1 = — 1
10~2= 0.01 log 0.01 = — 2
10“3= 0.001 log 0.001= — 3

THE EARTH

Mean diameter = 7912.464

Surface area = 1.967 X 108 square miles
Mass = 1.3173 X 1023 pounds
Mean distance from sun = 92.9 million miles
Velocity of escape = 36,000 ft. / sec.
Length of year in days =
365.24219879 — 0.0000000614 (t—1900)
(t = present year)
Length of day = 23h. 56m. 04.09054s. of mean solar
time

132
 MEASURES OF VOLUME

1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) 1 — cubic foot (cu. ft.)

27 cubic feet 1 = cubic yard (cu. yd.)
128 cubic feet = 1 cord (cd.)

LIQUID MEASURES

4 gills (gi.) = 1 pint (pt.) = 16 fluid ounces

2 pints = 1 quart (qt.)
4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal)=231 cubic inches
311 gals. = 1 barrel (bbl.) .

DRY MEASURES

2 pints = 1 quart (qt.)

8 quarts — 1 peck (pk.)
4 pecks = 1 bushel (bu.) = 2150.42
cubic inches

133
 MEASURE OF TIME

60 seconds (sec.) = 1 minute (min.)

60 minutes = 1 hour (hr.)
24 hours = 1 day (da.)
7 days = 1 week (wk.)
365 days = 1 common year (yr.)
366 days — 1 leap year
1 lunar month (mo.) = 29 days, 12 hours,
44 minutes

MEASURES OF LENGTH

12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.)

3 feet (ft.) = 1 yard (yd.)
161 feet (ft.) = 1 rod (rd.)
320 rods = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 1 mile

134
 MEASURE OF AREA

144 square inches (in.*) = 1 square foot (sq. ft.)

9 square feet (ft.*) = 1 square yard (sq. yd.)
30J square yards (yd.*) = 1 square rod (sq. rd.)
160 square rods (rd.*) = 1 acre (A.)
640 acres = 1 square mile (sq. mi.)

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHTS

16 drams (dr.) = 1 ounce (oz.)

/000 grains (gr.) = 1 pound (lb.)

16 ounces (oz.) = 1 pound

100 pounds = 1 hundredweight (cwt.)

2000 pounds = 1 ton (T.)

2240 pounds = 1 long ton

135
 TROY WEIGHTS

24 grains = 1 pennyweight (pwt.)

20 pennyweights — 1 ounce (oz.)
12 ounces = 1 pound
5760 grains = 1 pound
3.168 grains = 1 carat

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHTS

20 grains = 1 scruple
3 scruples = 1 dram
8 drams = 1 ounce

1 cubic decimetre equals 1 litre,

1 litre of water weighs I kilogram,

1 are is an area of 100 square metres.

136
 LENGTHS

To change from to Multiply by

inches cm. 2.540005

feet cm. 30.48006
yards m. 0.914402
miles km. 1.60935
centimetres in. 0.3937
metres ft. 3.28083
kilometres ml. 0.621372

AREAS

sq.in sq.cm. 6.451626

sq.ft. sq.m. 0.0929034
sq.yds. sq.m. 0.8361307
acres ares 40.46873
sq.mi. sq.km. 2.589998
sq.cm. sq.in. 0.155
sq.m. sq.ft. 10.76387
sq.km. sq.mi. 0.3861006

137
 VOLUMES

To change from to Multiply by

cu.in. cc. 16.38716

cu.ft. cu.m. 0.028317
cu.yd. cu.m. 0.764559
cu.m. CU.ft. 35.3144
cu.m. cu.yd. 1.30794

CAPACITY — LIQUID

ounces cc. 29.57

pints litres 0.473167
quarts litres 0.946333
gallons litres 3.785332
litres fl.oz. 33.8174
litres qts. 1.05671
litres gal. 0.264178
cc. ounces 0.033815

138
 CAPACITY — DRY

To change front to Multiply by

pints litres 0.550599

quarts litres 1.101198
pecks litres 8.80958
bushels litres 35.2383
litres pidfe 1.81620
litres qts. 0.908102
dekalitres pecks 1.13513
hectolitres bu. 2.83782

WEIGHTS (AVOIRDUPOIS)

grains grams 0.0647989

ounces grams 28.349527
pounds kg. 0.4535924
tons kg. 907.18486
grams grains 15.43235639
kilograms lbs. 2.2046223
metric tons lbs. 2204.6223

139
TABLE OF DAYS BETWEEN TWO DATES
11 11 42 70 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345
12 12 43 71 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346
13 13 44 72 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347
14 14 45 73 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348
15 15 46 74 105 135 166 1'96 227 258 288 319 349

16 16 47 75 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350

17 17 48 76 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351
18 18 49 77 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352
19 19 50 78 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353
20 20 51 79 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354

21 21 52 80 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355

22 22 53 81 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356
23 23 54 82 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357
24 24 55 83 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358
25 25 56 84 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359
26 26 57 85 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360
27 27 58 86 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361
28 28 59 87 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 36?
29 29 88 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363
30 30 89 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364
31 31 90 .... 151 .... 212 243 .... 304 .... 365

For Leap Year, one day must be added to each number of days after February 28.
Also by Shakuntala Devi

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 E-368
The Human Computer
explains and simplifies

SHAKUNTALA DEVI'S
EVERYTHING YOU ALWAYS WANTED
TO KNOW ABOUT NUMBERS BUT
WAS DIFFICULT TO UNDERSTAND
Little Known Facts
9
C^Ninth power of the ninth power of nine is the
largest in the world of numbers that can be
expressed with just 3 digits. The answer is mind
staggering!
It will contain 369 million digits. To read it
normally would take more than a year. To write
down would require 1164 miles of paper!
Brain Teasers

The Book o f
A necklace was broken during an amorous
struggle. 1/3rd of the pearls fell to the ground,
1/5th stayed on the couch, 1/6th were found by the
girl, and 1 /10th recovered by her lover; six pearls
remained on the string. Say of how many pearls the
necklace was composed.

NumbebS
Numerical concepts Simplified and Explained
Numerals & Digits • Perfect Numbers & Amicable
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(J) ORIENT PAPERBACKS
3000-368

Illustration on Cover: Diabolic Magic Square similar to one inscribed

at Khajuraho around 12th Century.
ISBN fil-BBB-OOOL-O