The

Path of
Purification
(Visuddhimagga)

by

Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa

Translated from the Pali by

2
 Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli

Ciraṃ tiṭṭhatu saddhammo

sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā

To my Upajjhāya,
the late venerable Pälänë Siri Vajirañāṇa
Mahānāyakathera of Vajirārāma,
Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Buddhist Publication Society

Kandy • Sri Lanka
©1975, 1991, 2010 Buddhist Publication Society. All
rights reserved.
First edition: 1956 by Mr. Ananda Semage, Colombo.
Second edition: 1964
Reprinted: 1979 by BPS
Third edition: 1991
Reprinted: 1999
Fourth edition: 2010

3
BPS Online Edition © (2014)
Digital Transcription Source: BPS
For free distribution. This work may be republished,
reformatted, reprinted and redistributed in any
medium. However, any such republication and
redistribution is to be made available to the public on
a free and unrestricted basis, and translations and
other derivative works are to be clearly marked as
such.

National Library and Documentation Centre—

Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Buddhaghosa Himi
The Path of Purification:
Visuddhimaga/Buddhaghosa Himi; tr. by
Nyanamoli Himi.
– Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010,
794p.; 23cm.
– (BP No 207)
ISBN 978-955-24-0023-6
i. 294.391 DDC 22 ii. Title
iii. Nyanamoli Himi tr.
1. Buddhism 2. Theravada Buddhism

4
 CONTENTS
(DETAILED, BY TOPIC AND
PARAGRAPH NO.)

PART I - VIRTUE

1. Purification of Virtue

Para.
CHAPTER I — DESCRIPTION OF VIRTUE
I. Introductory 1
II. Virtue 16
(i) What is virtue? 16
(ii) In what sense is it virtue? 19
(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? 20
(iv) What are the benefits of virtue? 23
(v) How many kinds of virtue are there? 25
1. Monad 26
2.-8. Dyads 26
9.-13. Triads 33
14.-17. Tetrads 39
Virtue of the fourfold purification 42
18.-19. Pentads 131

5
 (vi), (vii) What are the defiling and the 143
cleansing of it?
CHAPTER II - THE ASCETIC PRACTICES

PART II — CONCENTRATION

2. Purification of Consciousness

Para.
CHAPTER III — TAKING A MEDITATION SUBJECT
Concentration 1
(i) What is concentration? 2
(ii) In what sense is it concentration? 3
(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? 4
(iv) How many kinds of concentration are 5
there?
(v), (vi) What are the defiling and the 26
cleansing of it?
(vii) How is it developed? 27
(Note: this heading applies as far as Ch.
XI, §110)
A. Development in brief 27
B. Development in detail (see note above) 29
The ten impediments 29

6
 The good friend 57
Meditation subjects, etc 57
Temperaments 74
Definition of meditation subjects 103
Self-dedication 123
Ways of expounding 130
CHAPTER IV — THE EARTH KASIṆA
The eighteen faults of a monastery 2
The five factors of the resting-place 19
The lesser impediments 20
Detailed instructions for development 21
The earth kasiṇa 21
The two kinds of concentration 32
Guarding the sign 34
The ten kinds of skill in absorption 42
Balancing the effort 66
Absorption in the cognitive series 74
The first jhāna 79
Extending the sign 126
Mastery in five ways 131
The second jhāna 139
The third jhāna 153
The fourth jhāna 183
The fivefold reckoning of jhāna 198
CHAPTER V — THE REMAINING KASIṆAS

7
The Water Kasiṇa 1
The Fire Kasiṇa 5
The Air Kasiṇa 9
The Blue Kasiṇa 12
The Yellow Kasiṇa 15
The Red Kasiṇa 17
The White Kasiṇa 19
The Light Kasiṇa 21
The Limited-Space Kasiṇa 24
General 27
CHAPTER VI — FOULNESS AS A MEDITATION SUBJECT
General definitions 1
The bloated 12
The Livid 70
The Festering 71
The Cut Up 72
The Gnawed 73
The Scattered 74
The Hacked and Scattered 75
The Bleeding 76
Worm-infested 77
A Skeleton 78
General 82
CHAPTER VII — SIX RECOLLECTIONS

8
(1) Recollection of the Buddha 2
(2) Recollection of the Dhamma 68
(3) Recollection of the Sangha 89
(4) Recollection of virtue 101
(5) Recollection of generosity 107
(6) Recollection of deities 115
General 119
CHAPTER VIII — OTHER RECOLLECTIONS AS
MEDITATION SUBJECTS
(7) Mindfulness of death 1
(8) Mindfulness occupied with the body 42
(9) Mindfulness of breathing 145
(10) The recollection of peace 245
CHAPTER IX — THE DIVINE ABIDINGS
Loving kindness 1
Compassion 77
Gladness 84
Equanimity 88
General 91
CHAPTER X — THE IMMATERIAL STATES
The base consisting of boundless space 1
The base consisting of boundless consciousness 25
The base consisting of nothingness 32
The base consisting of neither perception nor 40

9
non-perception
General 56
CHAPTER XI — CONCENTRATION (CONCLUSION):
NUTRIMENT AND THE ELEMENTS
Perception of repulsiveness in nutriment 1
Definition of the four elements 27
Development of concentration—conclusion 118
(viii) What are the benefits of 120
concentration? (see Ch. III, §1)
CHAPTER XII — THE SUPERNORMAL POWERS
The benefits of concentration 1
The five kinds of direct-knowledge 2
(1) The kinds of supernormal power 2
(i) Supernormal power as resolve 46
(ii) Supernormal power as transformation 137
(iii) Supernormal power as the mind-made 139
body
CHAPTER XIII — OTHER DIRECT-KNOWLEDGES
(2) The divine ear element 1
(3) Penetration of minds 8
(4) Recollection of past life 13
(5) The divine eye 72
General 102

10
 PART III - UNDERSTANDING

The Soil in which Understanding Grows

— (Chs. XIV through XVII)

Para.
CHAPTER XIV — THE AGGREGATES
A. Understanding 1
(i) What is understanding? 2
(ii) In what sense is it understanding? 3
(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? 7
(iv) How many kinds of understanding are 8
there?
(v) How is it developed? (ends with end of 32
Ch. XXII)
B. Description of the five aggregates 33
The materiality aggregate 34
The consciousness aggregate 81
The feeling aggregate 125
The perception aggregate 129
The formations aggregate 131
C. Classification of the aggregates 185
D. Classes of knowledge of the aggregates 210
CHAPTER XV — THE BASES AND ELEMENTS

11
A. Description of the bases 1
B. Description of the elements 17
CHAPTER XVI — THE FACULTIES AND TRUTHS
A. Description of the faculties 1
B. Description of the truths 13
1. The truth of suffering 32
2. The truth of the origin of suffering 61
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering 62
Discussion of nibbana 67
4. The truth of the way 75
General 84
CHAPTER XVII — THE SOIL OF UNDERSTANDING
(CONCLUSION):
DEPENDENT ORIGINATION
A. Definition of dependent origination 1
B. Exposition 25
I. Preamble 25
II. Brief exposition 27
III. Detailed exposition 58
(1) Ignorance 58
(2) Formations 60
The 24 conditions 66
How ignorance is a condition for 101
formations

12
 (3) Consciousnes 120
(4) Mentality-materiality 186
(5) The sixfold base 203
(6) Contact 220
(7) Feeling 228
(8) Craving 233
(9) Clinging 239
(10) Becoming (being) 249
(11-12) Birth, etc. 270
C. The Wheel of Becoming 273
i. The Wheel 273
ii. The three times 284
iii. Cause and fruit 288
iv. Various 299

3. Purification of View

CHAPTER XVIII — PURIFICATION OF VIEW

Para.
I. Introductory 1
II. Defining of mentality-materiality 3
1. Definitions of mentality-materiality 3
(1) Based on the four primaries 3
(a) Starting with mentality 3

13
 (b) Starting with materiality 5
(2) Based on the eighteen elements 9
(3) Based on the twelve bases 12
(4) Based on the five aggregates 13
(5) Brief definition 14
2. If the immaterial fails to become evident 15
3. How the immaterial states become 18
evident
4. No being apart from mentality- 24
materiality
5. Interdependence of mentality and 32
materiality
Conclusion 37

4. Purification by Overcoming Doubt

CHAPTER XIX — PURIFICATION BY OVERCOMING

DOUBT
Para.
I. Introductory 1
II. Ways of discerning cause and condition 2
1. Neither created by a creator nor 3
causeless
2. Its occurrence is always due to 5
conditions

14
 3. General and particular conditions 7
4. Dependent origination in reverse order 11
5. Dependent origination in direct order 12
6. Kamma and kamma-result 13
7. No doer apart from kamma and result 19
III. Full-understanding of the known 21

5. Purification by Knowledge and Vision

of What Is and What Is Not the
Path

CHAPTER XX — PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE &

VISION OF WHAT IS AND WHAT IS NOT THE
PATH
Para.
I. Introductory 1
The Fifth Purificdation 2
The three kinds of full-understanding 3
II. Insight 6
1. Comprehension by groups 6
2. Strengthening of comprehension in forty 18
ways
3. Nine ways of sharpening the faculties 21
4. Comprehension of the material 22

15
 (a) Kamma-born materiality 27
(b) Consciousness-born materiality 30
(c) Nutriment-born materiality 35
(d) Temperature-born materiality 39
5. Comprehension of the immaterial 43
6. The material septad 45
7. The immaterial septad 76
8. The eighteen principal insights 89
9. Knowledge of rise and fall-(I) 93
The ten imperfections of insight 105
Conclusion 130

6. Purification by Knowledge and Vision

of the Way

CHAPTER XXI — PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND

VISION OF THE WAY
Para.
Introductory 1
Insight: the eight knowledges 3
1. Knowledge of rise and fall-II 3
2. Knowledge of dissolution 10
3. Knowledge of appearance as terror 29
4. Knowledge of danger 35

16
5. Knowledge of dispassion 43
6. Knowledge of desire for deliverance 45
7. Knowledge of reflexion 47
Discerning formations as void 53
8. Knowledge of equanimity about formations 61
The triple gateway to liberation 66
The seven kinds of noble persons 74
Tha last three knowledges are one 79
Insight leading to emergence 83
The twelve similes 90
The difference in the noble path's 111
factors, etc.
9. Conformity knowledge 128
Sutta references 135

7. Purification by Knowledge and Vision

CHAPTER XXII — PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND

VISION
Para.
I. Change-of-lineage, paths and fruits 1
II. The states associated with the path, etc. 32
1. The 37 states partaking of enlightenment 33
2. Emergence and coupling of the powers 44
3. States to be abandoned 47

17
 4. Four functions in a single moment 92
5. Four functions separately 104
Conclusion 129

The Benefits of Understanding

CHAPTER XXIII — THE BENEFITS IN DEVELOPING

UNDERSTANDING
(vi) What are the benefits in developing 1
understanding?
A. Removal of the defilements 2
B. The taste of the noble fruit 3
C. The attainment of cessation 16
D. Worthiness to receive gifts... 53
CONCLUSION (EPILOGUE)

18
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE

VISUDDHIMAGGA

Sinhalese script: Hewavitarne Bequest edition,

Colombo.
Burmese script: Hanthawaddy Press edition,
Rangoon, 1900.
Siamese script: Royal Siamese edition, Bangkok.
Latin script: Pali Text Society’s edition, London.
Harvard University Press edition, Harvard
Oriental Series, Vol. 41, Cambridge, Mass., 1950.

TRANSLATIONS OF THE VISUDDHIMAGGA

English: The Path of Purity by Pe Maung Tin, PTS,

London. 3 vols., 1922–31.
German: Visuddhimagga (der Weg zur Reinheit) by
Nyanatiloka, Verlag Christiani, Konstanz, 1952.
Reprinted by Jhana-Verlag, Uttenbühl, 1997.
Sinhala: Visuddhimārga-mahāsann÷, ed. Ratanapala

19
 Medhaṅkara et al, 2 vols., Kalutara, 1949. (Also
called Parākramabāhu-sannaya. A Pali-Sinhala
paraphrase composed by King Paṇḍita
Parākramabāhu II in the 13th cent. CE.)
Visuddhimārgaya, Sinhala translation by Paṇḍita
Mātara Sri Dharmavaṃsa Sthavira, Mātara, 1953.
Etc.
French: Le Chemin de la pureté, transl. by Christian
Maës, Editions Fayard, Paris 2002.
Italian: Visuddhimagga: Il sentiero della purificazione,
transl. of samādhi-bheda by Antonella Serena
Comba, Lulu.com, Raleigh, 2008.

OTHER WORKS

Buddhaghosuppatti, edited and translated into

English, by J. Gray, Luzac and Co., London, 1892.
Critical Pali Dictionary (Pali-English), Vol. I (letter a),
Copenhagen, 1924–48.
Cūḷavaṃsa or Minor Chronicle of Ceylon (or
Mahāvaṃsa Part II), English translation by W.
Geiger, PTS London.
Dīpavaṃsa (Chronicle of Ceylon), English translation
by H. Oldenberg, London, 1879.

20
The Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, by E. W.
Adikaram, Sri Lanka, 1946.
Guide through Visuddhimagga, U. Dhammaratana,
Sarnath, 1964
History of Indian Literature, by M. Winternitz, English
translation by Mrs. S. Ketkar and Miss H. Kohn,
Calcutta University, 1933.
History of Pali Literature, by B.C. Law, London, 1933
(2 Vols.).
The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, by B.C. Law,
Thacker, and Spink, Calcutta and Simla, 1923.
Mahāvaṃsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon, English
translation by W. Geiger, PTS, London.
Pali-English Dictionary, Pali Text Society, London.
The Pali Literature of Ceylon, by G.P. Malalasekera,
Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1928. Reprinted by
BPS, Kandy, 1994.
Pali Literature and Language, by W. Geiger, English
translation by Batakrishna Ghosh, Calcutta
University, 1943.
Paramatthamañjūsā, Ācariya Dhammapāla,
commentary to the Visuddhimagga
(Visuddhimaggamahā-ṭīkā). Vidyodaya ed. in
Sinhalese script, Colombo (Chapters I to XVII

21
 only). P.C. Mundyne Pitaka Press ed. in Burmese
script, Rangoon, 1909 (Chapters I to XI), 1910
(Chapters XII to XXIII). Siamese ed. in Siamese
script, Bangkok. Latin script edition on Chaṭṭha
Saṅgāyana CDROM of Vipassana Research
Institute, Igatpuri. No English translation.
Theravada Buddhism in Burma, by Niharranjan Ray,
Calcutta University, 1946 (pp. 24 ff.).
Vimuttimagga, Chinese translation: Ji²-tu-dào-lùn by
Tipiṭaka Saṅghapāla of Funan (6th cent. CE).
Taishõ edition at T 32, no. 1648, p. 399c–461c
(Nanjio no. 1293).
The Path of Freedom (Vimuttimagga), privately
circulated English translation from the Chinese by
N.R.M. Ehara, V.E.P. Pulle and G.S. Prelis. Printed
edition, Colombo 1961; reprinted by BPS, Kandy
1995. (Revised, BPS edition forthcoming in 2010.)
Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga—Comparative
Study, by P.V. Bapat, Poona, 1937. ((Reprinted by
BPS, 2010))

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS FOR TEXTS

USED

22
All editions Pali Text Society unless otherwise stated.
A Aṅguttara Nikāya
A-a Aṅguttara Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā =
Manorathapurāṇī
Cp Cariyāpiṭaka
Cp-a Cariyāpiṭaka Aṭṭhakathā
Dhp Dhammapada
Dhp-a Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā
Dhs Dhammasaṅgaṇī
Dhs-a Dhammasaṅgaṇi Aṭṭhakathā =
Atthasālinī
Dhs-ṭ Dhammasaṅgaṇī Ṭīkā = Mūla Ṭīkā II
Dhātuk Dhātukathā
D Dīgha Nikāya
D-a Dīgha Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā =
Sumaṅgala-vilāsinī
It Itivuttaka
J-a Jātaka-aṭṭhakathā
Kv Kathāvatthu
Mhv Mahāvaṃsa
M Majjhima Nikāya

23
M-a Majjhima Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā =
Papañca-sūdanī
Mil Milindapañhā
Netti Nettipakaraṇa
Nidd I Mahā Niddesa
Nidd II Cūḷa Niddesa (Siamese ed.)
Nikāya-s Nikāyasaṃgrahaya
Paṭis Paṭisambhidāmagga
Paṭis-a Paṭisambhidāmagga Aṭṭhakathā =
Saddhammappakāsinī (Sinhalese
Hewavitarne ed.).
Paṭṭh I Paṭṭhāna, Tika Paṭṭhāna
Paṭṭh II Paṭṭhāna, Duka Paṭṭhāna (Se and Be.)
Peṭ Peṭakopadesa
Pv Petavatthu
S Saṃyutta Nikāya
S-a Saṃyutta Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā =
Sāratthappakāsinī
Sn Sutta-nipāta
Sn-a Sutta-nipāta Aṭṭhakathā =
Paramatthajotikā

24
Th Thera-gāthā
Ud Udāna
Vibh Vibhaṅga
Vibh-a Vibhaṅga Aṭṭhakathā =
Sammohavinodanī
Vibh-ṭ Vibhaṅga Ṭīkā = Mūla Ṭīkā II
Vv Vimānavatthu
Vin I Vinaya Piṭaka (3)—Mahāvagga
Vin II Vinaya Piṭaka (4)—Cūḷavagga
Vin III Vinaya Piṭaka (1)—Suttavibhaṅga 1
Vin IV Vinaya Piṭaka (2)—Suttavibhaṅga 2
Vin V Vinaya Piṭaka (5)—Parivāra
Vism Visuddhimagga (PTS ed. [= Ee] and
Harvard Oriental Series ed. [= Ae])
Vism- Paramatthamañjūsā, Visuddhimagga
mhṭ Aṭṭhakathā = Mahā Ṭīkā (Chs. I to XVII
Sinhalese Vidyodaya ed.; Chs. XVIII to
XXIII Be ed.)

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

25
 Ae American Edition (= Harvard Oriental
Series)

Be Burmese Edition
Ce Ceylonese Edition
CPD Critical Pali Dictionary; Treckner
Ee European Edition (= PTS)
EHBC The Early History of Buddhism in
Ceylon, E. W. Adikaram.
PED Pali-English Dictionary
PLC Pali Literature of Ceylon,
Malalasekera.
PTS Pali Text Society
Se Siamese Edition
Numbers in square brackets in the text thus [25] refer
to the page numbers of the Pali Text Society's edition
of the Pali.
Paragraph numbers on the left correspond to the
paragraph numbers of the Harvard edition of the Pali.
Chapter and section headings and other
numberings have been inserted for clarity.

26
 MESSAGE FROM HIS HOLINESS THE
DALAI LAMA

The history of the development of Buddhist literature

seems to be marked by periods in which the received
teachings and established scriptures are assimilated
and consolidated and periods of mature creativity
when the essence of that transmission is expressed
afresh. Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga
is a classic text of the latter type. It represents the
epitome of Pali Buddhist literature, weaving together
its many strands to create this wonderful meditation
manual, which even today retains the clarity it
revealed when it was written.
There are occasions when people like to make
much of the supposed differences in the various
traditions of Buddhism that have evolved in different
times and places. What I find especially encouraging
about a book such as this is that it shows so clearly
how much all schools of Buddhism have
fundamentally in common. Within a structure based
on the traditional three trainings of ethical discipline,
concentration and wisdom are detailed instructions on
how to take an ethical approach to life, how to
meditate and calm the mind, and on the basis of those
how to develop a correct understanding of reality. We

27
find practical advice about creating an appropriate
environment for meditation, the importance of
developing love and compassion, and discussion of
dependent origination that underlies the Buddhist
view of reality. The very title of the work, the Path of
Purification, refers to the essential Buddhist
understanding of the basic nature of the mind as clear
and aware, unobstructed by disturbing emotions. This
quality is possessed by all sentient beings which all
may realize if we pursue such a path.
Sometimes I am asked whether Buddhism is
suitable for Westerners or not. I believe that the
essence of all religions deals with basic human
problems and Buddhism is no exception. As long as
we continue to experience the basic human sufferings
of birth, disease, old age, and death, there is no
question of whether it is suitable or not as a remedy.
Inner peace is the key. In that state of mind you can
face difficulties with calm and reason. The teachings of
love, kindness and tolerance, the conduct of non-
violence, and especially the Buddhist theory that all
things are relative can be a source of that inner peace.
While the essence of Buddhism does not change,
superficial cultural aspects will change. But how they
will change in a particular place, we cannot say. This
evolves over time. When Buddhism first came from
India to countries like Sri Lanka or Tibet, it gradually

28
evolved, and in time a unique tradition arose. This is
also happening in the West, and gradually Buddhism
may evolve with Western culture.
Of course, what distinguishes the contemporary
situation from past transmissions of Buddhism is that
almost the entire array of traditions that evolved
elsewhere is now accessible to anyone who is
interested. And it is in such a context that I welcome
this new edition of Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli’s celebrated
English translation of the Path of Purification. I offer my
prayers that readers, wherever they are, may find in it
advice and inspiration to develop that inner peace that
will contribute to creating a happier and more
peaceful world.
May 2000

PUBLISHER’S FOREWORD TO THIRD

EDITION

Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli’s translation of the Visuddhimagga

not only makes available in fluent English this difficult
and intricate classical work of Theravāda Buddhism,
the high point of the commentarial era, but itself ranks
as an outstanding cultural achievement perhaps
unmatched by Pali Buddhist scholarship in the

29
twentieth century. This achievement is even more
remarkable in that the translator had completed the
first draft within his first four years as a bhikkhu,
which is also the amount of time he had been a
student of Pali.
The Buddhist Publication Society first issued this
work beginning in 1975, with the kind consent of the
original publisher, Mr. Ānanda Semage of Colombo.
This was a reprint produced by photolithographic
process from the 1964 edition. The 1979 reprint was
also a photolithographic reprint, with some minor
corrections..
For this edition the text has been entirely
recomposed, this time with the aid of the astonishing
electronic typesetting equipment that has proliferated
during the past few years. The text itself has not been
altered except in a few places where the original
translator had evidently made an oversight. However,
numerous minor stylistic changes have been
introduced, particularly in the lower casing of many
technical terms that Ven. Ñāṇamoli had set in initial
capitals and, occasionally, in the paragraphing.
Buddhist Publication Society,
1991

30
 PUBLISHER’S FOREWORD TO FOURTH
EDITION

This fourth edition had to be retypeset again because

the digital files of the previous edition, prepared “with
the aid of the astonishing electronic typesetting
equipment” (as mentioned in the Foreword to the
Third Edition) were lost.
Like in the previous edition, the text itself has not
been altered except in a few places where Ven.
Ñāṇamoli had evidently made an oversight. A few
minor stylistic changes have been introduced again,
such as the utilisation of the Critical Pali Dictionary
system of abbreviation instead of the PTS system
The BPS would like to thank John Bullitt, Ester
Barias-Wolf, Michael Zoll, Manfred Wierich and all
others who helped with this project.

Buddhist Publication Society,

2010

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE

Originally I made this translation for my own

31
instruction because the only published version was
then no longer obtainable. So it was not done with any
intention at all of publication; but rather it grew
together out of notes made on some of the book’s
passages. By the end of 1953 it had been completed,
more or less, and put aside. Early in the following year
a suggestion to publish it was put to me, and I
eventually agreed, though not without a good deal of
hesitation. Reasons for agreeing, however, seemed not
entirely lacking. The only previous English version of
this remarkable work had long been out of print.
Justification too could in some degree be founded on
the rather different angle from which this version is
made.
Over a year was then spent in typing out the
manuscript during which time, and since, a good deal
of revision has taken place, the intention of the
revision being always to propitiate the demon of
inaccuracy and at the same time to make the
translation perspicuous and the translator
inconspicuous. Had publication been delayed, it might
well have been more polished. Nevertheless the work
of polishing is probably endless. Somewhere a halt
must be made.
A guiding principle—the foremost, in fact—has
throughout been avoidance of misrepresentation or
distortion; for the ideal translation (which has yet to be

32
made) should, like a looking glass, not discolour or
blur or warp the original which it reflects. Literalness,
however, on the one hand and considerations of
clarity and style on the other make irreconcilable
claims on a translator, who has to choose and to
compromise. Vindication of his choice is sometimes
difficult.
I have dealt at the end of the Introduction with
some particular problems. Not, however, with all of
them or completely; for the space allotted to an
introduction is limited.
Much that is circumstantial has now changed since
the Buddha discovered and made known his
liberating doctrine 2,500 years ago, and likewise since
this work was composed some nine centuries later. On
the other hand, the Truth he discovered has remained
untouched by all that circumstantial change. Old
cosmologies give place to new; but the questions of
consciousness, of pain and death, of responsibility for
acts, and of what should be looked to in the scale it
values as the highest of all, remain. Reasons for the
perennial freshness of the Buddha’s teaching—of his
handling of these questions—are several, but not least
among them is its independence of any particular
cosmology. Established as it is for its foundation on
the self-evident insecurity of the human situation (the
truth of suffering), the structure of the Four Noble

33
Truths provides an unfailing standard of value,
unique in its simplicity, its completeness and its
ethical purity, by means of which any situation can be
assessed and a profitable choice made.
Now I should like to make acknowledgements, as
follows, to all those without whose help this
translation would never have been begun, persisted
with or completed.
To the venerable Ñāṇatiloka Mahāthera (from
whom I first learned Pali) for his most kind consent to
check the draft manuscript. However, although he had
actually read through the first two chapters, a long
spell of illness unfortunately prevented him from
continuing with this himself.
To the venerable Soma Thera for his unfailing
assistance both in helping me to gain familiarity with
the often difficult Pali idiom of the Commentaries and
to get something of the feel—as it were, “from
inside”—of Pali literature against its Indian
background. Failing that, no translation would ever
have been made: I cannot tell how far I have been able
to express any of it in the rendering.
To the venerable Nyanaponika Thera, German
pupil of the venerable Ñāṇatiloka Mahāthera, for very
kindly undertaking to check the whole manuscript in
detail with the venerable Ñāṇatiloka Mahāthera’s

34
German translation (I knowing no German).
To all those with whom I have had discussions on
the Dhamma, which have been many and have
contributed to the clearing up of not a few unclear
points.
Lastly, and what is mentioned last bears its own
special emphasis, it has been an act of singular merit
on the part of Mr. A. Semage, of Colombo, to
undertake to publish this translation.
Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu,
Island Hermitage
Dodanduwa, Sri Lanka
Vesākhamāse, 2499: May, 1956

35
 INTRODUCTION

The Visuddhimagga—here rendered Path of Purification

—is perhaps unique in the literature of the world. It
systematically summarizes and interprets the teaching
of the Buddha contained in the Pali Tipiṭaka, which is
now recognized in Europe as the oldest and most
authentic record of the Buddha’s words. As the
principal non-canonical authority of the Theravāda, it
forms the hub of a complete and coherent method of
exegesis of the Tipiṭaka, using the “Abhidhamma
method” as it is called. And it sets out detailed
practical instructions for developing purification of
mind.

BACKGROUND AND MAIN FACTS

The works of Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa fill more

than thirty volumes in the Pali Text Society’s Latin-
script edition; but what is known of the writer himself
is meager enough for a page or two to contain the bare
facts.
Before dealing with those facts, however, and in
order that they may appear oriented, it is worth while
first to digress a little by noting how Pali literature

36
falls naturally into three main historical periods. The
early or classical period, which may be called the First
Period, begins with the Tipiṭaka itself in the 6th
century BCE and ends with the Milindapañhā about
five centuries later. These works, composed in India,
were brought to Sri Lanka, where they were
maintained in Pali but written about in Sinhalese. By
the first century CE, Sanskrit (independently of the
rise of Mahayana) or a vernacular had probably quite
displaced Pali as the medium of study in all the
Buddhist “schools” on the Indian mainland. Literary
activity in Sri Lanka declined and, it seems, fell into
virtual abeyance between CE 150 and 350, as will
appear below. The first Pali renascence was under
way in Sri Lanka and South India by about 400 and
was made viable by Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa.
This can be called the Middle Period. Many of its
principal figures were Indian. It developed in several
centres in the South Indian mainland and spread to
Burma, and it can be said to have lasted till about the
12th century. Meanwhile the renewed literary activity
again declined in Sri Lanka till it was eclipsed by the
disastrous invasion of Magha in the 11th century. The
second renascence, or the Third Period as it may be
termed, begins in the following century with Sri
Lanka’s recovery, coinciding more or less with major
political changes in Burma. In Sri Lanka it lasted for

37
several centuries and in Burma for much longer,
though India about that time or soon after lost all
forms of Buddhism. But this period does not concern
the present purpose and is only sketched in for the
sake of perspective.
The recorded facts relating from the standpoint of
Sri Lanka to the rise of the Middle Period are very few,
and it is worthwhile tabling them.[1]
sWhy did Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa come to
Sri Lanka? And why did his work become famous
beyond the island’s shores? The bare facts without
some interpretation will hardly answer these
questions. Certainly, any interpretation must be
speculative; but if this is borne in mind, some attempt
(without claim for originality) may perhaps be made
on the following lines.

KINGS OF
RELEVANT EVENTS REFS.
CEYLON
Devānampiya- Arrival in Sri Lanka of Mahāvaṃsa,
Tissa: the Arahant Mahinda Mhv X III.
BCE 307-267 bringing Pali Tipiṭaka
with Commentaries ;
Commentaries
translated into
Sinhalese;Great

38
 Monastery founded.
Duṭṭhagāmaṇi Expulsion of invaders Mhv XXV–
BCE 161–137 after 76 years of foreign XXXII
occupation of capital ;
restoration of unity
and independence.
Many names of Great Adikaram ,
Monastery elders, Early
noted in Commentaries History of
for virtuous behaviour, Buddhism in
traceable to this and Sri Lanka,
following reign. pp. 65–70
Vaṭṭagāmaṇi Reign interrupted after Mhv
BCE 5 months by rebellion XXXIII.33f.
104–88 of Brahman Tissa,
famine, invasion, and
king’s exile.
Bhikkhus all disperse A-a I 92
from Great Monastery
to South SL and to
India.
Restoration of king Mhv
after 14 years and XXXIII.78
return of bhikkhus.
Foundation of Mhv
Abhayagiri Monastery XXXIII.8 1

39
 by king .
Abhayagiri Monastery Mhv
secedes from Great XXXIII.96
Monastery and
becomes schismatic.
Committal by Great Mhv
Monastery of Pali XXXIII.100;
Tipiṭaka to writing for Nikāya-s
first time (away from (translation)
royal capital). 10–11
Abhayagiri Monastery Nikāya-s 11
adopts “Dhammaruci
Nikāya of Vajjiputtaka
Sect” of India.
Meeting of Great A-a I 92f;
Monastery bhikkhus EHBC 78
decides that care of
texts and preaching
comes before practice
of their contents.
Many Great Monastery EHBC 76
elders ’ names noted in
Commentaries for
learning and
contributions to
decision of textual

40
 problem s, traceable to
this reign.
Kuṭakaṇṇa Many elders as Last EHBC 80
Tissa stated traceable to this
BCE 30–33 reign too.
Last Sri Lanka elders ’ EHBC 86
nam es in Vinaya
Parivāra (p. 2) traceabl
e to this reign; Parivāra
can thus have been
completed by Great
Monastery any time
later, before 5th cent
Bhātikābhaya Dispute between Great V i n-a 5 8 2;
BCE 20–CE 9 Monastery and EHBC 99
Abhayagiri Monastery
over Vinaya adjudged
by Brahman
Dīghakārāyana in
favour of Great
Monastery
Khanirājānu- 60 bhikkhus punished Mhv
Tissa for treas on. XXXV.10
30–33
Vasabha Last reign to be EHBC 3, 86–
66–110 mentioned in body of 7

41
 Commentaries.
Sinhalese EHBC 3, 8 6–
Commentaries can 7
have been closed at
any time after this
reign.
Gajabāhu I Abhayagiri Monastery Mhv
113–135 supported by king and XXXV.119
enlarged.
6 kings Mentions of royal Mhv
13 5–215 support for Great XXXV.1, 7,
Monastery and 24, 3 3, 65
Abhayagiri Monastery
Vohārika- King supports both
Tissa monasteries.
215–237
Abhayagiri Monastery Nikāya-s 12
has adopted Vetulya
(Mahāyāna? ) Piṭaka.
King suppresses Mhv
Vetulya doctrines. XXXV.I.41
Vetulya books burnt Nikāya-s 12
and heretic bhikkhus
disgraced.
Corruption of Dīpavaṃsa

42
 bhikkhus by X X II–X X III
Vitaṇḍavadins
(heretics or destructive
critics).
Gothābhaya Great Monastery Mhv
25 4–267 supported by king. XXXV.I.102
60 bhikkhus in Mhv
Abhayagiri Monastery XXXV.I.111
banished by king for
upholding Vetulya
doctrines.
Secession from Nikāya-s 13
Abhayagiri Monastery;
new sect formed.
Indian bhikkhu Mhv
saṅghamitta supports XXXV.I.112
Abhayagiri Monastery
Jeṭṭha-Tissa King favours Great Mhv
267–277 Monastery; XXXV.I.123
Saṅghamitta flees to
India.
Mahāsena King protects Mhv
277–304 Saṅghamitta, who XXXV.II.1–50
returns. Persecution of
Great Monastery; its
bhikkhus driven from

43
 capital for 9 years.
Saṅghamitta Mhv
assassinated. XXXVII.27
Restoration of Great EHBC 92;
Monastery
Vetulya books burnt
again.
Dispute over Great Mhv
Monastery boundary; XXXVII.32
bhikkhus again absent
from Great
Monasteryfor 9
months.
Siri King favours Great EHBC 92 ;
Meghavaṇṇa Monastery Mhv
304–332 XXXVII.5 1f
Sinhalese monastery Malalasekera
established at Buddha PLC, p.68;
Gayā in India Epigraphia
Zeylanica iii,
II
Jeṭṭha-Tissa II Dīpavaṃsa composed Quoted in
332–34 in this period. Vin-a
Buddhadāsa Also perhaps PLC, p.77
341–70 Mūlasikkhā and

44
Upatissa Khuddasikkhā (Vinaya
370–412 summaries) and some
of Buddhadatta Thera’s
works.
Mahānāma Bhadantācariya Mhv
412–434 Buddhaghosa arrives XXXV.II.215–
in Sri Lanka. 46
Samantapāsādikā Vin-a
(Vinaya commentary) Epilogue
begun Vin-a Epilogue
in 20th and finished in
21st year of this king ’s
reign.

Up till the reign of King Vaṭṭagāmaṇi Abhaya in the

first century BCE the Great Monastery, founded by
Asoka’s son, the Arahant Mahinda, and hitherto
without a rival for the royal favour, had preserved a
reputation for the saintliness of its bhikkhus. The
violent upsets in his reign followed by his founding of
the Abhayagiri Monastery, its secession and schism,
changed the whole situation at home. Sensing
insecurity, the Great Monastery took the precaution to
commit the Tipiṭaka for the first time to writing, doing
so in the provinces away from the king’s presence.
Now by about the end of the first century BCE (dates
are very vague), with Sanskrit Buddhist literature just

45
launching out upon its long era of magnificence,
Sanskrit was on its way to become a language of
international culture. In Sri Lanka the Great
Monastery, already committed by tradition to strict
orthodoxy based on Pali, had been confirmed in that
attitude by the schism of its rival, which now began
publicly to study the new ideas from India. In the first
century BCE probably the influx of Sanskrit thought
was still quite small, so that the Great Monastery
could well maintain its name in Anurādhapura as the
principal centre of learning by developing its ancient
Tipiṭaka commentaries in Sinhalese. This might
account for the shift of emphasis from practice to
scholarship in King Vaṭṭagāmani’s reign. Evidence
shows great activity in this latter field throughout the
first century BCE, and all this material was doubtless
written down too.
In the first century CE, Sanskrit Buddhism
(“Hīnayāna,” and perhaps by then Mahāyāna) was
growing rapidly and spreading abroad. The
Abhayagiri Monastery would naturally have been
busy studying and advocating some of these weighty
developments while the Great Monastery had nothing
new to offer: the rival was thus able, at some risk, to
appear go-ahead and up-to-date while the old
institution perhaps began to fall behind for want of
new material, new inspiration and international

46
connections, because its studies being restricted to the
orthodox presentation in the Sinhalese language, it
had already done what it could in developing Tipiṭaka
learning (on the mainland Theravāda was doubtless
deeper in the same predicament). Anyway we find
that from the first century onwards its constructive
scholarship dries up, and instead, with the reign of
King Bhātika Abhaya (BCE 20–CE 9), public wrangles
begin to break out between the two monasteries. This
scene indeed drags on, gradually worsening through
the next three centuries, almost bare as they are of
illuminating information. King Vasabha’s reign (CE
66–110) seems to be the last mentioned in the
Commentaries as we have them now, from which it
may be assumed that soon afterwards they were
closed (or no longer kept up), nothing further being
added. Perhaps the Great Monastery, now living only
on its past, was itself getting infected with heresies.
But without speculating on the immediate reasons that
induced it to let its chain of teachers lapse and to cease
adding to its body of Sinhalese learning, it is enough
to note that the situation went on deteriorating,
further complicated by intrigues, till in Mahāsena’s
reign (CE 277–304) things came to a head.
With the persecution of the Great Monastery given
royal assent and the expulsion of its bhikkhus from
the capital, the Abhayagiri Monastery enjoyed nine

47
years of triumph. But the ancient institution rallied its
supporters in the southern provinces and the king
repented. The bhikkhus returned and the king
restored the buildings, which had been stripped to
adorn the rival. Still, the Great Monastery must have
foreseen, after this affair, that unless it could
successfully compete with Sanskrit it had small hope
of holding its position. With that the only course open
was to launch a drive for the rehabilitation of Pali—a
drive to bring the study of that language up to a
standard fit to compete with the “modern” Sanskrit in
the field of international Buddhist culture: by
cultivating Pali at home and abroad it could assure its
position at home. It was a revolutionary project,
involving the displacement of Sinhalese by Pali as the
language for the study and discussion of Buddhist
teachings, and the founding of a school of Pali literary
composition. Earlier it would doubtless have been
impracticable; but the atmosphere had changed.
Though various Sanskrit non-Mahayana sects are well
known to have continued to flourish all over India,
there is almost nothing to show the status of the Pali
language there by now. Only the Mahāvaṃsa
[XXXVII.215f. quoted below] suggests that the
Theravāda sect there had not only put aside but lost
perhaps all of its old non-Piṭaka material dating from
Asoka’s time.[2] One may guess that the pattern of

48
things in Sri Lanka only echoed a process that had
gone much further in India. But in the island of Sri
Lanka the ancient body of learning, much of it pre-
Asokan, had been kept lying by, as it were maturing in
its two and a half centuries of neglect, and it had now
acquired a new and great potential value due to the
purity of its pedigree in contrast with the welter of
new original thinking. Theravāda centres of learning
on the mainland were also doubtless much interested
and themselves anxious for help in a repristinization.
[3] Without such cooperation there was little hope of
success.
It is not known what was the first original Pali
composition in this period; but the Dīpavaṃsa (dealing
with historical evidence) belongs here (for it ends with
Mahāsena’s reign and is quoted in the
Samantapāsādikā), and quite possibly the Vimuttimagga
(dealing with practice—see below) was another early
attempt by the Great Monastery in this period (4th
cent.) to reassert its supremacy through original Pali
literary composition: there will have been others too.
[4] Of course, much of this is very conjectural. Still it is
plain enough that by 400 CE a movement had begun,
not confined to Sri Lanka, and that the time was ripe
for the crucial work, for a Pali recension of the
Sinhalese Commentaries with their unique tradition.
Only the right personality, able to handle it

49
competently, was yet lacking. That personality
appeared in the first quarter of the fifth century.

THE VISUDDHIMAGGA AND ITS AUTHOR

Sources of information about that person fall into

three groups. There are firstly the scraps contained in
the prologues and epilogues to the works ascribed to
him. Then there is the account given in the second part
of the Sri Lankan Chronicle, the Mahāvaṃsa (or
Cūḷavaṃsa as the part of it is often called), written in
about the 13th century, describing occurrences placed
by it in the 5th century, and, lastly, the still later
Buddhaghosuppatti (15th cent.?) and other later works.
It seems still uncertain how to evaluate the old
Talaing records of Burma, which may not refer to the
same person (see below). India herself tells us nothing
at all.
It seems worthwhile, therefore, to give a rendering
here of the principal passage from the prologues and
epilogues of the works ascribed to him by name; for
they are few and short, and they have special
authentic value as evidence. The Mahāvaṃsa account
will be reproduced in full, too, since it is held to have
been composed from evidence and records before its

50
author, and to have the ring of truth behind the
legends it contains. But the later works (which
European scholars hold to be legendary rather than
historical in what they add to the accounts already
mentioned) can only be dealt with very summarily
here.
The books actually ascribed to Bhadantācariya
Buddhaghosa have each a “postscript” identical in
form with that at the end of Chapter XXIII of the
present work, mentioning the title and author by
name. This can be taken to have been appended,
presumably contemporaneously, by the Great
Monastery (the Mahāvaṃsa) at Anurādhapura in Sri
Lanka as their official seal of approval. Here is a list of
the works (also listed in the modern Gandhavaṃsa and
Sāsanavaṃsa with one or two discrepancies):[5]

Commentaries to the Vinaya Piṭaka

Title Commentary to
Samantapāsādikā Vinaya
Kaṅkhāvitaraṇī Pātimokkha
Commentaries to the Sutta Piṭaka
Title Commentary to
Sumaṅgalavilāsinī Dīgha Nikāya
Papañcasūdani Majjhima Nikāya
Sāratthappakāsinī Saṃyutta Nikāya

51
 Manorathapurāṇī Aṅguttara Nikāya
Paramatthajotikā Khuddakapāṭha
Commentary to Suttanipāta
Title Commentary to
Dhammapadaṭṭhakathā Dhammapada
Jātakaṭṭhakathā Jātaka
Commentaries to the Abhidhamma Piṭaka
Title Commentary to
Atthasālinī Dhammasaṅgaṇī
Sammohavinodanī Vibhaṅga
Pañcappakaraṇaṭṭhakathā Remaining 5
books

Beyond the bare hint that he came to Sri Lanka from

India his actual works tell nothing about his origins or
background. He mentions “The Elder Buddhamitta
with whom I formerly lived at Mayūra suttapaṭṭana”
(M-a epil.),[6] and “The well known Elder Jotipāla,
with whom I once lived at Kañcipura and elsewhere”
(A-a epil.).[7] Also the “postscript” attached to the
Visuddhimagga says, besides mentioning his name, that
he “should be called ‘of Moraṇḍacetaka.’” [8] And that
is all.
On coming to Sri Lanka, he went to
Anurādhapura, the royal capital, and set himself to

52
study. He seems to have lived and worked there
during the whole of his stay in the island, though we
do not know how long that stay lasted. To render his
own words: “I learned three Sinhalese commentaries
—the Mahā-aṭṭha-[kathā], Mahāpaccarī, Kuruṇḍī—from
the famed elder known by the name of Buddhamitta,
who has expert knowledge of the Vinaya. Set in the
grounds of the Mahā Meghavana Park [in
Anurādhapura] there is the Great Monastery graced
by the [sapling from the] Master’s Enlightenment Tree.
A constant supporter of the Community, trusting with
unwavering faith in the Three Jewels, belonging to an
illustrious family and known by the name of
Mahānigamasāmi (Lord of the Great City), had an
excellent work-room built there on its southern side
accessible to the ever virtuously conducted
Community of Bhikkhus. The building was beautifully
appointed, agreeably endowed with cool shade and
had a lavish water supply. The Vinaya Commentary
was begun by me for the sake of the Elder Buddhasiri
of pure virtuous behaviour while I was living there in
Mahānigamasāmi’s building, and it is now complete.
It was begun by me in the twentieth year of the reign
of peace of the King Sirinivāsa (Of Glorious Life), the
renowned and glorious guardian who has kept the
whole of Lanka’s island free from trouble. It was
finished in one year without mishap in a world beset

53
by mishaps, so may all beings attain…’’ (Vin-a
Epilogue).
Mostly it is assumed that he wrote and
“published” his works one by one as authors do
today. The assumption may not be correct. There is an
unerring consistency throughout the system of
explanation he adopts, and there are cross-references
between works. This suggests that while the
Visuddhimagga itself may perhaps have been
composed and produced first, the others as they exist
now were more likely worked over
contemporaneously and all more or less finished
before any one of them was given out. They may well
have been given out then following the order of the
books in the Tipiṭaka which they explain. So in that
way it may be taken that the Vinaya Commentary
came next to the Visuddhimagga; then the
Commentaries on the four Nikāyas (Collections of
Suttas), and after them the Abhidhamma
Commentaries. Though it is not said that the Vinaya
Commentary was given out first of these, still the
prologue and epilogue contain the most information.
The four Nikāya Commentaries all have the same
basic prologue; but the Saṃyutta Nikāya Commentary
inserts in its prologue a stanza referring the reader to
“the two previous Collections” (i.e. the Dīgha and
Majjhima Nikāyas) for explanations of the names of

54
towns and for illustrative stories, while the Aṅguttara
Nikāya Commentary replaces this stanza with another
referring to “the Dīgha and Majjhima” by name for the
same purpose. The point may seem laboured and even
trivial, but it is not irrelevant; for if it is assumed that
these works were written and “published” in some
historical order of composition, one expects to find
some corresponding development of thought and
perhaps discovers what one’s assumption has
projected upon them. The more likely assumption,
based on consideration of the actual contents, is that
their form and content was settled before any one of
them was given out.
Sometimes it is argued that the commentaries to
the Dhammapada and the Jātaka may not be by the
same author because the style is different. But that fact
could be accounted for by the difference in the subject
matter; for these two commentaries consist mainly of
popular stories, which play only a very minor role in
the other works. Besides, while this author is quite
inexorably consistent throughout his works in his
explanations of Dhamma, he by no means always
maintains that consistency in different versions of the
same story in, say, different Nikāya Commentaries
(compare for instance, the version of the story of Elder
Tissabhūti given in the commentary to AN 1:2.6, with
that at M-a I 66; also the version of the story of the

55
Elder Mahā Tissa in the A-a, same ref., with that at M-
a I 185). Perhaps less need for strictness was felt with
such story material. And there is also another
possibility. It may not unreasonably be supposed that
he did not work alone, without help, and that he had
competent assistants. If so, he might well have
delegated the drafting of the Khuddaka Nikāya
commentaries— those of the Khuddakapāṭha and
Suttanipāta, Dhammapada, and the Jātaka—or part of
them, supervising and completing them himself, after
which the official “postscript” was appended. This
assumption seems not implausible and involves less
difficulties than its alternatives.[9] These secondary
commentaries may well have been composed after the
others.
The full early history of the Pali Tipiṭaka and its
commentaries in Sinhalese is given in the Sri Lanka
Chronicle, the Dīpavaṃsa, and Mahāvaṃsa, and also in
the introduction to the Vinaya Commentary. In the
prologue to each of the four Nikāya Commentaries it
is conveniently summarized by Bhadantācariya
Buddhaghosa himself as follows: “[I shall now take]
the commentary, whose object is to clarify the
meaning of the subtle and most excellent Long
Collection (Dīgha Nikāya) … set forth in detail by the
Buddha and by his like [i.e. the Elder Sāriputta and
other expounders of discourses in the Sutta Piṭaka]—

56
the commentary that in the beginning was chanted [at
the First Council] and later re-chanted [at the Second
and Third], and was brought to the Sīhala Island (Sri
Lanka) by the Arahant Mahinda the Great and
rendered into the Sīhala tongue for the benefit of the
islanders—and from that commentary I shall remove
the Sīhala tongue, replacing it by the graceful
language that conforms with Scripture and is purified
and free from flaws. Not diverging from the
standpoint of the elders residing in the Great
Monastery [in Anurādhapura], who illumine the
elders’ heritage and are all well versed in exposition,
and rejecting subject matter needlessly repeated, I
shall make the meaning clear for the purpose of
bringing contentment to good people and contributing
to the long endurance of the Dhamma.”
There are references in these works to “the
Ancients” (porāṇā) or “Former Teachers” (pubbācariyā)
as well as to a number of Sinhalese commentaries
additional to the three referred to in the quotation
given earlier. The fact is plain enough that a complete
body of commentary had been built up during the
nine centuries or so that separate Bhadantācariya
Buddhaghosa from the Buddha. A good proportion of
it dated no doubt from the actual time of the Buddha
himself, and this core had been added to in India
(probably in Pali), and later by learned elders in Sri

57
Lanka (in Sinhalese) as references to their
pronouncements show (e.g. XII.105 and 117).
This body of material—one may guess that its
volume was enormous—Bhadantācariya
Buddhaghosa set himself to edit and render into Pali
(the Tipiṭaka itself had been left in the original Pali).
For this he had approval and express invitation (see,
e.g., the epilogue to the present work, which the Elder
Saṅghapāla invited him to compose). Modern critics
have reproached him with lack of originality: but if we
are to judge by his declared aims, originality, or to use
his own phrase “advertising his own standpoint”
(XVII.25), seems likely to have been one of the things
he would have wished to avoid. He says, for instance,
“I shall expound the comforting Path of Purification,
pure in expositions, relying on the teaching of the
dwellers in the Great Monastery” (I.4; see also
epilogue), and again “Now, as to the entire
trustworthiness (samantapāsādikatta) of this
Samantapāsādika: the wise see nothing untrustworthy
here when they look—in the chain of teachers, in the
citations of circumstance, instance and category [in
each case], in the avoidance of others’ standpoints, in
the purity of [our] own standpoint, in the correctness
of details, in the word-meanings, in the order of
construing the text, in the exposition of the training
precepts, in the use of classification by the analytical

58
method—which is why this detailed commentary on
the Vinaya … is called Samantapāsādika (Vin-a
epilogue). And then: “The commentary on the
Pātimokkha, which I began at the request of the Elder
Soṇa for the purpose of removing doubts in those
uncertain of the Vinaya, and which covers the whole
Sinhalese commentarial system based upon the
arrangement adopted by the dwellers in the Great
Monastery, is finished. The whole essence of the
commentary and the entire meaning of the text has
been extracted and there is no sentence here that
might conflict with the text or with the commentaries
of the dwellers in the Great Monastery or those of the
Ancients” (Pātimokkha Commentary epilogue). Such
examples could be multiplied (see especially also
XVII.25).
There is only one instance in the Visuddhimagga
where he openly advances an opinion of his own, with
the words “our preference here is this” (XIII.123). He
does so once in the Majjhima Nikāya Commentary,
too, saying “the point is not dealt with by the
Ancients, but this is my opinion” (M-a I 28). The rarity
of such instances and the caution expressed in them
imply that he himself was disinclined to speculate and
felt the need to point the fact out when he did. He
actually says “one’s own opinion is the weakest
authority of all and should only be accepted if it

59
accords with the Suttas” (D-a 567–68). So it is likely
that he regarded what we should call original thinking
as the province of the Buddha, and his own task as the
fortification of that thought by coordinating the
explanations of it. However, not every detail that he
edited can claim direct support in the Suttas.
The following considerations lend some support to
the assumptions just made. It has been pointed out[10]
that in describing in the Vinaya Commentary how the
tradition had been “maintained up to the present day
by the chain of teachers and pupils” (Vin-a 61–62) the
list of teachers’ names that follows contains names
only traceable down to about the middle of the 2nd
century CE, but not later. Again, there appear in his
works numbers of illustrative stories, all of which are
set either in India or Sri Lanka. However, no single
one of them can be pointed to as contemporary.
Stories about India in every case where a date can be
assigned are not later than Asoka (3rd cent. BCE).
Many stories about Sri Lanka cannot be dated, but of
those that can none seems later than the 2nd century
CE. This suggests that the material which he had
before him to edit and translate had been already
completed and fixed more than two centuries earlier
in Sri Lanka, and that the words “present day” were
not used by him to refer to his own time, but were
already in the material he was coordinating. This final

60
fixing, if it is a fact, might have been the aftermath of
the decision taken in Sri Lanka in the first century BCE
to commit the Pali Tipiṭaka to writing.
Something now needs to be said about the relation
of the Visuddhimagga to the other books. This author’s
work is characterized by relentless accuracy,
consistency, and fluency of erudition, and much
dominated by formalism. Not only is this formalism
evident in the elaborate pattern of the Visuddhimagga
but also that work’s relationship to the others is
governed by it. The Visuddhimagga itself extracts from
the Tipiṭaka all the central doctrines that pivot upon
the Four Noble Truths, presenting them as a coherent
systematic whole by way of quotation and explanation
interspersed with treatises on subjects of more or less
relative importance, all being welded into an intricate
edifice. The work can thus stand alone. But the aim of
the commentaries to the four main Nikāyas or
Collections of Suttas is to explain the subject matter of
individual discourses and, as well, certain topics and
special doctrines not dealt with in the Visuddhimagga
(many passages commenting on identical material in
the Suttas in different Nikāyas are reproduced
verbatim in each commentary, and elsewhere, e.g., MN
10, cf. DN 22, Satipaṭṭhāna Vibhaṅga, etc., etc., and
respective commentaries). But these commentaries
always refer the reader to the Visuddhimagga for

61
explanations of the central doctrines. And though the
Vinaya and Abhidhamma (commentaries are less
closely bound to the Visuddhimagga, still they too
either refer the reader to it or reproduce large blocks
of it. The author himself says: “The treatises on virtue
and on the ascetic’s rules, all the meditation subjects,
the details of the attainments of the jhānas, together
with the directions for each temperament, all the
various kinds of direct-knowledge, the exposition of
the definition of understanding, the aggregates,
elements, bases, and faculties, the Four Noble Truths,
the explanation of the structure of conditions
(dependent origination), and lastly the development of
insight, by methods that are purified and sure and not
divergent from Scripture—since these things have
already been quite clearly stated in the Visuddhimagga
I shall no more dwell upon them here; for the
Visuddhimagga stands between and in the midst of all
four Collections (Nikāyas) and will clarify the
meaning of such things stated therein. It was made in
that way: take it therefore along with this same
commentary and know the meaning of the Long
Collection (Dīgha Nikāya)” (prologue to the four
Nikāyas).
This is all that can, without unsafe inferences, be
gleaned of Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa himself from
his own works (but see below). Now, there is the

62
Mahāvaṃsa account. The composition of the second
part (often called Cūḷavaṃsa) of that historical poem is
attributed to an Elder Dhammakitti, who lived in or
about the thirteenth century. Here is a translation of
the relevant passage:
“There was a Brahman student who was born
near the site of the Enlightenment Tree. He was
acquainted with the arts and accomplishments of
the sciences and was qualified in the Vedas. He
was well versed in what he knew and unhesitant
over any phrase. Being interested in doctrines, he
wandered over Jambudīpa (India) engaging in
disputation.
“He came to a certain monastery, and there in
the night he recited Pātañjali’s system with each
phrase complete and well rounded. The senior
elder there, Revata by name, recognized, ‘This is a
being of great understanding who ought to be
tamed.’ He said, ‘Who is that braying the ass’s
bray?’ The other asked, ‘What, then, do you know
the meaning of the ass’s bray?’ The elder
answered, ‘I know it,’ and he then not only
expounded it himself, but explained each
statement in the proper way and also pointed out
contradictions. The other then urged him, ‘Now
expound your own doctrine,’ and the elder
repeated a text from the Abhidhamma, but the

63
visitor could not solve its meaning. He asked,
‘Whose system is this?’ and the elder replied, ‘It is
the Enlightened One’s system.’ ‘Give it to me,’ he
said, but the elder answered, ‘You will have to
take the going forth into homelessness.’ So he
took the going forth, since he was interested in the
system, and he learned the three Piṭakas, after
which he believed, ‘This is the only way’ (M I 55).
Because his speech (ghosa) was profound (voice
was deep) like that of the Enlightened One
(Buddha) they called him Buddhaghosa, so that
like the Enlightened One he might be voiced over
the surface of the earth.
“He prepared a treatise there called Ñāṇodaya,
and then the Atthasālinī, a commentary on the
Dhammasaṅgaṇī. Next he began work on a
commentary to the Paritta.[11] When the Elder
Revata saw that, he said, ‘Here only the text has
been preserved. There is no commentary here,
and likewise no Teachers’ Doctrine; for that has
been allowed to go to pieces and is no longer
known. However, a Sinhalese commentary still
exists, which is pure. It was rendered into the
Sinhalese tongue by the learned Mahinda with
proper regard for the way of commenting that
was handed down by the three Councils as taught
by the Enlightened One and inculcated by

64
Sāriputta and others. Go there, and after you have
learnt it translate it into the language of the
Magadhans. That will bring benefit to the whole
world.’ As soon as this was said, he made up his
mind to set out.
“He came from there to this island in the reign
of this king (Mahānāma). He came to the (Great
Monastery, the monastery of all true men. There
he stayed in a large workroom, and he learnt the
whole Sinhalese Commentary of the Elders’
Doctrine (theravāda) under Saṅghapāla.[12] He
decided, ‘This alone is the intention of the
Dhamma’s Lord.’ So he assembled the
Community there and asked, ‘Give me all the
books to make a commentary.’ Then in order to
test him the Community gave him two stanzas,
saying ‘Show your ability with these; when we
have seen that you have it, we will give you all
the books.’ On that text alone he summarized the
three Piṭakas together with the Commentary as an
epitome, which was named the Path of Purification
(Visuddhimagga). Then, in the precincts of the
(sapling of the) Enlightenment Tree (in
Anurādhapura), he assembled the Community
expert in the Fully Enlightened One’s system, and
he began to read it out. In order to demonstrate
his skill to the multitude deities hid the book, and

65
 he was obliged to prepare it a second time, and
again a third time. When the book was brought
for the third time to be read out, the gods
replaced the other two copies with it. Then the
bhikkhus read out the three copies together, and
it was found that there was no difference between
the three in either the chapters or the meaning or
the order of the material or the phrases and
syllables of the Theravāda texts. With that the
Community applauded in high delight and again
and again it was said, ‘Surely this is (the
Bodhisatta) Metteyya.’ “They gave him the books
of the three Piṭakas together with the
Commentary. Then, while staying undisturbed in
the Library Monastery, he translated the Sinhalese
Commentary into the Magadhan language, the
root-speech of all, by which he brought benefit to
beings of all tongues. The teachers of the Elders’
Tradition accepted it as equal in authority with
the texts themselves. Then, when the tasks to be
done were finished, he went back to Jambudīpa to
pay homage to the Great Enlightenment Tree.
“And when Mahānāma had enjoyed twenty-
two years’ reign upon earth and had performed a
variety of meritorious works, he passed on
according to his deeds”—(Mhv XXXVII.215–47).
King Mahānāma is identified with the “King

66
Sirinivāsa” and the “King Sirikuḍḍa” mentioned
respectively in the epilogues to the Vinaya and
Dhammapada Commentaries. There is no trace, and
no other mention anywhere, of the Ñāṇodaya. The
Atthasālinī described as composed in India could not
be the version extant today, which cites the Sri Lankan
Commentaries and refers to the Visuddhimagga; it will
have been revised later.
The prologues and epilogues of this author’s works
are the only instances in which we can be sure that he
is speaking of his own experience and not only simply
editing; and while they point only to his residence in
South India, they neither confute nor confirm the
Mahāvaṃsa statement than he was born in Magadha
(see note 8). The Sri Lankan Chronicles survived the
historical criticism to which they were subjected in the
last hundred years. The independent evidence that
could be brought to bear supported them, and
Western scholars ended by pronouncing them reliable
in essentials. The account just quoted is considered to
be based on historical fact even if it contains legendary
matter.
It is not possible to make use of the body of
Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa’s works to test the
Mahāvaṃsa’s claim that he was a learned Brahman
from central India, and so on. It has been shown
already how the presumption is always, where the

67
contrary is not explicitly stated, that he is editing and
translating material placed before him rather than
displaying his own private knowledge, experience and
opinions. And so it would be a critical mistake to use
any such passage in his work for assessing his
personal traits; for in them it is, pretty certainly, not
him we are dealing with at all but people who lived
three or more centuries earlier. Those passages
probably tell us merely that he was a scrupulously
accurate and conscientious editor. His geographical
descriptions are translations, not eyewitness accounts.
Then such a sutta passage as that commented on in
Chapter I, 86–97 of the present work, which is a part of
a sutta used by bhikkhus for daily reflection on the
four requisites of the life of a bhikkhu, is certain to
have been fully commented on from the earliest times,
so that it would be just such a critical mistake to infer
from this comment anything about his abilities as an
original commentator, or anything else of a personal
nature about him or his own past experience.[13] And
again, the controversial subject of the origin of the
Brahman caste (see M-a II 418) must have been fully
explained from the Buddhist standpoint from the very
start. If then that account disagrees with Brahmanical
lore—and it would be odd, all things considered, if it
did not—there is no justification for concluding on
those grounds that the author of the Visuddhimagga

68
was not of Brahman origin and that the Mahāvaṃsa is
wrong. What does indeed seem improbable is that the
authorities of the Great Monastery, resolutely
committed to oppose unorthodoxy, would have given
him a free hand to “correct” their traditions to accord
with Brahmanical texts or with other alien sources,
even if he had so wished. Again, the fact that there are
allusions to extraneous, non-Buddhist literature (e.g.
VII.58; XVI.4 n.2; XVI.85, etc.) hardly affects this issue
because they too can have been already in the material
he was editing or supplied to him by the elders with
whom he was working. What might repay careful
study are perhaps those things, such as certain
Mahayana teachings and names, as well as much
Brahmanical philosophy, which he ignores though he
must have known about them. This ignoring cannot
safely be ascribed to ignorance unless we are sure it
was not dictated by policy; and we are not sure at all.
His silences (in contrast to the author of the
Paramatthamañjūsā) are sometimes notable in this
respect.
The “popular novel” called Buddhaghosuppatti,
which was composed in Burma by an elder called
Mahāmaṅgala, perhaps as early as the 15th century, is
less dependable. But a survey without some account
of it would be incomplete. So here is a précis:
Near the Bodhi Tree at Gayā there was a town

69
called Ghosa. Its ruler had a Brahman chaplain called
Kesi married to a wife called Kesinī. An elder
bhikkhu, who was a friend of Kesi, used to wonder,
when the Buddha’s teaching was recited in Sinhalese,
and people did not therefore understand it, who
would be able to translate it into Magadhan (Pāḷi). He
saw that there was the son of a deity living in the
Tāvatiṃsa heaven, whose name was Ghosa and who
was capable of doing it. This deity was persuaded to
be reborn in the human world as the son of the
Brahman Kesi. He learnt the Vedas. One day he sat
down in a place sacred to Vishnu and ate peas.
Brahmans angrily rebuked him, but he uttered a
stanza, “The pea itself is Vishnu; who is there called
Vishnu? And how shall I know which is Vishnu?” and
no one could answer him. Then one day while Kesi
was instructing the town’s ruler in the Vedas a certain
passage puzzled him, but Ghosa wrote down the
explanations on a palm leaf, which was found later by
his father—(Chapter I).
Once when the elder bhikkhu was invited to Kesi’s
house for a meal Ghosa’s mat was given to him to sit
on. Ghosa was furious and abused the elder. Then he
asked him if he knew the Vedas and any other system.
The elder gave a recitation from the Vedas. Then
Ghosa asked him for his own system, whereupon the
elder expounded the first triad of the Abhidhamma

70
schedule, on profitable, unprofitable, and
indeterminate thought-arisings. Ghosa asked whose
the system was. He was told that it was the Buddha’s
and that it could only be learnt after becoming a
bhikkhu. He accordingly went forth into homelessness
as a bhikkhu, and in one month he learned the three
Piṭakas. After receiving the full admission he acquired
the four discriminations. The name given to him was
Buddhaghosa—(Chapter II).
One day the question arose in his mind: “Who has
more understanding of the Buddha-word, I or my
preceptor?” His preceptor, whose cankers were
exhausted, read the thought in his mind and rebuked
him, telling him to ask his forgiveness. The pupil was
then very afraid, and after asking for forgiveness, he
was told that in order to make amends he must go to
Sri Lanka and translate the Buddha-word (sic) from
Sinhalese into Magadhan. He agreed, but asked that
he might first be allowed to convert his father from the
Brahman religion to the Buddha’s teaching. In order to
achieve this he had a brick apartment fitted with locks
and furnished with food and water. He set a
contrivance so that when his father went inside he was
trapped. He then preached to his father on the virtues
of the Buddha, and on the pains of hell resulting from
wrong belief. After three days his father was
converted, and he took the Three Refuges. The son

71
then opened the door and made amends to his father
with flowers and such things for the offence done to
him. Kesi became a stream-enterer—(Chapter III).
This done, he set sail in a ship for Sri Lanka. The
Mahāthera Buddhadatta[14] had set sail that day from
Sri Lanka for India. The two ships met by the
intervention of Sakka Ruler of Gods. When the two
elders saw each other, the Elder Buddhaghosa told the
other: “The Buddha’s Dispensation has been put into
Sinhalese; I shall go and translate it and put it into
Magadhan.” The other said, “I was sent to go and
translate the Buddha-word and write it in Magadhan.
I have only done the Jinālaṅkāra, the Dantavaṃsa, the
Dhātuvaṃsa and the Bodhivaṃsa, not the commentaries
and the sub-commentaries (ṭīkā). If you, sir, are
translating the Dispensation from Sinhalese into
Magadhan, do the commentaries to the Three
Piṭakas.” Then praising the Elder Buddhaghosa, he
gave him the gall-nut, the iron stylus, and the stone
given him by Sakka Ruler of Gods, adding, “If you
have eye trouble or backache, rub the gall-nut on the
stone and wet the place that hurts; then your ailment
will vanish.” Then he recited a stanza from his
Jinālaṅkāra. The other said, “Venerable sir, your book
is written in very ornate style. Future clansmen will
not be able to follow its meaning. It is hard for simple
people to understand it.”—“Friend Buddhaghosa, I

72
went to Sri Lanka before you to work on the Blessed
One’s Dispensation. But I have little time before me
and shall not live long. So I cannot do it. Do it
therefore yourself, and do it well.” Then the two ships
separated. Soon after they had completed their
voyages the Elder Buddhadatta died and was reborn
in the Tusita heaven—(Chapter IV).
The Elder Buddhaghosa stayed near the port of
Dvijaṭhāna in Sri Lanka. While there he saw one
woman water-carrier accidentally break another’s jar,
which led to a violent quarrel between them with foul
abuse. Knowing that he might be called as a witness,
he wrote down what they said in a book. When the
case came before the king, the elder was cited as a
witness. He sent his notebook, which decided the case.
The king then asked to see him—(Chapter V).
After this the elder went to pay homage to the
Saṅgharāja,[15] the senior elder of Sri Lanka. One day
while the senior elder was teaching bhikkhus he came
upon a difficult point of Abhidhamma that he could
not explain. The Elder Buddhaghosa knew its meaning
and wrote it on a board after the senior elder had left.
Next day it was discovered and then the senior elder
suggested that he should teach the Order of Bhikkhus.
The reply was: “I have come to translate the Buddha’s
Dispensation into Magadhan.” The senior elder told
him, “If so, then construe the Three Piṭakas upon the

73
text beginning, ‘When a wise man, established well in
virtue…’” He began the work that day, the stars being
favourable, and wrote very quickly. When finished, he
put it aside and went to sleep. Meanwhile Sakka,
Ruler of Gods, abstracted the book. The elder awoke,
and missing it, he wrote another copy very fast by
lamplight then he put it aside and slept. Sakka
abstracted that too. The elder awoke, and not seeing
his book, he wrote a third copy very fast by lamplight
and wrapped it in his robe. Then he slept again. While
he was asleep Sakka put the other two books beside
him, and when he awoke he found all three copies. He
took them to the senior elder and told him what had
happened. When they were read over there was no
difference even in a single letter. Thereupon the senior
elder gave permission for the translating of the
Buddha’s Dispensation. From then on the elder was
known to the people of Sri Lanka by the name of
Buddhaghosa—(Chapter VI).
He was given apartments in the Brazen Palace, of
whose seven floors he occupied the lowest. He
observed the ascetic practices and was expert in all the
scriptures. It was during his stay there that he
translated the Buddha’s Dispensation. When on his
alms round he saw fallen palm leaves he would pick
them up; this was a duty undertaken by him. One day
a man who had climbed a palm tree saw him. He left

74
some palm leaves on the ground, watched him pick
them up, and then followed him. Afterwards he
brought him a gift of food. The elder concluded his
writing of the Dispensation in three months. When the
rainy season was over and he had completed the
Pavāraṇā ceremony, he consigned the books to the
senior elder, the Saṅgharāja. Then the Elder
Buddhaghosa had the books written by Elder
Mahinda piled up and burnt near the Great Shrine; the
pile was as high as seven elephants. Now that this
work was done, and wanting to see his parents, he
took his leave before going back to India. Before he
left, however, his knowledge of Sanskrit was queried
by bhikkhus; but he silenced this by delivering a
sermon in the language by the Great Shrine. Then he
departed—(Chapter VIII).
On his return he went to his preceptor and cleared
himself of his penance. His parents too forgave him
his offences; and when they died they were reborn in
the Tusita heaven. He himself, knowing that he would
not live much longer, paid homage to his preceptor
and went to the Great Enlightenment Tree. Foreseeing
his approaching death, he considered thus: “There are
three kinds of death: death as cutting off, momentary
death, and conventional death. Death as cutting off
belongs to those whose cankers are exhausted (and are
Arahants). Momentary death is that of each

75
consciousness of the cognitive series beginning with
life-continuum consciousness, which arise each
immediately on the cessation of the one preceding.
Conventional death is that of all (so-called) living
beings.[16] Mine will be conventional death.” After his
death he was reborn in the Tusita heaven in a golden
mansion seven leagues broad surrounded with divine
nymphs. When the Bodhisatta Metteyya comes to this
human world, he will be his disciple. After his
cremation his relics were deposited near the
Enlightenment Tree and shrines erected over them—
(Chapter VIII).
It has already been remarked that the general
opinion of European scholars is that where this
imaginative tale differs from, or adds to, the
Mahāvaṃsa’s account it is in legend rather than history.
Finally there is the question of the Talaing
Chronicles of Burma, which mention an elder named
Buddhaghosa, of brahman stock, who went from
Thatõn (the ancient Buddhist stronghold in the
Rāmaññadesa of Burma) to Sri Lanka (perhaps via
India) to translate the Buddha-word into Talaing and
bring it back. It is hard to evaluate this tradition on the
evidence available; but according to the opinion of the
more reliable Western scholars another elder of the
same name is involved here.[17]

76
 What can be said of the Visuddhimagga’s author
without venturing into unfounded speculation is now
exhausted, at least in so far as the restricted scope of
this introduction permits. The facts are tantalizingly
few. Indeed this, like many scenes in Indian history,
has something of the enigmatic transparencies and
uncommunicative shadows of a moonlit landscape—
at the same time inescapable and ungraspable.
Some answer has, however, been furnished to the
two questions: why did he come to Sri Lanka? And
why did his work become famous beyond its shores?
Trends such as have been outlined, working not quite
parallel on the Theravāda of India and Sri Lanka, had
evolved a situation favouring a rehabilitation of Pali,
and consequently the question was already one of
interest not only to Sri Lanka, where the old material
was preserved. Again the author possessed
outstandingly just those personal qualities most fitted
to the need—accuracy, an indefatigable mental
orderliness, and insight able to crystallize the vast,
unwieldy, accumulated exegesis of the Tipiṭaka into a
coherent workable whole with a dignified vigorous
style, respect for authenticity and dislike of
speculation, and (in the circumstances not at all
paradoxically) preference for self-effacement. The
impetus given by him to Pali scholarship left an
indelible mark on the centuries that followed, enabling

77
it to survive from then on the Sanskrit siege as well as
the continuing schism and the political difficulties and
disasters that harassed Sri Lanka before the “Second
Renascence.” A long epoch of culture stems from him.
His successors in the Great Monastery tradition
continued to write in various centres in South India till
the 12th century or so, while his own works spread to
Burma and beyond. Today in Sri Lanka and South
East Asia his authority is as weighty as it ever was and
his name is venerated as before.

THE VIMUTTIMAGGA

Besides the books in Sinhala Bhadantācariya

Buddhaghosa names as available to him (which have
all disappeared) there was also a manual (existing
now only in a Chinese translation of the 6th century
CE), presumed to have been written in Pali.
Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa himself makes no
mention of it; but his commentator, Bhadantācariya
Dhammapāla (writing perhaps within two centuries of
him), mentions it by name (see Ch. III, n.19). The
Visuddhimagga refutes a certain method of classifying
temperaments as unsound. The Elder Dhammapāla
ascribes the theory refuted to the Vimuttimagga. The
theory refuted is actually found in the Chinese

78
version. Then other points rejected by the
Visuddhimagga are found in the Vimuttimagga. Some of
these are attributed by the Elder Dhammapāla to the
Abhayagiri Monastery. However, the Vimuttimagga
itself contains nothing at all of the Mahāyāna, its
unorthodoxies being well within the “Hīnayāna” field.
The book is much shorter than the Visuddhimagga.
Though set out in the same three general divisions of
virtue, concentration, and understanding, it does not
superimpose the pattern of the seven purifications.
Proportionately much less space is devoted to
understanding, and there are no stories. Though the
appearance in both books of numbers of nearly
identical passages suggests that they both drew a
good deal from the same sources, the general style
differs widely. The four measureless states and the
four immaterial states are handled differently in the
two books. Besides the “material octads,” “enneads”
and “decads,” it mentions “endecads,” etc., too. Its
description of the thirteen ascetic practices is quite
different. Also Abhidhamma, which is the keystone of
Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa’s exegesis, is not used at
all in the Vimuttimagga (aggregates, truths, etc., do not
in themselves constitute Abhidhamma in the sense of
that Piṭaka). There is for instance even in its
description of the consciousness aggregate, no
reference to the Dhammasaṅgaṇī’s classification of 89

79
types, and nothing from the Paṭṭhāna; and though the
cognitive series is stated once in its full form (in Ch.
11) no use is made of it to explain conscious workings.
This Vimuttimagga is in fact a book of practical
instructions, not of exegesis.
Its authorship is ascribed to an Elder Upatissa. But
the mere coincidence of names is insufficient to
identify him with the Arahant Upatissa (prior to 3rd
cent. CE) mentioned in the Vinaya Parivāra. A
plausible theory puts its composition sometime before
the Visuddhimagga, possibly in India. That is quite
compatible with its being a product of the Great
Monastery before the Visuddhimagga was written,
though again evidence is needed to support the
hypothesis. That it contains some minor points
accepted by the Abhayagiri Monastery does not
necessarily imply that it had any special connections
with that centre. The source may have been common
to both. The disputed points are not schismatical.
Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa himself never mentions
it.

TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THERAVĀDA DOCTRINE

80
The doctrines (Dhamma) of the Theravāda Pali
tradition can be conveniently traced in three main
layers. (1) The first of these contains the main books of
the Pali Sutta Piṭakas. (2) The second is the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka, notably the closely related
books, the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, Vibhaṅga, Paṭṭhāna. (3)
The third is the system which the author of the
Visuddhimagga completed, or found completed, and
which he set himself to edit and translate back into
Pali (some further minor developments took place
subsequently, particularly with the 12th century (?)
Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, but they are outside the
present scope). The point at issue here is not the much-
debated historical question of how far the
Abhidhamma books (leaving aside the Kathāvatthu)
were contemporary with the Vinaya and Suttas, but
rather what discernible direction they show in
evolution of thought.
(1) The Suttas being taken as the original
exposition of the Buddha’s teaching, (2) the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka itself appears as a highly
technical and specialized systematization, or
complementary set of modifications built upon that.
Its immediate purpose is, one may say, to describe and
pin-point mental constituents and characteristics and
relate them to their material basis and to each other
(with the secondary object, perhaps, of providing an

81
efficient defence in disputes with heretics and
exponents of outsiders’ doctrines). Its ultimate
purpose is to furnish additional techniques for getting
rid of unjustified assumptions that favour clinging and
so obstruct the attainment of the extinction of clinging.
Various instruments have been forged in it for sorting
and re-sorting experience expressed as dhammas (see
Ch. VII, n.1). These instruments are new to the Suttas,
though partly traceable to them. The principal
instruments peculiar to it are three: (a) the strict
treatment of experience (or the knowable and
knowledge, using the words in their widest possible
sense) in terms of momentary cognizable states
(dhamma) and the definition of these states, which is
done in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī and Vibhaṅga; (b) the
creation of a ”schedule” (mātikā) consisting of a set of
triple (tika) and double (duka) classifications for sorting
these states; and (c) the enumeration of twenty-four
kinds of conditioning relations (paccaya), which is
done in the Paṭṭhāna. The states as defined are thus, as
it were, momentary “stills”; the structure of relations
combines the stills into continuities; the schedule
classifications indicate the direction of the continuities.
The three Abhidhamma books already mentioned
are the essential basis for what later came to be called
the “Abhidhamma method”: together they form an
integral whole. The other four books, which may be

82
said to support them in various technical fields, need
not be discussed here. This, then, is a bare outline of
what is in fact an enormous maze with many
unexplored side-turnings.
(3) The system found in the Commentaries has
moved on (perhaps slightly diverged) from the strict
Abhidhamma Piṭaka standpoint. The Suttas offered
descriptions of discovery; the Abhidhamma map-
making; but emphasis now is not on discovery, or
even on mapping, so much as on consolidating, filling
in and explaining. The material is worked over for
consistency. Among the principal new developments
here are these. The “cognitive series” (citta-vīthi) in the
occurrence of the conscious process is organized (see
Ch. IV, n.13 and Table V) and completed, and its
association with three different kinds of kamma is laid
down. The term sabhāva (“individual essence,” “own-
being” or “it-ness,” see Ch. VII, n.68) is introduced to
explain the key word dhamma, thereby submitting that
term to ontological criticism, while the samaya
(“event” or “occasion”) of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī is now
termed a khaṇa (“moment”), thus shifting the weight
and balance a little in the treatment of time. Then there
is the specific ascription of the three “instants” (khaṇa,
too) of arising, presence and dissolution (uppāda-ṭṭhiti-
bhaṅga) to each “moment” (khaṇa), one “material
moment” being calculated to last as long as sixteen

83
“mental moments” (XX.24; Dhs-a 60)[18] New to the
Piṭakas are also the rather unwieldy enumeration of
concepts (paññatti, see Ch. VIII, n.11), and the handy
defining-formula of word-meaning, characteristic,
function, manifestation, and proximate cause (locus);
also many minor instances such as the substitution of
the specific “heart-basis” for the Paṭṭhāna’s “material
basis of mind,” the conception of “material octads,”
etc., the detailed descriptions of the thirty-two parts of
the body instead of the bare enumeration of the names
in the Suttas (thirty-one in the four Nikāyas and thirty-
two in the Khuddakapāṭha and the
Paṭisambhidāmagga), and many more. And the word
paramattha acquires a new and slightly altered
currency. The question of how much this process of
development owes to the post-Mauryan evolution of
Sanskrit thought on the Indian mainland (either
through assimilation or opposition) still remains to be
explored, like so many others in this field. The object
of this sketch is only to point to a few landmarks.

THE PARAMATTHAMAÑJUSĀ

The notes to this translation contain many quotations

from the commentary to the Visuddhimagga, called the
Paramatthamañjūsā or Mahā-ṭīkā. It is regarded as an

84
authoritative work. The quotations are included both
for the light they shed on difficult passages in the
Visuddhimagga and for the sake o‘f rendering for the
first time some of the essays interspersed in it. The
prologue and epilogue give its author as an elder
named Dhammapāla, who lived at Badaratittha
(identified as near Chennai). This author, himself also
an Indian, is usually held to have lived within two
centuries or so of Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa. There
is nothing to say that he ever came to Sri Lanka.
The Visuddhimagga quotes freely from the
Paṭisambhidāmagga, the commentary to which was
written by an elder named Mahānāma (date in the
Middle Period and place of residence uncertain).
Mostly but not quite always, the Elder Dhammapāla
says the same thing, when commenting on these
quoted passages, as the Elder Mahānāma but in more
words.19 He relies much on syllogisms and logical
arguments. Also there are several discussions of some
of the systems of the “Six Schools” of Brahmanical
philosophy. There are no stories. This academic writer
is difficult, formalistic, and often involved, very
careful and accurate. Various other works are
attributed to him.

SOME MAIN THREADS IN THE

85
 VISUDDHIMAGGA

The Visuddhimagga is probably best regarded as a

detailed manual for meditation masters, and as a work
of reference. As to its rather intricate construction, the
List of Contents is given rather fully in order to serve
as a guide to the often complicated form of the
chapters and to the work as a whole. In addition, the
following considerations may be noted.
Chapters I and II, which deal with virtue as the
practice of restraint, or withdrawal, need present no
difficulties. It can be remarked here, though, that
when the Buddhist ascetic goes into seclusion
(restrains the sense doors), it would be incorrect to say
of him that he “leaves the world”; for where a man is,
there is his world (loka), as appears in the discourse
quoted in VII.36 (cf. also S IV 116 as well as many
other suttas on the same subject). So when he retreats
from the clamour of society to the woods and rocks, he
takes his world with him, as though withdrawing to
his laboratory, in order to better analyze it.
Chapters III to XI describe the process of
concentration and give directions for attaining it by
means of a choice of forty meditation subjects for
developing concentration. The account of each single
meditation subject as given here is incomplete unless

86
taken in conjunction with the whole of Part III
(Understanding), which applies to all. Concentration
is training in intensity and depth of focus and in
single-mindedness. While Buddhism makes no
exclusive claim to teach jhāna concentration (samatha =
samādhi), it does claim that the development of insight
(vipassanā) culminating in penetration of the Four
Noble Truths is peculiar to it. The two have to be
coupled together in order to attain the Truths20 and
the end of suffering. Insight is initially training to see
experience as it occurs, without misperception, invalid
assumptions, or wrong inferences.
Chapters XII and XIII describe the rewards of
concentration fully developed without insight.
Chapters XIV to XVII on understanding are
entirely theoretical. Experience in general is dissected,
and the separated components are described and
grouped in several alternative patterns in Chapters
XIV to XVI.1–12. The rest of Chapter XVI expounds
the Four Noble Truths, the centre of the Buddha’s
teaching. After that, dependent origination, or the
structure of conditionality, is dealt with in its aspect of
arising, or the process of being (Ch. XVII; as cessation,
or Nibbāna, it is dealt with separately in Chapters XVI
and XIX). The formula of dependent origination in its
varying modes describes the working economics of
the first two truths (suffering as outcome of craving,

87
and craving itself—see also Ch. XVII, n.48). Without
an understanding of conditionality the Buddha’s
teaching cannot be grasped: “He who sees dependent
origination sees the Dhamma” (M I 191), though not
all details in this work are always necessary. Since the
detailed part of this chapter is very elaborate (§58–
272), a first reading confined to §1–6, §20–57, and
§273–314, might help to avoid losing the thread. These
four chapters are “theoretical” because they contain in
detailed form what needs to be learnt, if only in
outline, as “book-learning” (sotāvadhāna-ñāṇa). They
furnish techniques for describing the total experience
and the experienceable rather as the branches of
arithmetic and double-entry bookkeeping are to be
learned as techniques for keeping accurate business
accounts.
Chapters XVIII to XXI, on the contrary, are practical
and give instructions for applying the book-
knowledge learnt from Chapters XIV to XVII by
analyzing in its terms the meditator’s individual
experience, dealing also with what may be expected to
happen in the course of development. Chapter XVIII
as “defining of mentality-materiality” (first application
of Chapters XIV to XVI) and Chapter XIX as
“discerning conditions” (first application of Chapter
XVII) are preparatory to insight proper, which begins
in Chapter XX with contemplation of rise and fall.

88
After this, progress continues through the “eight
knowledges” with successive clarification—
clarification of view of the object and consequent
alterations of subjective attitude towards it—till a
point, called “conformity knowledge,” is reached
which, through one of the “three gateways to
liberation,” heralds the attainment of the first
supramundane path.
In Chapter XXII, the attainment of the four
successive supramundane paths (or successive stages
in realization) is described, with the first of which
Nibbāna (extinction of the craving which originates
suffering) is ‘seen’ for the first time, having till then
been only intellectually conceived. At that moment
suffering as a noble truth is fully understood, craving,
its origin, is abandoned, suffering’s cessation is
realized, and the way to its cessation is developed.21
The three remaining paths develop further and
complete that vision.
Finally, Chapter XXIII, as the counterpart of
Chapters XII and XIII, describes the benefits of
understanding. The description of Nibbāna is given at
Chapter VIII, §245ff., and a discussion of it at Chapter
XVI, §66ff.

CONCERNING THE TRANSLATION

89
The pitfalls that await anyone translating from another
European language into his own native English are
familiar enough; there is no need for him to fall into
them. But when he ventures upon rendering an
Oriental language, he will often have to be his own
guide.
Naturally, a translator from Pali today owes a large
debt to his predecessors and to the Pali Text Society’s
publications, including in particular the Society’s
invaluable Pali-English Dictionary. A translator of the
Visuddhimagga, too, must make due acknowledgement
of its pioneer translation22 U Pe Maung Tin.
The word pāḷi is translatable by “text.” The pāḷi
language (the “text language,” which the
commentators call Magadhan) holds a special
position, with no European parallel, being reserved to
one field, namely, the Buddha’s teaching. So there are
no alien echoes. In the Suttas, the Sanskrit is silent, and
it is heavily muted in the later literature. This fact,
coupled with the richness and integrity of the subject
itself, gives it a singular limpidness and depth in its
early form, as in a string quartet or the clear ocean,
which attains in the style of the Suttas to an exquisite
and unrivalled beauty unreflectable by any rendering.
Traces seem to linger even in the intricate formalism
preferred by the commentators.

90
 This translation presents many formidable
problems. Mainly either epistemological and
psychological, or else linguistic, they relate either to
what ideas and things are being discussed, or else to
the manipulation of dictionary meanings of words
used in discussion.
The first is perhaps dominant. As mentioned
earlier, the Visuddhimagga can be properly studied
only as part of the whole commentarial edifice, whose
cornerstone it is. But while indexes of words and
subjects to the PTS edition of the Visuddhimagga exist,
most of its author’s works have only indexes of Piṭaka
words and names commented on but none for the
mass of subject matter. So the student has to make his
own. Of the commentaries too, only the Atthasālinī, the
Dhammapada Commentary, and the Jātaka
Commentary have so far been translated (and the
latter two are rather in a separate class). But that is a
minor aspect.
This book is largely technical and presents all the
difficulties peculiar to technical translation: it deals,
besides, with mental happenings. Now where many
synonyms are used, as they often are in Pali, for public
material objects—an elephant, say, or gold or the sun
—the “material objects” should be pointable to, if
there is doubt about what is referred to. Again even
such generally recognized private experiences as those

91
referred to by the words “consciousness” or “pain”
seem too obvious to introspection for uncertainty to
arise (communication to fail) if they are given variant
symbols. Here the English translator can forsake the
Pali allotment of synonyms and indulge a liking for
“elegant variation,” if he has it, without fear of
muddle. But mind is fluid, as it were, and materially
negative, and its analysis needs a different and a strict
treatment. In the Suttas, and still more in the
Abhidhamma, charting by analysis and definition of
pin-pointed mental states is carried far into unfamiliar
waters. It was already recognized then that this is no
more a solid landscape of “things” to be pointed to
when variation has resulted in vagueness. As an
instance of disregard of this fact: a greater scholar with
impeccable historical and philological judgment
(perhaps the most eminent of the English translators)
has in a single work rendered the cattāro satipaṭṭhāna
(here represented by “four foundations of
mindfulness”) by “four inceptions of deliberation,”
“fourfold setting up of mindfulness,” “fourfold setting
up of starting,” “four applications of mindfulness,”
and other variants. The PED foreword observes: “No
one needs now to use the one English word ‘desire’ as
a translation of sixteen distinct Pali words, no one of
which means precisely desire. Yet this was done in
Vol. X of the Sacred Books of the East by Max Müller and

92
Fausböll.” True; but need one go to the other extreme?
How without looking up the Pali can one be sure if the
same idea is referred to by all these variants and not
some other such as those referred to by cattāro
iddhipādā (“four roads to power” or “bases of
success”), cattāro sammappadhānā (“four right
endeavours”), etc., or one of the many other “fours”?
It is customary not to vary, say, the “call for the
categorical imperative” in a new context by some such
alternative as “uncompromising order” or “plain-
speaking bidding” or “call for unconditional
surrender,” which the dictionaries would justify, or
“faith” which the exegetists might recommend; that is
to say, if it is hoped to avoid confusion. The choosing
of an adequate rendering is, however, a quite different
problem.
But there is something more to be considered
before coming to that. So far only the difficulty of
isolating, symbolizing, and describing individual
mental states has been touched on. But here the whole
mental structure with its temporal-dynamic process is
dealt with too. Identified mental as well as material
states (none of which can arise independently) must
be recognizable with their associations when
encountered in new circumstances: for here arises the
central question of thought-association and its
manipulation. That is tacitly recognized in the Pali. If

93
disregarded in the English rendering the tenuous
structure with its inferences and negations—the
flexible pattern of thought-associations—can no longer
be communicated or followed, because the pattern of
speech no longer reflects it, and whatever may be
communicated is only fragmentary and perhaps
deceptive. Renderings of words have to be
distinguished, too, from renderings of words used to
explain those words. From this aspect the Oriental
system of word-by-word translation, which
transliterates the sound of the principal substantive
and verb stems and attaches to them local inflections,
has much to recommend it, though, of course, it is not
readable as “literature.” One is handling instead of
pictures of isolated ideas or even groups of ideas a
whole coherent chart system. And besides, words, like
maps and charts, are conventionally used to represent
high dimensions.
When already identified states or currents are
encountered from new angles, the new situation can
be verbalized in one of two ways at least: either by
using in a new appropriate verbal setting the words
already allotted to these states, or by describing the
whole situation afresh in different terminology chosen
ad hoc. While the second may gain in individual
brightness, connections with other allied references
can hardly fail to be lost. Aerial photographs must be

94
taken from consistent altitudes, if they are to be used
for making maps. And words serve the double
purpose of recording ideas already formed and of
arousing new ones.
Structural coherence between different parts in the
Pali of the present work needs reflecting in the
translation—especially in the last ten chapters—if the
thread is not soon to be lost. In fact, in the Pali (just as
much in the Tipiṭaka as in its Commentaries), when
such subjects are being handled, one finds that a tacit
rule, “One term and one flexible definition for one
idea (or state or event or situation) referred to,” is
adhered to pretty thoroughly. The reason has already
been made clear. With no such rule, ideas are apt to
disintegrate or coalesce or fictitiously multiply (and, of
course, any serious attempt at indexing in English is
stultified). One thing needs to be made clear, though;
for there is confusion of thought on this whole subject
(one so far only partly investigated).23 This “rule of
parsimony in variants” has nothing to do with
mechanical transliteration, which is a translator’s
refuge when he is unsure of himself. The guiding rule,
“One recognizable idea, one word, or phrase to
symbolize it,” in no sense implies any such rule as,
“One Pali word, one English word,” which is neither
desirable nor practicable. Nor in translating need the
rule apply beyond the scope reviewed.

95
 So much for the epistemological and psychological
problems.
The linguistic problem is scarcely less formidable
though much better recognized. While English is
extremely analytic, Pali (another Indo-European
language) is one of the groups of tongues regarded as
dominated by Sanskrit, strongly agglutinative,
forming long compounds and heavily inflected. The
vocabulary chosen occasioned much heart-searching
but is still very imperfect. If a few of the words
encountered seem a bit algebraical at first, contexts
and definitions should make them clear. In the
translation of an Oriental language, especially a
classical one, the translator must recognize that such
knowledge which the Oriental reader is taken for
granted to possess is lacking in his European
counterpart, who tends unawares to fill the gaps from
his own foreign store: the result can be like taking two
pictures on one film. Not only is the common
background evoked by the words shadowy and
patchy, but European thought and Indian thought
tend to approach the problems of human existence
from opposite directions. This affects word
formations. And so double meanings (utraquisms,
puns, and metaphors) and etymological links often
follow quite different tracks, a fact which is
particularly intrusive in describing mental events,

96
where the terms employed are mainly “material” ones
used metaphorically. Unwanted contexts constantly
creep in and wanted ones stay out. Then there are no
well-defined techniques for recognizing and handling
idioms, literal rendering of which misleads (while,
say, one may not wonder whether to render tour de
force by “enforced tour” or “tower of strength,” one
cannot always be so confident in Pali).
Then again in the Visuddhimagga alone the actual
words and word-meanings not in the PED come to
more than two hundred and forty. The PED, as its
preface states, is “essentially preliminary”; for when it
was published many books had still not been collated;
it leaves out many words even from the Sutta Piṭaka,
and the Sub-commentaries are not touched by it. Also
—and most important here—in the making of that
dictionary the study of Pali literature had for the most
part not been tackled much from, shall one say, the
philosophical, or better, epistemological, angle,24
work and interest having been concentrated till then
almost exclusively on history and philology. For
instance, the epistemologically unimportant word
vimāna (divine mansion) is given more than twice the
space allotted to the term paṭicca-samuppāda
(dependent origination), a difficult subject of central
importance, the article on which is altogether
inadequate and misleading (owing partly to

97
misapplication of the “historical method”). Then gala
(throat) has been found more glossarialy interesting
than paṭisandhi (rebirth-linking), the original use of
which word at M III 230 is ignored. Under nāma, too,
nāma-rūpa is confused with nāma-kāya. And so one
might continue. By this, however, it is not intended at
all to depreciate that great dictionary, but only to
observe that in using it the Pali student has sometimes
to be wary: if it is criticized in particular here (and it
can well hold its own against criticism), tribute must
also be paid to its own inestimable general value.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Current standard English has been aimed at and

preference given always to simplicity. This has often
necessitated cutting up long involved sentences,
omitting connecting particles (such as pana, pan’ettha,
yasmā when followed by tasmā, hi, kho, etc.), which
serve simply as grammatical grease in long chains of
subordinate periods. Conversely the author is
sometimes extraordinarily elliptic (as in XIV.46 and
XVI.68f.), and then the device of square brackets has
been used to add supplementary matter, without
which the sentence would be too enigmatically
shorthand. Such additions (kept to the minimum) are

98
in almost every case taken from elsewhere in the work
itself or from the Paramatthamañjūsā. Round brackets
have been reserved for references and for alternative
renderings (as, e.g., in I.140) where there is a sense too
wide for any appropriate English word to straddle.
A few words have been left untranslated (see
individual notes). The choice is necessarily arbitrary. It
includes kamma, dhamma (sometimes), jhāna, Buddha
(sometimes), bhikkhu, Nibbāna, Pātimokkha, kasiṇa,
Piṭaka, and arahant. There seemed no advantage and
much disadvantage in using the Sanskrit forms, bhikṣu,
dharma, dhyāna, arhat, etc., as is sometimes done (even
though ”karma” and “nirvana” are in the Concise
Oxford Dictionary), and no reason against absorbing
the Pali words into English as they are by dropping
the diacritical marks. Proper names appear in their
Pali spelling without italics and with diacritical marks.
Wherever Pali words or names appear, the stem form
has been used (e.g. Buddha, kamma) rather than the
inflected nominative (Buddho, kammaṃ), unless there
were reasons against it.25
Accepted renderings have not been departed from
nor earlier translators gone against capriciously. It
seemed advisable to treat certain emotionally charged
words such as “real” (especially with a capital R) with
caution. Certain other words have been avoided
altogether. For example, vassa (“rains”) signifies a

99
three-month period of residence in one place during
the rainy season, enjoined upon bhikkhus by the
Buddha in order that they should not travel about
trampling down crops and so annoy farmers. To
translate it by “lent” as is sometimes done lets in a
historical background and religious atmosphere of
mourning and fasting quite alien to it (with no
etymological support). “Metempsychosis” for
paṭisandhi is another notable instance.26
The handling of three words, dhamma, citta, and
rūpa (see Glossary and relevant notes) is admittedly
something of a makeshift. The only English word that
might with some agility be used consistently for
dhamma seems to be “idea”; but it has been crippled by
philosophers and would perhaps mislead. Citta might
with advantage have been rendered throughout by
“cognizance,” in order to preserve its independence,
instead of rendering it sometimes by “mind” (shared
with mano) and sometimes by “consciousness” (shared
with viññāṇa) as has been done. But in many contexts
all three Pali words are synonyms for the same general
notion (see XIV.82); and technically, the notion of
“cognition,” referred to in its bare aspect by viññāṇa, is
also referred to along with its concomitant affective
colouring, thought and memory, etc., by citta. So the
treatment accorded to citta here finds support to that
extent. Lastly “mentality-materiality” for nāma-rūpa is

100
inadequate and “name-and-form” in some ways
preferable. “Name” (see Ch. XVIII, n.4) still suggests
nāma’s function of “naming”; and “form” for the rūpa
of the rūpakkhandha (“materiality aggregate”) can
preserve the link with the rūpa of the rūpāyatana,
(“visible-object base”) by rendering them respectively
with “material form aggregate” and “visible form
base”—a point not without philosophical importance.
A compromise has been made at Chapter X.13.
“Materiality” or “matter” wherever used should not
be taken as implying any hypostasis, any “permanent
or semi-permanent substance behind appearances”
(the objective counterpart of the subjective ego), which
would find no support in the Pali.
The editions of Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand
have been consulted as well as the two Latin-script
editions; and Sinhalese translations, besides. The
paragraph numbers of the Harvard University Press
edition will be found at the start of paragraphs and the
page numbers of the Pali Text Society’s edition in
square brackets in the text (the latter, though
sometimes appearing at the end of paragraphs, mark
the beginnings of the PTS pages). Errors of readings
and punctuation in the PTS edition not in the Harvard
edition have not been referred to in the notes.
For the quotations from the Tipiṭaka it was found
impossible to make use of existing published

101
translations because they lacked the kind of treatment
sought. However, other translation work in hand
served as the basis for all the Piṭaka quotations.
Rhymes seemed unsuitable for the verses from the
Tipiṭaka and the “Ancients”; but they have been
resorted to for the summarizing verses belonging to
the Visuddhimagga itself. The English language is too
weak in fixed stresses to lend itself to Pali rhythms,
though one attempt to reproduce them was made in
Chapter IV.
Where a passage from a sutta is commented on, the
order of the explanatory comments follows the Pali
order of words in the original sentence, which is not
always that of the translation of it.
In Indian books the titles and subtitles are placed
only at, the end of the subject matter. In the
translations they have been inserted at the beginning,
and some subtitles added for the sake of clarity. In this
connection the title at the end of Chapter XI,
“Description of Concentration” is a “heading”
applying not only to that chapter but as far back as the
beginning of Chapter III. Similarly, the title at the end
of Chapter XIII refers back to the beginning of Chapter
XII. The heading “Description of the Soil in which
Understanding Grows” (paññā-bhūmi-niddesa) refers
back from the end of Chapter XVII to the beginning of

102
Chapter XIV.
The book abounds in “shorthand” allusions to the
Piṭakas and to other parts of itself. They are often hard
to recognize, and failure to do so results in a sentence
with a half-meaning. It is hoped that most of them
have been hunted down.
Criticism has been strictly confined to the
application of Pali Buddhist standards in an attempt to
produce a balanced and uncoloured English
counterpart of the original. The use of words has been
stricter in the translation itself than the Introduction to
it.
The translator will, of course, have sometimes
slipped or failed to follow his own rules; and there are
many passages any rendering of which is bound to
evoke query from some quarter where there is interest
in the subject. As to the rules, however, and the
vocabulary chosen, it has not been intended to lay
down laws, and when the methods adopted are
described above that is done simply to indicate the
line taken: Janapada-niruttiṃ nābhiniveseyya, samaññaṃ
nāti-dhāveyyā ti (see XVII.24).

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Notes for Introduction

1. Exact dates are not agreed. The Sri Lanka

Chronicles give the lengths of reigns of kings of Sri
Lanka back to the time of the Buddha and also of
kings of Magadha from Asoka back to the same
time. Calculated backwards the list gives 543 BCE
as the year of the Buddha’s parinibbāna (see list of
kings in Codrington’s Short History of Ceylon,
Macmillan 1947, p. xvi.). For adjustments to this
calculation that bring the date of the parinibbāna
forward to 483 BCE (the date most generally
accepted in Europe), see e.g. Geiger, Mahāvaṃsa
translation (introduction) Epigraphia Zeylanica I,
156; E. J. Thomas, Life of the Buddha, Kegan Paul, p.
26, n.1. It seems certain, however, that Mahānāma
was reigning in the year 428 because of a letter
sent by him to the Chinese court (Codrington
p.29; E.Z. III, 12). If the adjusted date is accepted
then 60 extra years have somehow to be squeezed
out without displacing Mahānāma’s reign. Here
the older date has been used.
2. See also A Record of Buddhist Religion by I-tsing,
translation by J. Takakusu, Claren do Press, 1896,
p. xxiii, where a geographical distribution of
various schools gives Mūlasarvāstivāda mainly in

104
 the north and Ariyasthavira mainly in the south
of India. I-tsing, who did not visit Sri Lanka, was
in India at the end of the 7th cent.; but he does not
mention whether the Ariyasthavira (Theravāda)
Nikāya in India pursued its studies in the Pali of
its Tipiṭaka or in Sanskrit or in a local vernacular.
3. In the epilogues and prologues of various works
between the 5th and 12th centuries there is
mention of e.g., Badaratittha (Vism-a prol.: near
Chennai), Kañcipura (A-a epil.: = Conjevaram
near Chennai), and other places where different
teachers accepting the Great Monastery tradition
lived and worked. See also Malalasekera, Pali
Literature of Ceylon, p. 13; E.Z., IV, 69-71; Journal of
Oriental Research, Madras, Vol. XIX, pp. 278f.
4. Possibly the Vinaya summaries, Mūlasikkhā and
Khuddasikkhā (though Geiger places these much
later), as well as some works of Buddhadatta
Thera. It has not been satisfactorily explained why
the Mahāvaṃsa, composed in the late 4th or early
5th cent., ends abruptly in the middle of Chapter
37 with Mahāsena’s reign (the Chronicle being
only resumed eight centuries later).
5. The Gandhavaṃsa also gives the Apadāna
Commentary as by him.
6. Other readings are: Mayūrarūpaṭṭana,

105
 Mayūradūtapaṭṭana. Identified with Mylapore
near Chennai (J.O.R., Madras, Vol. XIX, p. 281).
7. Identified with Conjevaram near Chennai: PLC, p.
113. Ācariya Ānanda, author of the sub-
commentary to the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Mūla
Ṭīkā), also lived there, perhaps any time after the
middle of the 5th century. The Elder
Dhammapāla sometimes refers to the old
Sinhalese commentaries as if they were still
available to him.
8. Other readings are: Moraṇḍakheṭaka,
Mudantakhedaka, Muraṇḍakheṭaka, etc.; not yet
identified. Refers more probably to his birthplace
than to his place of pabbajjā. See also J.O.R.,
Madras, Vol. XIX, p. 282, article “Buddhaghosa—
His Place of Birth” by R. Subramaniam and S. P.
Nainar, where a certain coincidence of names is
mentioned that might suggest a possible
identification of Moraṇḍakheṭaka (moraṇḍa being
Pali for ‘peacock egg’ and khedaka Skr. for
“village”—see Vism Ae ed., p. xv) with adjacent
villages, 51 miles from Nāgārjunakoṇḍa and 58
miles from Amarāvatī, called Kotanemalipuri and
Gundlapalli (nemali and gundla being Telegu
respectively for “peacock” and “egg”). However,
more specific information will be needed in
support before it can be accepted as an indication

106
 that the Mahāvaṃsa is wrong about his birthplace.
More information about any connection between
Sri Lanka and those great South Indian Buddhist
centres is badly needed.
9. A definite statement that the Dhp-a was written
later by someone else can hardly avoid the
inference that the “postscript” was a fraud, or at
least misleading.
10. Adikaram, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon,
pp. 3 and 86.
11. Paritta or “protection”: a name for certain suttas
recited for that purpose. See M-a IV 114.
12. See Vism epilogue.
13. For instance, Prof. Kosambi, in his preface to the
Visuddhimagga, Harvard ed., overlooks these
considerations when he says: “More positive
evidence (that he was not a North-Indian
Brahman) is in the passage ’Uṇhassa ti
aggisantāpassa. Tassa vanadāhādisu sambhavo
veditabbo’ (I.86). ’Heat: the heat of fire, such as
occurs at the time of forest fires, etc.’” This is a
comment upon protection against heat given by a
cīvara. His explanation is obviously ridiculous: “It
is not known to Indian southerners that a bare
skin is sure to be sunburnt in the northern
summer” (p. xii). And Professor Kosambi has not

107
 only overlooked the fact that it is almost certainly
translated material that he is criticizing as original
composition, but he appears not to have even
read the whole passage. The sutta sentence (M I
10) commented on in the Visuddhimagga (I.86-87)
contains two words uṇha and ātapa. If, before
condemning the explanation as “ridiculous,” he
had read on, he would have found, a line or two
below, the words Ātapo ti suriyātapo (“‘Burning’ is
burning of the sun”—I.87).
14. The allusion is to the author of various Pali works
including the Abhidhammāvatāra; see n. 4.
15. Saṅgharāja (“Ruler of the Community”—a title
existing in Thailand today): possibly a mistake for
Saṅghapāla here (see Vis. epil.).
16. A learned allusion to VIII.1.
17. Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion, article
“Buddhaghosa” by T. W. Rhys Davids. Note also
that another elder of the same name invited the
writing of the Sammohavinodanī. The problem is
discussed at some length by Prof. Niharranjan
Ray, Theravada Buddhism in Burma, pp. 24ff.
18. The legitimateness of the mental moment of
“presence” (ṭhiti) as deducible from A I 152 is
questioned by Ācariya Ānanda (Vibh-ṭ), who
wrote early in the Middle Period; he cites the

108
 Yamaka (refs.: II 13–14; and I 216-17) against it.
19. The Elder Dhammapāla, commenting on Vism
XXI.77, takes the reading phuṭṭhantaṃ sacchikato
and explains that (cf. Mūla Ṭīkā, Pug-ṭ 32), but the
Elder Mahānāma, commenting on the
Paṭisambhidāmagga from which the passage is
quoted, takes the reading phuṭṭhattā sacchikato and
comments differently (Paṭis-a 396, Hewavitarne
ed.). Again, what is referred to as “said by some
(keci)” in the Elder Dhammapāla’s comment on
the Visuddhimagga (see Vism VIII, n.46) is put
forward by the Elder Mahānāma with no such
reservation (Paṭis-a 351). It is the usual standard
of strict consistency that makes such very minor
divergences noticeable. These two commentators,
though, rarely reproduce each other verbatim.
Contrastingly, where the Paramatthamañjūsā and
the Mūlaṭīkā similarly overlap, the sentences are
mostly verbatim, but the former, with extra
material, looks like an expanded version of the
latter, or the latter a cut version of the former.
20. See A II 56; Paṭis II 92f.
21. In the present work the development of serenity
(concentration) is carried to its limit before insight
(understanding) is dealt with. This is for clarity.
But in the commentary to the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta

109
 (DN 22, MN 10) either the two are developed
contemporaneously or insight is allowed to
precede jhāna concentration. According to the
Suttas, concentration of jhāna strength is
necessary for the manifestation of the path (see
e.g. XIV.127; XV, n.7; D II 313 = M III 252; A II 156,
quoted at Paṭis II 92f.).
22. Reprinted by the Pali Text Society as Path of
Purity, 1922–31.
23. See Prof. I. A. Richards, Mencius on Mind, Kegan
Paul, 1932.
24. Exceptions are certain early works of Mrs. C.A.F.
Rhys Davids. See also discussions in appendixes
to the translations of the Kathāvatthu (Points of
Controversy, PTS) and the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha
(Compendium of Philosophy, PTS).
25. Pronounce letters as follows: a as in countryman,
ā father, e whey, i chin, ī machine, u full, ū rule; c
church (always), g give (always); h always
sounded separately, e.g. bh in cab-horse, ch in
catch him (not kitchen), ph in upholstery (not
telephone), th in hot-house (not pathos), etc.; j
joke; ṃ and ṅ as ng in singer, ñ as ni in onion; ḍ, ḷ,
ṇ and ṭ are pronounced with tongue-tip on palate;
d, t, n and with tongue-tip on teeth; double
consonants as in Italian, e.g. dd as in mad dog (not

110
 madder), gg as in big gun (not bigger); rest as in
English.
26. Of the principal English value words, “real,”
“truth,” “beauty,” “good,” “absolute,” “being,”
etc.: “real” has been used for tatha (XVI.24),
“truth” allotted to sacca (XVI.25) and “beauty” to
subha (IX.119); “good” has been used sometimes
for the prefix su- and also for the adj. kalyāṇa and
the subst. attha. “Absolute” has not been
employed, though it might perhaps be used for
the word advaya, which qualifies the word kasiṇa
(“universality,” “totalization”) at M II 14, and
then: “One (man) perceives earth as a universality
above, below, around, absolute, measureless”
could be an alternative for the rendering given in
V.38. “Being” (as abstract subst.) has sometimes
been used for bhava, which is otherwise rendered
by “becoming.”

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 Part I
Virtue (Sīla)

112
 Namo tassa bhagavato arahato
sammāsambuddhassa

CHAPTER I
DESCRIPTION OF VIRTUE
(Sīla-niddesa)

[I. Introductory]

1. [1] “When a wise man, established well in

virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle” (S I 13).
This was said. But why was it said? While the
Blessed One was living at Sāvatthī, it seems, a certain
deity came to him in the night, and in order to do
away with his doubts, he asked this question:
“The inner tangle and the outer tangle—
This generation is entangled in a tangle.
And so I ask of Gotama this question:
Who succeeds in disentangling this tangle?” (S I
13).

113
2. Here is the meaning in brief. Tangle is a term for the
network of craving. For that is a tangle in the sense of
lacing together, like the tangle called network of
branches in bamboo thickets, etc., because it goes on
arising again and again up and down[1] among the
objects [of consciousness] beginning with what is
visible. But it is called the inner tangle and the outer
tangle because it arises [as craving] for one’s own
requisites and another’s, for one’s own person and
another’s, and for the internal and external bases [for
consciousness]. Since it arises in this way, this
generation is entangled in a tangle. As the bamboos, etc.,
are entangled by the bamboo tangle, etc., so too this
generation, in other words, this order of living beings,
is all entangled by the tangle of craving—the meaning
is that it is intertwined, interlaced by it. [2] And
because it is entangled like this, so I ask of Gotama this
question, that is why I ask this. He addressed the
Blessed One by his clan name as Gotama. Who succeeds
in disentangling this tangle: who may disentangle this
tangle that keeps the three kinds of existence
entangled in this way?—What he asks is, who is
capable of disentangling it?
3. However, when questioned thus, the Blessed One,
whose knowledge of all things is unimpeded, deity of
deities, excelling Sakka (Ruler of Gods), excelling
Brahmā, fearless in the possession of the four kinds of

114
perfect confidence, wielder of the ten powers, all-seer
with unobstructed knowledge, uttered this stanza in
reply to explain the meaning:
“When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle.”
4. My task is now to set out the true sense,
Divided into virtue and the rest,
Of this same verse composed by the Great Sage.
There are here in the Victor’s Dispensation
Seekers gone forth from home to homelessness,
And who although desiring purity
Have no right knowledge of the sure straight way
Comprising virtue and the other two,
Right hard to find, that leads to purity—
Who, though they strive, here gain no purity.
To them I shall expound the comforting
Path Of Purification, pure in expositions,
Relying on the teaching of the dwellers
In the Great Monastery;[2] let all those
Good men who do desire purity
Listen intently to my exposition.
5. Herein, purification should be understood as
Nibbāna, which being devoid of all stains, is utterly
pure. The path of purification is the path to that

115
purification; it is the means of approach that is called
the path. The meaning is, I shall expound that path of
purification.
6. In some instances this path of purification is taught
by insight alone,[3] according as it is said:
“Formations are all impermanent:
When he sees thus with understanding
And turns away from what is ill,
That is the path to purity” (Dhp 277). [3]
And in some instances by jhāna and understanding,
according as it is said:
“He is near unto Nibbāna
In whom are jhāna and understanding” (Dhp
372).
And in some instances by deeds (kamma), etc.,
according as it is said:
“By deeds, vision and righteousness,
By virtue, the sublimest life—
By these are mortals purified,
And not by lineage and wealth” (M III 262).
And in some instances by virtue, etc., according as it
is said:
“He who is possessed of constant virtue,
Who has understanding, and is concentrated,

116
 Who is strenuous and diligent as well,
Will cross the flood so difficult to cross” (S I 53).
And in some instances by the foundations of
mindfulness, etc., according as it is said: “Bhikkhus,
this path is the only way for the purification of beings
… for the realization of Nibbāna, that is to say, the
four foundations of mindfulness” (D II 290); and
similarly in the case of the right efforts, and so on. But
in the answer to this question it is taught by virtue and
the other two.
7. Here is a brief commentary [on the stanza].
Established well in virtue: standing on virtue. It is only
one actually fulfilling virtue who is here said to “stand
on virtue.” So the meaning here is this: being
established well in virtue by fulfilling virtue. A man: a
living being. Wise: possessing the kind of
understanding that is born of kamma by means of a
rebirth-linking with triple root-cause. Develops
consciousness and understanding: develops both
concentration and insight. For it is concentration that
is described here under the heading of
“consciousness,” and insight under that of
“understanding.”[4] Ardent (ātāpin): possessing energy.
For it is energy that is called “ardour” (ātāpa) in the
sense of burning up and consuming (ātāpana-
paritāpana) defilements. He has that, thus he is ardent.
Sagacious: it is understanding that is called “sagacity”;

117
possessing that, is the meaning. This word shows
protective understanding. For understanding is
mentioned three times in the reply to the question.
Herein, the first is naïve understanding, the second is
understanding consisting in insight, while the third is
the protective understanding that guides all affairs. He
sees fear (bhayaṃ ikkhati) in the round of rebirths, thus
he is a bhikkhu. He succeeds in disentangling this tangle:
[4] Just as a man standing on the ground and taking
up a well-sharpened knife might disentangle a great
tangle of bamboos, so too, he—this bhikkhu who
possesses the six things, namely, this virtue, and this
concentration described under the heading of
consciousness, and this threefold understanding, and
this ardour—standing on the ground of virtue and
taking up with the hand of protective-understanding
exerted by the power of energy the knife of insight-
understanding well-sharpened on the stone of
concentration, might disentangle, cut away and
demolish all the tangle of craving that had overgrown
his own life’s continuity. But it is at the moment of the
path that he is said to be disentangling that tangle; at
the moment of fruition he has disentangled the tangle
and is worthy of the highest offerings in the world
with its deities. That is why the Blessed One said:
“When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,

118
 Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle.”
8. Herein there is nothing for him to do about the
[naïve] understanding on account of which he is called
wise; for that has been established in him simply by the
influence of previous kamma. But the words ardent
and sagacious mean that by persevering with energy of
the kind here described and by acting in full
awareness with understanding he should, having
become well established in virtue, develop the serenity
and insight that are described as concentration and
understanding. This is how the Blessed One shows the
path of purification under the headings of virtue,
concentration, and understanding there.
9. What has been shown so far is the three trainings,
the dispensation that is good in three ways, the
necessary condition for the threefold clear-vision, etc.,
the avoidance of the two extremes and the cultivation
of the middle way, the means to surmounting the
states of loss, etc., the abandoning of defilements in
three aspects, prevention of transgression etc.,
purification from the three kinds of defilements, and
the reason for the states of stream-entry and so on.
How?
10. Here the training of higher virtue is shown by
virtue; the training of higher consciousness, by

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concentration; and the training of higher
understanding, by understanding.
The dispensation’s goodness in the beginning is shown by
virtue. Because of the passage, “And what is the
beginning of profitable things? Virtue that is quite
purified” (S V 143), and because of the passage
beginning, “The not doing of any evil” (Dhp 183),
virtue is the beginning of the dispensation. And that is
good because it brings about the special qualities of
non-remorse,[5] and so on. Its goodness in the middle
is shown by concentration. [5] Because of the passage
beginning, “Entering upon the profitable” (Dhp 183),
concentration is the middle of the dispensation. And
that is good because it brings about the special
qualities of supernormal power, and so on. Its
goodness in the end is shown by understanding.
Because of the passage, “The purifying of one’s own
mind—this is the Buddhas’ dispensation” (Dhp 183),
and because understanding is its culmination,
understanding is the end of the dispensation. And that
is good because it brings about equipoise with respect
to the desired and the undesired. For this is said:
“Just as a solid massive rock
Remains unshaken by the wind,
So too, in face of blame and praise
The wise remain immovable” (Dhp 81).

120
11. Likewise the necessary condition for the triple
clear-vision is shown by virtue. For with the support of
perfected virtue one arrives at the three kinds of clear-
vision, but nothing besides that. The necessary
condition for the six kinds of direct-knowledge is
shown by concentration. For with the support of
perfected concentration one arrives at the six kinds of
direct-knowledge, but nothing besides that. The
necessary condition for the categories of
discrimination is shown by understanding. For with the
support of perfected understanding one arrives at the
four kinds of discrimination, but not for any other
reason.[6]
And the avoidance of the extreme called devotion to
indulgence of sense desires is shown by virtue. The
avoidance of the extreme called devotion to
mortification of self is shown by concentration. The
cultivation of the middle way is shown by
understanding.
12. Likewise the means for surmounting the states of loss is
shown by virtue; the means for surmounting the
element of sense desires, by concentration; and the
means for surmounting all becoming, by
understanding.
And the abandoning of defilements by substitution
of opposites is shown by virtue; that by suppression is

121
shown by concentration; and that by cutting off is
shown by understanding.
13. Likewise prevention of defilements’ transgression
is shown by virtue; prevention of obsession (by
defilement) is shown by concentration; prevention of
inherent tendencies is shown by understanding.
And purification from the defilement of misconduct is
shown by virtue; purification from the defilement of
craving, by concentration; and purification from the
defilement of (false) views, by understanding.
14. [6] Likewise the reason for the states of stream-
entry and once-return is shown by virtue; that for the
state of non-return, by concentration; that for
Arahantship by understanding. For the stream-enterer
is called “perfected in the kinds of virtue”; and
likewise the once-returner. But the non-returner is
called “perfected in concentration.” And the Arahant
is called “perfected in understanding” (see A I 233).
15. So thus far these nine and other like triads of
special qualities have been shown, that is, the three
trainings, the dispensation that is good in three ways,
the necessary condition for the threefold clear-vision,
the avoidance of the two extremes and the cultivation
of the middle way, the means for surmounting the
states of loss, etc., the abandoning of defilements in
three aspects, prevention of transgression, etc.,

122
purification from the three kinds of defilements, and
the reason for the states of stream-entry, and so on.

[II. Virtue]

16. However, even when this path of purification is

shown in this way under the headings of virtue,
concentration and understanding, each comprising
various special qualities, it is still only shown
extremely briefly. And so since that is insufficient to
help all, there is, in order to show it in detail, the
following set of questions dealing in the first place
with virtue:

(i)What is virtue?
(ii)In what sense is it virtue?
(iii)What are its characteristic, function,
manifestation, and proximate cause?
(iv)What are the benefits of virtue?
(v)How many kinds of virtue are there?
(vi)What is the defiling of it?
(viii)What is the cleansing of it?

17. Here are the answers:

(i) WHAT IS VIRTUE? It is the states beginning with

123
volition present in one who abstains from killing
living things, etc., or in one who fulfils the practice of
the duties. For this is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “What
is virtue? There is virtue as volition, virtue as
consciousness-concomitant,[7] virtue as restraint, [7]
virtue as non-transgression” (Paṭis I 44).
Herein, virtue as volition is the volition present in one
who abstains from killing living things, etc., or in one
who fulfils the practice of the duties. Virtue as
consciousness-concomitant is the abstinence in one who
abstains from killing living things, and so on.
Furthermore, virtue as volition is the seven volitions
[that accompany the first seven] of the [ten] courses of
action (kamma) in one who abandons the killing of
living things, and so on. Virtue as consciousness-
concomitant is the [three remaining] states consisting of
non-covetousness, non-ill will, and right view, stated
in the way beginning, “Abandoning covetousness, he
dwells with a mind free from covetousness” (D I 71).
18. Virtue as restraint should be understood here as
restraint in five ways: restraint by the rules of the
community (pātimokkha), restraint by mindfulness,
restraint by knowledge, restraint by patience, and
restraint by energy. Herein, “restraint by the
Pātimokkha” is this: “He is furnished, fully furnished,
with this Pātimokkha restraint. (Vibh 246)” “Restraint
by mindfulness” is this: “He guards the eye faculty,

124
enters upon restraint of the eye faculty” (D I 70).
“Restraint by knowledge” is this:
“The currents in the world that flow, Ajita,”
said the Blessed One,
“Are stemmed by means of mindfulness;
Restraint of currents I proclaim,
By understanding they are dammed” (Sn 1035);
and use of requisites is here combined with this. But
what is called “restraint by patience” is that given in
the way beginning, “He is one who bears cold and
heat” (M I 10). And what is called “restraint by
energy” is that given in the way beginning, “He does
not endure a thought of sense desires when it arises”
(M I 11); purification of livelihood is here combined
with this. So this fivefold restraint, and the abstinence,
in clansmen who dread evil, from any chance of
transgression met with, should all be understood to be
“virtue as restraint.”
Virtue as non-transgression is the non-transgression,
by body or speech, of precepts of virtue that have been
undertaken.
This, in the first place, is the answer to the question,
“What is virtue?” [8] Now, as to the rest—
19. (ii) IN WHAT SENSE IS IT VIRTUE? It is virtue (sīla) in
the sense of composing (sīlana).[8] What is this

125
composing? It is either a coordinating (samādhāna),
meaning non-inconsistency of bodily action, etc., due
to virtuousness; or it is an upholding (upadhāraṇa),[8]
meaning a state of basis (ādhāra) owing to its serving
as foundation for profitable states. For those who
understand etymology admit only these two
meanings. Others, however, comment on the meaning
here in the way beginning, “The meaning of virtue
(sīla) is the meaning of head (sira), the meaning of
virtue is the meaning of cool (sītala).”
20. (iii) Now, WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION,
MANIFESTATION, AND PROXIMATE CAUSE? Here:

The characteristic of it is composing

Even when analyzed in various ways,
As visibility is of visible data
Even when analyzed in various ways.
Just as visibleness is the characteristic of the visible-
data base even when analyzed into the various
categories of blue, yellow, etc., because even when
analyzed into these categories it does not exceed
visible-ness, so also this same composing, described
above as the coordinating of bodily action, etc., and as
the foundation of profitable states, is the characteristic
of virtue even when analyzed into the various
categories of volition, etc., because even when
analyzed into these categories it does not exceed the

126
state of coordination and foundation.
21. While such is its characteristic:
Its function has a double sense:
Action to stop misconduct, then
Achievement as the quality
Of blamelessness in virtuous men.
So what is called virtue should be understood to
have the function (nature) of stopping misconduct as
its function (nature) in the sense of action, and a
blameless function (nature) as its function (nature) in
the sense of achievement. For under [these headings
of] characteristic, etc., it is action (kicca) or it is
achievement (sampatti) that is called “function” (rasa
—nature).
22. Now, virtue, so say those who know,
Itself as purity will show;
And for its proximate cause they tell
The pair, conscience and shame, as well. [9]
This virtue is manifested as the kinds of purity
stated thus: “Bodily purity, verbal purity, mental
purity” (A I 271); it is manifested, comes to be
apprehended, as a pure state. But conscience and
shame are said by those who know to be its proximate
cause; its near reason, is the meaning. For when
conscience and shame are in existence, virtue arises
and persists; and when they are not, it neither arises

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nor persists.
This is how virtue’s characteristic, function,
manifestation, and proximate cause, should be
understood.
23. (iv) WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF VIRTUE? Its benefits
are the acquisition of the several special qualities
beginning with non-remorse. For this is said:
“Ānanda, profitable habits (virtues) have non-remorse
as their aim and non-remorse as their benefit” (A V 1).
Also it is said further: “Householder, there are these
five benefits for the virtuous in the perfecting of
virtue. What five? Here, householder, one who is
virtuous, possessed of virtue, obtains a large fortune
as a consequence of diligence; this is the first benefit
for the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again, of
one who is virtuous, possessed of virtue, a fair name is
spread abroad; this is the second benefit for the
virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again, whenever
one who is virtuous, possessed of virtue, enters an
assembly, whether of khattiyas (warrior-nobles) or
brahmans or householders or ascetics, he does so
without fear or hesitation; this is the third benefit for
the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again, one
who is virtuous, possessed of virtue, dies unconfused;
this is the fourth benefit for the virtuous in the
perfecting of virtue. Again, one who is virtuous,
possessed of virtue, on the breakup of the body, after

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death, reappears in a happy destiny, in the heavenly
world; this is the fifth benefit for the virtuous in the
perfecting of virtue” (D II 86). There are also the many
benefits of virtue beginning with being dear and loved
and ending with destruction of cankers described in
the passage beginning, “If a bhikkhu should wish,
’May I be dear to my fellows in the life of purity and
loved by them, held in respect and honoured by
them,’ let him perfect the virtues” (M I 33). This is how
virtue has as its benefits the several special qualities
beginning with non-remorse. [10]
24. Furthermore:
Dare anyone a limit place
On benefits that virtue brings,
Without which virtue clansmen find
No footing in the dispensation?
No Ganges, and no Yamunā
No Sarabhū, Sarassathī,
Or flowing Aciravatī,
Or noble River of Mahī,
Is able to wash out the stain
In things that breathe here in the world;
For only virtue’s water can
Wash out the stain in living things.
No breezes that come bringing rain,
No balm of yellow sandalwood,

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No necklaces beside, or gems
Or soft effulgence of moonbeams,
Can here avail to calm and soothe
Men’s fevers in this world; whereas
This noble, this supremely cool,
Well-guarded virtue quells the flame.
Where is nd the scent
That can with virtue’s scent compare,
And that is borne against the wind
As easily as with it? Where
Can such another stair be found
That climbs, as virtue does, to heaven?
Or yet another door that gives
Onto the City of Nibbāna?
Shine as they may, there are no kings
Adorned with jewellery and pearls
That shine as does a man restrained
Adorned with virtue’s ornament.
Virtue entirely does away
With dread of self-blame and the like;
Their virtue to the virtuous
Gives gladness always by its fame.
From this brief sketch it may be known
How virtue brings reward, and how
This root of all good qualities
Robs of its power every fault.

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25. (v) Now, here is the answer to the question, HOW
MANY KINDS OF VIRTUE ARE THERE?

1. Firstly all this virtue is of one kind by

reason of its own characteristic of composing.
2. It is of two kinds as keeping and avoiding.
3. Likewise as that of good behaviour and
that of the beginning of the life of purity,
4. As abstinence and non-abstinence,
5. As dependent and independent,
6. As temporary and lifelong,
7. As limited and unlimited,
8. As mundane and supramundane. [11]
9. It is of three kinds as inferior, medium, and
superior.
10. Likewise as giving precedence to self,
giving precedence to the world, and giving
precedence to the Dhamma,
11. As adhered to, not adhered to, and
tranquillized.
12. As purified, unpurified, and dubious.
13. As that of the trainer, that of the non-
trainer, and that of the neither-trainer-nor-

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 non-trainer.
14. It is of four kinds as partaking of
diminution, of stagnation, of distinction, of
penetration.
15. Likewise as that of bhikkhus, of
bhikkhunīs, of the not-fully-admitted, of the
laity,
16. As natural, customary, necessary, due to
previous causes,
17. As virtue of Pātimokkha restraint, of
restraint of sense faculties, of purification of
livelihood, and that concerning requisites.
18. It is of five kinds as virtue consisting in
limited purification, etc.; for this is said in the
Paṭisambhidā: “Five kinds of virtue: virtue
consisting in limited purification, virtue
consisting in unlimited purification, virtue
consisting in fulfilled purification, virtue
consisting in unadhered-to purification,
virtue consisting in tranquillized
purification” (Paṭis I 42).
19. Likewise as abandoning, refraining,
volition, restraint, and non-transgression.
26. 1. Herein, in the section dealing with that of one
kind, the meaning should be understood as already

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stated.
2. In the section dealing with that of two kinds:
fulfilling a training precept announced by the Blessed
One thus: “This should be done” is keeping; not doing
what is prohibited by him thus: “This should not be
done” is avoiding. Herein, the word-meaning is this:
they keep (caranti) within that, they proceed as people
who fulfil the virtues, thus it is keeping (cāritta); they
preserve, they protect, they avoid, thus it is avoiding.
Herein, keeping is accomplished by faith and energy;
avoiding, by faith and mindfulness. This is how it is of
two kinds as keeping and avoiding.
27. 3. In the second dyad good behaviour is the best
kind of behaviour. Good behaviour itself is that of good
behaviour; or what is announced for the sake of good
behaviour is that of good behaviour. This is a term for
virtue other than that which has livelihood as eighth.
[9] It is the initial stage of the life of purity consisting in
the path, thus it is that of the beginning of the life of
purity. This is a term for the virtue that has livelihood
as eighth. It is the initial stage of the path because it
has actually to be purified in the prior stage too.
Hence it is said: “But his bodily action, his verbal
action, and his livelihood have already been purified
earlier” (M III 289). Or the training precepts called
“lesser and minor” (D II 154) [12] are that of good
behaviour; the rest are that of the beginning of the life of

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purity. Or what is included in the Double Code (the
bhikkhus’ and bhikkhunīs’ Pātimokkha) is that of the
beginning of the life of purity; and that included in the
duties set out in the Khandhakas [of Vinaya] is that of
good behaviour. Through its perfection that of the
beginning of the life of purity comes to be perfected.
Hence it is said also “that this bhikkhu shall fulfil the
state consisting in the beginning of the life of purity
without having fulfilled the state consisting in good
behaviour—that is not possible” (A III 14–15). So it is
of two kinds as that of good behaviour and that of the
beginning of the life of purity.
28. 4. In the third dyad virtue as abstinence is simply
abstention from killing living things, etc.; the other
kinds consisting in volition, etc., are virtue as non-
abstinence. So it is of two kinds as abstinence and non-
abstinence.
29. 5. In the fourth dyad there are two kinds of
dependence: dependence through craving and
dependence through [false] views. Herein, that
produced by one who wishes for a fortunate kind of
becoming thus, “Through this virtuous conduct [rite] I
shall become a [great] deity or some [minor] deity” (M
I 102), is dependent through craving. That produced
through such [false] view about purification as
“Purification is through virtuous conduct” (Vibh 374)
is dependent through [false] view. But the

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supramundane, and the mundane that is the
prerequisite for the aforesaid supramundane, are
independent. So it is of two kinds as dependent and
independent.
30. 6. In the fifth dyad temporary virtue is that
undertaken after deciding on a time limit. Lifelong
virtue is that practiced in the same way but
undertaking it for as long as life lasts. So it is of two
kinds as temporary and lifelong.
31. 7. In the sixth dyad the limited is that seen to be
limited by gain, fame, relatives, limbs, or life. The
opposite is unlimited. And this is said in the
Paṭisambhidā: “What is the virtue that has a limit?
There is virtue that has gain as its limit, there is virtue
that has fame as its limit, there is virtue that has
relatives as its limit, there is virtue that has limbs as its
limit, there is virtue that has life as its limit. What is
virtue that has gain as its limit? Here someone with
gain as cause, with gain as condition, with gain as
reason, transgresses a training precept as undertaken:
that virtue has gain as its limit” (Paṭis I 43), [13] and
the rest should be elaborated in the same way. Also in
the answer dealing with the unlimited it is said: “What
is virtue that does not have gain as its limit? Here
someone does not, with gain as cause, with gain as
condition, with gain as reason, even arouse the
thought of transgressing a training precept as

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undertaken, how then shall he actually transgress it?
That virtue does not have gain as its limit” (Paṭis I 44),
and the rest should be elaborated in the same way. So
it is of two kinds as limited and unlimited.
32. 8. In the seventh dyad all virtue subject to cankers
is mundane; that not subject to cankers is supramundane.
Herein, the mundane brings about improvement in
future becoming and is a prerequisite for the escape
from becoming, according as it is said: “Discipline is
for the purpose of restraint, restraint is for the purpose
of non-remorse, non-remorse is for the purpose of
gladdening, gladdening is for the purpose of
happiness, happiness is for the purpose of tranquillity,
tranquillity is for the purpose of bliss, bliss is for the
purpose of concentration, concentration is for the
purpose of correct knowledge and vision, correct
knowledge and vision is for the purpose of dispassion,
dispassion is for the purpose of fading away [of
greed], fading away is for the purpose of deliverance,
deliverance is for the purpose of knowledge and
vision of deliverance, knowledge and vision of
deliverance is for the purpose of complete extinction
[of craving, etc.] through not clinging. Talk has that
purpose, counsel has that purpose, support has that
purpose, giving ear has that purpose, that is to say, the
liberation of the mind through not clinging” (Vin V
164). The supramundane brings about the escape from

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becoming and is the plane of reviewing knowledge. So
it is of two kinds as mundane and supramundane.
33. 9. In the first of the triads the inferior is produced
by inferior zeal, [purity of] consciousness, energy, or
inquiry; the medium is produced by medium zeal, etc.;
the superior, by superior (zeal, and so on). That
undertaken out of desire for fame is inferior; that
undertaken out of desire for the fruits of merit is
medium; that undertaken for the sake of the noble state
thus, “This has to be done” is superior. Or again, that
defiled by self-praise and disparagement of others,
etc., thus, “I am possessed of virtue, but these other
bhikkhus are ill-conducted and evil-natured” (M I
193), is inferior; undefiled mundane virtue is medium;
supramundane is superior. Or again, that motivated by
craving, the purpose of which is to enjoy continued
existence, is inferior; that practiced for the purpose of
one’s own deliverance is medium; the virtue of the
perfections practiced for the deliverance of all beings
is superior. So it is of three kinds as inferior, medium,
and superior.
34. 10. In the second triad that practiced out of self-
regard by one who regards self and desires to
abandon what is unbecoming to self [14] is virtue
giving precedence to self. That practiced out of regard for
the world and out of desire to ward off the censure of
the world is virtue giving precedence to the world. That

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practiced out of regard for the Dhamma and out of
desire to honour the majesty of the Dhamma is virtue
giving precedence to the Dhamma. So it is of three kinds
as giving precedence to self, and so on.
35. 11. In the third triad the virtue that in the dyads
was called dependent (no. 5) is adhered-to because it is
adhered-to through craving and [false] view. That
practiced by the magnanimous ordinary man as the
prerequisite of the path, and that associated with the
path in trainers, are not-adhered-to. That associated
with trainers’ and non-trainers’ fruition is tranquillized.
So it is of three kinds as adhered-to, and so on.
36. 12. In the fourth triad that fulfilled by one who has
committed no offence or has made amends after
committing one is pure. So long as he has not made
amends after committing an offence it is impure. Virtue
in one who is dubious about whether a thing
constitutes an offence or about what grade of offence
has been committed or about whether he has
committed an offence is dubious. Herein, the meditator
should purify impure virtue. If dubious, he should
avoid cases about which he is doubtful and should get
his doubts cleared up. In this way his mind will be
kept at rest. So it is of three kinds as pure, and so on.
37. 13. In the fifth triad the virtue associated with the
four paths and with the [first] three fruitions is that of

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the trainer. That associated with the fruition of
Arahantship is that of the non-trainer. The remaining
kinds are that of the neither-trainer-nor-non-trainer. So it
is of three kinds as that of the trainer, and so on.
38. But in the world the nature of such and such
beings is called their “habit” (sīla) of which they say:
“This one is of happy habit (sukha-sīla), this one is of
unhappy habit, this one is of quarrelsome habit, this
one is of dandified habit.” Because of that it is said in
the Paṭisambhidā figuratively: “Three kinds of virtue
(habit): profitable virtue, unprofitable virtue,
indeterminate virtue” (Paṭis I 44). So it is also called of
three kinds as profitable, and so on. Of these, the
unprofitable is not included here since it has nothing
whatever to do with the headings beginning with the
characteristic, which define virtue in the sense
intended in this [chapter]. So the threefoldness should
be understood only in the way already stated.
39. 14. In the first of the tetrads:
The unvirtuous he cultivates,
He visits not the virtuous,
And in his ignorance he sees
No fault in a transgression here, [15]
With wrong thoughts often in his mind
His faculties he will not guard—
Virtue in such a constitution

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 Comes to partake of diminution.
But he whose mind is satisfied.
With virtue that has been achieved,
Who never thinks to stir himself
And take a meditation subject up,
Contented with mere virtuousness,
Nor striving for a higher state—
His virtue bears the appellation
Of that partaking of stagnation.
But who, possessed of virtue, strives
With concentration for his aim—
That bhikkhu’s virtue in its function
Is called partaking of distinction.
Who finds mere virtue not enough
But has dispassion for his goal—
His virtue through such aspiration
Comes to partake of penetration.
So it is of four kinds as partaking of diminution, and
so on.
40. 15. In the second tetrad there are training precepts
announced for bhikkhus to keep irrespective of what
is announced for bhikkhunīs. This is the virtue of
bhikkhus. There are training precepts announced for
bhikkhunīs to keep irrespective of what is announced
for bhikkhus. This is the virtue of bhikkhunīs. The ten
precepts of virtue for male and female novices are the

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virtue of the not fully admitted. The five training
precepts—ten when possible—as a permanent
undertaking and eight as the factors of the Uposatha
Day,[10] for male and female lay followers are the
virtue of the laity. So it is of four kinds as the virtue of
bhikkhus, and so on.
41. 16. In the third tetrad the non-transgression on the
part of Uttarakuru human beings is natural virtue. Each
clan’s or locality’s or sect’s own rules of conduct are
customary virtue. The virtue of the Bodhisatta’s mother
described thus: “It is the necessary rule, Ānanda, that
when the Bodhisatta has descended into his mother’s
womb, no thought of men that is connected with the
cords of sense desire comes to her” (D II 13), is
necessary virtue. But the virtue of such pure beings as
Mahā Kassapa, etc., and of the Bodhisatta in his
various births is virtue due to previous causes. So it is of
four kinds as natural virtue, and so on.
42. 17. In the fourth tetrad:
(a) The virtue described by the Blessed One thus:
“Here a bhikkhu dwells restrained with the
Pātimokkha restraint, possessed of the [proper]
conduct and resort, and seeing fear in the slightest
fault, he trains himself by undertaking the precepts of
training, (Vibh 244)” is virtue of Pātimokkha restraint.
(b) That described thus: “On seeing a visible object

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with the eye, [16] he apprehends neither the signs nor
the particulars through which, if he left the eye faculty
unguarded, evil and unprofitable states of
covetousness and grief might invade him; he enters
upon the way of its restraint, he guards the eye
faculty, undertakes the restraint of the eye faculty. On
hearing a sound with the ear … On smelling an odour
with the nose … On tasting a flavour with the tongue
… On touching a tangible object with the body … On
cognizing a mental object with the mind, he
apprehends neither the signs nor the particulars
through which, if he left the mind faculty unguarded,
evil and unprofitable states of covetousness and grief
might invade him; he enters upon the way of its
restraint, he guards the mind faculty, undertakes the
restraint of the mind faculty (M I 180), is virtue of
restraint of the sense faculties.
(c) Abstinence from such wrong livelihood as entails
transgression of the six training precepts announced
with respect to livelihood and entails the evil states
beginning with “Scheming, talking, hinting, belittling,
pursuing gain with gain” (M II 75) is virtue of livelihood
purification.
(d) Use of the four requisites that is purified by the
reflection stated in the way beginning, “Reflecting
wisely, he uses the robe only for protection from cold”
(M I 10) is called virtue concerning requisites.

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43. Here is an explanatory exposition together with a
word commentary starting from the beginning.
(a) Here: in this dispensation. A bhikkhu: a clansman
who has gone forth out of faith and is so styled
because he sees fear in the round of rebirths (saṃsāre
bhayaṃ ikkhanatā) or because he wears cloth garments
that are torn and pieced together, and so on.
Restrained with the Pātimokkha restraint: here
“Pātimokkha” (Rule of the Community)[11] is the
virtue of the training precepts; for it frees (mokkheti)
him who protects (pāti) it, guards it, it sets him free
(mocayati) from the pains of the states of loss, etc., that
is why it is called Pātimokkha. “Restraint” is
restraining; this is a term for bodily and verbal non-
transgression. The Pātimokkha itself as restraint is
“Pātimokkha restraint.” “Restrained with the
Pātimokkha restraint” is restrained by means of the
restraint consisting in that Pātimokkha; he has it,
possesses it, is the meaning. Dwells: bears himself in
one of the postures. [17]
44. The meaning of possessed of [the proper] conduct and
resort, etc., should be understood in the way in which
it is given in the text. For this is said: “Possessed of
[the proper] conduct and resort: there is [proper]
conduct and improper conduct. Herein, what is
improper conduct? Bodily transgression, verbal

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transgression, bodily and verbal transgression—this is
called improper conduct. Also all unvirtuousness is
improper conduct. Here someone makes a livelihood
by gifts of bamboos, or by gifts of leaves, or by gifts of
flowers, fruits, bathing powder, and tooth sticks, or by
flattery, or by bean-soupery, or by fondling, or by
going on errands on foot, or by one or other of the
sorts of wrong livelihood condemned by the Buddhas
—this is called improper conduct. Herein, what is
[proper] conduct? Bodily non-transgression, verbal
non-transgression, bodily and verbal non-
transgression—this is called [proper] conduct. Also all
restraint through virtue is [proper] conduct. Here
someone “does not make a livelihood by gifts of
bamboos, or by gifts of leaves, or by gifts of flowers,
fruits, bathing powder, and tooth sticks, or by flattery,
or by bean-soupery, or by fondling, or by going on
errands on foot, or by one or other of the sorts of
wrong livelihood condemned by the Buddhas—this is
called [proper] conduct.”
45. “[Proper] resort: there is [proper] resort and
improper resort. Herein, what is improper resort?
Here someone has prostitutes as resort, or he has
widows, old maids, eunuchs, bhikkhunīs, or taverns
as resort; or he dwells associated with kings, kings’
ministers, sectarians, sectarians’ disciples, in
unbecoming association with laymen; or he cultivates,

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frequents, honours, such families as are faithless,
untrusting, abusive and rude, who wish harm, wish
ill, wish woe, wish no surcease of bondage, for
bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs, for male and female
devotees [18]—this is called improper resort. Herein,
what is [proper] resort? Here someone does not have
prostitutes as resort … or taverns as resort; he does not
dwell associated with kings … sectarians’ disciples, in
unbecoming association with laymen; he cultivates,
frequents, honours, such families as are faithful and
trusting, who are a solace, where the yellow cloth
glows, where the breeze of sages blows, who wish
good, wish well, wish joy, wish surcease of bondage,
for bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs, for male and female
devotees—this is called [proper] resort. Thus he is
furnished with, fully furnished with, provided with,
fully provided with, supplied with, possessed of,
endowed with, this [proper] conduct and this [proper]
resort. Hence it is said, ’Possessed of [the proper]
conduct and resort’” (Vibh 246–47).
46. Furthermore, [proper] conduct and resort should
also be understood here in the following way; for
improper conduct is twofold as bodily and verbal.
Herein, what is bodily improper conduct? “Here
someone acts disrespectfully before the Community,
and he stands jostling elder bhikkhus, sits jostling
them, stands in front of them, sits in front of them, sits

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on a high seat, sits with his head covered, talks
standing up, talks waving his arms … walks with
sandals while elder bhikkhus walk without sandals,
walks on a high walk while they walk on a low walk,
walks on a walk while they walk on the ground …
stands pushing elder bhikkhus, sits pushing them,
prevents new bhikkhus from getting a seat … and in
the bath house … without asking elder bhikkhus he
puts wood on [the stove] … bolts the door … and at
the bathing place he enters the water jostling elder
bhikkhus, enters it in front of them, bathes jostling
them, bathes in front of them, comes out jostling them,
comes out in front of them … and entering inside a
house he goes jostling elder bhikkhus, goes in front of
them, pushing forward he goes in front of them … and
where families have inner private screened rooms in
which the women of the family … the girls of the
family, sit, there he enters abruptly, and he strokes a
child’s head” (Nidd I 228–29). This is called bodily
improper conduct.
47. Herein, what is verbal improper conduct? “Here
someone acts disrespectfully before the Community.
Without asking elder bhikkhus he talks on the
Dhamma, answers questions, recites the Pātimokkha,
talks standing up, [19] talks waving his arms …
having entered inside a house, he speaks to a woman
or a girl thus: ’You, so-and-so of such-and-such a clan,

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what is there? Is there rice gruel? Is there cooked rice?
Is there any hard food to eat? What shall we drink?
What hard food shall we eat? What soft food shall we
eat? Or what will you give me?’—he chatters like this”
(Nidd I 230). This is called verbal improper conduct.
48. Proper conduct should be understood in the
opposite sense to that. Furthermore, a bhikkhu is
respectful, deferential, possessed of conscience and
shame, wears his inner robe properly, wears his upper
robe properly, his manner inspires confidence whether
in moving forwards or backwards, looking ahead or
aside, bending or stretching, his eyes are downcast, he
has (a good) deportment, he guards the doors of his
sense faculties, knows the right measure in eating, is
devoted to wakefulness, possesses mindfulness and
full awareness, wants little, is contented, is strenuous,
is a careful observer of good behaviour, and treats the
teachers with great respect. This is called (proper)
conduct.
This firstly is how (proper) conduct should be
understood.
49. (Proper) resort is of three kinds: (proper) resort as
support, (proper) resort as guarding, and (proper)
resort as anchoring. Herein, what is (proper) resort as
support? A good friend who exhibits the instances of
talk,[12] in whose presence one hears what has not

147
been heard, corrects what has been heard, gets rid of
doubt, rectifies one’s view, and gains confidence; or by
training under whom one grows in faith, virtue,
learning, generosity and understanding—this is called
(proper) resort as support.
50. What is (proper) resort as guarding? Here “A
bhikkhu, having entered inside a house, having gone
into a street, goes with downcast eyes, seeing the
length of a plough yoke, restrained, not looking at an
elephant, not looking at a horse, a carriage, a
pedestrian, a woman, a man, not looking up, not
looking down, not staring this way and that” (Nidd I
474). This is called (proper) resort as guarding.
51. What is (proper) resort as anchoring? It is the four
foundations of mindfulness on which the mind is
anchored; for this is said by the Blessed One:
“Bhikkhus, what is a bhikkhu’s resort, his own native
place? It is these four foundations of mindfulness” (S
V 148). This is called (proper) resort as anchoring.
Being thus furnished with … endowed with, this
(proper) conduct and this (proper) resort, he is also on
that account called “one possessed of (proper) conduct
and resort.” [20]
52. Seeing fear in the slightest fault (§42): one who has
the habit (sīla) of seeing fear in faults of the minutest
measure, of such kinds as unintentional contravening

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of a minor training rule of the Pātimokkha, or the
arising of unprofitable thoughts. He trains himself by
undertaking (samādāya) the precepts of training: whatever
there is among the precepts of training to be trained
in, in all that he trains by taking it up rightly (sammā
ādāya). And here, as far as the words, “one restrained
by the Pātimokkha restraint,” virtue of Pātimokkha
restraint is shown by discourse in terms of persons.[13]
But all that beginning with the words, “possessed of
[proper] conduct and resort” should be understood as
said in order to show the way of practice that perfects
that virtue in him who so practices it.
53. (b) Now, as regards the virtue of restraint of
faculties shown next to that in the way beginning, “on
seeing a visible object with the eye,” herein he is a
bhikkhu established in the virtue of Pātimokkha
restraint. On seeing a visible object with the eye: on seeing
a visible object with the eye-consciousness that is
capable of seeing visible objects and has borrowed the
name “eye” from its instrument. But the Ancients
(porāṇā) said: “The eye does not see a visible object
because it has no mind. The mind does not see
because it has no eyes. But when there is the
impingement of door and object he sees by means of
the consciousness that has eye-sensitivity as its
physical basis. Now, (an idiom) such as this is called
an ’accessory locution’ (sasambhārakathā), like ’He shot

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him with his bow,’ and so on. So the meaning here is
this: ’On seeing a visible object with eye-
consciousness.’”[14]
54. Apprehends neither the signs: he does not apprehend
the sign of woman or man, or any sign that is a basis
for defilement such as the sign of beauty, etc.; he stops
at what is merely seen. Nor the particulars: he does not
apprehend any aspect classed as hand, foot, smile,
laughter, talk, looking ahead, looking aside, etc.,
which has acquired the name “particular”
(anubyañjana) because of its particularizing (anu anu
byañjanato) defilements, because of its making them
manifest themselves. He only apprehends what is
really there. Like the Elder Mahā Tissa who dwelt at
Cetiyapabbata.
55. It seems that as the elder was on his way from
Cetiyapabbata to Anurādhapura for alms, a certain
daughterinlaw of a clan, who had quarrelled with her
husband and had set out early from Anurādhapura all
dressed up and tricked out like a celestial nymph to go
to her relatives’ home, saw him on the road, and being
low-minded, [21] she laughed a loud laugh.
[Wondering] “What is that?” the elder looked up and
finding in the bones of her teeth the perception of
foulness (ugliness), he reached Arahantship.[15] Hence
it was said:

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 “He saw the bones that were her teeth,
And kept in mind his first perception;
And standing on that very spot
The elder became an Arahant.”
But her husband, who was going after her, saw the
elder and asked, “Venerable sir, did you by any
chance see a woman?” The elder told him:
“Whether it was a man or woman
That went by I noticed not,
But only that on this high road
There goes a group of bones.”
56. As to the words through which, etc., the meaning is:
by reason of which, because of which non-restraint of
the eye faculty, if he, if that person, left the eye faculty
unguarded, remained with the eye door unclosed by
the door-panel of mindfulness, these states of
covetousness, etc., might invade, might pursue, might
threaten, him. He enters upon the way of its restraint: he
enters upon the way of closing that eye faculty by the
door-panel of mindfulness. It is the same one of whom
it is said he guards the eye faculty, undertakes the restraint
of the eye faculty.
57. Herein, there is neither restraint nor non-restraint
in the actual eye faculty, since neither mindfulness nor
forgetfulness arises in dependence on eye-sensitivity.
On the contrary when a visible datum as object comes

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into the eye’s focus, then, after the life-continuum has
arisen twice and ceased, the functional mind-element
accomplishing the function of adverting arises and
ceases. After that, eye-consciousness with the function
of seeing; after that, resultant mind-element with the
function of receiving; after that, resultant root-
causeless mind-consciousness-element with the
function of investigating; after that, functional root-
causeless mind-consciousness-element accomplishing
the function of determining arises and ceases. Next to
that, impulsion impels.[16] Herein, there is neither
restraint nor non-restraint on the occasion of the life-
continuum, or on any of the occasions beginning with
adverting. But there is non-restraint if unvirtuousness
or forgetfulness or unknowing or impatience or
idleness arises at the moment of impulsion. When this
happens, it is called “non-restraint in the eye faculty.”
[22]
58. Why is that? Because when this happens, the door
is not guarded, nor are the life-continuum and the
consciousnesses of the cognitive series. Like what? Just
as, when a city’s four gates are not secured, although
inside the city house doors, storehouses, rooms, etc.,
are secured, yet all property inside the city is
unguarded and unprotected since robbers coming in
by the city gates can do as they please, so too, when
unvirtuousness, etc., arise in impulsion in which there

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is no restraint, then the door too is unguarded, and so
also are the life-continuum and the consciousnesses of
the cognitive series beginning with adverting. But
when virtue, etc., has arisen in it, then the door too is
guarded and so also are the life-continuum and the
consciousnesses of the cognitive series beginning with
adverting. Like what? Just as, when the city gates are
secured, although inside the city the houses, etc., are
not secured, yet all property inside the city is well
guarded, well protected, since when the city gates are
shut there is no ingress for robbers, so too, when
virtue, etc., have arisen in impulsion, the door too is
guarded and so also are the life-continuum and the
consciousnesses of the cognitive series beginning with
adverting. Thus although it actually arises at the
moment of impulsion, it is nevertheless called
“restraint in the eye faculty.”
59. So also as regards the phrases on hearing a sound
with the ear and so on. So it is this virtue, which in brief
has the characteristic of avoiding apprehension of
signs entailing defilement with respect to visible
objects, etc., that should be understood as virtue of
restraint of faculties.
60. (c) Now, as regards the virtue of livelihood
purification mentioned above next to the virtue of
restraint of the faculties (§42), the words of the six
precepts announced on account of livelihood mean, of the

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following six training precepts announced thus: “With
livelihood as cause, with livelihood as reason, one of
evil wishes, a prey to wishes, lays claim to a higher
than human state that is non-existent, not a fact,” the
contravention of which is defeat (expulsion from the
Order); “with livelihood as cause, with livelihood as
reason, he acts as go-between,” the contravention of
which is an offence entailing a meeting of the Order;
“with livelihood as cause, with livelihood as reason,
he says, ’A bhikkhu who lives in your monastery is an
Arahant,’” the contravention of which is a serious
offence in one who is aware of it; “with livelihood as
cause, with livelihood as reason, a bhikkhu who is not
sick eats superior food that he has ordered for his own
use,” the contravention of which is an offence
requiring expiation: “With livelihood as cause, with
livelihood as reason, a bhikkhunī who is not sick eats
superior food that she has ordered for her own use,”
the contravention of which is an offence requiring
confession; “with livelihood as cause, with livelihood
as reason, one who is not sick eats curry or boiled rice
[23] that he has ordered for his own use,” the
contravention of which is an offence of wrongdoing
(Vin V 146). Of these six precepts.[17]
61. As regards scheming, etc. (§42), this is the text:
“Herein, what is scheming? It is the grimacing,
grimacery, scheming, schemery, schemedness,[18] by

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what is called rejection of requisites or by indirect talk,
or it is the disposing, posing, composing, of the
deportment on the part of one bent on gain, honour
and renown, of one of evil wishes, a prey to wishes—
this is called scheming.
62. ”Herein, what is talking? Talking at others, talking,
talking round, talking up, continual talking up,
persuading, continual persuading, suggesting,
continual suggesting, ingratiating chatter, flattery,
bean-soupery, fondling, on the part of one bent on
gain, honour and renown, of one of evil wishes, a prey
to wishes—this is called talking.
63. ”Herein, what is hinting? A sign to others, giving a
sign, indication, giving indication, indirect talk,
roundabout talk, on the part of one bent on gain,
honour and renown, of one of evil wishes, a prey to
wishes—this is called hinting.
64. ”Herein, what is belittling? Abusing of others,
disparaging, reproaching, snubbing, continual
snubbing, ridicule, continual ridicule, denigration,
continual denigration, tale-bearing, backbiting, on the
part of one bent on gain, honour and renown, of one
of evil wishes, a prey to wishes—this is called
belittling.
65. ”Herein, what is pursuing gain with gain? Seeking,
seeking for, seeking out, going in search of, searching

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for, searching out material goods by means of material
goods, such as carrying there goods that have been got
from here, or carrying here goods that have been got
from there, by one bent on gain, honour and renown,
by one of evil wishes, a prey to wishes—this is called
pursuing gain with gain.”[19] (Vibh 352–53)
66. The meaning of this text should be understood as
follows: Firstly, as regards description of scheming: on
the part of one bent on gain, honour and renown is on the
part of one who is bent on gain, on honour, and on
reputation; on the part of one who longs for them, is
the meaning. [24] Of one of evil wishes: of one who
wants to show qualities that he has not got. A prey to
wishes:[20] the meaning is, of one who is attacked by
them. And after this the passage beginning or by what
is called rejection of requisites is given in order to show
the three instances of scheming given in the
Mahāniddesa as rejection of requisites, indirect talk,
and that based on deportment.
67. Herein, [a bhikkhu] is invited to accept robes, etc.,
and, precisely because he wants them, he refuses them
out of evil wishes. And then, since he knows that those
householders believe in him implicitly when they
think, “Oh, how few are our lord’s wishes! He will not
accept a thing!” and they put fine robes, etc., before
him by various means, he then accepts, making a

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show that he wants to be compassionate towards them
—it is this hypocrisy of his, which becomes the cause
of their subsequently bringing them even by cartloads,
that should be understood as the instance of scheming
called rejection of requisites.
68. For this is said in the Mahāniddesa: “What is the
instance of scheming called rejection of requisites?
Here householders invite bhikkhus [to accept] robes,
alms food, resting place, and the requisite of medicine
as cure for the sick. One who is of evil wishes, a prey
to wishes, wanting robes … alms food … resting place
… the requisite of medicine as cure for the sick,
refuses robes … alms food … resting place … the
requisite of medicine as cure for the sick, because he
wants more. He says: ’What has an ascetic to do with
expensive robes? It is proper for an ascetic to gather
rags from a charnel ground or from a rubbish heap or
from a shop and make them into a patchwork cloak to
wear. What has an ascetic to do with expensive alms
food? It is proper for an ascetic to get his living by the
dropping of lumps [of food into his bowl] while he
wanders for gleanings. What has an ascetic to do with
an expensive resting place? It is proper for an ascetic
to be a tree-root-dweller or an open-air-dweller. What
has an ascetic to do with an expensive requisite of
medicine as cure for the sick? It is proper for an ascetic
to cure himself with putrid urine[21] and broken

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gallnuts.’ Accordingly he wears a coarse robe, eats
coarse alms food, [25] uses a coarse resting place, uses
a coarse requisite of medicine as cure for the sick.
Then householders think, ’This ascetic has few wishes,
is content, is secluded, keeps aloof from company, is
strenuous, is a preacher of asceticism,’ and they invite
him more and more [to accept] robes, alms food,
resting places, and the requisite of medicine as cure
for the sick. He says: ’With three things present a
faithful clansman produces much merit: with faith
present a faithful clansman produces much merit,
with goods to be given present a faithful clansman
produces much merit, with those worthy to receive
present a faithful clansman produces much merit. You
have faith; the goods to be given are here; and I am
here to accept. If I do not accept, then you will be
deprived of the merit. That is no good to me. Rather
will I accept out of compassion for you.” Accordingly
he accepts many robes, he accepts much alms food, he
accepts many resting places, he accepts many
requisites of medicine as cure for the sick. Such
grimacing, grimacery, scheming, schemery,
schemedness, is known as the instance of scheming
called rejection of requisites’ (Nidd I 224–25).
69. It is hypocrisy on the part of one of evil wishes,
who gives it to be understood verbally in some way or
other that he has attained a higher than human state,

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that should be understood as the instance of scheming
called indirect talk, according as it is said: “What is the
instance of scheming called indirect talk? Here
someone of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, eager to be
admired, [thinking] ’Thus people will admire me’
speaks words about the noble state. He says, ’He who
wears such a robe is a very important ascetic.’ He says,
’He who carries such a bowl, metal cup, water filler,
water strainer, key, wears such a waist band, sandals,
is a very important ascetic.’ He says, ’He who has such
a preceptor … teacher … who has the same preceptor,
who has the same teacher, who has such a friend,
associate, intimate, companion; he who lives in such a
monastery, lean-to, mansion, villa,[22] cave, grotto,
hut, pavilion, watch tower, hall, barn, meeting hall,
[26] room, at such a tree root, is a very important
ascetic.’ Or alternatively, all-gushing, all-grimacing,
all-scheming, all-talkative, with an expression of
admiration, he utters such deep, mysterious, cunning,
obscure, supramundane talk suggestive of voidness as
’This ascetic is an obtainer of peaceful abidings and
attainments such as these.’ Such grimacing, grimacery,
scheming, schemery, schemedness, is known as the
instance of scheming called indirect talk” (Nidd I 226–
27).
70. It is hypocrisy on the part of one of evil wishes,
which takes the form of deportment influenced by

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eagerness to be admired, that should be understood as
the instance of scheming dependent on deportment,
according as it is said: “What is the instance of
scheming called deportment? Here someone of evil
wishes, a prey to wishes, eager to be admired,
[thinking] ’Thus people will admire me,’ composes his
way of walking, composes his way of lying down; he
walks studiedly, stands studiedly, sits studiedly, lies
down studiedly; he walks as though concentrated,
stands, sits, lies down as though concentrated; and he
is one who meditates in public. Such disposing,
posing, composing, of deportment, grimacing,
grimacery, scheming, schemery, schemedness, is
known as the instance of scheming called deportment”
(Nidd I 225–26).
71. Herein, the words by what is called rejection of
requisites (§61) mean: by what is called thus “rejection
of requisites”; or they mean: by means of the rejection
of requisites that is so called. By indirect talk means: by
talking near to the subject. Of deportment means: of the
four modes of deportment (postures). Disposing is
initial posing, or careful posing. Posing is the manner
of posing. Composing is prearranging; assuming a
trust-inspiring attitude, is what is meant. Grimacing is
making grimaces by showing great intenseness; facial
contraction is what is meant. One who has the habit of
making grimaces is a grimacer. The grimacer’s state is

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grimacery. Scheming is hypocrisy. The way (āyanā) of a
schemer (kuha) is schemery (kuhāyanā). The state of
what is schemed is schemedness.
72. In the description of talking: talking at is talking
thus on seeing people coming to the monastery,
“What have you come for, good people? What, to
invite bhikkhus? If it is that, then go along and I shall
come later with [my bowl],” etc.; or alternatively,
talking at is talking by advertising oneself thus, “I am
Tissa, the king trusts me, such and such king’s
ministers trust me.” [27] Talking is the same kind of
talking on being asked a question. Talking round is
roundly talking by one who is afraid of householders’
displeasure because he has given occasion for it.
Talking up is talking by extolling people thus, “He is a
great land-owner, a great ship-owner, a great lord of
giving.” Continual talking up is talking by extolling
[people] in all ways.
73. Persuading is progressively involving[23] [people]
thus, “Lay followers, formerly you used to give first-
fruit alms at such a time; why do you not do so now?”
until they say, “We shall give, venerable sir, we have
had no opportunity,” etc.; entangling, is what is
meant. Or alternatively, seeing someone with
sugarcane in his hand, he asks, “Where are you
coming from, lay follower?”—”From the sugarcane
field, venerable sir”—”Is the sugarcane sweet

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there?”—”One can find out by eating, venerable
sir”—”It is not allowed, lay follower, for bhikkhus to
say ’Give [me some] sugarcane.’” Such entangling talk
from such an entangler is persuading. Persuading again
and again in all ways is continual persuading.
74. Suggesting is insinuating by specifying thus, “That
family alone understands me; if there is anything to be
given there, they give it to me only”; pointing to, is
what is meant. And here the story of the oil-seller
should be told.[24] Suggesting in all ways again and
again is continual suggesting.
75. Ingratiating chatter is endearing chatter repeated
again and again without regard to whether it is in
conformity with truth and Dhamma. Flattery is
speaking humbly, always maintaining an attitude of
inferiority. Bean-soupery is resemblance to bean soup;
for just as when beans are being cooked only a few do
not get cooked, the rest get cooked, so too the person
in whose speech only a little is true, the rest being
false, is called a “bean soup”; his state is bean-soupery.
76. Fondling is the state of the act of fondling. [28] For
when a man fondles children on his lap or on his
shoulder like a nurse—he nurses, is the meaning—that
fondler’s act is the act of fondling. The state of the act
of fondling is fondling.
77. In the description of hinting (nemittikatā): a sign

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(nimitta) is any bodily or verbal act that gets others to
give requisites. Giving a sign is making a sign such as
“What have you got to eat?”, etc., on seeing [people]
going along with food. Indication is talk that alludes to
requisites. Giving indication: on seeing cowboys, he
asks, “Are these milk cows’ calves or buttermilk cows’
calves?” and when it is said, “They are milk cows’
calves, venerable sir,” [he remarks] “They are not milk
cows’ calves. If they were milk cows’ calves the
bhikkhus would be getting milk,” etc.; and his getting
it to the knowledge of the boys’ parents in this way,
and so making them give milk, is giving indication.
78. Indirect talk is talk that keeps near [to the subject].
And here there should be told the story of the bhikkhu
supported by a family. A bhikkhu, it seems, who was
supported by a family went into the house wanting to
eat and sat down. The mistress of the house was
unwilling to give. On seeing him she said, “There is no
rice,” and she went to a neighbour’s house as though
to get rice. The bhikkhu went into the storeroom.
Looking round, he saw sugarcane in the corner behind
the door, sugar in a bowl, a string of salt fish in a
basket, rice in a jar, and ghee in a pot. He came out
and sat down. When the housewife came back, she
said, “I did not get any rice.” The bhikkhu said, “Lay
follower, I saw a sign just now that alms will not be
easy to get today.”—“What, venerable sir?”—”I saw a

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snake that was like sugarcane put in the corner behind
the door; looking for something to hit it with, I saw a
stone like a lump of sugar in a bowl. When the snake
had been hit with the clod, it spread out a hood like a
string of salt fish in a basket, and its teeth as it tried to
bite the clod were like rice grains in a jar. Then the
saliva mixed with poison that came out to its mouth in
its fury was like ghee put in a pot.” She thought,
“There is no hoodwinking the shaveling,” so she gave
him the sugarcane [29] and she cooked the rice and
gave it all to him with the ghee, the sugar and the fish.
79. Such talk that keeps near [to the subject] should be
understood as indirect talk. Roundabout talk is talking
round and round [the subject] as much as is allowed.
80. In the description of belittling: abusing is abusing by
means of the ten instances of abuse.[25] Disparaging is
contemptuous talk. Reproaching is enumeration of
faults such as “He is faithless, he is an unbeliever.”
Snubbing is taking up verbally thus, “Don’t say that
here.” Snubbing in all ways, giving grounds and
reasons, is continual snubbing. Or alternatively, when
someone does not give, taking him up thus, “Oh, the
prince of givers!” is snubbing; and the thorough
snubbing thus, “A mighty prince of givers!” is
continual snubbing. Ridicule is making fun of someone
thus, “What sort of a life has this man who eats up his
seed [grain]?” Continual ridicule is making fun of him

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more thoroughly thus, “What, you say this man is not
a giver who always gives the words ’There is nothing’
to everyone?”
81. Denigration[26] is denigrating someone by saying
that he is not a giver, or by censuring him. All-round
denigration is continual denigration. Tale-bearing is
bearing tales from house to house, from village to
village, from district to district, [thinking] “So they
will give to me out of fear of my bearing tales.”
Backbiting is speaking censoriously behind another’s
back after speaking kindly to his face; for this is like
biting the flesh of another’s back, when he is not
looking, on the part of one who is unable to look him
in the face; therefore it is called backbiting. This is
called belittling (nippesikatā) because it scrapes off
(nippeseti), wipes off, the virtuous qualities of others
as a bamboo scraper (veḷupesikā) does unguent, or
because it is a pursuit of gain by grinding
(nippiṃsitvā) and pulverizing others’ virtuous
qualities, like the pursuit of perfume by grinding
perfumed substances; that is why it is called belittling.
82. ’In the description of pursuing gain with gain:
pursuing is hunting after. Got from here is got from this
house. There is into that house. Seeking is wanting.
Seeking for is hunting after. Seeking out is hunting after
again and again. [30] The story of the bhikkhu who
went round giving away the alms he had got at first to

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children of families here and there and in the end got
milk and gruel should be told here. Searching, etc., are
synonyms for “seeking,” etc., and so the construction
here should be understood thus: going in search of is
seeking; searching for is seeking for; searching out is
seeking out.
This is the meaning of scheming, and so on.
83. Now, [as regards the words] The evil states
beginning with (§42): here the words beginning with
should be understood to include the many evil states
given in the Brahmajāla Sutta in the way beginning,
“Or just as some worthy ascetics, while eating the food
given by the faithful, make a living by wrong
livelihood, by such low arts as these, that is to say, by
palmistry, by fortune-telling, by divining omens, by
interpreting dreams, marks on the body, holes gnawed
by mice; by fire sacrifice, by spoon oblation …” (D I 9).
84. So this wrong livelihood entails the transgression
of these six training precepts announced on account of
livelihood, and it entails the evil states beginning with
“Scheming, talking, hinting, belittling, pursuing gain
with gain.” And so it is the abstinence from all sorts of
wrong livelihood that is virtue of livelihood purification,
the word-meaning of which is this: on account of it
they live, thus it is livelihood. What is that? It is the
effort consisting in the search for requisites.

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“Purification” is purifiedness. “Livelihood
purification” is purification of livelihood.
85. (d) As regards the next kind called virtue concerning
requisites, [here is the text: “Reflecting wisely, he uses
the robe only for protection from cold, for protection
from heat, for protection from contact with gadflies,
flies, wind, burning and creeping things, and only for
the purpose of concealing the private parts. Reflecting
wisely, he uses alms food neither for amusement nor
for intoxication nor for smartening nor for
embellishment, but only for the endurance and
continuance of this body, for the ending of discomfort,
and for assisting the life of purity: ’Thus I shall put a
stop to old feelings and shall not arouse new feelings,
and I shall be healthy and blameless and live in
comfort.’ Reflecting wisely, he uses the resting place
only for the purpose of protection from cold, for
protection from heat, for protection from contact with
gadflies, flies, wind, burning and creeping things, and
only for the purpose of warding off the perils of
climate and enjoying retreat. Reflecting wisely, he uses
the requisite of medicine as cure for the sick only for
protection from arisen hurtful feelings and for
complete immunity from affliction” (M I 10). Herein,
reflecting wisely is reflecting as the means and as the
way;[27] by knowing, by reviewing, is the meaning.
And here it is the reviewing stated in the way

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beginning, “For protection from cold” that should be
understood as “reflecting wisely.”
86. Herein, the robe is any one of those beginning with
the inner cloth. He uses: he employs; dresses in [as
inner cloth], or puts on [as upper garment]. Only [31]
is a phrase signifying invariability in the definition of
a limit[28] of a purpose; the purpose in the meditator’s
making use of the robes is that much only, namely,
protection from cold, etc., not more than that. From
cold: from any kind of cold arisen either through
disturbance of elements internally or through change
in temperature externally. For protection: for the
purpose of warding off; for the purpose of eliminating
it so that it may not arouse affliction in the body. For
when the body is afflicted by cold, the distracted mind
cannot be wisely exerted. That is why the Blessed One
permitted the robe to be used for protection from cold.
So in each instance, except that from heat means from
the heat of fire, the origin of which should be
understood as forest fires, and so on.
87. From contact with gadflies and flies, wind and burning
and creeping things: here gadflies are flies that bite; they
are also called “blind flies.” Flies are just flies. Wind is
distinguished as that with dust and that without dust.
Burning is burning of the sun. Creeping things are any
long creatures such as snakes and so on that move by
crawling. Contact with them is of two kinds: contact

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by being bitten and contact by being touched. And
that does not worry him who sits with a robe on. So he
uses it for the purpose of protection from such things.
88. Only: the word is repeated in order to define a
subdivision of the invariable purpose; for the
concealment of the private parts is an invariable
purpose; the others are purposes periodically. Herein,
private parts are any parts of the pudendum. For when
a member is disclosed, conscience (hiri) is disturbed
(kuppati), offended. It is called “private parts”
(hirikopīna) because of the disturbance of conscience
(hiri-kopana). For the purpose of concealing the private
parts: for the purpose of the concealment of those
private parts. [As well as the reading “hiriko-pīna-
paṭicchādanatthaṃ] there is a reading “hirikopīnaṃ
paṭicchādanatthaṃ.”
89. Alms food is any sort of food. For any sort of
nutriment is called “alms food” (piṇḍapāta—lit. “lump-
dropping”) because of its having been dropped
(patitattā) into a bhikkhu’s bowl during his alms round
(piṇḍolya). Or alms food (piṇḍapāta) is the dropping
(pāta) of the lumps (piṇḍa); it is the concurrence
(sannipāta), the collection, of alms (bhikkhā) obtained
here and there, is what is meant.
Neither for amusement: neither for the purpose of
amusement, as with village boys, etc.; for the sake of

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sport, is what is meant. Nor for intoxication: not for the
purpose of intoxication, as with boxers, etc.; for the
sake of intoxication with strength and for the sake of
intoxication with manhood, is what is meant. [32] Nor
for smartening: not for the purpose of smartening, as
with royal concubines, courtesans, etc.; for the sake of
plumpness in all the limbs, is what is meant. Nor for
embellishment: not for the purpose of embellishment, as
with actors, dancers, etc.; for the sake of a clear skin
and complexion, is what is meant.
90. And here the clause neither for amusement is stated
for the purpose of abandoning support for delusion;
nor for intoxication is said for the purpose of
abandoning support for hate; nor for smartening nor for
embellishment is said for the purpose of abandoning
support for greed. And neither for amusement nor for
intoxication is said for the purpose of preventing the
arising of fetters for oneself. Nor for smartening nor for
embellishment is said for the purpose of preventing the
arising of fetters for another. And the abandoning of
both unwise practice and devotion to indulgence of
sense pleasures should be understood as stated by
these four. Only has the meaning already stated.
91. Of this body: of this material body consisting of the
four great primaries. For the endurance: for the purpose
of continued endurance. And continuance: for the
purpose of not interrupting [life’s continued]

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occurrence, or for the purpose of endurance for a long
time. He makes use of the alms food for the purpose of
the endurance, for the purpose of the continuance, of
the body, as the owner of an old house uses props for
his house, and as a carter uses axle grease, not for the
purpose of amusement, intoxication, smartening, and
embellishment. Furthermore, endurance is a term for
the life faculty. So what has been said as far as the
words for the endurance and continuance of this body can
be understood to mean: for the purpose of
maintaining the occurrence of the life faculty in this
body.
92. For the ending of discomfort: hunger is called
“discomfort” in the sense of afflicting. He makes use
of alms food for the purpose of ending that, like
anointing a wound, like counteracting heat with cold,
and so on. For assisting the life of purity: for the purpose
of assisting the life of purity consisting in the whole
dispensation and the life of purity consisting in the
path. For while this [bhikkhu] is engaged in crossing
the desert of existence by means of devotion to the
three trainings depending on bodily strength whose
necessary condition is the use of alms food, he makes
use of it to assist the life of purity just as those seeking
to cross the desert used their child’s flesh,[29] just as
those seeking to cross a river use a raft, and just as
those seeking to cross the ocean use a ship.

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93. Thus I shall put a stop to old feelings and shall not
arouse new feelings: [33] thus as a sick man uses
medicine, he uses [alms food, thinking]: “By use of
this alms food I shall put a stop to the old feeling of
hunger, and I shall not arouse a new feeling by
immoderate eating, like one of the [proverbial]
brahmans, that is, one who eats till he has to be helped
up by hand, or till his clothes will not meet, or till he
rolls there [on the ground], or till crows can peck from
his mouth, or until he vomits what he has eaten. Or
alternatively, there is that which is called ’old feelings’
because, being conditioned by former kamma, it arises
now in dependence on unsuitable immoderate eating
—I shall put a stop to that old feeling, forestalling its
condition by suitable moderate eating. And there is
that which is called ’new feeling’ because it will arise
in the future in dependence on the accumulation of
kamma consisting in making improper use [of the
requisite of alms food] now—I shall also not arouse
that new feeling, avoiding by means of proper use the
production of its root.” This is how the meaning
should be understood here. What has been shown so
far can be understood to include proper use [of
requisites], abandoning of devotion to self-
mortification, and not giving up lawful bliss
(pleasure).
94. And I shall be healthy: “In this body, which exists in

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dependence on requisites, I shall, by moderate eating,
have health called ’long endurance’ since there will be
no danger of severing the life faculty or interrupting
the [continuity of the] postures.” [Reflecting] in this
way, he makes use [of the alms food] as a sufferer
from a chronic disease does of his medicine. And
blameless and live in comfort (lit. “and have
blamelessness and a comfortable abiding”): he makes
use of them thinking: “I shall have blamelessness by
avoiding improper search, acceptance and eating, and
I shall have a comfortable abiding by moderate
eating.” Or he does so thinking: “I shall have
blamelessness due to absence of such faults as
boredom, sloth, sleepiness, blame by the wise, etc.,
that have unseemly immoderate eating as their
condition; and I shall have a comfortable abiding by
producing bodily strength that has seemly moderate
eating as its condition.” Or he does so thinking: “I
shall have blamelessness by abandoning the pleasure
of lying down, lolling and torpor, through refraining
from eating as much as possible to stuff the belly; and
I shall have a comfortable abiding by controlling the
four postures through eating four or five mouthfuls
less than the maximum.” For this is said:
With four or five lumps still to eat
Let him then end by drinking water;
For energetic bhikkhus’ needs

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 This should suffice to live in comfort (Th 983). [34]
Now, what has been shown at this point can be
understood as discernment of purpose and practice of
the middle way.
95. Resting place (senāsana): this is the bed (sena) and
seat (āsana). For wherever one sleeps (seti), whether in
a monastery or in a lean-to, etc., that is the bed (sena);
wherever one seats oneself (āsati), sits (nisīdati), that is
the seat (āsana). Both together are called “resting-
place” (or “abode”—senāsana).
For the purpose of warding off the perils of climate and
enjoying retreat: the climate itself in the sense of
imperilling (parisahana) is “perils of climate” (utu-
parissaya). Unsuitable climatic conditions that cause
mental distraction due to bodily affliction can be
warded off by making use of the resting place; it is for
the purpose of warding off these and for the purpose
of the pleasure of solitude, is what is meant. Of course,
the warding off of the perils of climate is stated by [the
phrase] “protection from cold,” etc., too; but, just as in
the case of making use of the robes the concealment of
the private parts is stated as an invariable purpose
while the others are periodical [purposes], so here also
this [last] should be understood as mentioned with
reference to the invariable warding off of the perils of
climate. Or alternatively, this “climate” of the kind

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stated is just climate; but “perils” are of two kinds:
evident perils and concealed perils (see Nidd I 12).
Herein, evident perils are lions, tigers, etc., while
concealed perils are greed, hate, and so on. When a
bhikkhu knows and reflects thus in making use of the
kind of resting place where these [perils] do not,
owing to unguarded doors and sight of unsuitable
visible objects, etc., cause affliction, he can be
understood as one who “reflecting wisely makes use
of the resting place for the purpose of warding off the
perils of climate.”
96. The requisite of medicine as cure for the sick: here
“cure” (paccaya = going against) is in the sense of
going against (pati-ayana) illness; in the sense of
countering, is the meaning. This is a term for any
suitable remedy. It is the medical man’s work
(bhisakkassa kammaṃ) because it is permitted by him,
thus it is medicine (bhesajja). Or the cure for the sick
itself as medicine is “medicine as cure for the sick.”
Any work of a medical man such as oil, honey, ghee,
etc., that is suitable for one who is sick, is what is
meant. A “requisite” (parikkhāra), however, in such
passages as “It is well supplied with the requisites of a
city” (A IV 106) is equipment; in such passages as
“The chariot has the requisite of virtue, the axle of
jhāna, the wheel of energy” (S V 6) [35] it is an
ornament; in such passages as “The requisites for the

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life of one who has gone into homelessness that
should be available” (M I 104), it is an accessory. But
here both equipment and accessory are applicable. For
that medicine as a cure for the sick is equipment for
maintaining life because it protects by preventing the
arising of affliction destructive to life; and it is an
accessory too because it is an instrument for
prolonging life. That is why it is called “requisite.” So
it is medicine as cure for the sick and that is a
requisite, thus it is a “requisite of medicine as cure for
the sick.” [He makes use of] that requisite of medicine
as cure for the sick; any requisite for life consisting of
oil, honey, molasses, ghee, etc., that is allowed by a
medical man as suitable for the sick, is what is meant.
97. From arisen: from born, become, produced. Hurtful:
here “hurt (affliction)” is a disturbance of elements,
and it is the leprosy, tumours, boils, etc., originated by
that disturbance. Hurtful (veyyābādhika) because arisen
in the form of hurt (byābādha). Feelings: painful
feelings, feelings resulting from unprofitable kamma
—from those hurtful feelings. For complete immunity
from affliction: for complete freedom from pain; so that
all that is painful is abandoned, is the meaning.
This is how this virtue concerning requisites should be
understood. In brief its characteristic is the use of
requisites after wise reflection. The word-meaning
here is this: because breathing things go (ayanti),

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move, proceed, using [what they use] in dependence
on these robes, etc., these robes, etc., are therefore
called requisites (paccaya = ger. of paṭi + ayati);
“concerning requisites” is concerning those requisites.
98. (a) So, in this fourfold virtue, Pātimokkha restraint
has to be undertaken by means of faith. For that is
accomplished by faith, since the announcing of
training precepts is outside the disciples’ province;
and the evidence here is the refusal of the request to
[allow disciples to] announce training precepts (see
Vin III 9–10). Having therefore undertaken through
faith the training precepts without exception as
announced, one should completely perfect them
without regard for life. For this is said: [36]
“As a hen guards her eggs,
Or as a yak her tail,
Or like a darling child,
Or like an only eye—
So you who are engaged
Your virtue to protect,
Be prudent at all times
And ever scrupulous.” (Source untraced)
Also it is said further: “So too, sire, when a training
precept for disciples is announced by me, my disciples
do not transgress it even for the sake of life” (A IV
201).

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99. And the story of the elders bound by robbers in the
forest should be understood in this sense.
It seems that robbers in the Mahāvaṭṭanī Forest
bound an elder with black creepers and made him lie
down. While he lay there for seven days he
augmented his insight, and after reaching the fruition
of non-return, he died there and was reborn in the
Brahmā-world. Also they bound another elder in
Tambapaṇṇi Island (Sri Lanka) with string creepers
and made him lie down. When a forest fire came and
the creepers were not cut, he established insight and
attained Nibbāna simultaneously with his death.
When the Elder Abhaya, a preacher of the Dīgha
Nikāya, passed by with five hundred bhikkhus, he
saw [what had happened] and he had the elder’s body
cremated and a shrine built. Therefore let other
clansmen also:
Maintain the rules of conduct pure,
Renouncing life if there be need,
Rather than break virtue’s restraint
By the World’s Saviour decreed.
100. (b) And as Pātimokkha restraint is undertaken out
of faith, so restraint of the sense faculties should be
undertaken with mindfulness. For that is accomplished
by mindfulness, because when the sense faculties’
functions are founded on mindfulness, there is no

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liability to invasion by covetousness and the rest. So,
recollecting the Fire Discourse, which begins thus,
“Better, bhikkhus, the extirpation of the eye faculty by
a red-hot burning blazing glowing iron spike than the
apprehension of signs in the particulars of visible
objects cognizable by the eye” (S IV 168), this
[restraint] should be properly undertaken by
preventing with unremitting mindfulness any
apprehension, in the objective fields consisting of
visible data, etc., of any signs, etc., likely to encourage
covetousness, etc., to invade consciousness occurring
in connection with the eye door, and so on.
101. [37] When not undertaken thus, virtue of
Pātimokkha restraint is unenduring: it does not last,
like a crop not fenced in with branches. And it is
raided by the robber defilements as a village with
open gates is by thieves. And lust leaks into his mind
as rain does into a badly-roofed house. For this is said:
“Among the visible objects, sounds, and smells,
And tastes, and tangibles, guard the faculties;
For when these doors are open and unguarded,
Then thieves will come and raid as ’twere a
village (?).
And just as with an ill-roofed house
The rain comes leaking in, so too
Will lust come leaking in for sure

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 Upon an undeveloped mind” (Dhp 13).
102. When it is undertaken thus, virtue of Pātimokkha
restraint is enduring: it lasts, like a crop well fenced in
with branches. And it is not raided by the robber
defilements, as a village with well-guarded gates is
not by thieves. And lust does not leak into his mind, as
rain does not into a well-roofed house. For this is said:
“Among the visible objects, sounds and smells,
And tastes and tangibles, guard the faculties;
For when these doors are closed and truly
guarded,
Thieves will not come and raid as ’twere a village
(?).
“And just as with a well-roofed house
No rain comes leaking in, so too
No lust comes leaking in for sure
Upon a well-developed mind” (Dhp 14).
103. This, however, is the teaching at its very highest.
This mind is called “quickly transformed” (A I 10),
so restraint of the faculties should be undertaken by
removing arisen lust with the contemplation of
foulness, as was done by the Elder Vaṅgīsa soon after
he had gone forth. [38]
As the elder was wandering for alms, it seems, soon
after going forth, lust arose in him on seeing a woman.

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Thereupon he said to the venerable Ānanda:
“I am afire with sensual lust.
And burning flames consume my mind;
In pity tell me, Gotama,
How to extinguish it for good” (S I 188).
The elder said:
“You do perceive mistakenly,
That burning flames consume your mind.
Look for no sign of beauty there,
For that it is which leads to lust.
See foulness there and keep your mind
Harmoniously concentrated;
Formations see as alien,
As ill, not self, so this great lust
May be extinguished, and no more
Take fire thus ever and again” (S I 188).
The elder expelled his lust and then went on with
his alms round.
104. Moreover, a bhikkhu who is fulfilling restraint of
the faculties should be like the Elder Cittagutta
resident in the Great Cave at Kuraṇḍaka, and like the
Elder Mahā Mitta resident at the Great Monastery of
Coraka.
105. In the Great Cave of Kuraṇḍaka, it seems, there
was a lovely painting of the Renunciation of the Seven

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Buddhas. A number of bhikkhus wandering about
among the dwellings saw the painting and said,
“What a lovely painting, venerable sir!” The elder
said: “For more than sixty years, friends, I have lived
in the cave, and I did not know whether there was any
painting there or not. Now, today, I know it through
those who have eyes.” The elder, it seems, though he
had lived there for so long, had never raised his eyes
and looked up at the cave. And at the door of his cave
there was a great ironwood tree. And the elder had
never looked up at that either. He knew it was in
flower when he saw its petals on the ground each
year.
106. The king heard of the elder’s great virtues, and he
sent for him three times, desiring to pay homage to
him. When the elder did not go, he had the breasts of
all the women with infants in the town bound and
sealed off, [saying] “As long as the elder does not
come let the children go without milk,” [39] Out of
compassion for the children the elder went to
Mahāgāma. When the king heard [that he had come,
he said] “Go and bring the elder in. I shall take the
precepts.” Having had him brought up into the inner
palace, he paid homage to him and provided him with
a meal. Then, saying, “Today, venerable sir, there is no
opportunity. I shall take the precepts tomorrow,” he
took the elder’s bowl. After following him for a little,

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he paid homage with the queen and turned back. As
seven days went by thus, whether it was the king who
paid homage or whether it was the queen, the elder
said, “May the king be happy.”
107. Bhikkhus asked: “Why is it, venerable sir, that
whether it is the king who pays the homage or the
queen you say ’May the king be happy’?” The elder
replied: “Friends, I do not notice whether it is the king
or the queen.” At the end of seven days [when it was
found that] the elder was not happy living there, he
was dismissed by the king. He went back to the Great
Cave at Kuraṇḍaka. When it was night he went out
onto his walk. A deity who dwelt in the ironwood tree
stood by with a torch of sticks. Then his meditation
subject became quite clear and plain. The elder,
[thinking] “How clear my meditation subject is
today!” was glad, and immediately after the middle
watch he reached Arahantship, making the whole rock
resound.[30]
108. So when another clansman seeks his own good:
Let him not be hungry-eyed,
Like a monkey in the groves,
Like a wild deer in the woods,
Like a nervous little child.
Let him go with eyes downcast
Seeing a plough yoke’s length before,

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 That he fall not in the power
Of the forest-monkey mind.
109. The Elder Mahā Mitta’s mother was sick with a
poisoned tumour. She told her daughter, who as a
bhikkhunī had also gone forth, “Lady, go to your
brother. Tell him my trouble and bring back some
medicine.” She went and told him. The elder said: “I
do not know how to gather root medicines and such
things and concoct a medicine from them. But rather I
will tell you a medicine: since I went forth I have not
broken [my virtue of restraint of] the sense faculties by
looking at the bodily form of the opposite sex with a
lustful mind. By this [40] declaration of truth may my
mother get well. Go and tell the lay devotee and rub
her body.” She went and told her what had happened
and then did as she had been instructed. At that very
moment the lay devotee’s tumour vanished, shrinking
away like a lump of froth. She got up and uttered a cry
of joy: “If the Fully Enlightened One were still alive,
why should he not stroke with his netadorned hand
the head of a bhikkhu like my son?” So:
110. Let another noble clansman
Gone forth in the Dispensation
Keep, as did the Elder Mitta,
Perfect faculty restraint.
111. (c) As restraint of the faculties is to be undertaken

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by means of mindfulness, so livelihood purification is to
be undertaken by means of energy. For that is
accomplished by energy, because the abandoning of
wrong livelihood is effected in one who has rightly
applied energy. Abandoning, therefore, unbefitting
wrong search, this should be undertaken with energy
by means of the right kind of search consisting in
going on alms round, etc., avoiding what is of impure
origin as though it were a poisonous snake, and using
only requisites of pure origin.
112. Herein, for one who has not taken up the ascetic
practices, any requisites obtained from the
Community, from a group of bhikkhus, or from
laymen who have confidence in his special qualities of
teaching the Dhamma, etc., are called “of pure origin.”
But those obtained on alms round, etc., are of
extremely pure origin. For one who has taken up the
ascetic practices, those obtained on alms round, etc.,
and—as long as this is in accordance with the rules of
the ascetic practices—from people who have
confidence in his special qualities of asceticism, are
called “of pure origin.” And if he has got putrid urine
with mixed gall nuts and “four-sweets”[31] for the
purpose of curing a certain affliction, and he eats only
the broken gall nuts, thinking, “Other companions in
the life of purity will eat the ’four-sweets’,” his
undertaking of the ascetic practices is befitting, for he

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is then called a bhikkhu who is supreme in the Noble
Ones’ heritages (A II 28).
113. As to the robe and the other requisites, no hint,
indication, roundabout talk, or intimation about robes
and alms food is allowable for a bhikkhu who is
purifying his livelihood. But a hint, indication, or
roundabout talk about a resting place is allowable for
one who has not taken up the ascetic practices. [41]
114. Herein, a “hint” is when one who is getting the
preparing of the ground, etc., done for the purpose of
[making] a resting place is asked, “What is being done,
venerable sir? Who is having it done?” and he replies,
“No one”; or any other such giving of hints. An
“indication” is saying, “Lay follower, where do you
live?”—”In a mansion, venerable sir”—”But, lay
follower, a mansion is not allowed for bhikkhus.” Or
any other such giving of indication. “Roundabout
talk” is saying, “The resting place for the Community
of Bhikkhus is crowded”; or any other such oblique
talk.
115. All, however, is allowed in the case of medicine.
But when the disease is cured, is it or is it not allowed
to use the medicine obtained in this way? Herein, the
Vinaya specialists say that the opening has been given
by the Blessed One, therefore it is allowable. But the
Suttanta specialists say that though there is no offence,

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nevertheless the livelihood is sullied, therefore it is not
allowable.
116. But one who does not use hints, indications,
roundabout talk, or intimation, though these are
permitted by the Blessed One, and who depends only
on the special qualities of fewness of wishes, etc., and
makes use only of requisites obtained otherwise than
by indication, etc., even when he thus risks his life, is
called supreme in living in effacement, like the
venerable Sāriputta.
117. It seems that the venerable one was cultivating
seclusion at one time, living in a certain forest with the
Elder Mahā Moggallāna. One day an affliction of colic
arose in him, causing him great pain. In the evening
the Elder Mahā Moggallāna went to attend upon him.
Seeing him lying down, he asked what the reason was.
And then he asked, “What used to make you better
formerly, friend?” The elder said, “When I was a
layman, friend, my mother used to mix ghee, honey,
sugar and so on, and give me rice gruel with pure
milk. That used to make me better.” Then the other
said, “So be it, friend. If either you or I have merit,
perhaps tomorrow we shall get some.”
118. Now, a deity who dwelt in a tree at the end of the
walk overheard their conversation. [Thinking] “I will
find rice gruel for the lord tomorrow,” he went

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meanwhile to the family who was supporting the
elder [42] and entered into the body of the eldest son,
causing him discomfort. Then he told the assembled
relatives the price of the cure: “If you prepare rice
gruel of such a kind tomorrow for the elder, I will set
this one free.” They said: “Even without being told by
you we regularly supply the elder’s needs,” and on
the following day they prepared rice gruel of the kind
needed.
119. The Elder Mahā Moggallāna came in the morning
and said, “Stay here, friend, till I come back from the
alms round.” Then he went into the village. Those
people met him. They took his bowl, filled it with the
stipulated kind of rice gruel, and gave it back to him.
The elder made as though to go, but they said, “Eat,
venerable sir, we shall give you more.” When the elder
had eaten, they gave him another bowlful. The elder
left. Bringing the alms food to the venerable Sāriputta,
he said, “Here, friend Sāriputta, eat.” When the elder
saw it, he thought, “The gruel is very nice. How was it
got?” and seeing how it had been obtained, he said,
“Friend, the alms food cannot be used.”
120. Instead of thinking, “He does not eat alms food
brought by the likes of me,” the other at once took the
bowl by the rim and turned it over on one side. As the
rice gruel fell on the ground the elder’s affliction
vanished. From then on it did not appear again during

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forty-five years.
121. Then he said to the venerable Mahā Moggallāna,
“Friend, even if one’s bowels come out and trail on the
ground, it is not fitting to eat gruel got by verbal
intimation,” and he uttered this exclamation:
My livelihood might well be blamed
If I were to consent to eat
The honey and the gruel obtained
By influence of verbal hints.
And even if my bowels obtrude
And trail outside, and even though
My life is to be jeopardized,
I will not blot my livelihood (Mil 370).
For I will satisfy my heart
By shunning all wrong kinds of search;
And never will I undertake
The search the Buddhas have condemned. [43]
122. And here too should be told the story of the Elder
Mahā Tissa the Mango-eater who lived at
Cīragumba[32] (see §132 below). So in all respects:
A man who has gone forth in faith
Should purify his livelihood
And, seeing clearly, give no thought
To any search that is not good.
123. (d) And as livelihood purification is to be

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undertaken by means of energy, so virtue dependent on
requisites is to be undertaken by means of
understanding. For that is accomplished by
understanding, because one who possesses
understanding is able to see the advantages and the
dangers in requisites. So one should abandon greed
for requisites and undertake that virtue by using
requisites obtained lawfully and properly, after
reviewing them with understanding in the way
aforesaid.
124. Herein, reviewing is of two kinds: at the time of
receiving requisites and at the time of using them. For
use (paribhoga) is blameless in one who at the time of
receiving robes, etc., reviews them either as [mere]
elements or as repulsive,[33] and puts them aside for
later use, and in one who reviews them thus at the
time of using them.
125. Here is an explanation to settle the matter. There
are four kinds of use: use as theft,[34] use as a debt?,
use as an inheritance, use as a master. Herein, use by
one who is unvirtuous and makes use [of requisites],
even sitting in the midst of the Community, is called
“use as theft.” Use without reviewing by one who is
virtuous is “use as a debt”; therefore the robe should
be reviewed every time it is used, and the alms food
lump by lump. One who cannot do this [should

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review it] before the meal, after the meal, in the first
watch, in the middle watch, and in the last watch. If
dawn breaks on him without his having reviewed it,
he finds himself in the position of one who has used it
as a debt. Also the resting place should be reviewed
each time it is used. Recourse to mindfulness both in
the accepting and the use of medicine is proper; but
while this is so, though there is an offence for one who
uses it without mindfulness after mindful acceptance,
there is no offence for one who is mindful in using
after accepting without mindfulness.
126. Purification is of four kinds: purification by the
Teaching, purification by restraint, purification by
search, and purification by reviewing. Herein, virtue of
the Pātimokkha restraint is called “purification by the
Teaching”; [44] for that is so called because it purifies
by means of teaching. Virtue of restraint of faculties is
called “purification by restraint”; for that is so called
because it purifies by means of the restraint in the
mental resolution, “I shall not do so again.” Virtue of
livelihood purification is called “purification by search”;
for that is so called because search is purified in one
who abandons wrong search and gets requisites
lawfully and properly. Virtue dependent on requisites is
called “purification by reviewing”; for that is so called
because it purifies by the reviewing of the kind
already described. Hence it was said above (§125):

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“There is no offence for one who is mindful in using
after accepting without mindfulness.”
127. Use of the requisites by the seven kinds of trainers
is called “use as an inheritance”; for they are the
Buddha’s sons, therefore they make use of the
requisites as the heirs of requisites belonging to their
father. But how then, is it the Blessed One’s requisites
or the laity’s requisites that are used? Although given
by the laity, they actually belong to the Blessed One,
because it is by the Blessed One that they are
permitted. That is why it should be understood that
the Blessed One’s requisites are used. The
confirmation here is in the Dhammadāyāda Sutta (MN
3).
Use by those whose cankers are destroyed is called
“use as a master”; for they make use of them as
masters because they have escaped the slavery of
craving.
128. As regards these kinds of use, use as a master and
use as an inheritance are allowable for all. Use as a
debt is not allowable, to say nothing of use as theft.
But this use of what is reviewed by one who is
virtuous is use freed from debt because it is the
opposite of use as a debt or is included in use as an
inheritance too. For one possessed of virtue is called a
trainer too because of possessing this training.

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129. As regards these three kinds of use, since use as a
master is best, when a bhikkhu undertakes virtue
dependent on requisites, he should aspire to that and use
them after reviewing them in the way described. And
this is said: [45]
“The truly wise disciple
Who listens to the Dhamma
As taught by the Sublime One
Makes use, after reviewing,
Of alms food, and of dwelling,
And of a resting place,
And also of the water
For washing dirt from robes” (Sn 391).
“So like a drop of water
Lying on leaves of lotus,
A bhikkhu is unsullied
By any of these matters,
By alms food, [and by dwelling,]
And by a resting place,
And also by the water
For washing dirt from robes” (Sn 392).
“Since aid it is and timely
Procured from another
The right amount he reckons,
Mindful without remitting
In chewing and in eating,

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 In tasting food besides:
He treats it as an ointment
Applied upon a wound.” (Source untraced)
“So like the child’s flesh in the desert
Like the greasing for the axle,
He should eat without delusion
Nutriment to keep alive.” (Source untraced)
130. And in connection with the fulfilling of this virtue
dependent on requisites there should be told the story
of the novice Saṅgharakkhita the Nephew. For he
made use of requisites after reviewing, according as it
is said:
“Seeing me eat a dish of rice
Quite cold, my preceptor observed:
’Novice, if you are not restrained,
Be careful not to burn your tongue.’
On hearing my Preceptor’s words,
I then and there felt urged to act
And, sitting in a single session,
I reached the goal of Arahantship.
Since I am now waxed full in thought
Like the full moon of the fifteenth (M III 277),
And all my cankers are destroyed,
There is no more becoming now.” [46]
And so should any other man
Aspiring to end suffering

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 Make use of all the requisites
Wisely after reviewing them.
So virtue is of four kinds as “virtue of Pātimokkha
restraint,” and so on.
131. 18. In the first pentad in the fivefold section the
meaning should be understood in accordance with the
virtue of those not fully admitted to the Order, and so
on. For this is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “(a) What is
virtue consisting in limited purification? That of the
training precepts for those not fully admitted to the
Order: such is virtue consisting in limited purification.
(b) What is virtue consisting in unlimited purification?
That of the training precepts for those fully admitted
to the Order: such is virtue consisting in unlimited
purification. (c) What is virtue consisting in fulfilled
purification? That of magnanimous ordinary men
devoted to profitable things, who are perfecting [the
course] that ends in trainership, regardless of the
physical body and life, having given up [attachment
to] life: such is virtue of fulfilled purification, (d) What
is virtue consisting in purification not adhered to?
That of the seven kinds of trainer: such is virtue
consisting in purification not adhered to. (e) What is
virtue consisting in tranquillized purification? That of
the Perfect One’s disciples with cankers destroyed, of
the Paccekabuddhas, of the Perfect Ones,
accomplished and fully enlightened: such is virtue

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consisting in tranquillized purification” (Paṭis I 42–43).
132. (a) Herein, the virtue of those not fully admitted
to the Order should be understood as virtue consisting
in limited purification, because it is limited by the
number [of training precepts, that is, five or eight or
ten].
(b) That of those fully admitted to the Order is
[describable] thus:
Nine thousand millions, and a hundred
And eighty millions then as well,
And fifty plus a hundred thousand,
And thirty-six again to swell.
The total restraint disciplines:
These rules the Enlightened One explains
Told under heads for filling out,
Which the Discipline restraint contains.[35]
So although limited in number, [47] it should yet be
understood as virtue consisting in unlimited purification,
since it is undertaken without reserve and has no
obvious limit such as gain, fame, relatives, limbs or
life. Like the virtue of the Elder Mahā Tissa the
Mango-eater who lived at Cīragumba (see §122
above).
133. For that venerable one never abandoned the
following good man’s recollection:

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 “Wealth for a sound limb’s sake should be
renounced,
And one who guards his life gives up his limbs;
And wealth and limbs and life, each one of these,
A man gives up who practices the Dhamma.”
And he never transgressed a training precept even
when his life was in the balance, and in this way he
reached Arahantship with that same virtue of
unlimited purification as his support while he was
being carried on a lay devotee’s back. According to as
it is said:
“Nor your mother nor your father
Nor your relatives and kin
Have done as much as this for you
Because you are possessed of virtue.”
So, stirred with urgency, and wisely
Comprehending[36] with insight,
While carried on his helper’s back
He reached the goal of Arahantship.
134. (c) The magnanimous ordinary man’s virtue,
which from the time of admission to the Order is
devoid even of the stain of a [wrong] thought because
of its extreme purity, like a gem of purest water, like
well-refined gold, becomes the proximate cause for
Arahantship itself, which is why it is called consisting
of fulfilled purification; like that of the lders

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Saṅgharakkhita the Great and Saṅgharakkhita the
Nephew.
135. The Elder Saṅgharakkhita the Great (Mahā
Saṅgharakkhita), aged over sixty, was lying, it seems,
on his deathbed. The Order of Bhikkhus questioned
him about attainment of the supramundane state. The
elder said: “I have no supramundane state.” Then the
young bhikkhu who was attending on him said:
“Venerable sir, people have come as much as twelve
leagues, thinking that you have reached Nibbāna. It
will be a disappointment for many if you die as an
ordinary man.”—“Friend, thinking to see the Blessed
One Metteyya, I did not try for insight. [48] So help me
to sit up and give me the chance.” He helped the elder
to sit up and went out. As he went out the elder
reached Arahantship and he gave a sign by snapping
his fingers. The Order assembled and said to him:
“Venerable sir, you have done a difficult thing in
achieving the supramundane state in the hour of
death.”—“That was not difficult, friends. But rather I
will tell you what is difficult. Friends, I see no action
done [by me] without mindfulness and unknowingly
since the time I went forth.” His nephew also reached
Arahantship in the same way at the age of fifty years.
136. “Now, if a man has little learning
And he is careless of his virtue,
They censure him on both accounts

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 For lack of virtue and of learning.
“But if he is of little learning
Yet he is careful of his virtue,
They praise him for his virtue, so
It is as though he too had learning.
“And if he is of ample learning
Yet he is careless of his virtue,
They blame him for his virtue, so
It is as though he had no learning.
“But if he is of ample learning
And he is careful of his virtue,
They give him praise on both accounts
For virtue and as well for learning.
“The Buddha’s pupil of much learning
Who keeps the Law with understanding—
A jewel of Jambu River gold[37]
Who is here fit to censure him?
Deities praise him [constantly],
By Brahmā also is he praised (A II 7).
137. (d) What should be understood as virtue consisting
in purification not adhered to is trainers’ virtue, because
it is not adhered to by [false] view, and ordinary men’s
virtue when not adhered to by greed. Like the virtue
of the Elder Tissa the Landowner’s Son
(Kuṭumbiyaputta-Tissa-thera). Wanting to become

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established in Arahantship in dependence on such
virtue, this venerable one told his enemies:
I broke the bones of both my legs
To give the pledge you asked from me.
I am revolted and ashamed
At death accompanied by greed. [49]
“And after I had thought on this,
And wisely then applied insight,
When the sun rose and shone on me,
I had become an Arahant” (M-a I 233).
138. Also there was a certain senior elder who was
very ill and unable to eat with his own hand. He was
writhing smeared with his own urine and excrement.
Seeing him, a certain young bhikkhu said, “Oh, what a
painful process life is!” The senior elder told him: “If I
were to die now, friend, I should obtain the bliss of
heaven; I have no doubt of that. But the bliss obtained
by breaking this virtue would be like the lay state
obtained by disavowing the training,” and he added:
“I shall die together with my virtue.” As he lay there,
he comprehended that same illness [with insight], and
he reached Arahantship. Having done so, he
pronounced these verses to the Order of Bhikkhus:
“I am victim of a sickening disease
That racks me with its burden of cruel pain;
As flowers in the dust burnt by the sun,

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 So this my corpse will soon have withered up.
“Unbeautiful called beautiful,
Unclean while reckoned as if clean,
Though full of ordure seeming fair
To him that cannot see it clear.
“So out upon this ailing rotting body,
Fetid and filthy, punished with affliction,
Doting on which this silly generation
Has lost the way to be reborn in heaven!” (J-a II
437)
139. (e) It is the virtue of the Arahants, etc., that should
be understood as tranquillized purification, because of
tranquillization of all disturbance and because of
purifiedness.
So it is of five kinds as “consisting in limited
purification,” and so on.
140. 19. In the second pentad the meaning should be
understood as the abandoning, etc., of killing living
things, etc.; for this is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “Five
kinds of virtue: (1) In the case of killing living things,
(a) abandoning is virtue, (b) abstention is virtue, (c)
volition is virtue, (d) restraint is virtue, (e) non-
transgression is virtue. (2) In the case of taking what is
not given … (3) In the case of sexual misconduct … (4)
In the case of false speech … (5) In the case of
malicious speech … (6) In the case of harsh speech …

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(7) In the case of gossip … [50] (8) In the case of
covetousness … (9) In the case of ill will … (10) In the
case of wrong view …
(11) “Through renunciation in the case of lust, (a)
abandoning is virtue … (12) Through non-ill-will in
the case of ill-will … (13) Through perception of light
in the case of stiffness-and-torpor … (14) Through
non-distraction … agitation … (15) Through definition
of states (dhamma) … uncertainty … (16) Through
knowledge … ignorance … (17) Through gladdening
in the case of boredom …
(18) “Through the first jhāna in the case of the
hindrances, (a) abandoning is virtue … (19) Through
the second jhāna … applied and sustained thought …
(20) Through the third jhāna … happiness … (21)
Through the fourth jhāna in the case of pleasure and
pain, (a) abandoning is virtue … (22) Through the
attainment of the base consisting of boundless space in
the case of perceptions of matter, perceptions of
resistance, and perceptions of variety, (a) abandoning
is virtue … (23) Through the attainment of the base
consisting of boundless consciousness in the case of
the perception of the base consisting of boundless
space … (24) Through the attainment of the base
consisting of nothingness in the case of the perception
of the base consisting of boundless consciousness …
(25) Through the attainment of the base consisting of

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neither perception nor non-perception in the case of
the perception of the base consisting of nothingness …
(26) “Through the contemplation of impermanence
in the case of the perception of permanence, (a)
abandoning is virtue … (27) Through the
contemplation of pain in the case of the perception of
pleasure … (28) Through the contemplation of not-self
in the case of the perception of self … (29) Through the
contemplation of dispassion in the case of the
perception of delighting … (30) Through the
contemplation of fading away in the case of greed …
(31) Through the contemplation of cessation in the
case of originating … (32) Through the contemplation
of relinquishment in the case of grasping …
(33) “Through the contemplation of destruction in
the case of the perception of compactness, (a)
abandoning is virtue … (34) Through the
contemplation of fall [of formations] in the case of
accumulating [kamma] … (35) Through the
contemplation of change in the case of the perception
of lastingness … (36) Through the contemplation of
the signless in the case of a sign … (37) Through the
contemplation of the desireless in the case of desire …
(38) Through the contemplation of voidness in the case
of misinterpreting (insistence) … (39) Through insight
into states that is higher understanding in the case of
misinterpreting (insistence) due to grasping … (40)

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Through correct knowledge and vision in the case of
misinterpreting (insistence) due to confusion … (41)
Through the contemplation of danger in the case of
misinterpreting (insistence) due to reliance [on
formations] … (42) Through reflection in the case of
non-reflection … (43) Through the contemplation of
turning away in the case of misinterpreting
(insistence) due to bondage …
(44) “Through the path of stream-entry in the case of
defilements coefficient with [false] view, (a)
abandoning is virtue … (45) Through the path of once-
return in the case of gross defilements … (46) Through
the path of non-return in the case of residual
defilements … (47) Through the path of Arahantship
in the case of all defilements, (a) abandoning is virtue,
(b) abstention is virtue, (c) volition is virtue, (d)
restraint is virtue, (e) non-transgression is virtue.
“Such virtues lead to non-remorse in the mind, to
gladdening, to happiness, to tranquillity, to joy, to
repetition, to development, to cultivation, to
embellishment, to the requisite [for concentration], to
the equipment [of concentration], to fulfilment, to
complete dispassion, to fading away, to cessation, to
peace, to direct-knowledge, to enlightenment, to
Nibbāna.”[38] (Paṭis I 46–47)
141. And here there is no state called abandoning

204
other than the mere non-arising of the killing of living
things, etc., as stated. But the abandoning of a given
[unprofitable state] upholds [51] a given profitable
state in the sense of providing a foundation for it, and
concentrates it by preventing wavering, so it is called
“virtue” (sīla) in the sense of composing (sīlana),
reckoned as upholding and concentrating as stated
earlier (§19).
The other four things mentioned refer to the
presence[39] of occurrence of will as abstention from
such and such, as restraint of such and such, as the
volition associated with both of these, and as non-
transgression in one who does not transgress such and
such. But their meaning of virtue has been explained
already.
So it is of five kinds as “virtue consisting in
abandoning” and so on.
142. At this point the answers to the questions, “What
is virtue? In what sense is it virtue? What are its
characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate
cause? What are the benefits of virtue? How many
kinds of virtue are there?” are complete.
143. However, it was also asked (vi) WHAT IS THE
DEFILING OF IT? and WHAT IS THE CLEANSING OF IT?

We answer that virtue’s tornness, etc., is its defiling,

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and that its untornness, etc., is its cleansing. Now, that
tornness, etc., are comprised under the breach that has
gain, fame, etc., as its cause, and under the seven
bonds of sexuality. When a man has broken the
training course at the beginning or at the end in any
instance of the seven classes of offences,[40] his virtue
is called torn, like a cloth that is cut at the edge. But
when he has broken it in the middle, it is called rent,
like a cloth that is rent in the middle. When he has
broken it twice or thrice in succession, it is called
blotched, like a cow whose body is some such colour
as black or red with a discrepant colour appearing on
the back or the belly. When he has broken it [all over]
at intervals, it is called mottled, like a cow speckled
[all over] with discrepant-coloured spots at intervals.
This in the first place, is how there comes to be
tornness with the breach that has gain, etc., as its
cause.
144. And likewise with the seven bonds of sexuality;
for this is said by the Blessed One: “Here, brahman,
some ascetic or brahman claims to lead the life of
purity rightly; for he does not [52] enter into actual
sexual intercourse with women. Yet he agrees to
massage, manipulation, bathing and rubbing down by
women. He enjoys it, desires it and takes satisfaction
in it. This is what is torn, rent, blotched and mottled in
one who leads the life of purity. This man is said to

206
lead a life of purity that is unclean. As one who is
bound by the bond of sexuality, he will not be released
from birth, ageing and death … he will not be released
from suffering, I say.
145. “Furthermore, brahman, … while he does not
agree to [these things], yet he jokes, plays and amuses
himself with women …
146. “Furthermore, brahman, … while he does not
agree to [these things], yet he gazes and stares at
women eye to eye …
147. “Furthermore, brahman, … while he does not
agree to [these things], yet he listens to the sound of
women through a wall or through a fence as they
laugh or talk or sing or weep …
148. “Furthermore, brahman, … while he does not
agree to [these things], yet he recalls laughs and talks
and games that he formerly had with women …
149. “Furthermore, brahman, … while he does not
agree to [these things], [53] yet he sees a householder
or a householder’s son possessed of, endowed with,
and indulging in, the five cords of sense desire …
150. “Furthermore, brahman, while he does not agree
to [these things], yet he leads the life of purity aspiring
to some order of deities, [thinking] ’Through this rite
(virtue) or this ritual (vow) or this asceticism I shall

207
become a [great] deity or some [lesser] deity.’ He
enjoys it, desires it, and takes satisfaction in it. This,
brahman, is what is torn, rent, blotched and mottled in
one who leads the life of purity. This man … will not
be released from suffering, I say” (A IV 54–56).
This is how tornness, etc., should be understood as
included under the breach that has gain, etc., as its
cause and under the seven bonds of sexuality.
151. Untornness, however, is accomplished by the
complete non-breaking of the training precepts, by
making amends for those broken for which amends
should be made, by the absence of the seven bonds of
sexuality, and, as well, by the non-arising of such evil
things as anger, enmity, contempt, domineering, envy,
avarice, deceit, fraud, obduracy, presumption, pride
(conceit), haughtiness, conceit (vanity), and negligence
(MN 7), and by the arising of such qualities as fewness
of wishes, contentment, and effacement (MN 24).
152. Virtues not broken for the purpose of gain, etc.,
and rectified by making amends after being broken by
the faults of negligence, etc., and not damaged by the
bonds of sexuality and by such evil things as anger
and enmity, are called entirely untorn, unrent,
unblotched, and unmottled. And those same virtues
are liberating since they bring about the state of a
freeman, and praised by the wise since it is by the wise

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that they are praised, and unadhered-to since they are
not adhered to by means of craving and views, and
conducive to concentration since they conduce to access
concentration or to absorption concentration. That is
why their untornness, etc., should be understood as
“cleansing” (see also VII.101f.).
153. This cleansing comes about in two ways: through
seeing the danger of failure in virtue, and through
seeing the benefit of perfected virtue. [54] Herein, the
danger of failure in virtue can be seen in accordance
with such suttas as that beginning, “Bhikkhus, there
are these five dangers for the unvirtuous in the failure
of virtue” (A III 252).
154. Furthermore, on account of his unvirtuousness an
unvirtuous person is displeasing to deities and human
beings, is uninstructable by his fellows in the life of
purity, suffers when unvirtuousness is censured, and
is remorseful when the virtuous are praised. Owing to
that unvirtuousness he is as ugly as hemp cloth.
Contact with him is painful because those who fall in
with his views are brought to long-lasting suffering in
the states of loss. He is worthless because he causes no
great fruit [to accrue] to those who give him gifts. He
is as hard to purify as a cesspit many years old. He is
like a log from a pyre (see It 99); for he is outside both
[recluseship and the lay state]. Though claiming the
bhikkhu state he is no bhikkhu, so he is like a donkey

209
following a herd of cattle. He is always nervous, like a
man who is everyone’s enemy. He is as unfit to live
with as a dead carcase. Though he may have the
qualities of learning, etc., he is as unfit for the homage
of his fellows in the life of purity as a charnel-ground
fire is for that of brahmans. He is as incapable of
reaching the distinction of attainment as a blind man
is of seeing a visible object. He is as careless of the
Good Law as a guttersnipe is of a kingdom. Though
he fancies he is happy, yet he suffers because he reaps
suffering as told in the Discourse on the Mass of Fire
(A IV 128–34).
155. Now, the Blessed One has shown that when the
unvirtuous have their minds captured by pleasure and
satisfaction in the indulgence of the five cords of sense
desires, in [receiving] salutation, in being honoured,
etc., the result of that kamma, directly visible in all
ways, is very violent pain, with that [kamma] as its
condition, capable of producing a gush of hot blood by
causing agony of heart with the mere recollection of it.
Here is the text:
“Bhikkhus, do you see that great mass of fire
burning, blazing and glowing?—Yes, venerable sir.—
What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one
[gone forth] should sit down or lie down embracing
that mass of fire burning, blazing and glowing, or that
he should sit down or lie down embracing a warrior-

210
noble maiden or a brahman maiden or a maiden of
householder family, with soft, delicate hands and feet?
—It would be better, venerable sir, that he should sit
down or lie down embracing a warrior-noble maiden
… [55] It would be painful, venerable sir, if he sat
down or lay down embracing that great mass of fire
burning, blazing and glowing.
156. “I say to you, bhikkhus, I declare to you,
bhikkhus, that it would be better for one [gone forth]
who is unvirtuous, who is evil-natured, of unclean
and suspect habits, secretive of his acts, who is not an
ascetic and claims to be one, who does not lead the life
of purity and claims to do so, who is rotten within,
lecherous, and full of corruption, to sit down or lie
down embracing that great mass of fire burning,
blazing and glowing. Why is that? By his doing so,
bhikkhus, he might come to death or deadly suffering,
yet he would not on that account, on the breakup of
the body, after death, reappear in states of loss, in an
unhappy destiny, in perdition, in hell. But if one who
is unvirtuous, evil-natured … and full of corruption,
should sit down or lie down embracing a warrior-
noble maiden … that would be long for his harm and
suffering: on the break-up of the body, after death, he
would reappear in states of loss, in an unhappy
destiny, in perdition, in hell” (A IV 128–29).
157. Having thus shown by means of the analogy of

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the mass of fire the suffering that is bound up with
women and has as its condition the indulgence of the
five cords of sense desires [by the unvirtuous], to the
same intent he showed, by the following similes of the
horse-hair rope, the sharp spear, the iron sheet, the
iron ball, the iron bed, the iron chair, and the iron
cauldron, the pain that has as its condition [acceptance
of] homage and reverential salutation, and the use of
robes, alms food, bed and chair, and dwelling [by
unvirtuous bhikkhus]:
“What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that
one should have a strong horse-hair rope twisted
round both legs by a strong man and tightened so that
it cut through the outer skin, and having cut through
the outer skin it cut through the inner skin, and having
cut through the inner skin it cut through the flesh, and
having cut through the flesh it cut through the sinews,
and having cut through the sinews it cut through the
bones, and having cut through the bones it remained
crushing the bone marrow—or that he should consent
to the homage of great warrior-nobles, great
brahmans, great householders?” (A IV 129). [56]
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better,
that one should have a strong man wound one’s breast
with a sharp spear tempered in oil—or that he should
consent to the reverential salutation of great warrior-
nobles, great brahmans, great householders?” (A IV

212
130).
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better,
that one’s body should be wrapped by a strong man in
a red-hot iron sheet burning, blazing and glowing—or
that he should use robes given out of faith by great
warrior-nobles, great brahmans, great householders?”
(A IV 130–31).
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better,
that one’s mouth should be prised open by a strong
man with red-hot iron tongs burning, blazing and
glowing, and that into his mouth should be put a red-
hot iron ball burning, blazing and glowing, which
burns his lips and burns his mouth and tongue and
throat and belly and passes out below carrying with it
his bowels and entrails—or that he should use alms
food given out of faith by great warrior-nobles …?” (A
IV 131–32).
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better,
that one should have a strong man seize him by the
head or seize him by the shoulders and seat him or lay
him on a red-hot iron bed or iron chair, burning,
blazing and glowing—or that he should use a bed or
chair given out of faith by great warrior-nobles …?”
(A IV 132–33).
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better,
that one should have a strong man take him feet up

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and head down and plunge him into a red-hot metal
cauldron burning, blazing and glowing, to be boiled
there in a swirl of froth, and as he boils in the swirl of
froth to be swept now up, now down, and now across
—or that he should use a dwelling given out of faith
by great warrior-nobles …?” (A IV 133–34).
158. What pleasure has a man of broken virtue
Forsaking not sense pleasures, which bear fruit
Of pain more violent even than the pain
In the embracing of a mass of fire?
What pleasure has he in accepting homage
Who, having failed in virtue, must partake
Of pain that will excel in agony
The crushing of his legs with horse-hair ropes?
[57]
What pleasure has a man devoid of virtue
Accepting salutations of the faithful,
Which is the cause of pain acuter still
Than pain produced by stabbing with a spear?
What is the pleasure in the use of garments
For one without restraint, whereby in hell
He will for long be forced to undergo
The contact of the blazing iron sheet?
Although to him his alms food may seem tasty,
Who has no virtue, it is direst poison,
Because of which he surely will be made

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For long to swallow burning iron balls.
And when the virtueless make use of couches
And chairs, though reckoned pleasing, it is pain
Because they will be tortured long indeed
On red-hot blazing iron beds and chairs.
Then what delight is there for one unvirtuous
Inhabiting a dwelling given in faith,
Since for that reason he will have to dwell
Shut up inside a blazing iron pan?
The Teacher of the world, in him condemning,
Described him in these terms: “Of suspect habits,
Full of corruption, lecherous as well,
By nature evil, rotten too within.”
So out upon the life of him abiding
Without restraint, of him that wears the guise
Of the ascetic that he will not be,
And damages and undermines himself!
What is the life he leads, since any person,
No matter who, with virtue to his credit
Avoids it here, as those that would look well
Keep far away from dung or from a corpse?
He is not free from any sort of terror,
Though free enough from pleasure of attainment;
While heaven’s door is bolted fast against him,
He is well set upon the road to hell.

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 Who else if not one destitute of virtue
More fit to be the object of compassion?
Many indeed and grave are tDe Silva,
Padmasirihe defects
That brand a man neglectful of his virtue.
Seeing danger in the failure of virtue should be
understood as reviewing in such ways as these. And
seeing benefits in perfected vir-tue should be
understood in the opposite sense.
159. Furthermore: [58]
His virtue is immaculate,
His wearing of the bowl and robes
Gives pleasure and inspires trust,
His going forth will bear its fruit.
A bhikkhu in his virtue pure
Has never fear that self-reproach
Will enter in his heart: indeed
There is no darkness in the sun.
A bhikkhu in his virtue bright
Shines forth in the Ascetics’ Wood[41]
As by the brightness of his beams
The moon lights up the firmament.
Now, if the bodily perfume
Of virtuous bhikkhus can succeed
In pleasing even deities,

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What of the perfume of his virtue?
It is more perfect far than all
The other perfumes in the world,
Because the perfume virtue gives
Is borne unchecked in all directions.
The deeds done for a virtuous man,
Though they be few, will bear much fruit,
And so the virtuous man becomes
A vessel of honour and renown.
There are no cankers here and now
To plague the virtuous man at all;
The virtuous man digs out the root
Of suffering in lives to come.
Perfection among human kind
And even among deities.
If wished for, is not hard to gain
For him whose virtue is perfected;
But once his virtue is perfected,
His mind then seeks no other kind
han the perfection of Nibbāna,
The state where utter peace prevails.
Such is the blessed fruit of virtue,
Showing full many a varied form,
So let a wise man know it well
This root of all perfection’s branches.

217
160. The mind of one who understands thus, shudders
at failure in virtue and reaches out towards the
perfecting of virtue. So virtue should be cleansed with
all care, seeing this danger of failure in virtue and this
benefit of the perfection of virtue in the way stated.
161. And at this point in the Path of Purification, which
is shown under the headings of virtue, concentration
and understanding by the stanza, “When a wise man,
established well in virtue” (§1), virtue, firstly, has been
fully illustrated.

The first chapter called “The Description

of Virtue” in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

218
Notes for Chapter I

“From a visible datum sometimes as far down as a

mental datum, or vice versa, following the order of the
six kinds of objects of consciousness as given in the
teaching” (Vism-mhṭ 5, see XV.32).
The Great Monastery (Mahāvihāra) at Anurādhapura
in Sri Lanka.
“The words ’insight alone’ are meant to exclude not
virtue, etc., but serenity (i.e. jhāna), which is the
opposite number in the pair, serenity and insight. This
is for emphasis. But the word ’alone’ actually excludes
only that concentration with distinction [of jhāna]; for
concentration is classed as both access and absorption
(see IV.32). Taking this stanza as the teaching for one
whose vehicle is insight does not imply that there is no
concentration; for no insight comes about without
momentary concentration. And again, insight should
be understood as the three contemplations of
impermanence, pain, and not-self; not contemplation
of impermanence alone” (Vism-mhṭ 9–10).
“’Develops’ applies to both ’consciousness’ and
’understanding.’ But are they mundane or
supramundane? They are supramundane, because the
sublime goal is described; for one developing them is

219
said to disentangle the tangle of craving by cutting it
off at the path moment, and that is not mundane. But
the mundane are included here too because they
immediately precede, since supramundane (see Ch. III
n. 5) concentration and insight are impossible without
mundane concentration and insight to precede them;
for without the access and absorption concentration in
one whose vehicle is serenity, or without the
momentary concentration in one whose vehicle is
insight, and without the gateways to liberation (see
XXI.66f.), the supramundane can never in either case
be reached” (Vism-mhṭ 13). “With triple root-cause”
means with non-greed, none-hate, and non-delusion.
One who is virtuous has nothing to be remorseful
about.
The three kinds of clear-vision are: recollection of past
lives, knowledge of the passing away and
reappearance of beings (divine eye), and knowledge of
destruction of cankers (M I 22–23). The six kinds of
direct-knowledge are: knowledge of supernormal
power, the divine ear element, penetration of minds,
recollection of past lives, knowledge of the passing
away and reappearance of beings, and knowledge of
destruction of cankers (M I 34–35). The four
discriminations are those of meaning, law, language,
and intelligence (A II 160).

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“Consciousness-concomitants” (cetasikā) is a collective
term for feeling, perception, and formation, variously
subdivided; in other words, aspects of mentality that
arise together with consciousness.
Sīlana and upadhāraṇa in this meaning (cf. Ch. I, §141
and sandhāraṇa, XIV.61) are not in PED.
The three kinds of profitable bodily kamma or action
(not killing or stealing or indulging in sexual
misconduct), the four kinds of profitable verbal
kamma or action (refraining from lying, malicious
speech, harsh speech, and gossip), and right livelihood
as the eighth.
Uposatha (der. from upavasati, to observe or to prepare)
is the name for the day of “fasting” or “vigil” observed
on the days of the new moon, waxing half moon, full
moon, and waning half moon. On these days it is
customary for laymen to undertake the Eight Precepts
(sīla) or Five Precepts. On the new-moon and full-
moon days the Pātimokkha (see note 11) is recited by
bhikkhus. The two quarter-moon days are called the
“eighth of the half moon.” The Full-moon day is called
the “fifteenth” (i.e. fifteen days from the new moon)
and is the last day of the lunar month. That of the new
moon is called the “fourteenth” when it is the second
and fourth new moon of the four-month season (i.e.
fourteen days from the full moon), the other two are

221
called the “fifteenth.” This compensates for the
irregularities of the lunar period.
The Suttavibhaṅga, the first book of the Vinaya Piṭaka,
contains in its two parts the 227 rules for bhikkhus and
the rules for bhikkhunīs, who have received the
admission (upasampadā), together with accounts of the
incidents that led to the announcement of the rules,
the modification of the rules and the explanations of
them. The bare rules themselves form the Pātimokkha
for bhikkhus and that for bhikkhunīs. They are also
known as the “two codes” (dve mātikā). The
Pātimokkha is recited by bhikkhus on the Uposatha
days of the full moon and new moon.
The “ten instances of talk” (dasa kathāvatthūni) refer to
the kinds of talk given in the Suttas thus: “Such talk as
is concerned with effacement, as favours the heart’s
release, as leads to complete dispassion, fading,
cessation, peace, direct knowledge, enlightenment,
Nibbāna, that is to say: talk on wanting little,
contentment, seclusion, aloofness from contact,
strenuousness, virtue, concentration, understanding,
deliverance, knowledge and vision of deliverance” (M
I 145; III 113).
See Ch. IV n. 27.
“’On seeing a visible object with the eye”: if the eye were
to see the visible object, then (organs) belonging to

222
other kinds of consciousness would see too; but that is
not so. Why? Because the eye has no thought
(acetanattā). And then, were consciousness itself to see
a visible object, it would see it even behind a wall
because of being independent of sense resistance
(appaṭighabhāvato); but that is not so either because
there is no seeing in all kinds of consciousness. And
herein, it is consciousness dependent on the eye that
sees, not just any kind. And that does not arise with
respect to what is enclosed by walls, etc., where light
is excluded. But where there is no exclusion of light, as
in the case of a crystal or a mass of cloud, there it does
arise even with respect to what is enclosed by them. So
it is as a basis of consciousness that the eye sees.
“’When there is the impingement of door and object’:
what is intended is: when a visible datum as object has
come into the eye’s focus. ’One sees’: one looks (oloketi);
for when the consciousness that has eye-sensitivity as
its material support is disclosing (obhāsente) by means
of the special quality of its support a visible datum as
object that is assisted by light (āloka), then it is said that
a person possessed of that sees the visible datum. And
here the illuminating is the revealing of the visible
datum according to its individual essence, in other
words, the apprehending of it experientially
(paccakkhato).
“Here it is the ’sign of woman’ because it is the cause

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of perceiving as ’woman’ all such things as the shape
that is grasped under the heading of the visible data
(materiality) invariably found in a female continuity,
the un-clear-cut-ness (avisadatā) of the flesh of the
breasts, the beardlessness of the face, the use of cloth
to bind the hair, the un-clear-cut stance, walk, and so
on. The ’sign of man’ is in the opposite sense.
“’The sign of beauty’ here is the aspect of woman that
is the cause for the arising of lust. By the word ’etc.’
the sign of resentment (paṭigha), etc., are included,
which should be understood as the undesired aspect
that is the cause for the arising of hate. And here
admittedly only covetousness and grief are specified
in the text but the sign of equanimity needs to be
included too; since there is non-restraint in the
delusion that arises due to overlooking, or since
’forgetfulness of unknowing’ is said below (§57). And
here the ’sign of equanimity’ should be understood as
an object that is the basis for the kind of equanimity
associated with unknowing through overlooking it. So
’the sign of beauty, etc.’ given in brief thus is actually
the cause of greed, hate, and delusion.
“’He stops at what is merely seen’: according to the
Sutta method, ’The seen shall be merely seen’ (Ud 8).
As soon as the colour basis has been apprehended by
the consciousnesses of the cognitive series with eye-
consciousness he stops; he does not fancy any aspect

224
of beauty, etc., beyond that…. In one who fancies as
beautiful, etc., the limbs of the opposite sex,
defilements arisen with respect to them successively
become particularized, which is why they are called
’particulars.’ But these are simply modes of
interpreting (sannivesākāra) the kinds of materiality
derived from the (four) primaries that are interpreted
(sanniviṭṭha) in such and such wise; for apart from that
there is in the ultimate sense no such thing as a hand
and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 40–41). See also Ch. III, note 31.
“As the elder was going along (occupied) only in
keeping his meditation subject in mind, since noise is a
thorn to those in the early stage, he looked up with the
noise of the laughter, (wondering) ’What is that?’
’Perception of foulness’ is perception of bones; for the
elder was then making bones his meditation subject.
The elder, it seems as soon as he saw her teeth-bones
while she was laughing, got the counterpart sign with
access jhāna because he had developed the
preliminary-work well. While he stood there he
reached the first jhāna. Then he made that the basis for
insight, which he augmented until he attained the
paths one after the other and reached destruction of
cankers” (Vism-mhṭ 41–42).
To expect to find in the Paramatthamañjūsā an
exposition of the “cognitive series” (citta-vīthi), and
some explanation of the individual members in

225
addition to what is to be found in the Visuddhimagga
itself, is to be disappointed. There are only
fragmentary treatments. All that is said here is this:
“There is no unvirtuousness, in other words, bodily
or verbal misconduct, in the five doors; consequently
restraint of unvirtuousness happens through the mind
door, and the remaining restraint happens through the
six doors. For the arising of forgetfulness and the other
three would be in the five doors since they are
unprofitable states opposed to mindfulness, etc.; and
there is no arising of unvirtuousness consisting in
bodily and verbal transgression there because five-
door impulsions do not give rise to intimation. And
the five kinds of non-restraint beginning with
unvirtuousness are stated here as the opposite of the
five kinds of restraint beginning with restraint as
virtue” (Vism-mhṭ 42). See also Ch. IV, note 13.
This apparently incomplete sentence is also in the Pāḷi
text. It is not clear why. (BPS Ed.)
The formula “kuhana kuhāyanā kuhitattaṃ,” i.e. verbal
noun in two forms and abstract noun from pp., all
from the same root, is common in Abhidhamma
definitions. It is sometimes hard to produce a
corresponding effect in English, yet to render such
groups with words of different derivation obscures the
meaning and confuses the effect.

226
The renderings “scheming” and so on in this context
do not in all cases agree with PED. They have been
chosen after careful consideration. The rendering
“rejection of requisites” takes the preferable reading
paṭisedhana though the more common reading here is
paṭisevana (cultivation).
The Pali is: “Icchāpakatassā ti icchāya apakatassa;
upaddutassā ti attho.” Icchāya apakatassa simply resolves
the compound icchāpakatassa and is therefore
untranslatable into English. Such resolutions are
therefore sometimes omitted in this translation.
“’Putrid urine’ is the name for all kinds of cow’s urine
whether old or not” (Vism-mhṭ 45). Fermented cow’s
urine with gallnuts (myrobalan) is a common Indian
medicine today.
It is not always certain now what kind of buildings
these names refer to.
Nahanā—tying, from nayhati (to tie). The noun in not in
PED.
The story of the oil-seller is given in the
Sammohavinodanī (Vibh-a 483), which reproduces this
part of Vism with some additions: “Two bhikkhus, it
seems, went into a village and sat down in the sitting
hall. Seeing a girl, they called her. Then one asked the
other, ’Whose girl is this, venerable sir?’—’She is the
daughter of our supporter the oil-seller, friend. When

227
we go to her mother’s house and she gives us ghee,
she gives it in the pot. And this girl too gives it in the
pot as her mother does.’” Quoted at Vism-mhṭ 46.
The “ten instances of abuse” (akkosa-vatthu) are given
in the Sammohavinodanī (Vibh-a 340) as: “You are a
thief, you are a fool, you are an idiot, you are a camel
(oṭṭha),
you are an ox, you are a donkey, you belong to the
states of loss, you belong to hell, you are a beast, there
is not even a happy or an unhappy destiny to be
expected for you” (see also Sn-a 364).
The following words of this paragraph are not in PED:
Pāpanā (denigration), pāpanaṃ (nt. denigrating),
nippeseti (scrapes off—from piṃsati? cf. nippesikatā
—“belittling” §§42, 64), nippuñchati (wipes off—only
puñchati in PED), pesikā (scraper—not in this sense in
PED: from same root as nippeseti), nippiṃsitvā
(grinding, pounding), abbhaṅga (unguent = abbhañjana,
Vism-mhṭ 47).
For attention (manasi-kāra) as the means (upāya) and
the way (patha) see M-a I 64.
Avadhi—“limit” = odhi: this form is not in PED (see M-
a II 292).
“Child’s flesh” (putta-maṃsa) is an allusion to the story
(S II 98) of the couple who set out to cross a desert

228
with an insufficient food supply but got to the other
side by eating the flesh of their child who died on the
way. The derivation given in PED, “A metaphor
probably distorted from pūtamaṃsa,” has no
justification. The reference to rafts might be to D II 89.
“’Making the whole rock resound’: ’making the whole
rock reverberate as one doing so by means of an earth
tremor. But some say that is was owing to the cheering
of the deities who lived there’” (Vism-mhṭ 58).
“Four-sweets”—catumadhura: a medicinal sweet made
of four ingredients: honey, palm-sugar, ghee and
sesame oil.
“The Elder Mahā Tissa, it seems, was going on a
journey during a famine, and being tired in body and
weak through lack of food and travel weariness, he lay
down at the root of a mango tree covered with fruit.
There were many fallen mangoes here and there”
(Vism-mhṭ 60). “Through ownerless mangoes were
lying fallen on the ground near him, he would not eat
them in the absence of someone to accept them from”
(Vism-mhṭ 65). “Then a lay devotee, who was older
than he, went to the elder, and learning of his
exhaustion, gave him mango juice to drink. Then he
mounted him on his back and took him to his home.
Meanwhile the elder admonished himself as follows:
’Nor your mother nor your father,’ etc. (see §133). And

229
beginning the comprehension [of formations], and
augmenting insight, he realized Arahantship after the
other paths in due succession while he was still
mounted on his back” (Vism-mhṭ 60).
“’As elements’ in this way: ’This robe, etc., consists
merely of [the four] elements and occurs when its
conditions are present; and the person who uses it
[likewise].’ ’As repulsive’ in this way: Firstly perception
of repulsiveness in nutriment in the case of alms food;
then as bringing repulsiveness to mind thus: ’But all
these robes, etc., which are not in themselves
disgusting, become utterly disgusting on reaching this
filthy body’” (Vism-mhṭ 61).
“’Use as theft’: use by one who is unworthy. And the
requisites are allowed by the Blessed One to one in his
own dispensation who is virtuous, not unvirtuous;
and the generosity of the givers is towards one who is
virtuous, not towards one who is not, since they
expect great fruit from their actions” (Vism-mhṭ 61; cf.
MN 142 and commentary).
The figures depend on whether koṭi is taken as
1,000,000 or 100,000 or 10,000.
“Comprehending” (sammasana) is a technical term that
will become clear in Chapter XX. In short, it is
inference that generalizes the “three characteristics”
from one’s own directly-known experience to all

230
possible formed experience at all times (see S II 107).
Commenting on “He comprehended that same illness”
(§138), Vism-mhṭ says: “He exercised insight by
discerning the feeling in the illness under the heading
of the feeling [aggregate] and the remaining material
dhammas as materiality” (Vism-mhṭ 65).
A story of the Jambu River and its gold is given at M-a
IV 147.
This list describes, in terms of abandoning, etc., the
stages in the normal progress from ignorance to
Arahantship, and it falls into the following groups: I.
Virtue: the abandoning of the ten unprofitable courses
of action (1–10). II. Concentration: A. abandoning the
seven hindrances to concentration by means of their
opposites (11–17); B. The eight attainments of
concentration, and what is abandoned by each (18–25).
III. Understanding: A. Insight: the eighteen principal
insights beginning with the seven contemplations (26–
43). B. Paths: The four paths and what is abandoned
by each (44–47).
Sabbhāva—“presence” (= sat + bhāva): not in PED. Not
to be confused with sabhāva—“individual essence” (=
sa (Skr. sva) + bhāva, or saha + bhāva).
The seven consisting of pārājikā, saṅghādisesā, pācittiyā,
pāṭidesanīyā, dukkaṭā, thullaccayā, dubbhāsitā (mentioned
at M-a II 33).

231
An allusion to the Gosiṅga Suttas (MN 31, 32).

232
 Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
(Dhutaṅga-niddesa)

1. [59] Now, while a meditator is engaged in the

pursuit of virtue, he should set about undertaking the
ascetic practices in order to perfect those special
qualities of fewness of wishes, contentment, etc., by
which the virtue of the kind already described, is
cleansed. For when his virtue is thus washed clean of
stains by the waters of such special qualities as
fewness of wishes, contentment, effacement, seclusion,
dispersal, energy, and modest needs, it will become
quite purified; and his vows will succeed as well.
And– so, when his whole behaviour has been purified
by the special quality of blameless virtue and vows
and he has become established in the [first] three of
the ancient Noble Ones’ heritages, he may become
worthy to attain to the fourth called “delight in
development” (A II 27). We shall therefore begin the
explanation of the ascetic practices.

[The 13 kinds of Ascetic Practices]

233
2. Thirteen kinds of ascetic practices have been
allowed by the Blessed One to clansmen who have
given up the things of the flesh and, regardless of
body and life, are desirous of undertaking a practice in
conformity [with their aim]. They are:

i.the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice,

ii.the triple-robe-wearer’s practice,
iii.the alms-food-eater’s practice,
iv.the house-to-house-seeker’s practice,
v.the one-sessioner’s practice,
vi.the bowl-food-eater’s practice,
vii.the later-food-refuser’s practice,
viii.the forest-dweller’s practice,
ix.the tree-root-dweller’s practice,
x.the open-air-dweller’s practice,
xi.the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice,
xii.the any-bed-user’s practice,
xiii.the sitter’s practice.

3. Herein:
(1) As to meaning, (2) characteristic, et cetera,
(3) The undertaking and directions,
And then the grade, and breach as well,
And benefits of each besides,
(4) As to the profitable triad,

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 (5) “Ascetic” and so on distinguished,
(6) And as to groups, and also (7) singly,
The exposition should be known. [60]
4. 1. Herein, as to meaning, in the first place.
i. It is “refuse” (paṃsukūla) since, owing to its being
found on refuse in any such place as a street, a charnel
ground, or a midden, it belongs, as it were, to the
refuse in the sense of being dumped in anyone of
these places. Or alternatively: like refuse it gets to a
vile state (PAṂSU viya KUcchitabhāvaṃ ULAti), thus it
is “refuse” (paṃsukūla); it goes to a vile state, is what is
meant. The wearing of a refuse-[rag], which has
acquired its derivative name[1] in this way, is “refuse-
[rag-wearing]” (paṃsukūla). That is his habit, thus he is
a “refuse-[rag-wear-]er” (paṃsukūlika). The practice
(aṅga) of the refuse-[rag-wear-]er is the “refuse-[rag-
wear-]er’s practice” (paṃsukūlikaṅga). It is the action
that is called the “practice.” Therefore it should be
understood as a term for that by undertaking which
one becomes a refuse-[rag-wear-]er.
ii. In the same way, he has the habit of [wearing] the
triple robe (ti-cīvara)—in other words, the cloak of
patches, the upper garment, and the inner clothing—
thus he is a “triple-robe-[wear-]er” (tecīvarika). His
practice is called the “triple-robe-wearer’s practice.”
5. iii. The dropping (pāta) of the lumps (piṇḍa) of

235
material sustenance (āmisa) called alms (bhikkhā) is
“alms food” (piṇḍapāta); the falling (nipatana) into the
bowl of lumps (piṇḍa) given by others, is what is
meant. He gleans that alms food (that falling of
lumps), he seeks it by approaching such and such a
family, thus he is called an “alms-food [eat-]er”
(piṇḍapātika). Or his vow is to gather (patituṃ)[2] the
lump (piṇḍa), thus he is a “lump-gatherer” (piṇḍapātin).
To “gather” is to wander for. A “lump-gatherer”
(piṇḍapātin) is the same as an “alms-food-eater”
(piṇḍapātika). The practice of the alms-food-eater is the
“alms-food-eater’s practice.”
6. iv. It is a hiatus (avakhaṇḍana) that is called a “gap”
(dāna).[3] It is removed (apeta) from a gap, thus it is
called “gapless” (apadāna); the meaning is, it is without
hiatus. It is together with (saha) what is gapless
(apadāna), thus it is “with the gapless” (sapadāna);
devoid of hiatus—from house to house—is what is
meant. His habit is to wander on what-is-with-the-
gapless, thus he is a “gapless wanderer” (sapadāna-
cārin). A gapless wanderer is the same as a “house-to-
house-seeker” (sapadāna-cārika). His practice is the
“house-to-house-seeker’s practice.”
7. v. Eating in one session is “one-session.” He has that
habit, thus he is a “one-sessioner.” His practice is the
“one-sessioner’s practice.”

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 vi. Alms (piṇḍa) in one bowl (patta) only because of
refusing a second vessel, is “bowl-alms” (patta-piṇḍa).
Now, making “bowl alms” (patta-piṇḍa) the name for
the taking of alms food in the bowl: bowl-alms-food is
his habit, thus he is a “bowl-food-eater” (pattapiṇḍika).
His practice is the “bowl-food-eater’s practice.”
8. vii. “No” (khalu) is a particle in the sense of refusing.
[61] Food (bhatta) obtained later by one who has
shown that he is satisfied is called “later-food” (pacchā-
bhatta). The eating of that later food is “later-food-
eating.” Making “later-food” (pacchā-bhatta) the name
for that later-food-eating: later-food is his habit, thus
he is a “later-food-[eat-]er” (pacchābhattika). Not a
later-food-eater is a “no-later-food-[eat-]er” (khalu-
pacchābhattika), [that is, a “later-food-refuser”]. This is
the name for one who as an undertaking refuses extra
food. But it is said in the commentary[4] “Khalu is a
certain kind of bird. When it has taken a fruit into its
beak and that drops, it does not eat any more. This
[bhikkhu] is like that.” Thus he is “a later-food-
refuser” (khalu-pacchā-bhattika). His practice is the
“later-food-refuser’s practice.”
9. viii. His habit is dwelling in the forest, thus he is a
“forest-dweller.” His practice is the “forest-dweller’s
practice.”
ix. Dwelling at the root of a tree is “tree-root-

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dwelling.” He has that habit, thus he is a “tree-root-
dweller.” The practice of the tree-root-dweller is the
“tree-root-dweller’s practice.”
x., xi. Likewise with the open-air-dweller and the
charnel-ground-dweller.
10. xii. Only what has been distributed (yad eva
santhata) is “as distributed” (yathāsanthata). This is a
term for the resting place first allotted thus “This one
falls to you.” He has the habit of dwelling in that as
distributed, thus he is an “as-distributed-user”
(yathāsanthatika), [that is, an “any-bed-user”]. His
practice is the “any-bed-user’s practice.”
xiii. He has the habit of keeping to the sitting
[posture when resting], refusing to lie down, thus he is
a “sitter.” His practice is the “sitter’s practice.”
11. All these, however, are the practices (aṅga) of a
bhikkhu who is ascetic (dhuta) because he has shaken
off (dhuta) defilement by undertaking one or other of
them. Or the knowledge that has got the name
“ascetic” (dhuta) because it shakes off (dhunana)
defilement is a practice (aṅga) belonging to these, thus
they are “ascetic practices” (dhutaṅga). Or
alternatively, they are ascetic (dhuta) because they
shake off (niddhunana) opposition, and they are
practices (aṅga) because they are a way (paṭipatti).
This, firstly, is how the exposition should be known

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here as to meaning.
12. 2. All of them have as their characteristic the
volition of undertaking. For this is said [in the
commentary]: “He who does the undertaking is a
person. That whereby he does the undertaking is
states of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants. The volition of the act of undertaking is
the ascetic practice. What it rejects is the instance.” All
have the function of eliminating cupidity, and they
manifest themselves with the production of non-
cupidity. For their proximate cause they have the
noble states consisting of fewness of wishes, and so
on. [62] This is how the exposition should be known as
to characteristic, etc., here.
13. 3. As regards the five beginning with the
undertaking and directions: during the Blessed One’s
lifetime all ascetic practices should be undertaken in
the Blessed One’s presence. After his attainment of
Nibbāna this should be done in the presence of a
principal disciple. When he is not available it should
be done in the presence of one whose cankers are
destroyed, of a non-returner, of a once-returner, of a
stream-enterer, of one who knows the three Piṭakas, of
one who knows two of the Piṭakas, of one who knows
one of the Piṭakas, of one who knows one Collection,
[5] of a teacher of the Commentaries. When he is not
available it should be done in the presence of an

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observer of an ascetic practice. When he is not
available, then after one has swept out the shrine
terrace they can be undertaken seated in a reverential
posture as though pronouncing them in the Fully
Enlightened One’s presence. Also it is permitted to
undertake them by oneself.
And here should be told the story of the senior of
the two brothers who were elders at Cetiyapabbata
and their fewness of wishes with respect to the ascetic
practices[6] (M-a II 140).
This, firstly, is what applies to all [the practices].
14. Now, we shall proceed to comment on the
undertaking, directions, grade, breach and benefits, of
each one [separately].
i. First, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice is undertaken
with one of these two statements: “I refuse robes given
by householders” or “I undertake the refuse-rag-
wearer’s practice.” This, firstly, is the undertaking.
15. One who has done this should get a robe of one of
the following kinds: one from a charnel ground, one
from a shop, a cloth from a street, a cloth from a
midden, one from a childbed, an ablution cloth, a cloth
from a washing place, one worn going to and
returning from [the charnel ground], one scorched by
fire, one gnawed by cattle, one gnawed by ants, one

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gnawed by rats, one cut at the end, one cut at the edge,
one carried as a flag, a robe from a shrine, an ascetic’s
robe, one from a consecration, one produced by
supernormal power, one from a highway, one borne
by the wind, one presented by deities, one from the
sea. Taking one of these robe cloths, he should tear off
and throw away the weak parts, and then wash the
sound parts and make up a robe. He can use it after
getting rid of his old robe given by householders.
16. Herein, “one from a charnel ground” is one dropped
on a charnel ground.
“One from a shop” is one dropped at the door of a
shop.
“A cloth from a street” is a cloth thrown into a street
from inside a window by those who seek merit.
“A cloth from a midden” [63] is a cloth thrown onto a
place for rubbish.
“One from a childbed” is a cloth thrown away after
wiping up the stains of childbirth with it. The mother
of Tissa the Minister, it seems, had the stains of
childbirth wiped up with a cloth worth a hundred
[pieces], and thinking, “The refuse-rag wearers will
take it,” she had it thrown onto the Tālaveli Road.[7]
Bhikkhus took it for the purpose of mending worn
places.

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17. “An ablution cloth” is one that people who are made
by devil doctors to bathe themselves, including their
heads, are accustomed to throw away as a “cloth of ill
luck.”
“A cloth from washing place” is rags thrown away at a
washing place where bathing is done.
“One worn going to and coming from” is one that
people throw away after they have gone to a charnel
ground and returned and bathed.
“One scorched by fire” is one partly scorched by fire;
for people throw that away.
“One gnawed by cattle,” etc., are obvious; for people
throw away such as these too.
“One carried as a flag”: Those who board a ship do so
after hoisting a flag. It is allowable to take this when
they have gone out of sight. Also it is allowable, when
the two armies have gone away, to take a flag that has
been hoisted on a battlefield.
18. “A robe from a shrine” is an offering made by
draping a termite-mound [in cloth].
“An ascetic’s robe” is one belonging to a bhikkhu.
“One from a consecration” is one thrown away at the
king’s consecration place.
“One produced by supernormal power” is a “come-

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bhikkhu” robe.[8] “One from a highway” is one dropped
in the middle of a road. But one dropped by the
owner’s negligence should be taken only after waiting
a while.
“One borne by the wind” is one that falls a long way
off, having been carried by the wind. It is allowable to
take it if the owners are not in sight.
“One presented by deities” is one given by deities like
that given to the Elder Anuruddha (Dhp-a II 173–74).
“One from the sea” is one washed up on dry land by
the sea waves.
19. One given thus “We give it to the Order” or got by
those who go out for alms-cloth is not a refuse-rag.
And in the case of one presented by a bhikkhu, one
given after it has been got [at a presentation of robes
by householders] at the end of the Rains, or a “resting-
place robe” [that is, one automatically supplied by a
householder to the occupant of a certain resting place]
is not a refuse-rag. It is a refuse-rag only when given
after not having been so obtained. And herein, that
placed by the donors at a bhikkhu’s feet but given by
that bhikkhu to the refuse-rag wearer by placing it in
his hand is called pure in one way. That given to a
bhikkhu by placing it in his hand but placed by him at
the [refuse-rag wearer’s] feet is also pure in one way.
That which is both placed at a bhikkhu’s feet and then

243
given by him in the same way is pure in both ways.
[64] One obtained by being placed in the hand and
[given by being] placed in the hand too is not a strict
man’s robe. So a refuse-rag wearer should use the robe
after getting to know about the kinds of refuse-rags.
These are the directions for it in this instance.
20. The grades are these. There are three kinds of
refuse-rag wearers: the strict, the medium, and the
mild. Herein, one who takes it only from a charnel
ground is strict. One who takes one left [by someone,
thinking] “One gone forth will take it” is medium.
One who takes one given by being placed at his feet
[by a bhikkhu] is mild.
The moment anyone of these of his own choice or
inclination agrees to [accept] a robe given by a
householder, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the
breach in this instance.
21. The benefits are these. He actually practices in
conformity with the dependence, because of the words
“The going forth by depending on the refuse-rag
robe” (Vin I 58, 96); he is established in the first of the
Noble Ones’ heritages (A II 27); there is no suffering
due to protecting; he exists independent of others;
there is no fear of robbers; there is no craving
connected with use [of robes]; it is a requisite suitable
for an ascetic; it is a requisite recommended by the

244
Blessed One thus “valueless, easy to get, and
blameless” (A II 26); it inspires confidence; it produces
the fruits of fewness of wishes, etc.; the right way is
cultivated; a good example is set[9] to later
generations.
22. While striving for Death’s army’s rout
The ascetic clad in rag-robe clout
Got from a rubbish heap, shines bright
As mail-clad warrior in the fight.
This robe the world’s great teacher wore,
Leaving rare Kāsi cloth and more;
Of rags from off a rubbish heap
Who would not have a robe to keep?
Minding the words he did profess
When he went into homelessness,
Let him to wear such rags delight
As one in seemly garb bedight.
This, firstly, is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice.
23. ii. Next there is the triple-robe-wearer’s practice. This
is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I
refuse a fourth robe” or “I undertake the triple-robe-
wearer’s practice.” [65]
When a triple-robe wearer has got cloth for a robe,

245
he can put it by for as long as, owing to ill-health, he is
unable to make it up, or for as long as he does not find
a helper, or lacks a needle, etc., and there is no fault in
his putting it by. But it is not allowed to put it by once
it has been dyed. That is called cheating the ascetic
practice. These are the directions for it.
24. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict
should, at the time of dyeing, first dye either the inner
cloth or the upper garment, and having dyed it, he
should wear that round the waist and dye the other.
Then he can put that on over the shoulder and dye the
cloak of patches. But he is not allowed to wear the
cloak of patches round the waist. This is the duty
when in an abode inside a village. But it is allowable
for him in the forest to wash and dye two together.
However, he should sit in a place near [to the robes] so
that, if he sees anyone, he can pull a yellow cloth over
himself. But for the medium one there is a yellow cloth
in the dyeing room for use while dyeing, and it is
allowable for him to wear that [as an inner cloth] or to
put it on [as an upper garment] in order to do the
work of dyeing. For the mild one it is allowable to
wear, or put on, the robes of bhikkhus who are in
communion (i.e. not suspended, etc.) in order to do
the work of dyeing. A bedspread that remains where
it is[10] is also allowable for him, but he must not take
it about him. And it is allowed for him to use from

246
time to time the robes of bhikkhus who are in
communion. It is allowed to one who wears the triple
robe as an ascetic practice to have a yellow shoulder-
cloth too as a fourth; but it must be only a span wide
and three hands long.
The moment anyone of these three agrees to [accept]
a fourth robe, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the
breach in this instance.
25. The benefits are these. The bhikkhu who is a triple-
robe wearer is content with the robe as a protection for
the body. Hence he goes taking it with him as a bird
does its wings (M I 180); and such special qualities as
having few undertakings, avoidance of storage of
cloth, a frugal existence, the abandoning of greed for
many robes, living in effacement by observing
moderation even in what is permitted, production of
the fruits of fewness of wishes, etc., are perfected. [66]
26. No risk of hoarding haunts the man of wit
Who wants no extra cloth for requisite;
Using the triple robe where’er he goes
The pleasant relish of content he knows.
So, would the adept wander undeterred
With naught else but his robes, as flies the bird
With its own wings, then let him too rejoice
That frugalness in garments be his choice.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,

247
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the triple-robe-wearer’s practice.
27. iii. The alms-food-eater’s practice is undertaken with
one of the following statements: “I refuse a
supplementary [food] supply” or “I undertake the
alms-food-eater’s practice.”
Now, this alms-food eater should not accept the
following fourteen kinds of meal: a meal offered to the
Order, a meal offered to specified bhikkhus, an
invitation, a meal given by a ticket, one each half-
moon day, one each Uposatha day, one each first of
the half-moon, a meal given for visitors, a meal for
travellers, a meal for the sick, a meal for sick-nurses, a
meal supplied to a [particular] residence, a meal given
in a principal house,[11] a meal given in turn.
If, instead of saying “Take a meal given to the
Order”, [meals] are given saying “The Order is taking
alms in our house; you may take alms too”, it is
allowable to consent. Tickets from the Order that are
not for actual food,[12] and also a meal cooked in a
monastery, are allowable as well.
These are the directions for it.
28. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict
takes alms brought both from before and from behind,
and he gives the bowl to those who take it while he

248
stands outside a door. He also takes alms brought to
the refectory and given there. But he does not take
alms by sitting [and waiting for it to be brought later]
that day. The medium one takes it as well by sitting
[and waiting for it to be brought later] that day; but he
does not consent to [its being brought] the next day.
The mild one consents to alms [being brought] on the
next day and on the day after. Both these last miss the
joy of an independent life. There is, perhaps, a
preaching on the Noble Ones’ heritages (A II 28) in
some village. The strict one says to the others “Let us
go, friends, and listen to the Dhamma.” One of them
says, “I have been made to sit [and wait] by a man,
venerable sir,” and the other, “I have consented to
[receive] alms tomorrow, venerable sir.” So they are
both losers. The other wanders for alms in the
morning and then he goes and savours the taste of the
Dhamma. [67]
The moment anyone of these three agrees to the
extra gain consisting of a meal given to the Order, etc.,
his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this
instance.
29. The benefits are these. He actually practices in
conformity with the dependence because of the words
“The going forth by depending on the eating of lumps
of alms food” (Vin II 58, 96); he is established in the
second of the Noble Ones’ heritages; his existence is

249
independent of others; it is a requisite recommended
by the Blessed One thus “Valueless, easy to get,
blameless” (A II 26); idleness is eliminated; livelihood
is purified; the practice of the minor training rule [of
the Pātimokkha] is fulfilled; he is not maintained by
another; he helps others; pride is abandoned; craving
for tastes is checked; the training precepts about eating
as a group, substituting one meal [invitation for
another] (see Vinaya, Pācittiya 33 and Comy.), and
good behaviour, are not contravened; his life conforms
to [the principles of] fewness of wishes; he cultivates
the right way; he has compassion for later generations.
30. The monk content with alms for food
Has independent livelihood,
And greed in him no footing finds;
He is as free as the four winds.
He never need be indolent,
His livelihood is innocent,
So let a wise man not disdain
Alms-gathering for his domain.
Since it is said:
“If a bhikkhu can support himself on alms
And live without another’s maintenance,
And pay no heed as well to gain and fame,
The very gods indeed might envy him” (Ud 31).
This is the commentary on the undertaking,

250
directions, grades, breach and benefits, in the case of
the alms-food-eater’s practice.
31. iv. The house-to-house seeker’s practice is undertaken
with one of the following statements “I refuse a
greedy alms round” or “I undertake the house-to-
house seeker’s practice.”
Now, the house-to-house seeker should stop at the
village gate and make sure that there is no danger. If
there is danger in any street or village, it is allowable
to leave it out and wander for alms elsewhere. When
there is a house door or a street or a village where he
[regularly] gets nothing at all, he can go [past it] not
counting it as a village. But wherever he gets anything
at all it is not allowed [subsequently] to go [past] there
and leave it out. This bhikkhu should enter the village
early so that he will be able to leave out any
inconvenient place and go elsewhere. [68] But if
people who are giving a gift [of a meal] in a monastery
or who are coming along the road take his bowl and
give alms food, it is allowable. And as this [bhikkhu] is
going along the road, he should, when it is the time,
wander for alms in any village he comes to and not
pass it by. If he gets nothing there or only a little, he
should wander for alms in the next village in order.
These are the directions for it.
32. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict

251
does not take alms brought from before or brought
from behind or brought to the refectory and given
there. He hands over his bowl at a door, however; for
in this ascetic practice there is none equal to the Elder
Mahā Kassapa, yet an instance in which even he
handed over his bowl is mentioned (see Ud 29). The
medium one takes what is brought from before and
from behind and what is brought to the refectory, and
he hands over his bowl at a door. But he does not sit
waiting for alms. Thus he conforms to the rule of the
strict alms-food eater. The mild one sits waiting [for
alms to be brought] that day.
The ascetic practice of these three is broken as soon
as the greedy alms round starts [by going only to the
houses where good alms food is given]. This is the
breach in this instance.
33. The benefits are these. He is always a stranger
among families and is like the moon (S II 197); he
abandons avarice about families; he is compassionate
impartially; he avoids the dangers in being supported
by a family; he does not delight in invitations; he does
not hope for [meals] to be brought; his life conforms to
[the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
34. The monk who at each house his begging plies
Is moonlike, ever new to families,
Nor does he grudge to help all equally,

252
 Free from the risks of house-dependency.
Who would the self-indulgent round forsake
And roam the world at will, the while to make
His downcast eyes range a yoke-length before,
Then let him wisely seek from door to door.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the house-to-house-seeker’s practice. [69]
35. v. The one-sessioner’s practice is undertaken with one
of the following statements: “I refuse eating in several
sessions” or “I undertake the one-sessioner’s practice.”
When the one-sessioner sits down in the sitting hall,
instead of sitting on an elder’s seat, he should notice
which seat is likely to fall to him and sit down on that.
If his teacher or preceptor arrives while the meal is
still unfinished, it is allowable for him to get up and
do the duties. But the Elder Tipiṭaka Cūla-Abhaya
said: “He should either keep his seat [and finish his
meal] or [if he gets up he should leave the rest of] his
meal [in order not to break the ascetic practice]. And
this is one whose meal is still unfinished; therefore let
him do the duties, but in that case let him not eat the
[rest of the] meal.” These are the directions.
36. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict
may not take anything more than the food that he has
laid his hand on whether it is little or much. And if

253
people bring him ghee, etc., thinking “The elder has
eaten nothing,” while these are allowable for the
purpose of medicine, they are not so for the purpose of
food. The medium one may take more as long as the
meal in the bowl is not exhausted; for he is called “one
who stops when the food is finished.” The mild one
may eat as long as he does not get up from his seat. He
is either “one who stops with the water” because he
eats until he takes [water for] washing the bowl, or
“one who stops with the session” because he eats until
he gets up.
The ascetic practice of these three is broken at the
moment when food has been eaten at more than one
session. This is the breach in this instance.
37. The benefits are these. He has little affliction and
little sickness; he has lightness, strength, and a happy
life; there is no contravening [rules] about food that is
not what is left over from a meal; craving for tastes is
eliminated; his life conforms to the [principles of]
fewness of wishes, and so on.
38. No illness due to eating shall he feel
Who gladly in one session takes his meal;
No longing to indulge his sense of taste
Tempts him to leave his work to go to waste.
His own true happiness a monk may find
In eating in one session, pure in mind.

254
 Purity and effacement wait on this;
For it gives reason to abide in bliss.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the one-sessioner’s practice. [70]
39. vi. The bowl-food-eater’s practice is undertaken with
one of the following statements: “I refuse a second
vessel” or “I undertake the bowl-food-eater’s
practice.”
When at the time of drinking rice gruel, the bowl-
food eater gets curry that is put in a dish; he can first
either eat the curry or drink the rice gruel. If he puts it
in the rice gruel, the rice gruel becomes repulsive
when a curry made with cured fish, etc., is put into it.
So it is allowable [to do this] only in order to use it
without making it repulsive. Consequently this is said
with reference to such curry as that. But what is
unrepulsive, such as honey, sugar,[13] etc., should be
put into it. And in taking it he should take the right
amount. It is allowable to take green vegetables with
the hand and eat them. But unless he does that they
should be put into the bowl. Because a second vessel
has been refused it is not allowable [to use] anything
else, not even the leaf of a tree. These are its directions.
40. This too has three grades. Herein, for one who is
strict, except at the time of eating sugarcane, it is not

255
allowed [while eating] to throw rubbish away, and it
is not allowed while eating to break up rice-lumps,
fish, meat and cakes. [The rubbish should be thrown
away and the rice-lumps, etc., broken up before
starting to eat.] The medium one is allowed to break
them up with one hand while eating; and he is called a
“hand ascetic.” The mild one is called a “bowl ascetic”;
anything that can be put into his bowl he is allowed,
while eating, to break up, [that is, rice lumps, etc.,]
with his hand or [such things as palm sugar, ginger,
etc.,] with his teeth.
The moment anyone of these three agrees to a
second vessel his ascetic practice is broken. This is the
breach in this instance.
41. The benefits are these. Craving for variety of tastes
is eliminated; excessiveness of wishes is abandoned;
he sees the purpose and the [right] amount in
nutriment; he is not bothered with carrying saucers,
etc., about; his life conforms to [the principles of]
fewness of wishes and so on.
42. He baffles doubts that might arise
With extra dishes; downcast eyes
The true devotedness imply[14]
Of one uprooting gluttony.
Wearing content as if ’twere part
Of his own nature, glad at heart;

256
 None but a bowl-food eater may
Consume his food in such a way.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the bowl-food-eater’s practice. [71]
43. vii. The later-food-refuser’s practice is undertaken with
one of the following statements: “I refuse additional
food” or “I undertake the later-food-refuser’s
practice.”
Now, when that later-food refuser has shown that
he is satisfied, he should not again have the food made
allowable [by having it put into his hands according to
the rule for bhikkhus] and eat it. These are the
directions for it.
44. This too has three grades. Herein, there is no
showing that he has had enough with respect to the
first lump, but there is when he refuses more while
that is being swallowed. So when one who is strict has
thus shown that he has had enough [with respect to
the second lump], he does not eat the second lump
after swallowing the first. The medium one eats also
that food with respect to which he has shown that he
has had enough. But the mild one goes on eating until
he gets up from his seat.
The moment any one of these three has eaten what
has been made allowable [again] after he has shown

257
that he has had enough, his ascetic practice is broken.
This is the breach in this instance.
45. The benefits are these. One is far from committing
an offence concerned with extra food; there is no
overloading of the stomach; there is no keeping food
back; there is no renewed search [for food]; he lives in
conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes,
and so on.
46. When a wise man refuses later food
He needs no extra search in weary mood,
Nor stores up food till later in the day,
Nor overloads his stomach in this way.
So, would the adept from such faults abstain,
Let him assume this practice for his gain,
Praised by the Blessed One, which will augment
The special qualities such as content.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the later-food-refuser’s practice.
47. viii. The forest-dweller’s practice is undertaken with
one of the following statements: “I refuse an abode in
a village” or “I undertake the forest-dweller’s
practice.”
48. Now, that forest dweller must leave an abode in a
village in order to meet the dawn in the forest. Herein,
a village abode is the village itself with its precincts. A

258
“village” may consist of one cottage or several
cottages, it may be enclosed by a wall or not, have
human inhabitants or not, and it can also be a caravan
that is inhabited for more than four months. [72] The
“village precincts” cover the range of a stone thrown
by a man of medium stature standing between the
gate-posts of a walled village, if there are two gate-
posts, as at Anurādhapura (cf. Vin III 46). The Vinaya
experts say that this [stone’s throw] is characterized as
up to the place where a thrown stone falls, as, for
instance, when young men exercise their arms and
throw stones in order to show off their strength. But
the Suttanta experts say that it is up to where one
thrown to scare crows normally falls. In the case of an
unwalled village, the house precinct is where the
water falls when a woman standing in the door of the
outermost house of all throws water from a basin.
Within a stone’s throw of the kind already described
from that point is the village. Within a second stone’s
throw is the village precinct.
49. “Forest,” according to the Vinaya method firstly, is
described thus: “Except the village and its precincts,
all is forest” (Vin III 46). According to the
Abhidhamma method it is described thus: “Having
gone out beyond the boundary post, all that is forest”
(Vibh 251; Paṭis I 176). But according to the Suttanta
method its characteristic is this: “A forest abode is five

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hundred bow-lengths distant” (Vin IV 183). That
should be defined by measuring it with a strung
instructor’s bow from the gate-post of a walled village,
or from the range of the first stone’s throw from an
unwalled one, up to the monastery wall.
50. But if the monastery is not walled, it is said in the
Vinaya commentaries, it should be measured by
making the first dwelling of all the limit, or else the
refectory or regular meeting place or Bodhi Tree or
shrine, even if that is far from a dwelling [belonging to
the monastery]. But in the Majjhima commentary it is
said that, omitting the precincts of the monastery and
the village, the distance to be measured is that
between where the two stones fall. This is the measure
here.
51. Even if the village is close by and the sounds of
men are audible to people in the monastery, still if it is
not possible to go straight to it because of rocks, rivers,
etc., in between, the five hundred bow-lengths can be
reckoned by that road even if one has to go by boat.
But anyone who blocks the path to the village here
and there for the purpose of [lengthening it so as to be
able to say that he is] taking up the practice is cheating
the ascetic practice.
52. If a forest-dwelling bhikkhu’s preceptor or teacher
is ill and does not get what he needs in the forest, [73]

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he should take him to a village abode and attend him
there. But he should leave in time to meet the dawn in
a place proper for the practice. If the affliction
increases towards the time of dawn, he must attend
him and not bother about the purity of his ascetic
practice. These are the directions.
53. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict
must always meet the dawn in the forest. The medium
one is allowed to live in a village for the four months
of the Rains. And the mild one, for the winter months
too.
If in the period defined any one of these three goes
from the forest and hears the Dhamma in a village
abode, his ascetic practice is not broken if he meets the
dawn there, nor is it broken if he meets it as he is on
his way back after hearing [the Dhamma]. But if, when
the preacher has got up, he thinks “We shall go after
lying down awhile” and he meets the dawn while
asleep or if of his own choice he meets the dawn while
in a village abode, then his ascetic practice is broken.
This is the breach in this instance.
54. The benefits are these. A forest-dwelling bhikkhu
who has given attention to the perception of forest (see
MN 121) can obtain hitherto unobtained
concentration, or preserve that already obtained. And
the Master is pleased with him, according as it is said:

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“So, Nāgita, I am pleased with that bhikkhu’s
dwelling in the forest” (A III 343). And when he lives
in a remote abode his mind is not distracted by
unsuitable visible objects, and so on. He is free from
anxiety; he abandons attachment to life; he enjoys the
taste of the bliss of seclusion, and the state of the
refuse-rag wearer, etc., becomes him.
55. He lives secluded and apart,
Remote abodes delight his heart;
The Saviour of the world, besides,
He gladdens that in groves abides.
The hermit that in woods can dwell
Alone, may gain the bliss as well
Whose savour is beyond the price
Of royal bliss in paradise.
Wearing the robe of rags he may
Go forth into the forest fray;
Such is his mail, for weapons too
The other practices will do.
One so equipped can be assured
Of routing Māra and his horde.
So let the forest glades delight
A wise man for his dwelling’s site.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the forest-dweller’s practice. [74]

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56. ix. The tree-root-dweller’s practice is undertaken with
one of the following statements: “I refuse a roof” or “I
undertake the tree-root-dweller’s practice.”
The tree-root dweller should avoid such trees as a
tree near a frontier, a shrine tree, a gum tree, a fruit
tree, a bats’ tree, a hollow tree, or a tree standing in the
middle of a monastery. He can choose a tree standing
on the outskirts of a monastery. These are the
directions.
57. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict
is not allowed to have a tree that he has chosen tidied
up. He can move the fallen leaves with his foot while
dwelling there. The medium one is allowed to get it
tidied up by those who happen to come along. The
mild one can take up residence there after summoning
monastery attendants and novices and getting them to
clear it up, level it, strew sand and make a fence round
with a gate fixed in it. On a special day, a tree-root
dweller should sit in some concealed place elsewhere
rather than there.
The moment any one of these three makes his abode
under a roof, his ascetic practice is broken. The reciters
of the Aṅguttara say that it is broken as soon as he
knowingly meets the dawn under a roof. This is the
breach in this instance.
58. The benefits are these. He practices in conformity

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with the dependence, because of the words “The
going forth by depending on the root of a tree as an
abode” (Vin I 58, 96); it is a requisite recommended by
the Blessed One thus “Valueless, easy to get, and
blameless” (A II 26); perception of impermanence is
aroused through seeing the continual alteration of
young leaves; avarice about abodes and love of
[building] work are absent; he dwells in the company
of deities; he lives in conformity with [the principles
of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
59. The Blessed One praised roots of trees
As one of the dependencies (Vin I 58);
Can he that loves secludedness
Find such another dwelling place?
Secluded at the roots of trees
And guarded well by deities
He lives in true devotedness
Nor covets any dwelling place. [75]
And when the tender leaves are seen
Bright red at first, then turning green,
And then to yellow as they fall,
He sheds belief once and for all
In permanence. Tree roots have been
Bequeathed by him; secluded scene
No wise man will disdain at all
For contemplating [rise and fall].

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 This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the tree-root-dweller’s practice.
60. x. The open-air-dweller’s practice is undertaken with
one of the following statements: “I refuse a roof and a
tree root” or “I undertake the open-air-dweller’s
practice.”
An open-air dweller is allowed to enter the
Uposatha-house for the purpose of hearing the
Dhamma or for the purpose of the Uposatha. If it rains
while he is inside, he can go out when the rain is over
instead of going out while it is still raining. He is
allowed to enter the eating hall or the fire room in
order to do the duties, or to go under a roof in order to
ask elder bhikkhus in the eating hall about a meal, or
when teaching and taking lessons, or to take beds,
chairs, etc., inside that have been wrongly left outside.
If he is going along a road with a requisite belonging
to a senior and it rains, he is allowed to go into a
wayside rest house. If he has nothing with him, he is
not allowed to hurry in order to get to a rest house;
but he can go at his normal pace and enter it and stay
there as long as it rains. These are the directions for it.
And the same rule applies to the tree-root dweller too.
61. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict
is not allowed to live near a tree or a rock or a house.

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He should make a robe-tent right out in the open and
live in that. The medium one is allowed to live near a
tree or a rock or a house so long as he is not covered
by them. The mild one is allowed these: a [rock]
overhang without a drip-ledge cut in it,[15] a hut of
branches, cloth stiffened with paste, and a tent treated
as a fixture, that has been left by field watchers, and so
on.
The moment any one of these three goes under a
roof or to a tree root to dwell there, [76] his ascetic
practice is broken. The reciters of the Aṅguttara say
that it is broken as soon as he knowingly meets the
dawn there. This is the breach in this case.
62. The benefits are these: the impediment of
dwellings is severed; stiffness and torpor are expelled;
his conduct deserves the praise “Like deer the
bhikkhus live unattached and homeless” (S I 199); he
is detached; he is [free to go in] any direction; he lives
in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of
wishes, and so on.
63. The open air provides a life
That aids the homeless bhikkhu’s strife,
Easy to get, and leaves his mind
Alert as a deer, so he shall find
Stiffness and torpor brought to halt.
Under the star-bejewelled vault

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 The moon and sun furnish his light,
And concentration his delight.
The joy seclusion’s savour gives
He shall discover soon who lives
In open air; and that is why
The wise prefer the open sky.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the open-air-dweller’s practice.
64. xi. The charnel-ground-dweller’s practice is undertaken
with one of the following statements: “I refuse what is
not a charnel ground” or “I undertake the charnel-
ground-dweller’s practice.”
Now, the charnel-ground dweller should not live in
some place just because the people who built the
village have called it “the charnel ground” for it is not
a charnel ground unless a dead body has been burnt
on it. But as soon as one has been burnt on it, it
becomes a charnel ground. And even if it has been
neglected for a dozen years, it is so still.
65. One who dwells there should not be the sort of
person who gets walks, pavilions, etc., built, has beds
and chairs set out and drinking and washing water
kept ready, and preaches Dhamma; for this ascetic
practice is a momentous thing. Whoever goes to live
there should be diligent. And he should first inform

267
the senior elder of the Order or the king’s local
representative in order to prevent trouble. When he
walks up and down, he should do so looking at the
pyre with half an eye. [77] On his way to the charnel
ground he should avoid the main roads and take a by-
path. He should define all the objects [there] while it is
day, so that they will not assume frightening shapes
for him at night. Even if non-human beings wander
about screeching, he must not hit them with anything.
It is not allowed to miss going to the charnel ground
even for a single day. The reciters of the Aṅguttara say
that after spending the middle watch in the charnel
ground he is allowed to leave in the last watch. He
should not take such foods as sesame flour, pease
pudding, fish, meat, milk, oil, sugar, etc., which are
liked by non-human beings. He should not enter the
homes of families.[16] These are the directions for it.
66. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict
should live where there are always burnings and
corpses and mourning. The medium one is allowed to
live where there is one of these three. The mild one is
allowed to live in a place that possesses the bare
characteristics of a charnel ground already stated.
When any one of these three makes his abode in
some place not a charnel ground, his ascetic practice is
broken. It is on the day on which he does not go to the
charnel ground, the Aṅguttara reciters say. This is the

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breach in this case.
67. The benefits are these. He acquires mindfulness of
death; he lives diligently; the sign of foulness is
available (see Ch. VI); greed for sense desires is
removed; he constantly sees the body’s true nature; he
has a great sense of urgency; he abandons vanity of
health, etc.; he vanquishes fear and dread (MN 4);
non-human beings respect and honour him; he lives in
conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes,
and so on.
68. Even in sleep the dweller in a charnel ground
shows naught
Of negligence, for death is ever present to his
thought;
He may be sure there is no lust after sense
pleasure preys
Upon his mind, with many corpses present to his
gaze.
Rightly he strives because he gains a sense of
urgency,
While in his search for final peace he curbs all
vanity.
Let him that feels a leaning to Nibbāna in his
heart
Embrace this practice for it has rare virtues to
impart.

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 This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the charnel-ground dweller’s practice. [78]
69. xii. The any-bed-user’s practice is undertaken with one
of the following statements: “I refuse greed for resting
places” or “I undertake the any-bed-user’s practice.”
The any-bed user should be content with whatever
resting place he gets thus: “This falls to your lot.” He
must not make anyone else shift [from his bed]. These
are the directions.
70. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict
is not allowed to ask about the resting place that has
fallen to his lot: “Is it far?” or “Is it too near?” or “Is it
infested by non-human beings, snakes, and so on?” or
“Is it hot?” or “Is it cold?”. The medium one is allowed
to ask, but not to go and inspect it. The mild one is
allowed to inspect it and, if he does not like it, to
choose another.
As soon as greed for resting places arises in any one
of these three, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the
breach in this instance.
71. The benefits are these. The advice “He should be
content with what he gets” (J-a I 476; Vin IV 259) is
carried out; he regards the welfare of his fellows in the
life of purity; he gives up caring about inferiority and
superiority; approval and disapproval are abandoned;

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the door is closed against excessive wishes; he lives in
conformity with [the principles] of fewness of wishes,
and so on.
72. One vowed to any bed will be
Content with what he gets, and he
Can sleep in bliss without dismay
On nothing but a spread of hay.
He is not eager for the best,
No lowly couch does he detest,
He aids his young companions too
That to the monk’s good life are new.
So for a wise man to delight
In any kind of bed is right;
A Noble One this custom loves
As one the sages’ Lord approves.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the any-bed-user’s practice.
73. xiii. The sitter’s practice is undertaken with one of the
following statements: “I refuse lying down” or “I
undertake the sitter’s practice.”
The sitter can get up in any one of three watches of
the night and walk up and down: for lying down is
the only posture not allowed. These are the directions.
[79]

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74. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict
is not allowed a back-rest or cloth band or binding-
strap [to prevent falling while asleep].[17] The medium
one is allowed any one of these three. The mild one is
allowed a back-rest, a cloth band, a binding-strap, a
cushion, a “five-limb” and a “seven-limb.” A “five-
limb” is [a chair] made with [four legs and] a support
for the back. A “seven-limb” is one made with [four
legs,] a support for the back and an [arm] support on
each side. They made that, it seems, for the Elder
Pīṭhābhaya (Abhaya of the Chair). The elder became a
non-returner, and then attained Nibbāna.
As soon as any one of these three lies down, his
ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this
instance.
75. The benefits are these. The mental shackle described
thus, “He dwells indulging in the pleasure of lying
prone, the pleasure of lolling, the pleasure of torpor”
(M I 102), is severed; his state is suitable for devotion
to any meditation subject; his deportment inspires
confidence; his state favours the application of energy;
he develops the right practice.
76. The adept that can place crosswise
His feet to rest upon his thighs
And sit with back erect shall make
Foul Māra’s evil heart to quake.

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 No more in supine joys to plump
And wallow in lethargic dump;
Who sits for rest and finds it good
Shines forth in the Ascetics’ Wood.
The happiness and bliss it brings
Has naught to do with worldly things;
So must the sitter’s vow befit
The manners of a man of wit.
This is the commentary on the undertaking,
directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of
the sitter’s practice.
77. Now, there is the commentary according to the
stanza:
(4) As to the profitable triad,
(5) “Ascetic” and so on distinguished,
(6) As to groups, and also (7) singly,
The exposition should be known (see §3).
78. 4. Herein, as to the profitable triad: (Dhs, p.1) all the
ascetic practices, that is to say, those of trainers,
ordinary men, and men whose cankers have been
destroyed, may be either profitable or [in the
Arahant’s case] indeterminate. [80] No ascetic practice
is unprofitable.
But if someone should say: There is also an
unprofitable ascetic practice because of the words

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“One of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, becomes a forest
dweller” (A III 219), etc., he should be told: We have
not said that he does not live in the forest with
unprofitable consciousness. Whoever has his dwelling
in the forest is a forest dweller; and he may be one of
evil wishes or of few wishes. But, as it was said above
(§11), they “are the practices (aṅga) of a bhikkhu who
is ascetic (dhuta) because he has shaken off (dhuta)
defilement by undertaking one or other of them. Or
the knowledge that has got the name “ascetic” (dhuta)
because it shakes off (dhunana) defilement is a practice
(aṅga) belonging to these, thus they are “ascetic
practices” (dhutaṅga). Or alternatively, they are ascetic
(dhuta) because they shake off (niddhunana) opposition,
and they are practices (aṅga) because they are a way
(paṭipatti).” Now, no one called “ascetic” on account of
what is unprofitable could have these as his practices;
nor does what is unprofitable shake off anything so
that those things to which it belonged as a practice
could be called “ascetic practices.” And what is
unprofitable does not both shake off cupidity for
robes, etc., and become the practice of the way.
Consequently it was rightly said that no ascetic
practice is unprofitable.
79. And those who hold that an ascetic practice is
outside the profitable triad[18] have no ascetic practice
as regards meaning. Owing to the shaking off of what

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is non-existent could it be called an ascetic practice?
Also there are the words “Proceeded to undertake the
ascetic qualities” (Vin III 15), and it follows[19] that
those words are contradicted. So that should not be
accepted.
This, in the first place, is the commentary on the
profitable triad.
80. 5. As to “ascetic and so on distinguished,” the
following things should be understood, that is to say,
ascetic, a preacher of asceticism, ascetic states, ascetic
practices, and for whom the cultivation of ascetic
practices is suitable.
81. Herein, ascetic means either a person whose
defilements are shaken off, or a state that entails
shaking off defilements.
A preacher of asceticism: one is ascetic but not a
preacher of asceticism, another is not ascetic but a
preacher of asceticism, another is neither ascetic nor a
preacher of asceticism, and another is both ascetic and
a preacher of asceticism.
82. Herein, one who has shaken off his defilements
with an ascetic practice but does not advise and
instruct another in an ascetic practice, like the Elder
Bakkula, is “ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism,”
according as it is said: “Now, the venerable Bakkula

275
was ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism.”
One who [81] has not shaken off his own
defilements but only advises and instructs another in
an ascetic practice, like the Elder Upananda, is “not
ascetic but a preacher of asceticism,” according as it is
said: “Now, the venerable Upananda son of the
Sakyans was not ascetic but a preacher of asceticism.”
One who has failed in both, like Lāḷudāyin, is
“neither ascetic nor a preacher of asceticism,”
according as it is said: “Now, the venerable Lāḷudāyin
was neither ascetic nor a preacher of asceticism.”
One who has succeeded in both, like the General of
the Dhamma, is “both ascetic and a preacher of
asceticism,” according as it is said: “Now, the
venerable Sāriputta was ascetic and a preacher of
asceticism.”
83. Ascetic states: the five states that go with the
volition of an ascetic practice, that is to say, fewness of
wishes, contentment, effacement, seclusion, and that
specific quality[20] are called “ascetic states’ because of
the words “Depending on fewness of wishes” (A III
219), and so on.
84. Herein, fewness of wishes and contentment are non-
greed. Effacement and seclusion belong to the two
states, non-greed and non-delusion. That specific quality

276
is knowledge. Herein, by means of non-greed a man
shakes off greed for things that are forbidden. By
means of non-delusion he shakes off the delusion that
hides the dangers in those same things. And by means
of non-greed he shakes off indulgence in pleasure due
to sense desires that occurs under the heading of using
what is allowed. And by means of non-delusion he
shakes off indulgence in self-mortification that occurs
under the heading of excessive effacement in the
ascetic practices. That is why these states should be
understood as “ascetic states.”
85. Ascetic practices: these should be understood as the
thirteen, that is to say, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice
… the sitter’s practice, which have already been
described as to meaning and as to characteristic, and
so forth.
86. For whom the cultivation of ascetic practices is suitable:
[they are suitable] for one of greedy temperament and
for one of deluded temperament. Why? Because the
cultivation of ascetic practices is both a difficult
progress[21] and an abiding in effacement; and greed
subsides with the difficult progress, while delusion is
got rid of in those diligent by effacement. Or the
cultivation of the forest-dweller’s practice and the
tree-root-dweller’s practice here are suitable for one of
hating temperament; for hate too subsides in one who
dwells there without coming into conflict.

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 This is the commentary “as to ’ascetic’ and so on
distinguished.” [82]
87. 6. and 7. As to groups and also singly. Now, 6. as to
groups: these ascetic practices are in fact only eight,
that is to say, three principal and five individual
practices. Herein, the three, namely, the house-to-
house-seeker’s practice, the one-sessioner’s practice,
and the open-air-dweller’s practice, are principal
practices. For one who keeps the house-to-house-
seeker’s practice will keep the alms-food-eater’s
practice; and the bowl-food-eater’s practice and the
later-food-refuser’s practice will be well kept by one
who keeps the one-sessioner’s practice. And what
need has one who keeps the open-air-dweller’s
practice to keep the tree-root-dweller’s practice or the
any-bed-user’s practice? So there are these three
principal practices that, together with the five
individual practices, that is to say, the forest-dweller’s
practice, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice, the triple-
robe-wearer’s practice, the sitter’s practice, and the
charnel-ground-dweller’s practice, come to eight only.
88. Again they come to four, that is to say, two
connected with robes, five connected with alms food,
five connected with the resting place, and one
connected with energy. Herein, it is the sitter’s
practice that is connected with energy; the rest are
obvious.

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 Again they all amount to two only, since twelve are
dependent on requisites and one on energy. Also they
are two according to what is and what is not to be
cultivated. For when one cultivating an ascetic practice
finds that his meditation subject improves, he should
cultivate it; but when he is cultivating one and finds
that his meditation subject deteriorates, he should not
cultivate it. But when he finds that, whether he
cultivates one or not, his meditation subject only
improves and does not deteriorate, he should cultivate
them out of compassion for later generations. And
when he finds that, whether he cultivates them or not,
his meditation subject does not improve, he should
still cultivate them for the sake of acquiring the habit
for the future. So they are of two kinds as what is and
what is not to be cultivated.
89. And all are of one kind as volition. For there is only
one ascetic practice, namely, that consisting in the
volition of undertaking. Also it is said in the
Commentary: “It is the volition that is the ascetic
practice, they say.”
90. 7. Singly: with thirteen for bhikkhus, eight for
bhikkhunīs, twelve for novices, seven for female
probationers and female novices, and two for male
and female lay followers, there are thus forty-two.
91. If there is a charnel ground in the open that

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complies with the forest-dweller’s practice, one
bhikkhu is able to put all the ascetic practices into
effect simultaneously.
But the two, namely, the forest-dweller’s practice
and the later-food-refuser’s practice, are forbidden to
bhikkhunīs by training precept. [83] And it is hard for
them to observe the three, namely, the open-air-
dweller’s practice, the tree-root-dweller’s practice, and
the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice, because a
bhikkhunī is not allowed to live without a companion,
and it is hard to find a female companion with like
desire for such a place, and even if available, she
would not escape having to live in company. This
being so, the purpose of cultivating the ascetic practice
would scarcely be served. It is because they are
reduced by five owing to this inability to make use of
certain of them that they are to be understood as eight
only for bhikkhunīs.
92. Except for the triple-robe-wearer’s practice all the
other twelve as stated should be understood to be for
novices, and all the other seven for female
probationers and female novices.
The two, namely, the one-sessioner’s practice and
the bowl-food-eater’s practice, are proper for male and
female lay followers to employ. In this way there are
two ascetic practices.

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 This is the commentary “as to groups and also
singly.”
93. And this is the end of the treatise on the ascetic
practices to be undertaken for the purpose of
perfecting those special qualities of fewness of wishes,
contentment, etc., by means of which there comes
about the cleansing of virtue as described in the Path of
Purification, which is shown under the three headings
of virtue, concentration, and understanding, contained
in the stanza, “When a wise man, established well in
virtue” (I.1).

The second chapter called “The

Description of the Ascetic Practices” in
the Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.

281
Notes for Chapter II

1. Nibbacana—”derivative name (or verbal

derivative)”; gram. term not in PED; M-a I 61,105;
Vism XVI.16.
2. Patati—”to gather (or to wander)”: not in PED.
3. Avakhaṇḍana—”hiatus” and dāna—”gap”: not in
PED.
4. Such references to “the Commentary” are to the
old Sinhalese commentary, no longer extant, from
which Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa drew his
material.
5. “’Ekasaṅgītika’: one who knows one of the five
collections (nikāya) beginning with the Collection
of Long Discourses (Dīgha Nikāya). (Vism-mhṭ
76)”
6. “That elder, it seems, was a sitter, but no one
knew it. Then one night the other saw him by the
light of a flash of lightning sitting up on his bed.
He asked, ’Are you a sitter, venerable sir?’ Out of
fewness of wishes that his ascetic practice should
get known, the elder lay down. Afterwards he
undertook the practice anew. So the story has
come down. (Vism-mhṭ 77)”

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7. “The name of a street in Mahāgāma (S.E. Sri
Lanka). Also in Anurādhapura, they say” (Vism-
mhṭ 77).
8. On certain occasions, when the going forth was
given by the Buddha with only the words, “Ehi
bhikkhu (Come, bhikkhu),” owing to the disciple’s
past merit robes appeared miraculously upon him
(see e.g. Vin Mahāvagga, Kh. 1).
9. Apādana—”institution (or production),” not in
PED.
10. Tatraṭṭhaka-paccattharaṇa—”a bedspread that
remains there”; “A name for what has been
determined upon as a bedspread in one’s own
resting place or in someone else’s. They say
accordingly (it is said in a commentary) that there
is no breach of the ascetic practice even when
these two, that is, the bedspread and the undyed
cloth, are kept as extra robes” (Vism-mhṭ 78–79).
For tatraṭṭhaka (fixture) see also §61.
11. “A meal to be given by setting it out in a principal
house only.” (Vism-mhṭ 79) This meaning of
dhura-bhatta not in PED.
12. “Tickets that are not for actual food, but deal with
medicine, etc.” (Vism-mhṭ 79) Paṭikkamana
—”refectory” (28) = bojun hal (eating hall) in
Sinhalese translation.

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13. Sakkarā—”sugar”: spelt sakkharā in PED.
14. Subbata—”truly devoted”: fm. su + vata (having
good vows). See also §59.
15. Reading acchinna-mariyādaṃ with Vism-mhṭ,
which says: “’Without a drip-ledge cut (acchinna-
mariyādaṃ)’ means without a drip-ledge
(mariyāda) made above, which might come under
the heading of a drip-ledge (mariyāda-saṅkhepena)
made to prevent rain water from coming in. But if
the rain water comes under the overhang
(pabbhāra) and is allowed to go in under it, then
this comes under the heading of the open air
(abbhokāsika-saṅkhepa)” (Vism-mhṭ 84). This seems
to refer to the widespread habit in ancient Sri
Lanka of cutting a drip-ledge on overhanging
rocks used for bhikkhus’ dwellings so that the
rain that falls on top of the rock drips down in
front of the space under the overhang instead of
trickling down under the rock and wetting the
back and floor. Pabbhāra in this context is “over
hang” rather than “slope.”
16. “He should not go into families’ houses because
he smells of the dead and is followed by pisāca
goblins” (Vism-mhṭ 84).
17. Āyogapatta—”a binding-strap”: this is probably
the meaning. But cf. Vin II 135 and Vin-a 891.

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18. For the triads of the Abhidhamma Mātikā
(Abhidhamma Schedule) see Ch. XIII, n.20.
“’Those who hold’: a reference to the inhabitants of
the Abhayagiri Monastery at Anurādhapura. For
they say that ascetic practice is a concept
consisting in a name (nāma-paññatti). That being
so, they could have no meaning of shaking off
defilements, or possibility of being undertaken,
because in the ultimate sense they would be non-
existent [concepts having no existence]” (Vism-
mhṭ 87). Cf. IV.29.
19. Āpajjati (and its noun āpatti) is the normal word
used for undesirable consequences that follow on
some unsound logical proposition. See XVI.68f.
This meaning is not in PED.
20. Idamatthitā—”that specific quality”: “Owing to
these profitable states it exists, (thus it is ’specific
by those’; imehi kusaladhammehi atthi = idam-atthi).
The knowledge by means of which one who has
gone forth should be established in the refuse-rag-
wearer’s practice, etc., and by means of which, on
being so instructed one undertakes and persists in
the ascetic qualities—that knowledge is
idamatthitā” (Vism-mhṭ 88).
21. See XXI.117.

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 Part II
Concentration
(Samādhi)

286
 Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
(Kammaṭṭhāna-gahaṇa-niddesa)

1. [84] Now, concentration is described under the

heading of “consciousness” in the phrase “develops
consciousness and understanding” (I.1). It should be
developed by one who has taken his stand on virtue
that has been purified by means of the special qualities
of fewness of wishes, etc., and perfected by observance
of the ascetic practices. But that concentration has been
shown only very briefly and so it is not even easy to
understand, much less to develop. There is therefore
the following set of questions, the purpose of which is
to show the method of its development in detail:

(i) What is concentration?

(ii) In what sense is it concentration?
(iii) What are its characteristic, function,
manifestation, and proximate cause?
(iv) How many kinds of concentration are
there?
(v) What is its defilement?
(vi) What is its cleansing?
(vii) How should it be developed?

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 (viii) What are the benefits of the
development of concentration? [1]

2. Here are the answers:

(i) WHAT IS CONCENTRATION? Concentration is of
many sorts and has various aspects. An answer that
attempted to cover it all would accomplish neither its
intention nor its purpose and would, besides, lead to
distraction; so we shall confine ourselves to the kind
intended here, calling concentration profitable
unification of mind.[2]
3. (ii) IN WHAT SENSE IS IT CONCENTRATION? It is
concentration (samādhi) in the sense of concentrating
(samādhāna). What is this concentrating? It is the
centring (ādhāna) of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants evenly (samaṃ) and rightly (sammā) on a
single object; placing, is what is meant. [85] So it is the
state in virtue of which consciousness and its
concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single
object, undistracted and unscattered, that should be
understood as concentrating.
4. (iii) WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION,
MANIFESTATION, AND PROXIMATE CAUSE? Concentration
has non-distraction as its characteristic.[3] Its function
is to eliminate distraction. It is manifested as non-
wavering. Because of the words, “Being blissful, his

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mind becomes concentrated” (D I 73), its proximate
cause is bliss.
5. (iv) HOW MANY KINDS OF CONCENTRATION ARE THERE?
(1) First of all it is of one kind with the characteristic
of non-distraction. (2) Then it is of two kinds as access
and absorption;[4] (3) likewise as mundane and
supramundane,[5] (4) as with happiness and without
happiness, and (5) as accompanied by bliss and
accompanied by equanimity.[6] It is of three kinds (6)
as inferior, medium and superior; likewise (7) as with
applied thought and sustained thought, etc., (8) as
accompanied by happiness, etc., and (9) as limited,
exalted, and measureless. It is of four kinds (10) as of
difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge, etc.;
likewise (11) as limited with limited object, etc., (12)
according to the factors of the four jhānas, (13) as
partaking of diminution, etc., (14) as of the sense
sphere, etc., and (15) as predominance, and so on. (16)
It is of five kinds according to the factors of the five
jhānas reckoned by the fivefold method.
6. 1. Herein, the section dealing with that of one kind
is evident in meaning.
2. In the section dealing with that of two kinds,
access concentration is the unification of mind obtained
by the following, that is to say, the six recollections,

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mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the
perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, and the
defining of the four elements, and it is the unification
that precedes absorption concentration. Absorption
concentration is the unification that follows
immediately upon the preliminary-work (IV.74)
because of the words, “The first-jhāna preliminary-
work is a condition, as proximity condition, for the
first jhāna” (Paṭṭh II 350 (Se). So it is of two kinds as
access and absorption.
7. 3. In the second dyad mundane concentration is
profitable unification of mind in the three planes.
Supramundane concentration is the unification
associated with the noble paths. So it is of two kinds as
mundane and supramundane.
8. 4. In the third dyad concentration with happiness is
the unification of mind in two jhānas in the fourfold
reckoning and in three jhānas in the fivefold
reckoning. [86] Concentration without happiness is the
unification in the remaining two jhānas. But access
concentration may be with happiness or without
happiness. So it is of two kinds as with happiness and
without happiness.
9. 5. In the fourth dyad concentration accompanied by
bliss is the unification in three jhānas in the fourfold
and four in the fivefold reckoning. That accompanied by

290
equanimity is that in the remaining jhāna. Access
concentration may be accompanied by bliss or
accompanied by equanimity. So it is of two kinds as
accompanied by bliss and accompanied by
equanimity.
10. 6. In the first of the triads what has only just been
acquired is inferior. What is not very well developed is
medium. What is well developed and has reached
mastery is superior. So it is of three kinds as inferior,
medium, and superior.
11. 7. In the second triad that with applied thought and
sustained thought is the concentration of the first jhāna
together with access concentration. That without
applied thought, with sustained thought only, is the
concentration of the second jhāna in the fivefold
reckoning. For when a man sees danger only in
applied thought and not in sustained thought, he
aspires only to abandon applied thought when he
passes beyond the first jhāna, and so he obtains
concentration without applied thought and with
sustained thought only. This is said with reference to
him. Concentration without applied thought and
sustained thought is the unification in the three jhānas
beginning with the second in the fourfold reckoning
and with the third in the fivefold reckoning (see D III
219). So it is of three kinds as with applied thought
and sustained thought, and so on.

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12. 8. In the third triad concentration accompanied by
happiness is the unification in the two first jhānas in the
fourfold reckoning and in the three first jhānas in the
fivefold reckoning. Concentration accompanied by bliss
is the unification in those same jhānas and in the third
and the fourth respectively in the two reckonings.
That accompanied by equanimity is that in the remaining
jhāna. Access concentration may be accompanied by
bliss and happiness or accompanied by equanimity. So
it is of three kinds as accompanied by happiness, and
so on.
13. 9. In the fourth triad limited concentration is
unification on the plane of access. Exalted
concentration is unification in profitable
[consciousness, etc.,] of the fine-material sphere and
immaterial sphere. Measureless concentration is
unification associated with the noble paths. So it is of
three kinds as limited, exalted, and measureless.
14. 10. In the first of the tetrads there is concentration
of difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge. There
is that of difficult progress and swift direct-
knowledge. There is that of easy progress and sluggish
direct-knowledge. And there is that of easy progress
and swift direct-knowledge.
15. Herein, the development of concentration that
occurs from the time of the first conscious reaction up

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to the arising of the access of a given jhāna is called
progress. And the understanding that occurs from the
time of access until absorption is called direct-
knowledge. That progress is difficult for some, being
troublesome owing to the tenacious resistance of the
inimical states beginning with the hindrances. The
meaning is that it is cultivated without ease. [87] It is
easy for others because of the absence of those
difficulties. Also the direct-knowledge is sluggish in
some and occurs slowly, not quickly. In others it is
swift and occurs rapidly, not slowly.
16. Herein, we shall comment below upon the suitable
and unsuitable (IV.35f.), the preparatory tasks
consisting in the severing of impediments (IV.20), etc.,
and skill in absorption (IV.42). When a man cultivates
what is unsuitable, his progress is difficult and his
direct-knowledge sluggish. When he cultivates what is
suitable, his progress is easy and his direct-knowledge
swift. But if he cultivates the unsuitable in the earlier
stage and the suitable in the later stage, or if he
cultivates the suitable in the earlier stage and the
unsuitable in the later stage, then it should be
understood as mixed in his case. Likewise if he
devotes himself to development without carrying out
the preparatory tasks of severing impediments, etc.,
his progress is difficult. It is easy in the opposite case.
And if he is not accomplished in skill in absorption,

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his direct-knowledge is sluggish. It is swift if he is so
accomplished.
17. Besides, they should be understood as classed
according to craving and ignorance, and according to
whether one has had practice in serenity and insight.
[7] For if a man is overwhelmed by craving, his
progress is difficult. If not, it is easy. And if he is
overwhelmed by ignorance, his direct-knowledge is
sluggish. If not, it is swift. And if he has had no
practice in serenity, his progress is difficult. If he has,
it is easy. And if he has had no practice in insight, his
direct-knowledge is sluggish. If he has, it is swift.
18. Also they should be understood as classed
according to defilements and faculties. For if a man’s
defilements are sharp and his faculties dull, then his
progress is difficult and his direct-knowledge
sluggish; but if his faculties are keen, his direct-
knowledge is swift. And if his defilements are blunt
and his faculties dull, then his progress is easy and his
direct-knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are
keen, his direct-knowledge is swift.
19. So as regards this progress and this direct-
knowledge, when a person reaches concentration with
difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge, his
concentration is called concentration of difficult progress
and sluggish direct-knowledge; similarly in the cases of

294
the remaining three.
So it is of four kinds as of difficult progress and
sluggish direct-knowledge, and so on.
20. 11. In the second tetrad there is limited
concentration with a limited object, there is limited
concentration with a measureless object, there is
measureless concentration with a limited object, and
there is measureless concentration with a measureless
object. Herein, concentration that is unfamiliar and
incapable of being a condition for a higher jhāna [88] is
limited. When it occurs with an unextended object
(IV.126), it is with a limited object. When it is familiar,
well developed, and capable of being a condition for a
higher jhāna, it is measureless. And when it occurs with
an extended object, it is with a measureless object. The
mixed method can be understood as the mixture of the
characteristics already stated. So it is of four kinds as
limited with limited object, and so on.
21. 12. In the third tetrad the first jhāna has five
factors, that is to say, applied thought, sustained
thought, happiness, bliss, and concentration, following
suppression of the hindrances. The second has the
three factors remaining after the elimination of
applied and sustained thought. The third has two
factors with the fading away of happiness. The fourth,
where bliss is abandoned, has two factors with

295
concentration and the equanimous feeling that
accompanies it. Thus there are four kinds of
concentration according to the factors of these four
jhānas. So it is of four kinds according to the factors of
the four jhānas.
22. 13. In the fourth tetrad there is concentration
partaking of diminution, there is concentration
partaking of stagnation, there is concentration
partaking of distinction, and there is concentration
partaking of penetration. Herein, it should be
understood that the state of partaking of diminution is
accessibility to opposition, the state of partaking of
stagnation (ṭhiti) is stationariness (saṇṭhāna) of the
mindfulness that is in conformity with that
[concentration], the state of partaking of distinction is
the attaining of higher distinction, and the state of
partaking of penetration is accessibility to perception
and attention accompanied by dispassion, according
as it is said: “When a man has attained the first jhāna
and he is accessible to perception and attention
accompanied by sense desire, then his understanding
partakes of diminution. When his mindfulness that is
in conformity with that stagnates, then his
understanding partakes of stagnation. When he is
accessible to perception and attention unaccompanied
by applied thought, then his understanding partakes
of distinction. When he is accessible to perception and

296
attention accompanied by dispassion and directed to
fading away, then his understanding partakes of
penetration” (Vibh 330). The kinds of concentration
associated with that [fourfold] understanding are also
four in number. So it is of four kinds as partaking of
diminution, and so on.
23. 14. In the fifth tetrad there are the following four
kinds of concentration, that is to say, sense-sphere
concentration, fine-material-sphere concentration,
immaterial-sphere concentration, and unincluded
[that is, path] concentration. Herein, sense-sphere
concentration is all kinds of access unification. Likewise
the other three are respectively profitable unification
of mind associated with fine-material, [immaterial,
and path, jhāna]. So it is of four kinds as of the sense-
sphere, and so on.
24. 15. In the sixth tetrad: “If a bhikkhu obtains
concentration, obtains unification of mind, by making
zeal (desire) predominant, [89] this is called
concentration due to zeal. If … by making energy
predominant … If … by making [natural purity of]
consciousness predominant… If … by making inquiry
predominant, this is called concentration due to
inquiry” (Vibh 216–19). So it is of four kinds as
predominance.
25. 16. In the pentad there are five jhānas by dividing

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in two what is called the second jhāna in the fourfold
reckoning (see §21), taking the second jhāna to be due
to the surmounting of only applied thought and the
third jhāna to be due to the surmounting of both
applied and sustained thought. There are five kinds of
concentration according to the factors of these five
jhānas. So its fivefoldness should be understood
according to the five sets of jhāna factors.
26. (v) What is its defilement? (vi) What is its cleansing?
Here the answer is given in the Vibhaṅga: “Defilement
is the state partaking of diminution, cleansing is the
state partaking of distinction” (Vibh 343). Herein, the
state partaking of diminution should be understood in
this way: “When a man has attained the first jhāna and
he is accessible to perception and attention
accompanied by sense desire, then his understanding
partakes of diminution” (Vibh 330). And the state
partaking of distinction should be understood in this
way: “When he is accessible to perception and
attention unaccompanied by applied thought, then his
understanding partakes of distinction” (Vibh 330).
27. (vii) How should it be developed?

[A. DEVELOPMENT IN BRIEF]

298
 The method of developing the kind of concentration
associated with the noble paths mentioned (§7) under
that “of two kinds as mundane and supramundane,”
etc., is included in the method of developing
understanding; (Ch. XXII) for in developing [path]
understanding that is developed too. So we shall say
nothing separately [here] about how that is to be
developed.
28. But mundane concentration should be developed
by one who has taken his stand on virtue that is quite
purified in the way already stated. He should sever
any of the ten impediments that he may have. He
should then approach the good friend, the giver of a
meditation subject, and he should apprehend from
among the forty meditation subjects one that suits his
own temperament. After that he should avoid a
monastery unfavourable to the development of
concentration and go to live in one that is favourable.
Then he should sever the lesser impediments and not
overlook any of the directions for development. This is
in brief.

[B. DEVELOPMENT IN DETAIL]

29. The detail is this:

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 [THE TEN IMPEDIMENTS]
Firstly it was said above, he should sever any of the ten
impediments that he may have. [90] Now, the “ten
impediments” are:
A dwelling, family, and gain,
A class, and building too as fifth,
And travel, kin, affliction, books,
And supernormal powers: ten.
Herein, the dwelling itself is the “impediment due
to the dwelling.” So too with the family and so on.
30. 1. Herein, a single inner room or a single hut or a
whole monastery for the Community is called a
dwelling. This is not an impediment for everyone. It is
an impediment only for anyone whose mind is
exercised about the building, etc., that goes on there,
or who has many belongings stored there, or whose
mind is caught up by some business connected with it.
For any other it is not an impediment.
31. Here is a relevant story. Two clansmen left
Anurādhapura, it seems, and eventually went forth at
the Thūpārāma.[8] One of them made himself familiar
with the Two Codes,[9] and when he had acquired five
years’ seniority, he took part in the Pavāraṇā[10] and
then left for the place called Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī.[11] The
other stayed on where he was. Now, when the one

300
who had gone to Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī had lived there a
long time and had become an elder,[12] he thought,
“This place is good for retreat; suppose I told my
friend about it?” So he set out, and in due course he
entered the Thūpārāma. As he entered, the elder of the
same seniority saw him, went to meet him, took his
bowl and robe and did the duties.
32. The visiting elder went into his lodging. He
thought, “Now my friend will be sending me ghee or
molasses or a drink; for he has lived long in this city.”
He got nothing that night, and in the morning he
thought, “Now he will be sending me rice gruel and
solid food sent by his supporters.” When he saw none,
he thought, “There is no one to bring it. No doubt they
will give it when we go into the town.” Early in the
morning they went into the town together. When they
had wandered through one street and had got only a
ladleful of gruel, they sat down in a sitting hall to
drink it.[13]
33. Then the visitor thought, “Perhaps there is no
individual giving of gruel. But as soon as it is the time
for the meal people will give special food.” But when
it was time for the meal, they ate what they had got by
wandering for alms. Then the visitor said, “Venerable
sir, how is this? Do you live in this way all the
time?”—“Yes, friend.”—”Venerable sir,

301
Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī is comfortable; let us go there.”
Now, as the elder came out from the city [91] by the
southern gate he took the Kumbhakāragāma road
[which leads to Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī]. The visitor asked,
“But, venerable sir, why do you take this
road?”—”Did you not recommend Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī,
friend?”—”But how is this, venerable sir, have you no
extra belongings in the place you have lived in for so
long?”—”That is so, friend. The bed and chair belong
to the Community, and they are put away [as usual].
There is nothing else.”—”But, venerable sir, I have left
my staff and my oil tube and my sandal bag
there.”—”Have you already collected so much, friend,
living there for just one day?”—“Yes, venerable sir.”
34. He was glad in his heart, and he paid homage to
the elder: “For those like you, venerable sir,
everywhere is a forest dwelling. The Thūpārāma is a
place where the relics of four Buddhas are deposited;
there is suitable hearing of the Dhamma in the Brazen
Palace; there is the Great Shrine to be seen; and one
can visit elders. It is like the time of the Buddha. It is
here that you should live.” On the following day he
took his bowl and [outer] robe and went away by
himself. It is no impediment for one like that.
35. 2 Family means a family consisting of relatives or
of supporters. For even a family consisting of
supporters is an impediment for someone who lives in

302
close association with it in the way beginning, “He is
pleased when they are pleased” (S III 11), and who
does not even go to a neighbouring monastery to hear
the Dhamma without members of the family.
36. But even mother and father are not an impediment
for another, as in the case of the young bhikkhu, the
nephew of the elder who lived at the Koraṇḍaka
Monastery. He went to Rohaṇa for instruction, it
seems. The elder’s sister, who was a lay devotee, was
always asking the elder how her son was getting on.
One day the elder set out for Rohaṇa to fetch him
back.
37. The young bhikkhu too thought, “I have lived
here for a long time. Now I might go and visit my
preceptor and find out how the lay devotee is,” and he
left Rohaṇa. The two met on the banks of the
[Mahaveli] River. He did the duties to the elder at the
foot of a tree. When asked, “Where are you going?” he
told him his purpose. The elder said: “You have done
well. The lay devotee is always asking after you. That
was why I came. You may go, but I shall stay here for
the Rains,” and he dismissed him. [92] He arrived at
the monastery on the actual day for taking up
residence for the Rains. The lodging allotted to him
happened to be the one for which his father had
undertaken responsibility.

303
38. His father came on the following day and asked,
“To whom was our lodging allotted, venerable sirs?”
When he heard that it had fallen to a young visitor, he
went to him. After paying homage to him, he said,
“Venerable sir, there is an obligation for him who has
taken up residence for the Rains in our
lodging.”—”What is it, lay follower?”—”It is to take
alms food only in our house for the three months, and
to let us know the time of departure after the Pavāraṇā
ceremony.” He consented in silence. The lay devotee
went home and told his wife. “There is a visiting lord
who has taken up residence for the Rains in our
lodging. He must be carefully looked after,” and she
agreed. She prepared good food of various kinds for
him.[14] Though the youth went to his relatives’ home
at the time of the meal, no one recognized him.
39. When he had eaten alms food there during the
three months and had completed the residence for the
Rains, he announced his departure. Then his relatives
said, “Let it be tomorrow, venerable sir,” and on the
following day, when they had fed him in their house
and filled his oil tube and given him a lump of sugar
and a nine-cubit length of cloth, they said, “Now you
are leaving, venerable sir.” He gave his blessing and
set out for Rohaṇa.
40. His preceptor had completed the Pavāraṇā
ceremony and was on his way back. They met at the

304
same place as before. He did the duties to the elder at
the foot of a tree. The elder asked him, “How was it,
my dear, did you see the good woman lay devotee?”
He replied, “Yes, venerable sir,” and he told him all
that had happened. He then anointed the elder’s feet
with the oil, made him a drink with the sugar, and
presented him with the length of cloth. He then, after
paying homage to the elder, told him, “Venerable sir,
only Rohaṇa suits me,” and he departed. The elder too
arrived back at his monastery, and next day he went
into the village of Koraṇḍaka.
41. The lay devotee, his sister, had always kept
looking down the road, thinking, “My brother is now
coming with my son.” When she saw him coming
alone, she thought, “My son must be dead; that is why
the elder is coming alone,” and she fell at the elder’s
feet, lamenting and weeping. Suspecting that it must
have been out of fewness of wishes that the youth had
gone away without announcing himself, [93] the elder
comforted her and told her all that had happened, and
he took the length of cloth out of his bag and showed
it to her.
42. She was appeased. She prostrated herself in the
direction taken by her son, and she said: “Surely the
Blessed One taught the way of the Rathavinīta, the
way of the Nālaka, the way of the Tuvaṭaka, and the
way of the great Noble Ones’ heritages[15] showing

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contentment with the four requisites and delight in
development, making a bhikkhu such as my son a
body-witness. So, although for three months he ate in
the house of the mother who bore him, yet he never
said ’I am your son, you are my mother!’ Oh,
admirable man!” Even mother and father are no
impediment for one such as him, so how much less
any other family that supports him.
43. 3. Gain is the four requisites. How are they an
impediment? Wherever a meritorious bhikkhu goes,
people give him a large supply of requisites. With
giving blessings to them and teaching them the
Dhamma he gets no chance to do the ascetic’s duties.
From sunrise till the first watch of the night he never
breaks his association with people. Again, even at
dawn, alms-food eaters fond of opulence come and
say, “Venerable sir, such and such a man lay follower,
woman lay follower, friend, friend’s daughter, wants
to see you,” and being ready to go, he replies, “Take
the bowl and robe, friend.” So he is always on the
alert. Thus these requisites are an impediment for him.
He should leave his group and wander by himself
where he is not known. This is the way his
impediment is severed.
44. 4 Class is a class (group) of students of suttas or
students of Abhidhamma. If with the group’s
instruction and questioning he gets no opportunity for

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the ascetic’s duties, then that group is an impediment
for him. He should sever that impediment in this way:
if those bhikkhus have already acquired the main part
and little still remains, he should finish that off and
then go to the forest. If they have only acquired little
and much still remains, [94] he should, without
travelling more than a league, approach another
instructor of a class within the radius of a league and
say, “Help those venerable ones with instruction, etc.”
If he does not find anyone in this way, he should take
leave of the class, saying. “I have a task to see to,
friends; go where it suits you,” and he should do his
own work.
45. 5. Building (kamma) is new building work (nava-
kamma). Since one engaged in this must know about
what [material] has and has not been got by
carpenters, etc., and must see about what has and has
not been done, it is always an impediment. It should
be severed in this way. If little remains it should be
completed. If much remains, it should be handed over
to the Community or to bhikkhus who are entrusted
with the Community’s affairs, if it is a new building
for the Community; or if it is for himself, it should be
handed over to those whom he entrusts with his own
affairs, but if these are not available, he should
relinquish it to the Community and depart.
46. 6. Travel is going on a journey. If someone is

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expected to give the going forth somewhere else, or if
some requisite is obtainable there and he cannot rest
content without getting it [that will be an impediment;
for] even if he goes into the forest to do the ascetic’s
duties, he will find it hard to get rid of thoughts about
the journey. So one in this position should apply
himself to the ascetic’s duties after he has done the
journey and transacted the business.
47. 7 Kin in the case of the monastery means teacher,
preceptor, co-resident, pupil, those with the same
preceptor as oneself, and those with the same teacher
as oneself; and in the case of the house it means
mother, father, brother, and so on. When they are sick
they are an impediment for him. Therefore that
impediment should be severed by curing them with
nursing.
48. Herein, when the preceptor is sick he must be
cared for as long as life lasts if the sickness does not
soon depart. Likewise the teacher at the going forth,
the teacher at the admission, the co-resident, the
pupils to whom one has given the admission and the
going forth, and those who have the same preceptor.
But the teacher from whom one takes the dependence,
the teacher who gives one instruction, the pupil to
whom one has given the dependence, the pupil to
whom one is giving instruction, and those who have
that same teacher as oneself, should be looked after as

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long as the dependence or the instruction has not been
terminated. If one is able to do so, one should look
after them even beyond that [period].
49. Mother and father should be treated like the
preceptor; if they live within the kingdom and look to
their son for help, it should be given. [95] Also if they
have no medicine, he should give them his own. If he
has none, he should go in search of it as alms and give
that. But in the case of brothers or sisters, one should
only give them what is theirs. If they have none, then
one should give one’s own temporarily and later get it
back, but one should not complain if one does not get
it back. It is not allowed either to make medicine for or
to give it to a sister’s husband who is not related by
blood; but one can give it to one’s sister saying, “Give
it to your husband.” The same applies to one’s
brother’s wife. But it is allowed to make it for their
children since they are blood relatives.
50. 8. Affliction is any kind of illness. It is an
impediment when it is actually afflicting; therefore it
should be severed by treatment with medicine. But if
it is not cured after taking medicine for a few days,
then the ascetic’s duties should be done after
apostrophizing one’s person in this way: “I am not
your slave, or your hireling. I have come to suffering
through maintaining you through the beginningless
round of rebirths.”

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51. 9. Books means responsibility for the scriptures.
That is an impediment only for one who is constantly
busy with recitations, etc., but not for others. Here are
relevant stories. The Elder Revata, it seems, the
Majjhima reciter, went to the Elder Revata, the dweller
in Malaya (the Hill Country), and asked him for a
meditation subject. The elder asked him, “How are
you in the scriptures, friend?”—”I am studying the
Majjhima [Nikāya], venerable sir.”—”The Majjhima is
a hard responsibility, friend. When a man is still
learning the First Fifty by heart, he is faced with the
Middle Fifty; and when he is still learning that by
heart, he is faced with the Last Fifty. How can you
take up a meditation subject?”—”Venerable sir, when
I have taken a meditation subject from you, I shall not
look at the scriptures again.” He took the meditation
subject, and doing no recitation for nineteen years, he
reached Arahantship in the twentieth year. He told
bhikkhus who came for recitation: “I have not looked
at the scriptures for twenty years, friends, [96] yet I am
familiar with them. You may begin.” And from
beginning to end he had no hesitation even over a
single syllable.
52. The Elder Mahā-Nāga, too, who lived at
Karuliyagiri (Karaliyagiri) put aside the scriptures for
eighteen years, and then he recited the Dhātukathā to
the bhikkhus. When they checked this with the town-

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dwelling elders [of Anurādhapura], not a single
question was found out of its order.
53. In the Great Monastery too the Elder Tipiṭaka-
Cūḷa-Abhaya had the golden drum struck, saying: “I
shall expound the three Piṭakas in the circle of [experts
in] the Five Collections of discourses,” and this was
before he had learnt the commentaries. The
Community of Bhikkhus said, “’Which teachers’
teaching is it? Unless you give only the teaching of our
own teachers we shall not let you speak.” Also his
preceptor asked him when he went to wait on him,
“Did you have the drum beaten, friend?”—”Yes,
venerable sir.”—”For what reason?”—”I shall
expound the scriptures, venerable sir.”—”Friend
Abhaya, how do the teachers explain this
passage?”—”They explain it in this way, venerable
sir.” The elder dissented, saying “Hum.” Again three
times, each time in a different way, he said, “They
explain it in this way, venerable sir.” The elder always
dissented, saying, “Hum.” Then he said, “Friend, your
first explanation was the way of the teachers. But it is
because you have not actually learnt it from the
teachers’ lips that you are unable to maintain that the
teachers say such and such. Go and learn it from our
own teachers.”—”Where shall I go, venerable
sir?”—”There is an elder named Mahā
Dhammarakkhita living in the Tulādhārapabbata

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Monastery in the Rohaṇa country beyond the
[Mahaveli] River. He knows all the scriptures. Go to
him.” Saying, “Good, venerable sir,” he paid homage
to the elder. He went with five hundred bhikkhus to
the Elder Mahā-Dhammarakkhita, and when he had
paid homage to him, he sat down. The elder asked,
“Why have you come?”—”To hear the Dhamma,
venerable sir.”—”Friend Abhaya, they ask me about
the Dīgha and the Majjhima from time to time, but I
have not looked at the others for thirty years. Still you
may repeat them in my presence by night, and I shall
explain them to you by day.” He said, “Good,
venerable sir,” and he acted accordingly.
54. The inhabitants of the village had a large pavilion
built at the door of his dwelling, and they came daily
to hear the Dhamma. Explaining by day what had
been repeated by night, [97] the Elder
[Dhammarakkhita] eventually completed the
instruction. Then he sat down on a mat on the ground
before the Elder Abhaya and said, “Friend, explain a
meditation subject to me.”—”What are you saying,
venerable sir, have I not heard it all from you? What
can I explain to you that you do not already know?”
The senior elder said, “This path is different for one
who has actually travelled by.”
55. The Elder Abhaya was then, it seems, a stream-
enterer. When the Elder Abhaya had given his teacher

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a meditation subject, he returned to Anurādhapura.
Later, while he was expounding the Dhamma in the
Brazen Palace, he heard that the elder had attained
Nibbāna. On hearing this, he said, “Bring me [my]
robe, friends.” Then he put on the robe and said, “The
Arahant path befits our teacher, friends. Our teacher
was a true thoroughbred. He sat down on a mat before
his own Dhamma pupil and said, ’Explain a
meditation subject to me.’ The Arahant path befits our
teacher, friends.”
For such as these, books are no impediment.
56. 10. Supernormal powers are the supernormal
powers of the ordinary man. They are hard to
maintain, like a prone infant or like young corn, and
the slightest thing breaks them. But they are an
impediment for insight, not for concentration, since
they are obtainable through concentration. So the
supernormal powers are an impediment that should
be severed by one who seeks insight; the others are
impediments to be severed by one who seeks
concentration.
This, in the first place, is the detailed explanation of
the impediments.
57. Approach the good friend, the giver of a meditation
subject (§28): meditation subjects are of two kinds, that
is, generally useful meditation subjects and special

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meditation subjects. Herein, loving-kindness towards
the Community of Bhikkhus, etc., and also
mindfulness of death are what are called generally
useful meditation subjects. Some say perception of
foulness, too.
58. When a bhikkhu takes up a meditation subject, he
should first develop loving-kindness towards the
Community of Bhikkhus within the boundary,[16]
limiting it at first [to “all bhikkhus in this monastery”],
in this way: “May they be happy and free from
affliction.” Then he should develop it towards all
deities within the boundary. Then towards all the
principal people in the village that is his alms resort;
then to [all human beings there and to] all living
beings dependent on the human beings. With loving-
kindness towards the Community of Bhikkhus he
produces kindliness in his co-residents; then they are
easy for him to live with. With loving-kindness
towards the deities within the boundary he is
protected by kindly deities with lawful protection. [98]
With loving-kindness towards the principal people in
the village that is his alms resort his requisites are
protected by well-disposed principal people with
lawful protection. With loving-kindness to all human
beings there he goes about without incurring their
dislike since they trust him. With loving-kindness to
all living beings he can wander unhindered

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everywhere.
With mindfulness of death, thinking, “I have got to
die,” he gives up improper search (see S II 194; M-a I
115), and with a growing sense of urgency he comes to
live without attachment. When his mind is familiar
with the perception of foulness, then even divine
objects do not tempt his mind to greed.
59. So these are called “generally useful” and they are
“called meditation subjects” since they are needed[17]
generally and desirable owing to their great
helpfulness and since they are subjects for the
meditation work intended.
60. What is called a “special meditation subject” is
that one from among the forty meditation subjects that
is suitable to a man’s own temperament. It is “special”
(pārihāriya) because he must carry it (pariharitabbattā)
constantly about with him, and because it is the
proximate cause for each higher stage of development.
So it is the one who gives this twofold meditation
subject that is called the giver of a meditation subject.
61. The good friend is one who possesses such special
qualities as these:
He is revered and dearly loved,
And one who speaks and suffers speech;
The speech he utters is profound,

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 He does not urge without a reason (A IV 32) and
so on.
He is wholly solicitous of welfare and partial to
progress.
62. Because of the words beginning, “Ānanda, it is
owing to my being a good friend to them that living
beings subject to birth are freed from birth” (S I 88), it
is only the Fully Enlightened One who possesses all
the aspects of the good friend. Since that is so, while
he is available only a meditation subject taken in the
Blessed One’s presence is well taken.
But after his final attainment of Nibbāna, it is proper
to take it from anyone of the eighty great disciples still
living. When they are no more available, one who
wants to take a particular meditation subject should
take it from someone with cankers destroyed, who
has, by means of that particular meditation subject,
produced the fourfold and fivefold jhāna, and has
reached the destruction of cankers by augmenting
insight that had that jhāna as its proximate cause.
63. But how then, does someone with cankers
destroyed declare himself thus: “I am one whose
cankers are destroyed?” Why not? He declares himself
when he knows that his instructions will be carried
out. Did not the Elder Assagutta [99] spread out his
leather mat in the air and sitting cross-legged on it

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explain a meditation subject to a bhikkhu who was
starting his meditation subject, because he knew that
that bhikkhu was one who would carry out his
instructions for the meditation subject?
64. So if someone with cankers destroyed is available,
that is good. If not, then one should take it from a non-
returner, a once-returner, a stream-enterer, an
ordinary man who has obtained jhāna, one who
knows three Piṭakas, one who knows two Piṭakas, one
who knows one Piṭaka, in descending order
[according as available]. If not even one who knows
one Piṭaka is available, then it should be taken from
one who is familiar with one Collection together with
its commentary and one who is himself conscientious.
For a teacher such as this, who knows the texts, guards
the heritage, and protects the tradition, will follow the
teachers’ opinion rather than his own. Hence the
Ancient Elders said three times, “One who is
conscientious will guard it.”
65. Now, those beginning with one whose cankers are
destroyed, mentioned above, will describe only the
path they have themselves reached. But with a learned
man, his instructions and his answers to questions are
purified by his having approached such and such
teachers, and so he will explain a meditation subject
showing a broad track, like a big elephant going
through a stretch of jungle, and he will select suttas

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and reasons from here and there, adding [explanations
of] what is suitable and unsuitable. So a meditation
subject should be taken by approaching the good
friend such as this, the giver of a meditation subject,
and by doing all the duties to him.
66. If he is available in the same monastery, it is good.
If not, one should go to where he lives.
When [a bhikkhu] goes to him, he should not do so
with feet washed and anointed, wearing sandals, with
an umbrella, surrounded by pupils, and bringing oil
tube, honey, molasses, etc.; he should do so fulfilling
the duties of a bhikkhu setting out on a journey,
carrying his bowl and robes himself, doing all the
duties in each monastery on the way, with few
belongings, and living in the greatest effacement.
When entering that monastery, he should do so
[expecting nothing, and even provided] with a tooth-
stick that he has had made allowable on the way
[according to the rules]. And he should not enter some
other room, thinking, “I shall go to the teacher after
resting awhile and after washing and anointing my
feet, and so on.”
67. Why? If there are bhikkhus there who are hostile
to the teacher, they might ask him the reason for his
coming and speak dispraise of the teacher, saying,
“You are done for if you go to him”; [100] they might

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make him regret his coming and turn him back. So he
should ask for the teacher’s dwelling and go straight
there.
68. If the teacher is junior, he should not consent to
the teacher’s receiving his bowl and robe, and so on. If
the teacher is senior, then he should go and pay
homage to him and remain standing. When told, “Put
down the bowl and robe, friend,” he may put them
down. When told, “Have some water to drink,” he can
drink if he wants to. When told, “You may wash your
feet,” he should not do so at once, for if the water has
been brought by the teacher himself, it would be
improper. But when told “Wash, friend, it was not
brought by me, it was brought by others,” then he can
wash his feet, sitting in a screened place out of sight of
the teacher, or in the open to one side of the dwelling.
69. If the teacher brings an oil tube, he should get up
and take it carefully with both hands. If he did not
take it, it might make the teacher wonder, “Does this
bhikkhu resent sharing so soon?” but having taken it,
he should not anoint his feet at once. For if it were oil
for anointing the teacher’s limbs, it would not be
proper. So he should first anoint his head, then his
shoulders, etc.; but when told, “This is meant for all
the limbs, friend, anoint your feet,” he should put a
little on his head and then anoint his feet. Then he
should give it back, saying when the teacher takes it,

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“May I return this oil tube, venerable sir?”
70. He should not say, “Explain a meditation subject
to me, venerable sir” on the very day he arrives. But
starting from the next day, he can, if the teacher has a
habitual attendant, ask his permission to do the duties.
If he does not allow it when asked, they can be done
when the opportunity offers. When he does them,
three tooth-sticks should be brought, a small, a
medium and a big one, and two kinds of mouth-
washing water and bathing water, that is, hot and
cold, should be set out. Whichever of these the teacher
uses for three days should then be brought regularly.
If the teacher uses either kind indiscriminately, he can
bring whatever is available.
71. Why so many words? All should be done as
prescribed by the Blessed One in the Khandhakas as
the right duties in the passage beginning: “Bhikkhus, a
pupil should perform the duties to the teacher [101]
rightly. Herein, this is the right performance of duties.
He should rise early; removing his sandals and
arranging his robe on one shoulder, he should give the
tooth-sticks and the mouth-washing water, and he
should prepare the seat. If there is rice gruel, he
should wash the dish and bring the rice gruel” (Vin I
61).
72. To please the teacher by perfection in the duties he

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should pay homage in the evening, and he should
leave when dismissed with the words, “You may go.”
When the teacher asks him, “Why have you come?” he
can explain the reason for his coming. If he does not
ask but agrees to the duties being done, then after ten
days or a fortnight have gone by he should make an
opportunity by staying back one day at the time of his
dismissal, and announcing the reason for his coming;
or he should go at an unaccustomed time, and when
asked, “What have you come for?” he can announce it.
73. If the teacher says, “Come in the morning,” he
should do so. But if his stomach burns with a bile
affliction at that hour, or if his food does not get
digested owing to sluggish digestive heat, or if some
other ailment afflicts him, he should let it be known,
and proposing a time that suits himself, he should
come at that time. For if a meditation subject is
expounded at an inconvenient time, one cannot give
attention.
This is the detailed explanation of the words
“approach the good friend, the giver of a meditation
subject.”
74. Now, as to the words, one that suits his temperament
(§28): there are six kinds of temperament, that is,
greedy temperament, hating temperament, deluded
temperament, faithful temperament, intelligent

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temperament, and speculative temperament. Some
would have fourteen, taking these six single ones
together with the four made up of the three double
combinations and one triple combination with the
greed triad and likewise with the faith triad. But if this
classification is admitted, there are many more kinds
of temperament possible by combining greed, etc.,
with faith, etc.; therefore the kinds of temperament
should be understood briefly as only six. As to
meaning the temperaments are one, that is to say,
personal nature, idiosyncrasy. According to [102]
these there are only six types of persons, that is, one of
greedy temperament, one of hating temperament, one
of deluded temperament, one of faithful temperament,
one of intelligent temperament, and one of speculative
temperament.
75. Herein, one of faithful temperament is parallel to
one of greedy temperament because faith is strong
when profitable [kamma] occurs in one of greedy
temperament, owing to its special qualities being near
to those of greed. For, in an unprofitable way, greed is
affectionate and not over-austere, and so, in a
profitable way, is faith. Greed seeks out sense desires
as object, while faith seeks out the special qualities of
virtue and so on. And greed does not give up what is
harmful, while faith does not give up what is
beneficial.

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76. One of intelligent temperament is parallel to one
of hating temperament because understanding is
strong when profitable [kamma] occurs in one of
hating temperament, owing to its special qualities
being near to those of hate. For, in an unprofitable
way, hate is disaffected and does not hold to its object,
and so, in a profitable way, is understanding. Hate
seeks out only unreal faults, while understanding
seeks out only real faults. And hate occurs in the mode
of condemning living beings, while understanding
occurs in the mode of condemning formations.
77. One of speculative temperament is parallel to one
of deluded temperament because obstructive applied
thoughts arise often in one of deluded temperament
who is striving to arouse unarisen profitable states,
owing to their special qualities being near to those of
delusion. For just as delusion is restless owing to
perplexity, so are applied thoughts that are due to
thinking over various aspects. And just as delusion
vacillates owing to superficiality, so do applied
thoughts that are due to facile conjecturing.
78. Others say that there are three more kinds of
temperament with craving, pride, and views. Herein
craving is simply greed; and pride[18] is associated
with that, so neither of them exceeds greed. And since
views have their source in delusion, the temperament
of views falls within the deluded temperament.

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79. What is the source of these temperaments? And
how is it to be known that such a person is of greedy
temperament, that such a person is of one of those
beginning with hating temperament? What suits one
of what kind of temperament?
80. Herein, as some say,[19] the first three kinds of
temperament to begin with have their source in
previous habit; and they have their source in elements
and humours. Apparently one of greedy temperament
has formerly had plenty of desirable tasks and
gratifying work to do, or has reappeared here after
dying in a heaven. And one of hating temperament
has formerly had plenty of stabbing and torturing and
brutal work to do or has reappeared here after dying
in one of the hells or the nāga (serpent) existences.
And one [103] of deluded temperament has formerly
drunk a lot of intoxicants and neglected learning and
questioning, or has reappeared here after dying in the
animal existence. It is in this way that they have their
source in previous habit, they say.
81. Then a person is of deluded temperament because
two elements are prominent, that is to say, the earth
element and the water element. He is of hating
temperament because the other two elements are
prominent. But he is of greedy temperament because
all four are equal. And as regards the humours, one of
greedy temperament has phlegm in excess and one of

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deluded temperament has wind in excess. Or one of
deluded temperament has phlegm in excess and one
of greedy temperament has wind in excess. So they
have their source in the elements and the humours,
they say.
82. [Now, it can rightly be objected that] not all of
those who have had plenty of desirable tasks and
gratifying work to do, and who have reappeared here
after dying in a heaven, are of greedy temperament, or
the others respectively of hating and deluded
temperament; and there is no such law of prominence
of elements (see XIV.43f.) as that asserted; and only
the pair, greed and delusion, are given in the law of
humours, and even that subsequently contradicts
itself; and no source for even one among those
beginning with one of faithful temperament is given.
Consequently this definition is indecisive.
83. The following is the exposition according to the
opinion of the teachers of the commentaries; or this is
said in the “explanation of prominence”: “The fact that
these beings have prominence of greed, prominence of
hate, prominence of delusion, is governed by previous
root-cause.
“For when in one man, at the moment of his
accumulating [rebirth-producing] kamma, greed is
strong and non-greed is weak, non-hate and non-

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delusion are strong and hate and delusion are weak,
then his weak non-greed is unable to prevail over his
greed, but his non-hate and non-delusion being strong
are able to prevail over his hate and delusion. That is
why, on being reborn through rebirth-linking given by
that kamma, he has greed, is good-natured and
unangry, and possesses understanding with
knowledge like a lightning flash.
84. “When, at the moment of another’s accumulating
kamma, greed and hate are strong and non-greed and
non-hate weak, and non-delusion is strong and
delusion weak, then in the way already stated he has
both greed and hate but possesses understanding with
knowledge like a lightning flash, like the Elder Datta-
Abhaya.
“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma,
greed, non-hate and delusion are strong and the others
are weak, then in the way already stated he both has
greed and is dull but is good-tempered[20] and
unangry, like the Elder Bahula.
“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating
kamma, the three, namely, greed, hate and delusion
are strong and non-greed, etc., are weak, then in the
way already stated he has both greed and hate and is
deluded. [104]
85. “When, at the moment of his accumulating

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kamma, non-greed, hate and delusion are strong and
the others are weak, then in the way already stated he
has little defilement and is unshakable even on seeing
a heavenly object, but he has hate and is slow in
understanding.
“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma,
non-greed, non-hate and non-delusion are strong and
the rest weak, then in the way already stated he has no
greed and no hate, and is good-tempered but slow in
understanding.
“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating
kamma, non-greed, hate and non-delusion are strong
and the rest weak, then in the way already stated he
both has no greed and possesses understanding but
has hate and is irascible.
“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating
kamma, the three, that is, non-hate, non-greed, and
non-delusion, are strong and greed, etc., are weak,
then in the way already stated he has no greed and no
hate and possesses understanding, like the Elder
Mahā-Saṅgharakkhita.”
86. One who, as it is said here, “has greed” is one of
greedy temperament; one who “has hate” and one
who “is dull” are respectively of hating temperament
and deluded temperament. One who “possesses
understanding” is one of intelligent temperament. One

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who “has no greed” and one who “has no hate” are of
faithful temperament because they are naturally
trustful. Or just as one who is reborn through kamma
accompanied by non-delusion is of intelligent
temperament, so one who is reborn through kamma
accompanied by strong faith is of faithful
temperament, one who is reborn through kamma
accompanied by thoughts of sense desire is of
speculative temperament, and one who is reborn
through kamma accompanied by mixed greed, etc., is
of mixed temperament. So it is the kamma productive
of rebirth-linking and accompanied by someone
among the things beginning with greed that should be
understood as the source of the temperaments.
87. But it was asked, and how is it to be known that “This
person is of greedy temperament?” (§79), and so on. This
is explained as follows:
By the posture, by the action,
By eating, seeing, and so on,
By the kind of states occurring,
May temperament be recognized.
88. Herein, by the posture: when one of greedy
temperament is walking in his usual manner, he walks
carefully, puts his foot down slowly, puts it down
evenly, lifts it up evenly, and his step is springy.[21]
One of hating temperament walks as though he

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were digging with the points of his feet, puts his foot
down quickly, lifts it up quickly, and his step is
dragged along.
One of deluded temperament walks with a
perplexed gait, puts his foot down hesitantly, lifts it
up hesitantly, [105] and his step is pressed down
suddenly.
And this is said in the account of the origin of the
Māgandiya Sutta:
The step of one of greedy nature will be springy;
The step of one of hating nature, dragged along;
Deluded, he will suddenly press down his step;
And one without defilement has a step like this.
[22]

89. The stance of one of greedy temperament is

confident and graceful. That of one of hating
temperament is rigid. That of one of deluded
temperament is muddled, likewise in sitting. And one
of greedy temperament spreads his bed unhurriedly,
lies down slowly, composing his limbs, and he sleeps
in a confident manner. When woken, instead of
getting up quickly, he gives his answer slowly as
though doubtful. One of hating temperament spreads
his bed hastily anyhow; with his body flung down he
sleeps with a scowl. When woken, he gets up quickly
and answers as though annoyed. One of deluded

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temperament spreads his bed all awry and sleeps
mostly face downwards with his body sprawling.
When woken, he gets up slowly, saying, “Hum.”
90. Since those of faithful temperament, etc., are
parallel to those of greedy temperament, etc., their
postures are therefore like those described above.
This firstly is how the temperaments may be
recognized by the posture.
91. By the action: also in the acts of sweeping, etc., one
of greedy temperament grasps the broom well, and he
sweeps cleanly and evenly without hurrying or
scattering the sand, as if he were strewing sinduvāra
flowers. One of hating temperament grasps the broom
tightly, and he sweeps uncleanly and unevenly with a
harsh noise, hurriedly throwing up the sand on each
side. One of deluded temperament grasps the broom
loosely, and he sweeps neither cleanly nor evenly,
mixing the sand up and turning it over.
92. As with sweeping, so too with any action such as
washing and dyeing robes, and so on. One of greedy
temperament acts skilfully, gently, evenly and
carefully. One of hating temperament acts tensely,
stiffly and unevenly. One of deluded temperament
acts unskilfully as if muddled, unevenly and
indecisively. [106]
Also one of greedy temperament wears his robe

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neither too tightly nor too loosely, confidently and
lCh. III.88evel all round. One of hating temperament
wears it too tight and not level all round. One of
deluded temperament wears it loosely and in a
muddled way.
Those of faithful temperament, etc., should be
understood in the same way as those just described,
since they are parallel.
This is how the temperaments may be recognized
by the actions.
93. By eating: One of greedy temperament likes eating
rich sweet food. When eating, he makes a round lump
not too big and eats unhurriedly, savouring the
various tastes. He enjoys getting something good. One
of hating temperament likes eating rough sour food.
When eating he makes a lump that fills his mouth, and
he eats hurriedly without savouring the taste. He is
aggrieved when he gets something not good. One of
deluded temperament has no settled choice. When
eating, he makes a small un-rounded lump, and as he
eats he drops bits into his dish, smearing his face, with
his mind astray, thinking of this and that.
Also those of faithful temperament, etc., should be
understood in the same way as those just described
since they are parallel.
This is how the temperament may be recognized by

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eating.
94. And by seeing and so on: when one of greedy
temperament sees even a slightly pleasing visible
object, he looks long as if surprised, he seizes on trivial
virtues, discounts genuine faults, and when departing,
he does so with regret as if unwilling to leave. When
one of hating temperament sees even a slightly
unpleasing visible object, he avoids looking long as if
he were tired, he picks out trivial faults, discounts
genuine virtues, and when departing, he does so
without regret as if anxious to leave. When one of
deluded temperament sees any sort of visible object,
he copies what others do: if he hears others criticizing,
he criticizes; if he hears others praising, he praises; but
actually he feels equanimity in himself—the
equanimity of unknowing. So too with sounds, and so
on.
And those of faithful temperament, etc., should be
understood in the same way as those just described
since they are parallel.
This is how the temperaments may be recognized
by seeing and so on.
95. By the kind of states occurring: in one of greedy
temperament there is frequent occurrence of such
states as deceit, fraud, pride, evilness of wishes,
greatness of wishes, discontent, foppery and personal

332
vanity.[23] [107] In one of hating temperament there is
frequent occurrence of such states as anger, enmity,
disparaging, domineering, envy and avarice. In one of
deluded temperament there is frequent occurrence of
such states as stiffness, torpor, agitation, worry,
uncertainty, and holding on tenaciously with refusal
to relinquish.
In one of faithful temperament there is frequent
occurrence of such states as free generosity, desire to
see Noble Ones, desire to hear the Good Dhamma,
great gladness, ingenuousness, honesty, and trust in
things that inspire trust. In one of intelligent
temperament there is frequent occurrence of such
states as readiness to be spoken to, possession of good
friends, knowledge of the right amount in eating,
mindfulness and full awareness, devotion to
wakefulness, a sense of urgency about things that
should inspire a sense of urgency, and wisely directed
endeavour. In one of speculative temperament there is
frequent occurrence of such states as talkativeness,
sociability, boredom with devotion to the profitable,
failure to finish undertakings, smoking by night and
flaming by day (see M I 144—that is to say, hatching
plans at night and putting them into effect by day),
and mental running hither and thither (see Ud 37).
This is how the temperaments may be recognized
by the kind of states occurring.

333
96. However, these directions for recognizing the
temperaments have not been handed down in their
entirety in either the texts or the commentaries; they
are only expressed according to the opinion of the
teachers and cannot therefore be treated as authentic.
For even those of hating temperament can exhibit
postures, etc., ascribed to the greedy temperament
when they try diligently. And postures, etc., never
arise with distinct characteristics in a person of mixed
temperament. Only such directions for recognizing
temperament as are given in the commentaries should
be treated as authentic; for this is said: “A teacher who
has acquired penetration of minds will know the
temperament and will explain a meditation subject
accordingly; one who has not should question the
pupil.” So it is by penetration of minds or by
questioning the person, that it can be known whether
he is one of greedy temperament or one of those
beginning with hating temperament.
97. What suits one of what kind of temperament? (§79). A
suitable lodging for one of greedy temperament has an
unwashed sill and stands level with the ground, and it
can be either an overhanging [rock with an]
unprepared [drip-ledge] (see Ch. II, note 15), a grass
hut, or a leaf house, etc. It ought to be spattered with
dirt, full of bats,[24] dilapidated, too high or too low, in
bleak surroundings, threatened [by lions, tigers, etc.,]

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with a muddy, uneven path, [108] where even the bed
and chair are full of bugs. And it should be ugly and
unsightly, exciting loathing as soon as looked at.
Suitable inner and outer garments are those that have
torn-off edges with threads hanging down all round
like a “net cake,”[25] harsh to the touch like hemp,
soiled, heavy and hard to wear. And the right kind of
bowl for him is an ugly clay bowl disfigured by
stoppings and joints, or a heavy and misshapen iron
bowl as unappetizing as a skull. The right kind of road
for him on which to wander for alms is disagreeable,
with no village near, and uneven. The right kind of
village for him in which to wander for alms is where
people wander about as if oblivious of him, where, as
he is about to leave without getting alms even from a
single family, people call him into the sitting hall,
saying, “Come, venerable sir,” and give him gruel and
rice, but do so as casually as if they were putting a
cow in a pen. Suitable people to serve him are slaves
or workmen who are unsightly, ill-favoured, with
dirty clothes, ill-smelling and disgusting, who serve
him his gruel and rice as if they were throwing it
rudely at him. The right kind of gruel and rice and
hard food is poor, unsightly, made up of millet,
kudusaka, broken rice, etc., stale buttermilk, sour gruel,
curry of old vegetables, or anything at all that is
merely for filling the stomach. The right kind of

335
posture for him is either standing or walking. The
object of his contemplation should be any of the colour
kasiṇas, beginning with the blue, whose colour is not
pure. This is what suits one of greedy temperament.
98. A suitable resting place for one of hating
temperament is not too high or too low, provided with
shade and water, with well-proportioned walls, posts
and steps, with well-prepared frieze work and lattice
work, brightened with various kinds of painting, with
an even, smooth, soft floor, adorned with festoons of
flowers and a canopy of many-coloured cloth like a
Brahmā-god’s divine palace, with bed and chair
covered with well-spread clean pretty covers, smelling
sweetly of flowers, and perfumes and scents set about
for homely comfort, which makes one happy and glad
at the mere sight of it.
99. The right kind of road to his lodging is free from
any sort of danger, traverses clean, even ground, and
has been properly prepared. [109] And here it is best
that the lodging’s furnishings are not too many in
order to avoid hiding-places for insects, bugs, snakes
and rats: even a single bed and chair only. The right
kind of inner and outer garments for him are of any
superior stuff such as China cloth, Somāra cloth, silk,
fine cotton, fine linen, of either single or double
thickness, quite light, and well dyed, quite pure in
colour to befit an ascetic. The right kind of bowl is

336
made of iron, as well shaped as a water bubble, as
polished as a gem, spotless, and of quite pure colour
to befit an ascetic. The right kind of road on which to
wander for alms is free from dangers, level, agreeable,
with the village neither too far nor too near. The right
kind of village in which to wander for alms is where
people, thinking, “Now our lord is coming,” prepare a
seat in a sprinkled, swept place, and going out to meet
him, take his bowl, lead him to the house, seat him on
a prepared seat and serve him carefully with their
own hands.
100. Suitable people to serve him are handsome,
pleasing, well bathed, well anointed, scented[26] with
the perfume of incense and the smell of flowers,
adorned with apparel made of variously-dyed clean
pretty cloth, who do their work carefully. The right
kind of gruel, rice, and hard food has colour, smell
and taste, possesses nutritive essence, and is inviting,
superior in every way, and enough for his wants. The
right kind of posture for him is lying down or sitting.
The object of his contemplation should be anyone of
the colour kasiṇas, beginning with the blue, whose
colour is quite pure. This is what suits one of hating
temperament.
101. The right lodging for one of deluded
temperament has a view and is not shut in, where the
four quarters are visible to him as he sits there. As to

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the postures, walking is right. The right kind of object
for his contemplation is not small, that is to say, the
size of a winnowing basket or the size of a saucer; for
his mind becomes more confused in a confined space;
so the right kind is an amply large kasiṇa. The rest is
as stated for one of hating temperament. This is what
suits one of deluded temperament.
102. For one of faithful temperament all the directions
given for one of hating temperament are suitable. As
to the object of his contemplation, one of the
recollections is right as well.
For one of intelligent temperament there is nothing
unsuitable as far as concerns the lodging and so on.
For one of speculative temperament an open
lodging with a view, [110] where gardens, groves and
ponds, pleasant prospects, panoramas of villages,
towns and countryside, and the blue gleam of
mountains, are visible to him as he sits there, is not
right; for that is a condition for the running hither and
thither of applied thought. So he should live in a
lodging such as a deep cavern screened by woods like
the Overhanging Rock of the Elephant’s Belly
(Hatthikucchipabbhāra), or Mahinda’s Cave. Also an
ample-sized object of contemplation is not suitable for
him; for one like that is a condition for the running
hither and thither of applied thought. A small one is

338
right. The rest is as stated for one of greedy
temperament. This is what suits one of speculative
temperament.
These are the details, with definition of the kind,
source, recognition, and what is suitable, as regards
the various temperaments handed down here with the
words “that suits his own temperament” (§60).
103. However, the meditation subject that is suitable
to the temperament has not been cleared up in all its
aspects yet. This will become clear automatically when
those in the following list are treated in detail.
Now, it was said above, “and he should apprehend
from among the forty meditation subjects one that
suits his own temperament” (§60). Here the exposition
of the meditation subject should be first understood in
these ten ways: (1) as to enumeration, (2) as to which
bring only access and which absorption, (3) at to the
kinds of jhāna, (4) as to surmounting, (5) as to
extension and non-extension, (6) as to object, (7) as to
plane, (8) as to apprehending, (9) as to condition, (10)
as to suitability to temperament.
104. 1. Herein, as to enumeration: it was said above,
“from among the forty meditation subjects” (§28).
Herein, the forty meditation subjects are these:
ten kasiṇas (totalities),
ten kinds of foulness,

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 ten recollections,
four divine abidings,
four immaterial states,
one perception,
one defining.
105. Herein, the ten kasiṇas are these: earth kasiṇa,
water kasiṇa, fire kasiṇa, air kasiṇa, blue kasiṇa,
yellow kasiṇa, red kasiṇa, white kasiṇa, light kasiṇa,
and limited-space kasiṇa.[27]
The ten kinds of foulness are these: the bloated, the
livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the
scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the
worm-infested, and a skeleton.[28]
The ten kinds of recollection are these: recollection
of the Buddha (the Enlightened One), recollection of
the Dhamma (the Law), recollection of the Sangha (the
Community), recollection of virtue, recollection of
generosity, recollection of deities, recollection (or
mindfulness) of death, mindfulness occupied with the
body, mindfulness of breathing, and recollection of
peace. [111]
The four divine abidings are these: loving-kindness,
compassion, gladness, and equanimity.
The four immaterial states are these: the base
consisting of boundless space, the base consisting of

340
boundless consciousness, the base consisting of
nothingness, and the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception.
The one perception is the perception of
repulsiveness in nutriment.
The one defining is the defining of the four
elements.
This is how the exposition should be understood “as
to enumeration.”
106. 2 As to which bring access only and which absorption:
the eight recollections—excepting mindfulness
occupied with the body and mindfulness of breathing
—the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, and
the defining of the four elements, are ten meditation
subjects that bring access only. The others bring
absorption. This is “as to which bring access only and
which absorption.”
107. 3. As to the kind of jhāna: among those that bring
absorption, the ten kasiṇas together with mindfulness
of breathing bring all four jhānas. The ten kinds of
foulness together with mindfulness occupied with the
body bring the first jhāna. The first three divine
abidings bring three jhānas. The fourth divine abiding
and the four immaterial states bring the fourth jhāna.
This is “as to the kind of jhāna.”

341
108. 4. As to surmounting: there are two kinds of
surmounting, that is to say, surmounting of factors
and surmounting of object. Herein, there is
surmounting of factors in the case of all meditation
subjects that bring three and four jhānas because the
second jhāna, etc., have to be reached in those same
objects by surmounting the jhāna factors of applied
thought and sustained thought, and so on. Likewise in
the case of the fourth divine abiding; for that has to be
reached by surmounting joy in the same object as that
of loving-kindness, and so on. But in the case of the
four immaterial states there is surmounting of the
object; for the base consisting of boundless space has
to be reached by surmounting one or other of the first
nine kasiṇas, and the base consisting of boundless
consciousness, etc., have respectively to be reached by
surmounting space, and so on. With the rest there is
no surmounting. This is “as to surmounting.”
109. 5. As to extension and non-extension: only the ten
kasiṇas among these forty meditation subjects need be
extended. For it is within just so much space as one is
intent upon with the kasiṇa that one can hear sounds
with the divine ear element, see visible objects with
the divine eye, and know the minds of other beings
with the mind.
110. Mindfulness occupied with the body and the ten
kinds of foulness need not be extended. Why? Because

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they have a definite location and because there is no
benefit in it. The definiteness of their location will
become clear in explaining the method of
development (VIII.83–138 and VI.40, 41, 79). If the
latter are extended, it is only a quantity of corpses that
is extended [112] and there is no benefit. And this is
said in answer to the question of Sopāka: “Perception
of visible forms is quite clear, Blessed One, perception
of bones is not clear” (Source untraced[29]); for here
the perception of visible forms is called “quite clear”
in the sense of extension of the sign, while the
perception of bones is called “not quite clear” in the
sense of its non-extension.
111. But the words “I was intent upon this whole
earth with the perception of a skeleton” (Th 18) are
said of the manner of appearance to one who has
acquired that perception. For just as in [the Emperor]
Dhammāsoka’s time the Karavīka bird uttered a sweet
song when it saw its own reflection in the looking
glass walls all round and perceived Karavīkas in every
direction,[30] so the Elder [Siṅgāla Pitar] thought,
when he saw the sign appearing in all directions
through his acquisition of the perception of a skeleton,
that the whole earth was covered with bones.
112. If that is so, then is what is called “the
measurelessness of the object of jhāna produced on

343
foulness”[31] contradicted? It is not contradicted. For
one man apprehends the sign in a large bloated corpse
or skeleton, another in a small one. In this way the
jhāna of the one has a limited object and of the other a
measureless object. Or alternatively, “With a
measureless object” (Dhs 182–84 in elision) is said of it
referring to one who extends it, seeing no
disadvantage in doing so. But it need not be extended
because no benefit results.
113. The rest need not be extended likewise. Why?
When a man extends the sign of in-breaths and out-
breaths, only a quantity of wind is extended, and it
has a definite location, [the nose-tip]. So it need not be
extended because of the disadvantage and because of
the definiteness of the location. And the divine
abidings have living beings as their object. When a
man extends the sign of these, only the quantity of
living beings would be extended, and there is no
purpose in that. So that also need not be extended.
114. When it is said, “Intent upon one quarter with his
heart endued with loving-kindness” (D I 250), etc.,
that is said for the sake of comprehensive inclusion.
For it is when a man develops it progressively by
including living beings in one direction by one house,
by two houses, etc., that he is said to be “intent upon
one direction,” [113] not when he extends the sign.
And there is no counterpart sign here that he might

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extend. Also the state of having a limited or
measureless object can be understood here according
to the way of inclusion, too.
115. As regards the immaterial states as object, space
need not be extended since it is the mere removal of
the kasiṇa [materiality]; for that should be brought to
mind only as the disappearance of the kasiṇa
[materiality]; if he extends it, nothing further happens.
And consciousness need not be extended since it is a
state consisting in an individual essence, and it is not
possible to extend a state consisting in an individual
essence. The disappearance of consciousness need not
be extended since it is mere non-existence of
consciousness. And the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception as object need not be
extended since it too is a state consisting in an
individual essence.[32]
116. The rest need not be extended because they have
no sign. For it is the counterpart sign[33] that would be
extendable, and the object of the recollection of the
Buddha, etc., is not a counterpart sign. Consequently
there is no need for extension there.
This is “as to extension and non-extension.”
117. 6. As to object: of these forty meditation subjects,
twenty-two have counterpart signs as object, that is to
say, the ten kasiṇas, the ten kinds of foulness,

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mindfulness of breathing, and mindfulness occupied
with the body; the rest do not have counterpart signs
as object. Then twelve have states consisting in
individual essences as object, that is to say, eight of the
ten recollections—except mindfulness of breathing
and mindfulness occupied with the body—the
perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, the defining
of the elements, the base consisting of boundless
consciousness, and the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception; and twenty-two have
[counterpart] signs as object, that is to say, the ten
kasiṇas, the ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness of
breathing, and mindfulness occupied with the body;
while the remaining six have “not-so-classifiable”[34]
objects. Then eight have mobile objects in the early
stage though the counterpart is stationary, that is to
say, the festering, the bleeding, the worm-infested,
mindfulness of breathing, the water kasiṇa, the fire
kasiṇa, the air kasiṇa, and in the case of the light
kasiṇa the object consisting of a circle of sunlight, etc.;
the rest have immobile objects.[35] This is “as to
object.”
118. 7. As to plane: here the twelve, namely, the ten
kinds of foulness, mindfulness occupied with the
body, and perception of repulsiveness in nutriment,
do not occur among deities. These twelve and
mindfulness of breathing do not occur in the Brahmā-

346
world. But none except the four immaterial states
occur in the immaterial becoming. All occur among
human beings. This is “as to plane.” [114]
119. 8. As to apprehending: here the exposition should
be understood according to the seen, the touched and
the heard. Herein, these nineteen, that is to say, nine
kasiṇas omitting the air kasiṇa and the ten kinds of
foulness, must be apprehended by the seen. The
meaning is that in the early stage their sign must be
apprehended by constantly looking with the eye. In
the case of mindfulness occupied with the body the
five parts ending with skin must be apprehended by
the seen and the rest by the heard, so its object must be
apprehended by the seen and the heard. Mindfulness
of breathing must be apprehended by the touched; the
air kasiṇa by the seen and the touched; the remaining
eighteen by the heard. The divine abiding of
equanimity and the four immaterial states are not
apprehendable by a beginner; but the remaining
thirty-five are. This is “as to apprehending.”
120. 9. As to condition: of these meditation subjects
nine kasiṇas omitting the space kasiṇa are conditions
for the immaterial states. The ten kasiṇas are
conditions for the kinds of direct-knowledge. Three
divine abidings are conditions for the fourth divine
abiding. Each lower immaterial state is a condition for
each higher one. The base consisting of neither

347
perception nor non-perception is a condition for the
attainment of cessation. All are conditions for living in
bliss, for insight, and for the fortunate kinds of
becoming. This is “as to condition.”
121. 10. As to suitability to temperament: here the
exposition should be understood according to what is
suitable to the temperaments. That is to say: first, the
ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness occupied with
the body are eleven meditation subjects suitable for
one of greedy temperament. The four divine abidings
and four colour kasiṇas are eight suitable for one of
hating temperament. Mindfulness of breathing is the
one [recollection as a] meditation subject suitable for
one of deluded temperament and for one of
speculative temperament. The first six recollections
are suitable for one of faithful temperament.
Mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the
defining of the four elements, and the perception of
repulsiveness in nutriment, are four suitable for one of
intelligent temperament. The remaining kasiṇas and
the immaterial states are suitable for all kinds of
temperament. And anyone of the kasiṇas should be
limited for one of speculative temperament and
measureless for one of deluded temperament. This is
how the exposition should be understood here “as to
suitability to temperament.”
122. All this has been stated in the form of direct

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opposition and complete suitability. But there is
actually no profitable development that does not
suppress greed, etc., and help faith, and so on. And
this is said in the Meghiya Sutta: “[One] should, in
addition,[36] develop these four things: foulness
should be developed for the purpose of abandoning
greed (lust). Loving-kindness should be developed for
the purpose of abandoning ill will. [115] Mindfulness
of breathing should be developed for the purpose of
cutting off applied thought. Perception of
impermanence should be cultivated for the purpose of
eliminating the conceit, ’I am’” (A IV 358). Also in the
Rāhula Sutta, in the passage beginning, “Develop
loving-kindness, Rāhula” (M I 424), seven meditation
subjects are given for a single temperament. So instead
of insisting on the mere letter, the intention should be
sought in each instance.
This is the explanatory exposition of the meditation
subject referred to by the words he should
apprehend…one [meditation subject] (§28).
123. Now the words and he should apprehend are
illustrated as follows. After approaching the good
friend of the kind described in the explanation of the
words then approach the good friend, the giver of a
meditation subject (§28 and §57–73), the meditator
should dedicate himself to the Blessed One, the
Enlightened One, or to a teacher, and he should ask

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for the meditation subject with a sincere inclination [of
the heart] and sincere resolution.
124. Herein, he should dedicate himself to the Blessed
One, the Enlightened One, in this way: “Blessed One, I
relinquish this my person to you.” For without having
thus dedicated himself, when living in a remote abode
he might be unable to stand fast if a frightening object
made its appearance, and he might return to a village
abode, become associated with laymen, take up
improper search and come to ruin. But when he has
dedicated himself in this way no fear arises in him if a
frightening object makes its appearance; in fact only
joy arises in him as he reflects: “Have you not wisely
already dedicated yourself to the Enlightened One?”
125. Suppose a man had a fine piece of Kāsi cloth. He
would feel grief if it were eaten by rats or moths; but if
he gave it to a bhikkhu needing robes, he would feel
only joy if he saw the bhikkhu tearing it up [to make
his patched cloak]. And so it is with this.
126. When he dedicates himself to a teacher, he
should say: “I relinquish this my person to you,
venerable sir.” For one who has not dedicated his
person thus becomes unresponsive to correction, hard
to speak to, and unamenable to advice, or he goes
where he likes without asking the teacher.
Consequently the teacher does not help him with

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either material things or the Dhamma, and he does not
train him in the cryptic books.[37] Failing to get these
two kinds of help, [116] he finds no footing in the
Dispensation, and he soon comes down to
misconducting himself or to the lay state. But if he has
dedicated his person, he is not unresponsive to
correction, does not go about as he likes, is easy to
speak to, and lives only in dependence on the teacher.
He gets the twofold help from the teacher and attains
growth, increase, and fulfilment in the Dispensation.
Like the Elder Cūḷa-Piṇḍapātika-Tissa’s pupils.
127. Three bhikkhus came to the elder, it seems. One
of them said, “Venerable sir, I am ready to fall from a
cliff the height of one hundred men, if it is said to be to
your advantage.” The second said, “Venerable sir, I
am ready to grind away this body from the heels up
without remainder on a flat stone, if it is said to be to
your advantage.” The third said, “Venerable sir, I am
ready to die by stopping breathing, if it is said to be to
your advantage.” Observing, “These bhikkhus are
certainly capable of progress,” the elder expounded a
meditation subject to them. Following his advice, the
three attained Arahantship.
This is the benefit in self-dedication. Hence it was
said above “dedicating himself to the Blessed One, the
Enlightened One, or to a teacher.”

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128. With a sincere inclination [of the heart] and sincere
resolution (§ 123): the meditator’s inclination should be
sincere in the six modes beginning with non-greed.
For it is one of such sincere inclination who arrives at
one of the three kinds of enlightenment, according as
it is said: “Six kinds of inclination lead to the maturing
of the enlightenment of the Bodhisattas. With the
inclination to non-greed, Bodhisattas see the fault in
greed. With the inclination to non-hate, Bodhisattas
see the fault in hate. With the inclination to non-
delusion, Bodhisattas see the fault in delusion. With
the inclination to renunciation, Bodhisattas see the
fault in house life. With the inclination to seclusion,
Bodhisattas see the fault in society. With the
inclination to relinquishment, Bodhisattas see the fault
in all kinds of becoming and destiny (Source
untraced.)” For stream-enterers, once-returners, non-
returners, those with cankers destroyed (i.e.
Arahants), Paccekabuddhas, and Fully Enlightened
Ones, whether past, future or present, all arrive at the
distinction peculiar to each by means of these same six
modes. That is why he should have sincerity of
inclination in these six modes.
129. He should be whole-heartedly resolved on that.
The meaning is [117] that he should be resolved upon
concentration, respect concentration, incline to
concentration, be resolved upon Nibbāna, respect

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Nibbāna, incline to Nibbāna.
130. When, with sincerity of inclination and whole-
hearted resolution in this way, he asks for a
meditation subject, then a teacher who has acquired
the penetration of minds can know his temperament
by surveying his mental conduct; and a teacher who
has not can know it by putting such questions to him
as: “What is your temperament?” or “What states are
usually present in you?” or “What do you like
bringing to mind?” or “What meditation subject does
your mind favour?” When he knows, he can expound
a meditation subject suitable to that temperament.
And in doing so, he can expound it in three ways: it
can be expounded to one who has already learnt the
meditation subject by having him recite it at one or
two sessions; it can be expounded to one who lives in
the same place each time he comes; and to one who
wants to learn it and then go elsewhere it can be
expounded in such a manner that it is neither too brief
nor too long.
131. Herein, when first he is explaining the earth
kasiṇa, there are nine aspects that he should explain.
They are the four faults of the kasiṇa, the making of a
kasiṇa, the method of development for one who has
made it, the two kinds of sign, the two kinds of
concentration, the seven kinds of suitable and
unsuitable, the ten kinds of skill in absorption,

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evenness of energy, and the directions for absorption.
In the case of the other meditation subjects, each
should be expounded in the way appropriate to it. All
this will be made clear in the directions for
development. But when the meditation subject is
being expounded in this way, the meditator must
apprehend the sign as he listens.
132. Apprehend the sign means that he must connect
each aspect thus: “This is the preceding clause, this is
the subsequent clause, this is its meaning, this is its
intention, this is the simile.” When he listens
attentively, apprehending the sign in this way, his
meditation subject is well apprehended. Then, and
because of that, he successfully attains distinction, but
not otherwise. This clarifies the meaning of the words
“and he must apprehend.”
133. At this point the clauses approach the good
friend, the giver of a meditation subject, and he should
apprehend from among the forty meditation subjects
one that suits his own temperament (§28) have been
expounded in detail in all their aspects.
The third chapter called “The Description of Taking a
Meditation Subject” in the Treatise on the
Development of Concentration in the Path of
Purification composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

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355
Notes for Chapter II

1. The answer to question (vii) stretches from III.27

to XI.119. That to question (viii) from XI. 120 up to
the end of Ch. XIII.
2. “Cittass’ ekaggatā” is rendered here as “unification
of mind” in the sense of agreement or harmony
(cf. samagga) of consciousness and its
concomitants in focusing on a single object (see A
I 70). It is sometimes rendered “one-pointedness”
in that sense, or in the sense of the focusing of a
searchlight. It may be concluded that this term is
simply a synonym for samādhi and nothing more,
firstly from its use in the suttas, and secondly
from the fact that it is given no separate definition
in the description of the formations aggregate in
Ch. XIV. Cf. gloss at M-a I 124.
3. “The characteristic of non-distraction is the
individual essence peculiar to concentration.
Hence no analysis of it is possible, which is why
he said: ’It is of one kind with the characteristic of
non-distraction’” (Vism-mhṭ 91).
4. “Applied thought that occurs as though
absorbing (appento) associated states in the object
is absorption (appanā). Accordingly it is described

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 as ’absorption, absorbing (appanā vyappanā)’ (M III
73). Now since that is the most important, the
usage of the Commentaries is to call all exalted
and unsurpassed jhāna states ’absorption’ [as well
as the applied thought itself], and likewise to
apply the term of common usage ’access’ to the
limited [i.e. sense-sphere] jhāna that heralds the
arising of the former, just as the term ’village
access,’ etc. is applied to the neighbourhood of a
village” (Vism-mhṭ 91).
5. “The round (vaṭṭa, see XVII.298) [including fine-
material and immaterial heavens] is called the
world (loka) because of its crumbling (lujjana) and
disintegrating (palujjana). ’Mundane’ (lokiya)
means connected with the world because of being
included in it or found there. ’Supramundane’
(lokuttara) means beyond the world, excepted
from it, because of not being included in it
[through being associated with Nibbāna]” (Vism-
mhṭ 91). See also “nine supramundane states.
(VII.68, 74f.)”
6. In loose usage pīti (happiness) and sukha (pleasure
or bliss) are almost synonyms. They become
differentiated in the jhāna formulas (see IV.100),
and then technically pīti, as the active thrill of
rapture, is classed under the formations aggregate
and sukha under the feeling aggregate. The

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 valuable word “happiness” was chosen for pīti
rather than the possible alternatives of “joy”
(needed for somanassa), “interest” (which is too
flat), “rapture” (which is overcharged), or “zest.”
For sukha, while “pleasure” seemed to fit
admirably where ordinary pleasant feeling is
intended, another, less crass, word seemed
necessary for the refined pleasant feeling of jhāna
and the “bliss” of Nibbāna (which is not feeling
aggregate—see M I 400). “Ease” is sometimes
used.
“Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is
intended here by ’equanimity’ (upekkhā, lit,
onlooking); for it ’looks on’ (upekkhati) at the
occurrence of [bodily] pleasure and pain by
maintaining the neutral (central) mode” (Vism-
mhṭ 92).
7. Samatha—”serenity” is a synonym for absorption
concentration, and “insight” (vipassanā) a
synonym for understanding. Samatha is
sometimes rendered by “tranquillity” (reserved
here for passaddhi) or “calm” or “quiet.”
8. One of the principal monasteries in
Anurādhapura.
9. Dve mātikā—the “two codes”: see Ch. I, n. 11. But
Vism-mhṭ says here: “’Observers of the codes’ are

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 observers of the codes (summaries) of the
Dhamma and Vinaya” (Vism-mhṭ 117).
10. Pavāraṇa: ceremony held at the end of the rains,
during three months of which season bhikkhus
have to undertake to live in one place in order to
avoid travel while crops are growing. It consists
in a meeting of the bhikkhus who have spent the
rains together, at which each member present
invites (pavāreti) the Community to point out his
faults (breaches of Vinaya rules) committed
during the preceding three months (Vin I 155).
11. “Pācinakhaṇḍarājā ti puratthimadisāya
pabbatakhaṇḍānaṃ antare vanarājīṭṭhānaṃ”
(Vism-mhṭ 97).
12. For the first five years after the admission
(upasampadā) a bhikkhu is called a “new (nava)
bhikkhu”; from five to ten years he is called a
“middle (majjhima) bhikkhu”; with ten or more
years’ seniority he is called an “elder (thera)
bhikkhu.”
13. The last sentence here might refer to a free mass
distribution of gruel (yāgu), which appears to
have been more or less constantly maintained at
Anurādhapura.
14. It is usual to render the set phrase paṇītaṃ
khādanīyaṃ bhojanīyaṃ by some such phrase as

359
 “sumptuous food both hard and soft,” which is
literal but unfamiliar-sounding.
15. “The way of the Rathavinīta (Rathavinīta-
paṭipadā)”: this is a reference to certain suttas that
were adopted by bhikkhus as a “way” (paṭipadā)
or guide to practice. The suttas mentioned here
are Rathavinīta (M I 145), Nālaka (Sn, p. 131),
Tuvaṭaka (Sn 179), Noble One’s Heritages
(ariyavaṃsa—A II 27). Others are mentioned at M-
a I 92; III 6; S-a III 291. The Ariyavaṃsa Sutta itself
has a long commentary on practice, and it is
mentioned in the Commentaries as a popular
subject for preaching (see e.g. commentary to AN
III 42).
16. Sīmā—”boundary”: loosely used in this sense, it
corresponds vaguely to what is meant by
“parish.” In the strict sense it is the actual area
(usually a “chapter house”) agreed according to
the rules laid down in the Vinaya and marked by
boundary stones, within which the Community
(saṅgha) carries out its formal acts.
17. Atthayitabba—”needed”: not in PED, not in CPD.
18. Māna, usually rendered by “pride,” is rendered
here both by “pride” and “conceit.”
Etymologically it is derived perhaps from māneti
(to honour) or mināti (to measure). In sense,

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 however, it tends to become associated with
maññati, to conceive (false notions, see M I 1), to
imagine, to think (as e.g. at Nidd I 80, Vibh 390
and comy.). As one of the “defilements” (see M I
36) it is probably best rendered by “pride.” In the
expression asmi-māna (often rendered by “the
pride that says ’I am’”) it more nearly approaches
maññanā (false imagining, misconception, see M
III 246) and is better rendered by the “conceit ’I
am,’” since the word “conceit” straddles both the
meanings of “pride” (i.e. haughtiness) and
“conception.”
19. “’Some’ is said with reference to the Elder
Upatissa. For it is put in this way by him in the
Vimuttimagga. The word ’apparently’ indicates
dissent from what follows” (Vism-mhṭ 103). A
similar passage to that referred to appears in Ch. 6
(Taisho ed. p. 410a) of the Chinese version of the
Vimuttimagga, the only one extant.
20. Sīlaka—”good-tempered”—sukhasīla (good-
natured—see §83), which = sakhila (kindly—Vism-
mhṭ 104). Not in PED.
21. Ukkuṭika—”springy” is glossed here by
asamphuṭṭhamajjhaṃ (“not touching in the
middle”—Vism-mhṭ 106). This meaning is not in
PED.

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22. See Sn-a 544, A-a 436.
23. Siṅga—”foppery” is not in PED in this sense. See
Vibh 351 and commentary.
Cāpalya (cāpalla)—”personal vanity”: noun
from adj. capala. The word “capala” comes in an
often-repeated passage: “saṭhā māyāvino keṭubhino
uddhatā unnalā capalā mukharā …” (M I 32); cf. S I
203; A III 199, etc.) and also M I 470 “uddhato hoti
capalo,” with two lines lower “uddhaccaṃ
cāpalyaṃ.” Cāpalya also occurs at Vibh 351 (and M
II 167). At M-a I 152 (commenting on M I 32) we
find: capalā ti pattacīvaramaṇḍanādinā cāpallena
yuttā (“interested in personal vanity consisting in
adorning bowl and robe and so on”), and at M-a
III 185 (commenting on M I 470): Uddhato hoti
capalo ti uddhaccapakatiko c’eva hoti cīvaramaṇḍanā
pattamaṇḍanā senāsanamaṇḍanā imassa vā
pūtikāyassa kelāyanamaṇḍanā ti evaṃ vuttena
taruṇadārakacāpallena samannāgato (“’he is
distracted—or puffed up—and personally vain’:
he is possessed of the callow youth’s personal
vanity described as adorning the robe, adorning
the bowl, adorning the lodging, or prizing and
adorning this filthy body”). This meaning is
confirmed in the commentary to Vibh 251. PED
does not give this meaning at all but only “fickle,”
which is unsupported by the commentary. CPD

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 (acapala) also does not give this meaning.
As to the other things listed here in the
Visuddhimagga text, most will be found at M I 36.
For “holding on tenaciously,” etc., see M I 43.
24. Jatukā—”a bat”: not in PED. Also at Ch. XI. §7.
25. Jalapūvasadisa—”like a net cake”: “A cake made
like a net” (Vism-mhṭ 108); possibly what is now
known in Sri Lanka as a “string hopper,” or
something like it.
26. Surabhi—”scented, perfume”: not in PED; also at
VI.90; X.60 and Vism-mhṭ 445.
27. “’Kasiṇa’ is in the sense of entirety (sakalaṭṭhena)”
(M-a III 260). See IV.119.
28. Here ten kinds of foulness are given. But in the
Suttas only either five or six of this set appear to
be mentioned, that is, “Perception of a skeleton,
perception of the worm-infested, perception of
the livid, perception of the cut-up, perception of
the bloated. (see A I 42 and S V 131; A II 17 adds
“perception of the festering”)” No details are
given. All ten appear at Dhs 263–64 and Paṭis I 49.
It will be noted that no order of progress of decay
in the kinds of corpse appears here; also the
instructions in Ch. VI are for contemplating actual
corpses in these states. The primary purpose here

363
 is to cultivate “repulsiveness.”
Another set of nine progressive stages in the
decay of a corpse, mostly different from these, is
given at M I 58, 89, etc., beginning with a corpse
one day old and ending with bones turned to
dust. From the words “suppose a bhikkhu saw a
corpse thrown on a charnel ground … he
compares this same body of his with it thus, ’This
body too is of like nature, awaits a like fate, is not
exempt from that’”(M I 58), it can be assumed that
these nine, which are given in progressive order
of decay in order to demonstrate the body’s
impermanence, are not necessarily intended as
contemplations of actual corpses so much as
mental images to be created, the primary purpose
being to cultivate impermanence. This may be
why these nine are not used here (see VIII.43).
The word asubha (foul, foulness) is used both
of the contemplations of corpses as here and of
the contemplation of the parts of the body (A V
109).
29. Also quoted in A-a V 79 on AN 11:9. Cf. Sn 1119.
A similar quotation with Sopāka is found in
Vism-mhṭ 334–35, see note 1 to XI.2.
30. The full story, which occurs at M-a III 382–83 and
elsewhere, is this: “It seems that when the

364
Karavīka bird has pecked a sweet-flavoured
mango wth its beak and savoured the dripping
juice, and flapping its wings, begins to sing, then
quadrupeds caper as if mad. Quadrupeds grazing
in their pastures drop the grass in their mouths
and listen to the sound. Beasts of prey hunting
small animals pause with one foot raised. Hunted
animals lose their fear of death and halt in their
tracks. Birds flying in the air stay with wings
outstretched. Fishes in the water keep still, not
moving their fins. All listen to the sound, so
beautiful is the Karavīka’s song. Dhammāsoka’s
queen Asandhamittā asked the Community:
’Venerable sirs, is there anything that sounds like
the Buddha?’—’The Karavīka birds
does.’—’Where are those birds, venerable
sirs?’—’In the Himalaya.’
She told the king: ’Sire, I wish to hear a
Karavīka bird.’ The king dispatched a gold cage
with the order, ’Let a Karavīka bird come and sit
in this cage.’ The cage travelled and halted in
front of a Karavīka. Thinking, ’The cage has come
at the king’s command; it is impossible not to go,’
the bird got in. The cage returned and stopped
before the king. They could not get the Karavīka
to utter a sound. When the king asked, ’When do
they utter a sound?’ they replied, ’On seeing their

365
 kin.’ Then the king had it surrounded with
looking-glasses. Seeing its own reflection and
imagining that its relatives had come, it flapped
its wings and cried out with an exquisite voice as
if sounding a crystal trumpet. All the people in
the city rushed about as if mad. Asandhamittā
thought: ’If the sound of this creature is so fine,
what indeed can the sound of the Blessed One
have been like since he had reached the glory of
omniscient knowledge?’ and arousing a
happiness that she never again relinquished, she
became established in the fruition of stream-
entry.”
31. See Dhs 55; but it comes under the “… pe …,”
which must be filled in from pp. 37–38, §182 and
§184.
32. “It is because only an abstract (parikappaja) object
can be extended, not any other kind, that he said,
’it is not possible to extend a state consisting in an
individual essence’” (Vism-mhṭ 110).
33. The word “nimitta” in its technical sense is
consistently rendered here by the word “sign,”
which corresponds very nearly if not exactly to
most uses of it. It is sometimes rendered by
“mark” (which over-emphasizes the concrete),
and by “image” (which is not always intended).

366
 The three kinds, that is, the preliminary-work
sign, learning sign and counterpart sign, do not
appear in the Piṭakas. There the use rather
suggests association of ideas as, for example, at M
I 180, M I 119, A I 4, etc., than the more definitely
visualized “image” in some instances of the
“counterpart sign” described in the following
chapters.
34. Na-vattabba—”not so-classifiable” is an
Abhidhamma shorthand term for something that,
when considered under one of the triads or dyads
of the Abhidhamma Mātikā (Dhs 1f.), cannot be
placed under any one of the three, or two,
headings.
35. “’The festering’ is a mobile object because of the
oozing of the pus, ’the bleeding’ because of the
trickling of the blood, ’the worm-infested’ because
of the wriggling of the worms. The mobile aspect
of the sunshine coming in through a window
opening is evident, which explains why an object
consisting of a circle of sunlight is called mobile”
(Vism-mhṭ 110).
36. “In addition to the five things” (not quoted) dealt
with earlier in the sutta, namely, perfection of
virtue, good friendship, hearing suitable things,
energy, and understanding.

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37. “’Cryptic books’: the meditation-subject books
dealing with the truths, the dependent
origination, etc., which are profound and
associated with voidness” (Vism-mhṭ 111). Cf. M-
a II 264, A-a commentary to AN 4:180.

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 Chapter IV
The Earth Kasiṇa
(Pathavī-kasiṇa-niddesa)

1. [118] Now, it was said earlier: After that he should

avoid a monastery unfavourable to the development
of concentration and go to live in one that is
favourable (III.28). In the first place one who finds it
convenient to live with the teacher in the same
monastery can live there while he is making certain of
the meditation subject. If it is inconvenient there, he
can live in another monastery—a suitable one—a
quarter or a half or even a whole league distant. In
that case, when he finds he is in doubt about, or has
forgotten, some passage in the meditation subject,
then he should do the duties in the monastery in good
time and set out afterwards, going for alms on the way
and arriving at the teacher’s dwelling place after his
meal. He should make certain about the meditation
subject that day in the teacher’s presence. Next day,
after paying homage to the teacher, he should go for
alms on his way back and so he can return to his own
dwelling place without fatigue. But one who finds no
convenient place within even a league should clarify
all difficulties about the meditation subject and make
quite sure it has been properly attended to. Then he

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can even go far away and, avoiding a monastery
unfavourable to development of concentration, live in
one that is favourable.

[The Eighteen Faults of a Monastery]

2. Herein, one that is unfavourable has anyone of

eighteen faults. These are: (1) largeness, (2) newness,
(3) dilapidatedness, (4) a nearby road, (5) a pond, (6)
[edible] leaves, (7) flowers, (8) fruits, (9) famousness,
(10) a nearby city, (11) nearby timber trees, (12) nearby
arable fields, (13) presence of incompatible persons,
(14) a nearby port of entry, (15) nearness to the border
countries, (16) nearness to the frontier of a kingdom,
(17) unsuitability, (18) lack of good friends. [119] One
with any of these faults is not favourable. He should
not live there. Why?
3. 1. Firstly, people with varying aims collect in a large
monastery. They conflict with each other and so neglect
the duties. The Enlightenment-tree terrace, etc.,
remain unswept, the water for drinking and washing
is not set out. So if he thinks, “I shall go to the alms-
resort village for alms” and takes his bowl and robe
and sets out, perhaps he sees that the duties have not
been done or that a drinking-water pot is empty, and

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so the duty has to be done by him unexpectedly.
Drinking water must be maintained. By not doing it he
would commit a wrongdoing in the breach of a duty.
But if he does it, he loses time. He arrives too late at
the village and gets nothing because the alms giving is
finished. Also, when he goes into retreat, he is
distracted by the loud noises of novices and young
bhikkhus, and by acts of the Community [being
carried out]. However, he can live in a large
monastery where all the duties are done and where
there are none of the other disturbances.
4. 2. In a new monastery there is much new building
activity. People criticize someone who takes no part in
it. But he can live in such a monastery where the
bhikkhus say, “Let the venerable one do the ascetic’s
duties as much as he likes. We shall see to the building
work.”
5. 3. In a dilapidated monastery there is much that needs
repair. People criticize someone who does not see
about the repairing of at least his own lodging. When
he sees to the repairs, his meditation subject suffers.
6. 4. In a monastery with a nearby road, by a main
street, visitors keep arriving night and day. He has to
give up his own lodging to those who come late, and
he has to go and live at the root of a tree or on top of a
rock. And next day it is the same. So there is no

371
opportunity [to practice] his meditation subject. But he
can live in one where there is no such disturbance by
visitors.
7. 5. A pond is a rock pool. Numbers of people come
there for drinking water. Pupils of city-dwelling elders
supported by the royal family come to do dyeing
work. When they ask for vessels, wood, tubs, etc.,
[120] they must be shown where these things are. So
he is kept all the time on the alert.
8. 6. If he goes with his meditation subject to sit by
day where there are many sorts of edible leaves, then
women vegetable-gatherers, singing as they pick
leaves nearby, endanger his meditation subject by
disturbing it with sounds of the opposite sex.
7. And where there are many sorts of flowering
shrubs in bloom there is the same danger too.
9. 8. Where there are many sorts of fruits such as
mangoes, rose-apples and jak-fruits, people who want
fruits come and ask for them, and they get angry if he
does not give them any, or they take them by force.
When walking in the monastery in the evening he sees
them and asks, “Why do you do so, lay followers?”
they abuse him as they please and even try to evict
him.
10. 9. When he lives in a monastery that is famous and

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renowned in the world, like Dakkhiṇagiri[1]
Hatthikucchi, Cetiyagiri or Cittalapabbata, there are
always people coming who want to pay homage to
him, supposing that he is an Arahant, which
inconveniences him. But if it suits him, he can live
there at night and go elsewhere by day.
11. 10. In one with a nearby city objects of the opposite
sex come into focus. Women-pot carriers go by
bumping into him with their jars and giving no room
to pass. Also important people spread out carpets in
the middle of the monastery and sit down.
12. 11. One with nearby timber trees where there are
timber trees and osiers useful for making framework
is inconvenient because of the wood-gatherers there,
like the gatherers of branches and fruits already
mentioned. If there are trees in a monastery, people
come and cut them down to build houses with. When
he has come out of his meditation room in the evening
and is walking up and down in the monastery, if he
sees them and asks, “Why do you do so, lay
followers?” they abuse him as they please and even
try to evict him.
13. 12. People make use of one with nearby arable fields,
quite surrounded by fields. They make a threshing
floor in the middle of the monastery itself. They thresh
corn there, dry it in the forecourts,[2] and cause great

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inconvenience. And where there is extensive property
belonging to the Community, the monastery
attendants impound cattle belonging to families and
deny the water supply [to their crops]. [121] Then
people bring an ear of paddy and show it to the
Community saying “Look at your monastery
attendants’ work.” For one reason or another he has to
go to the portals of the king or the king’s ministers.
This [matter of property belonging to the Community]
is included by [a monastery that is] near arable fields.
14. 13. Presence of incompatible persons: where there are
bhikkhus living who are incompatible and mutually
hostile, when they clash and it is protested,
“Venerable sirs, do not do so,” they exclaim, “We no
longer count now that this refuse-rag wearer has
come.”
15. 14. One with a nearby water port of entry or land
port of entry[3] is made inconvenient by people
constantly arriving respectively by ship or by caravan
and crowding round, asking for space or for drinking
water or salt.
16. 15. In the case of one near the border countries,
people have no trust in the Buddha, etc., there.
16. In one near the frontier of a kingdom there is fear of
kings. For perhaps one king attacks that place,
thinking, “It does not submit to my rule,” and the

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other does likewise, thinking, “It does not submit to
my rule.” A bhikkhu lives there when it is conquered
by one king and when it is conquered by the other.
Then they suspect him of spying, and they bring about
his undoing.
17. 17. Unsuitability is that due to the risk of
encountering visible data, etc., of the opposite sex as
objects or to haunting by non-human beings. Here is a
story. An elder lived in a forest, it seems. Then an
ogress stood in the door of his leaf hut and sang. The
elder came out and stood in the door. She went to the
end of the walk and sang. The elder went to the end of
the walk. She stood in a chasm a hundred fathoms
deep and sang. The elder recoiled. Then she suddenly
grabbed him saying, “Venerable sir, it is not just one
or two of the likes of you I have eaten.”
18. 18. Lack of good friends: where it is not possible to
find a good friend as a teacher or the equivalent of a
teacher or a preceptor or the equivalent of a preceptor,
the lack of good friends there is a serious fault.
One that has any of those eighteen faults should be
understood as unfavourable. And this is said in the
commentaries:
A large abode, a new abode,
One tumbling down, one near a road,
One with a pond, or leaves, or flowers,

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 Or fruits, or one that people seek; [122]
In cities, among timber, fields,
Where people quarrel, in a port,
In border lands, on frontiers,
Unsuitableness, and no good friend—
These are the eighteen instances
A wise man needs to recognize
And give them full as wide a berth
As any footpad-hunted road.

[The Five Factors of the Resting Place]

19. One that has the five factors beginning with “not
too far from and not too near to” the alms resort is
called favourable. For this is said by the Blessed One:
“And how has a lodging five factors, bhikkhus? Here,
bhikkhus, (1) a lodging is not too far, not too near, and
has a path for going and coming. (2) It is little
frequented by day with little sound and few voices by
night. (3) There is little contact with gadflies, flies,
wind, burning [sun] and creeping things. (4) One who
lives in that lodging easily obtains robes, alms food,
lodging, and the requisite of medicine as cure for the
sick. (5) In that lodging there are elder bhikkhus living
who are learned, versed in the scriptures, observers of

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the Dhamma, observers of the Vinaya, observers of the
Codes, and when from time to time one asks them
questions, ’How is this, venerable sir? What is the
meaning of this?’ then those venerable ones reveal the
unrevealed, explain the unexplained, and remove
doubt about the many things that raise doubts. This,
bhikkhus, is how a lodging has five factors”(A V 15).
These are the details for the clause, “After that he
should avoid a monastery unfavourable to the
development of concentration and go to live in one
that is favourable” (III.28).

[The Lesser Impediments]

20. Then he should sever the lesser impediments (III.28):

one living in such a favourable monastery should
sever any minor impediments that he may still have,
that is to say, long head hair, nails, and body hair
should be cut, mending and patching of old robes
should be done, or those that are soiled should be
dyed. If there is a stain on the bowl, the bowl should
be baked. The bed, chair, etc., should be cleaned up.
These are the details for the clause, “Then he should
sever the lesser impediments.”

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 [Detailed Instructions for
Development]

21. Now, with the clause, And not overlook any of the
directions for development (III.28), the time has come for
the detailed exposition of all meditation subjects,
starting with the earth kasiṇa.

[The Earth Kasiṇa]

[123] When a bhikkhu has thus severed the lesser

impediments, then, on his return from his alms round
after his meal and after he has got rid of drowsiness
due to the meal, he should sit down comfortably in a
secluded place and apprehend the sign in earth that is
either made up or not made up.

22. For this is said:[4] “One who is learning the earth

kasiṇa apprehends the sign in earth that is either made
up or not made up; that is bounded, not unbounded;
limited, not unlimited; with a periphery, not without a
periphery; circumscribed, not uncircumscribed; either
the size of a bushel (suppa) or the size of a saucer
(sarāva). He sees to it that that sign is well
apprehended, well attended to, well defined. Having

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done that, and seeing its advantages and perceiving it
as a treasure, building up respect for it, making it dear
to him, he anchors his mind to that object, thinking,
’Surely in this way I shall be freed from aging and
death.’ Secluded from sense desires … he enters upon
and dwells in the first jhāna …”
23. Herein, when in a previous becoming a man has
gone forth into homelessness in the Dispensation or
[outside it] with the rishis’ going forth and has already
produced the jhāna tetrad or pentad on the earth
kasiṇa, and so has such merit and the support [of past
practice of jhāna] as well, then the sign arises in him
on earth that is not made up, that is to say, on a
ploughed area or on a threshing floor, as in the Elder
Mallaka’s case.
It seems that while that venerable one was looking
at a ploughed area the sign arose in him the size of
that area. He extended it and attained the jhāna
pentad. Then by establishing insight with the jhāna as
the basis for it, he reached Arahantship.

[Making an Earth Kasiṇa]

24. But when a man has had no such previous

practice, he should make a kasiṇa, guarding against

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the four faults of a kasiṇa and not overlooking any of
the directions for the meditation subject learnt from
the teacher. Now, the four faults of the earth kasiṇa
are due to the intrusion of blue, yellow, red or white.
So instead of using clay of such colours, he should
make the kasiṇa of clay like that in the stream of the
Gangā,[5] which is the colour of the dawn. [124] And
he should make it not in the middle of the monastery
in a place where novices, etc., are about but on the
confines of the monastery in a screened place, either
under an overhanging rock or in a leaf hut. He can
make it either portable or as a fixture.
25. Of these, a portable one should be made by tying
rags of leather or matting onto four sticks and
smearing thereon a disk of the size already mentioned,
using clay picked clean of grass, roots, gravel, and
sand, and well kneaded. At the time of the
preliminary work it should be laid on the ground and
looked at.
A fixture should be made by knocking stakes into
the ground in the form of a lotus calyx, lacing them
over with creepers. If the clay is insufficient, then
other clay should be put underneath and a disk a span
and four fingers across made on top of that with the
quite pure dawn-coloured clay. For it was with
reference only to measurement that it was said above
either the size of a bushel or the size of a saucer (§22). But

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that is bounded, not unbounded was said to show its
delimitedness.
26. So, having thus made it delimited and of the size
prescribed, he should scrape it down with a stone
trowel—a wooden trowel turns it a bad colour, so that
should not be employed—and make it as even as the
surface of a drum. Then he should sweep the place out
and have a bath. On his return he should seat himself
on a well-covered chair with legs a span and four
fingers high, prepared in a place that is two and a half
cubits [that is, two and a half times elbow to finger-
tip] from the kasiṇa disk. For the kasiṇa does not
appear plainly to him if he sits further off than that;
and if he sits nearer than that, faults in the kasiṇa
appear. If he sits higher up, he has to look at it with his
neck bent; and if he sits lower down, his knees ache.

[Starting Contemplation]

27. So, after seating himself in the way stated, he

should review the dangers in sense desires in the way
beginning, “Sense desires give little enjoyment” (M I
91) and arouse longing for the escape from sense
desires, for the renunciation that is the means to the
surmounting of all suffering. He should next arouse

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joy of happiness by recollecting the special qualities of
the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha; then awe
by thinking, “Now, this is the way of renunciation
entered upon by all Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas and
noble disciples”; and then eagerness by thinking, “In
this way I shall surely come to know the taste of the
bliss of seclusion.” [125] After that he should open his
eyes moderately, apprehend the sign, and so proceed
to develop it.[6]
28. If he opens his eyes too wide, they get fatigued
and the disk becomes too obvious, which prevents the
sign becoming apparent to him. If he opens them too
little, the disk is not obvious enough, and his mind
becomes drowsy, which also prevents the sign
becoming apparent to him. So he should develop it by
apprehending the sign (nimitta), keeping his eyes open
moderately, as if he were seeing the reflection of his
face (mukha-nimitta) on the surface of a looking-glass.
[7]

29. The colour should not be reviewed. The

characteristic should not be given attention.[8] But
rather, while not ignoring the colour, attention should
be given by setting the mind on the [name] concept as
the most outstanding mental datum, relegating the
colour to the position of a property of its physical
support. That [conceptual state] can be called by
anyone he likes among the names for earth (pathavī)

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such as “earth” (pathavī), “the Great One” (mahī), “the
Friendly One” (medinī), “ground” (bhūmi), “the
Provider of Wealth” (vasudhā), “the Bearer of Wealth”
(vasudharā), etc., whichever suits his manner of
perception. Still “earth” is also a name that is obvious,
so it can be developed with the obvious one by saying
“earth, earth.” It should be adverted to now with eyes
open, now with eyes shut. And he should go on
developing it in this way a hundred times, a thousand
times, and even more than that, until the learning sign
arises.
30. When, while he is developing it in this way, it
comes into focus[9] as he adverts with his eyes shut
exactly as it does with his eyes open, then the learning
sign is said to have been produced. After its
production he should no longer sit in that place;[10] he
should return to his own quarters and go on
developing it sitting there. But in order to avoid the
delay of foot washing, a pair of single-soled sandals
and a walking stick are desirable. Then if the new
concentration vanishes through some unsuitable
encounter, he can put his sandals on, take his walking
stick, and go back to the place to re-apprehend the
sign there. When he returns he should seat himself
comfortably and develop it by reiterated reaction to it
and by striking at it with thought and applied
thought.

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 [The Counterpart Sign]

31. As he does so, the hindrances eventually become

suppressed, the defilements subside, the mind
becomes concentrated with access concentration, and
the counterpart sign arises.
The difference between the earlier learning sign and
the counterpart sign is this. In the learning sign any
fault in the kasiṇa is apparent. But the counterpart
sign [126] appears as if breaking out from the learning
sign, and a hundred times, a thousand times more
purified, like a looking-glass disk drawn from its case,
like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the
moon’s disk coming out from behind a cloud, like
cranes against a thunder cloud. But it has neither
colour nor shape; for if it had, it would be cognizable
by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension [by
insight—(see XX.2f.)] and stamped with the three
characteristics.[11] But it is not like that. For it is born
only of perception in one who has obtained
concentration, being a mere mode of appearance.[12]
But as soon as it arises the hindrances are quite
suppressed, the defilements subside, and the mind
becomes concentrated in access concentration.

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 [The Two Kinds of Concentration]

32. Now, concentration is of two kinds, that is to say,

access concentration and absorption concentration: the
mind becomes concentrated in two ways, that is, on
the plane of access and on the plane of obtainment.
Herein, the mind becomes concentrated on the plane
of access by the abandonment of the hindrances, and
on the plane of obtainment by the manifestation of the
jhāna factors.
33. The difference between the two kinds of
concentration is this. The factors are not strong in
access. It is because they are not strong that when
access has arisen, the mind now makes the sign its
object and now re-enters the life-continuum,[13] just as
when a young child is lifted up and stood on its feet, it
repeatedly falls down on the ground. But the factors
are strong in absorption. It is because they are strong
that when absorption concentration has arisen, the
mind, having once interrupted the flow of the life-
continuum, carries on with a stream of profitable
impulsion for a whole night and for a whole day, just
as a healthy man, after rising from his seat, could
stand for a whole day.

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 [Guarding the Sign]

34. The arousing of the counterpart sign, which arises

together with access concentration, is very difficult.
Therefore if he is able to arrive at absorption in that
same session by extending the sign, it is good. If not,
then he must guard the sign diligently as if it were the
foetus of a Wheel-turning Monarch (World-ruler).
So guard the sign, nor count the cost,
And what is gained will not be lost;
Who fails to have this guard maintained
Will lose each time what he has gained. [127]
35. Herein, the way of guarding it is this:
(1) Abode, (2) resort, (3) and speech, (4) and
person,
(5) The food, (6) the climate, (7) and the posture—
Eschew these seven different kinds
Whenever found unsuitable.
But cultivate the suitable;
For one perchance so doing finds
He need not wait too long until
Absorption shall his wish fulfil.
36. 1. Herein, an abode is unsuitable if, while he lives
in it, the unarisen sign does not arise in him or is lost
when it arises, and where unestablished mindfulness

386
fails to become established and the unconcentrated
mind fails to become concentrated. That is suitable in
which the sign arises and becomes confirmed, in
which mindfulness becomes established and the mind
becomes concentrated, as in the Elder Padhāniya-
Tissa, resident at Nāgapabbata. So if a monastery has
many abodes he can try them one by one, living in
each for three days, and stay on where his mind
becomes unified. For it was due to suitability of abode
that five hundred bhikkhus reached Arahantship
while still dwelling in the Lesser Nāga Cave (Cūḷa-
nāga-leṇa) in Tambapaṇṇi Island (Sri Lanka) after
apprehending their meditation subject there. There is
no counting the stream-enterers who have reached
Arahantship there after reaching the noble plane
elsewhere; so too in the monastery of Cittalapabbata,
and others.
37. 2. An alms-resort village lying to the north or south
of the lodging, not too far, within one kosa and a half,
and where alms food is easily obtained, is suitable.
The opposite kind is unsuitable.[14]
38. 3. Speech: that included in the thirty-two kinds of
aimless talk is unsuitable; for it leads to the
disappearance of the sign. But talk based on the ten
examples of talk is suitable, though even that should
be discussed with moderation.[15]

387
39. 4. Person: one not given to aimless talk, who has
the special qualities of virtue, etc., by
acquaintanceship with whom the unconcentrated
mind becomes concentrated, or the concentrated mind
becomes more so, is suitable. One who is much
concerned with his body,[16] who is addicted to
aimless talk, is unsuitable; for he only creates
disturbances, like muddy water added to clear water.
And it was owing to one such as this that the
attainments of the young bhikkhu who lived at
Koṭapabbata vanished, not to mention the sign. [128]
40. 5. Food: Sweet food suits one, sour food another.
6. Climate: a cool climate suits one, a warm one
another. So when he finds that by using certain food
or by living in a certain climate he is comfortable, or
his unconcentrated mind becomes concentrated, or his
concentrated mind becomes more so, then that food or
that climate is suitable. Any other food or climate is
unsuitable.
41. 7. Postures: walking suits one; standing or sitting
or lying down suits another. So he should try them,
like the abode, for three days each, and that posture is
suitable in which his unconcentrated mind becomes
concentrated or his concentrated mind becomes more
so. Any other should be understood as unsuitable.
So he should avoid the seven unsuitable kinds and

388
cultivate the suitable. For when he practices in this
way, assiduously cultivating the sign, then, “he need
not wait too long until absorption shall his wish
fulfil.”

[The Ten Kinds of Skill in Absorption]

42. However, if this does not happen while he is

practicing in this way, then he should have recourse to
the ten kinds of skill in absorption. Here is the
method. Skill in absorption needs [to be dealt with in]
ten aspects: (1) making the basis clean, (2) maintaining
balanced faculties, (3) skill in the sign, (4) he exerts the
mind on an occasion when it should be exerted, (5) he
restrains the mind on an occasion when it should be
restrained, (6) he encourages the mind on an occasion
when it should be encouraged, (7) he looks on at the
mind with equanimity when it should be looked on at
with equanimity, (8) avoidance of unconcentrated
persons, (9) cultivation of concentrated persons, (10)
resoluteness upon that (concentration).
43. 1. Herein, making the basis clean is cleansing the
internal and the external basis. For when his head hair,
nails and body hair are long, or when the body is
soaked with sweat, then the internal basis is unclean

389
and unpurified. But when an old dirty smelly robe is
worn or when the lodging is dirty, then the external
basis is unclean and unpurified. [129] When the
internal and external bases are unclean, then the
knowledge in the consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants that arise is unpurified, like the light of a
lamp’s flame that arises with an unpurified lamp-
bowl, wick and oil as its support; formations do not
become evident to one who tries to comprehend them
with unpurified knowledge, and when he devotes
himself to his meditation subject, it does not come to
growth, increase and fulfilment.
44. But when the internal and external bases are clean,
then the knowledge in the consciousness and
consciousness-concomitants that arise is clean and
purified, like the light of a lamp’s flame that arises
with a purified lamp bowl, wick and oil as its support;
formations become evident to one who tries to
comprehend them with purified knowledge, and as he
devotes himself to his meditation subject, it comes to
growth, increase and fulfilment.
45. 2. Maintaining balanced faculties is equalizing the
[five] faculties of faith and the rest. For if his faith
faculty is strong and the others weak, then the energy
faculty cannot perform its function of exerting, the
mindfulness faculty its function of establishing, the
concentration faculty its function of not distracting,

390
and the understanding faculty its function of seeing.
So in that case the faith faculty should be modified
either by reviewing the individual essences of the
states [concerned, that is, the objects of attention] or by
not giving [them] attention in the way in which the
faith faculty became too strong. And this is illustrated
by the story of the Elder Vakkali (S III 119).
46. Then if the energy faculty is too strong, the faith
faculty cannot perform its function of resolving, nor
can the rest of the faculties perform their several
functions. So in that case the energy faculty should be
modified by developing tranquillity, and so on. And
this should be illustrated by the story of the Elder
Soṇa (Vin I 179–85; A III 374–76). So too with the rest;
for it should be understood that when anyone of them
is too strong the others cannot perform their several
functions.
47. However, what is particularly recommended is
balancing faith with understanding, and concentration
with energy. For one strong in faith and weak in
understanding has confidence uncritically and
groundlessly. One strong in understanding and weak
in faith errs on the side of cunning and is as hard to
cure as one sick of a disease caused by medicine. With
the balancing of the two a man has confidence only
when there are grounds for it.

391
 Then idleness overpowers one strong in
concentration and weak in energy, since concentration
favours idleness. [130] Agitation overpowers one
strong in energy and weak in concentration, since
energy favours agitation. But concentration coupled
with energy cannot lapse into idleness, and energy
coupled with concentration cannot lapse into
agitation. So these two should be balanced; for
absorption comes with the balancing of the two.
48. Again, [concentration and faith should be
balanced]. One working on concentration needs strong
faith, since it is with such faith and confidence that he
reaches absorption. Then there is [balancing of]
concentration and understanding. One working on
concentration needs strong unification, since that is
how he reaches absorption; and one working on
insight needs strong understanding, since that is how
he reaches penetration of characteristics; but with the
balancing of the two he reaches absorption as well.
49. Strong mindfulness, however, is needed in all
instances; for mindfulness protects the mind from
lapsing into agitation through faith, energy and
understanding, which favour agitation, and from
lapsing into idleness through concentration, which
favours idleness. So it is as desirable in all instances as
a seasoning of salt in all sauces, as a prime minister in
all the king’s business. Hence it is said [in the

392
commentaries (D-a 788, M-a I 292, etc)]: “And
mindfulness has been called universal by the Blessed
One. For what reason? Because the mind has
mindfulness as its refuge, and mindfulness is
manifested as protection, and there is no exertion and
restraint of the mind without mindfulness.”
50. 3. Skill in the sign is skill in producing the as yet
unproduced sign of unification of mind through the
earth kasiṇa, etc.; and it is skill in developing [the
sign] when produced, and skill in protecting [the sign]
when obtained by development. The last is what is
intended here.
51. 4. How does he exert the mind on an occasion when it
should be exerted? When his mind is slack with over-
laxness of energy, etc., then, instead of developing the
three enlightenment factors beginning with
tranquillity, he should develop those beginning with
investigation-of-states. For this is said by the Blessed
One: “Bhikkhus, suppose a man wanted to make a
small fire burn up, and he put wet grass on it, put wet
cow-dung on it, put wet sticks on it, sprinkled it with
water, and scattered dust on it, would that man be
able to make the small fire burn up?” [131]—“No,
venerable sir.”—“So too, bhikkhus, when the mind is
slack, that is not the time to develop the tranquillity
enlightenment factor, the concentration enlightenment
factor or the equanimity enlightenment factor. Why is

393
that? Because a slack mind cannot well be roused by
those states. When the mind is slack, that is the time to
develop the investigation-of-states enlightenment
factor, the energy enlightenment factor and the
happiness enlightenment factor. Why is that? Because
a slack mind can well be roused by those states.
“Bhikkhus, suppose a man wanted to make a small
fire burn up, and he put dry grass on it, put dry cow-
dung on it, put dry sticks on it, blew on it with his
mouth, and did not scatter dust on it, would that man
be able to make that small fire burn up?”—“Yes,
venerable sir” (S V 112).
52. And here the development of the investigation-of-
states enlightenment factor, etc., should be understood
as the nutriment for each one respectively, for this is
said: “Bhikkhus, there are profitable and unprofitable
states, reprehensible and blameless states, inferior and
superior states, dark and bright states the counterpart
of each other. Wise attention much practiced therein is
the nutriment for the arising of the unarisen
investigation-of-states enlightenment factor, or leads
to the growth, fulfilment, development and perfection
of the arisen investigation-of-states enlightenment
factor.” Likewise: “Bhikkhus there is the element of
initiative, the element of launching, and the element of
persistence. Wise attention much practiced therein is
the nutriment for the arising of the unarisen energy

394
enlightenment factor, or leads to the growth,
fulfilment, development and perfection of the arisen
energy enlightenment factors.” Likewise: “Bhikkhus,
there are states productive of the happiness
enlightenment factor. Wise attention much practiced
therein is the nutriment for the arising of the unarisen
happiness enlightenment factor, or leads to the
growth, fulfilment, development and perfection of the
arisen happiness enlightenment factor” (S V 104). [132]
53. Herein, wise attention given to the profitable, etc., is
attention occurring in penetration of individual
essences and of [the three] general characteristics. Wise
attention given to the element of initiative, etc., is
attention occurring in the arousing of the element of
initiative, and so on. Herein, initial energy is called the
element of initiative. The element of launching is stronger
than that because it launches out from idleness. The
element of persistence is still stronger than that because
it goes on persisting in successive later stages. States
productive of the happiness enlightenment factor is a name
for happiness itself; and attention that arouses that is
wise attention.
54. There are, besides, seven things that lead to the
arising of the investigation-of-states enlightenment
factor: (i) asking questions, (ii) making the basis clean,
(iii) balancing the faculties, (iv) avoidance of persons
without understanding, (v) cultivation of persons with

395
understanding, (vi) reviewing the field for the exercise
of profound knowledge, (vii) resoluteness upon that
[investigation of states].
55. Eleven things lead to the arising of the energy
enlightenment factor: (i) reviewing the fearfulness of
the states of loss such as the hell realms, etc., (ii) seeing
benefit in obtaining the mundane and supramundane
distinctions dependent on energy, (iii) reviewing the
course of the journey [to be travelled] thus: “The path
taken by the Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, and the great
disciples has to be taken by me, and it cannot be taken
by an idler,” (iv) being a credit to the alms food by
producing great fruit for the givers, (v) reviewing the
greatness of the Master thus: “My Master praises the
energetic, and this unsurpassable Dispensation that is
so helpful to us is honoured in the practice, not
otherwise,” (vi) reviewing the greatness of the
heritage thus: “It is the great heritage called the Good
Dhamma that is to be acquired by me, and it cannot be
acquired by an idler,” (vii) removing stiffness and
torpor by attention to perception of light, change of
postures, frequenting the open air, etc., (viii)
avoidance of idle persons, (ix) cultivation of energetic
persons, (x) reviewing the right endeavours, (xi)
resoluteness upon that [energy].
56. Eleven things lead to the arising of the happiness
enlightenment factor: the recollections (i) of the

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Buddha, (ii) of the Dhamma, (iii) of the Sangha, (iv) of
virtue, (v) of generosity, and (vi) of deities, (vii) the
recollection of peace, [133] (viii) avoidance of rough
persons, (ix) cultivation of refined persons, (x)
reviewing encouraging discourses, (xi) resoluteness
upon that [happiness].
So by arousing these things in these ways he
develops the investigation-of-states enlightenment
factor, and the others. This is how he exerts the mind
on an occasion when it should be exerted.
57. 5. How does he restrain the mind on an occasion
when it should be restrained? When his mind is agitated
through over-energeticness, etc., then, instead of
developing the three enlightenment factors beginning
with investigation-of-states, he should develop those
beginning with tranquillity; for this is said by the
Blessed One: “Bhikkhus, suppose a man wanted to
extinguish a great mass of fire, and he put dry grass
on it … and did not scatter dust on it, would that man
be able to extinguish that great mass of fire?”—“No,
venerable sir.”—“So too, bhikkhus, when the mind is
agitated, that is not the time to develop the
investigation-of-states enlightenment factor, the
energy enlightenment factor or the happiness
enlightenment factor. Why is that? Because an agitated
mind cannot well be quieted by those states. When the
mind is agitated, that is the time to develop the

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tranquillity enlightenment factor, the concentration
enlightenment factor and the equanimity
enlightenment factor. Why is that? Because an agitated
mind can well be quieted by those states.”
“Bhikkhus, suppose a man wanted to extinguish a
great mass of fire, and he put wet grass on it … and
scattered dust on it, would that man be able to
extinguish that great mass of fire?”—“Yes, venerable
sir” (S V 114).
58. And here the development of the tranquillity
enlightenment factor, etc., should be understood as the
nutriment for each one respectively, for this is said:
“Bhikkhus, there is bodily tranquillity and mental
tranquillity. [134] Wise attention much practiced
therein is the nutriment for the arising of the unarisen
tranquillity enlightenment factor, or leads to the
growth, fulfilment, development and perfection of the
arisen tranquillity enlightenment factor.” Likewise:
“Bhikkhus, there is the sign of serenity, the sign of
non-diversion. Wise attention, much practiced, therein
is the nutriment for the arising of the unarisen
concentration enlightenment factor, or it leads to the
growth, fulfilment, development and perfection of the
arisen concentration enlightenment factor.” Likewise:
“Bhikkhus, there are states productive of the
equanimity enlightenment factor. Wise attention,
much practiced, therein is the nutriment for the arising

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of the unarisen equanimity enlightenment factor, or it
leads to the growth, fulfilment, development and
perfection of the arisen equanimity enlightenment
factor” (S V 104).
59. Herein wise attention given to the three instances is
attention occurring in arousing tranquillity, etc., by
observing the way in which they arose in him earlier.
The sign of serenity is a term for serenity itself, and non-
diversion is a term for that too in the sense of non-
distraction.
60. There are, besides, seven things that lead to the
arising of the tranquillity enlightenment factor: (i)
using superior food, (ii) living in a good climate, (iii)
maintaining a pleasant posture, (iv) keeping to the
middle, (v) avoidance of violent persons, (vi)
cultivation of persons tranquil in body, (vii)
resoluteness upon that [tranquillity].
61. Eleven things lead to the arising of the
concentration enlightenment factor: (i) making the
basis clean, (ii) skill in the sign, (iii) balancing the
faculties, (iv) restraining the mind on occasion, (v)
exerting the mind on occasion, (vi) encouraging the
listless mind by means of faith and a sense of urgency,
(vii) looking on with equanimity at what is occurring
rightly, (viii) avoidance of unconcentrated persons,
(ix) cultivation of concentrated persons, (x) reviewing

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of the jhānas and liberations, (xi) resoluteness upon
that [concentration].
62. Five things lead to the arising of the equanimity
enlightenment factor: (i) maintenance of neutrality
towards living beings; (ii) maintenance of neutrality
towards formations (inanimate things); (iii) avoidance
of persons who show favouritism towards beings and
formations; (iv) cultivation of persons who maintain
neutrality towards beings and formations; (v)
resoluteness upon that [equanimity]. [135]
So by arousing these things in these ways he
develops the tranquillity enlightenment factor, as well
as the others. This is how he restrains the mind on an
occasion when it should be restrained.
63. 6. How does he encourage the mind on an occasion
when it should be encouraged? When his mind is listless
owing to sluggishness in the exercise of understanding
or to failure to attain the bliss of peace, then he should
stimulate it by reviewing the eight grounds for a sense
of urgency. These are the four, namely, birth, aging,
sickness, and death, with the suffering of the states of
loss as the fifth, and also the suffering in the past
rooted in the round [of rebirths], the suffering in the
future rooted in the round [of rebirths], and the
suffering in the present rooted in the search for
nutriment. And he creates confidence by recollecting

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the special qualities of the Buddha, the Dhamma, and
the Sangha. This is how he encourages the mind on an
occasion when it should be encouraged.
64. 7. How does he look on at the mind with equanimity
on an occasion when it should be looked on at with
equanimity? When he is practicing in this way and his
mind follows the road of serenity, occurs evenly on
the object, and is unidle, unagitated and not listless,
then he is not interested to exert or restrain or
encourage it; he is like a charioteer when the horses
are progressing evenly. This is how he looks on at the
mind with equanimity on an occasion when it should
be looked on at with equanimity.
65. 8. Avoidance of unconcentrated persons is keeping far
away from persons who have never trodden the way
of renunciation, who are busy with many affairs, and
whose hearts are distracted.
9. Cultivation of concentrated persons is approaching
periodically persons who have trodden the way of
renunciation and obtained concentration.
10. Resoluteness upon that is the state of being
resolute upon concentration; the meaning is, giving
concentration importance, tending, leaning and
inclining to concentration.
This is how the tenfold skill in concentration should
be undertaken.

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66. Any man who acquires this sign,
This tenfold skill will need to heed
In order for absorption to gain
Thus achieving his bolder goal.
But if in spite of his efforts
No result comes that might requite
His work, still a wise wight persists,
Never this task relinquishing, [136]
Since a tiro, if he gives up,
Thinking not to continue in
The task, never gains distinction
Here no matter how small at all.

A man wise in temperament[17]

Notices how his mind inclines:
Energy and serenity
Always he couples each to each.
Now, his mind, seeing that it holds back,
He prods, now the restraining rein
Tightening, seeing it pull too hard;
Guiding with even pace the race.
Well-controlled bees get the pollen;
Well-balanced efforts meet to treat
Leaves, thread, and ships, and oil-tubes too,
Gain thus, not otherwise, the prize.
Let him set aside this lax
Also this agitated state,
Steering here his mind at the sign

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 As the bee and the rest suggest.

[The Five Similes]

67. Here is the explanation of the meaning.

When a too clever bee learns that a flower on a tree
is blooming, it sets out hurriedly, overshoots the mark,
turns back, and arrives when the pollen is finished;
and another, not clever enough bee, who sets out with
too slow a speed, arrives when the pollen is finished
too; but a clever bee sets out with balanced speed,
arrives with ease at the cluster of flowers, takes as
much pollen as it pleases and enjoys the honey-dew.
68. Again, when a surgeon’s pupils are being trained
in the use of the scalpel on a lotus leaf in a dish of
water, one who is too clever applies the scalpel
hurriedly and either cuts the lotus leaf in two or
pushes it under the water, and another who is not
clever enough does not even dare to touch it with the
scalpel for fear of cutting it in two or pushing it under;
but one who is clever shows the scalpel stroke on it by
means of a balanced effort, and being good at his craft
he is rewarded on such occasions.
69. Again when the king announces, “Anyone who
can draw out a spider’s thread four fathoms long shall

403
receive four thousand,” one man who is too clever
breaks the spider’s thread here and there by pulling it
hurriedly, and another who is not clever enough does
not dare to touch it with his hand for fear of breaking
it, but a clever man pulls it out starting from the end
with a balanced effort, winds it on a stick, and so wins
the prize.
70. Again, a too clever [137] skipper hoists full sails in
a high wind and sends his ship adrift, and another, not
clever enough skipper, lowers his sails in a light wind
and remains where he is, but a clever skipper hoists
full sails in a light wind, takes in half his sails in a high
wind, and so arrives safely at his desired destination.
71. Again, when a teacher says, “Anyone who fills the
oil-tube without spilling any oil will win a prize,” one
who is too clever fills it hurriedly out of greed for the
prize, and he spills the oil, and another who is not
clever enough does not dare to pour the oil at all for
fear of spilling it, but one who is clever fills it with a
balanced effort and wins the prize.
72. Just as in these five similes, so too when the sign
arises, one bhikkhu forces his energy, thinking “I shall
soon reach absorption.” Then his mind lapses into
agitation because of his mind’s over-exerted energy
and he is prevented from reaching absorption.
Another who sees the defect in over-exertion slacks off

404
his energy, thinking, “What is absorption to me now?”
Then his mind lapses into idleness because of his
mind’s too lax energy and he too is prevented from
reaching absorption. Yet another who frees his mind
from idleness even when it is only slightly idle and
from agitation when only slightly agitated,
confronting the sign with balanced effort, reaches
absorption. One should be like the last-named.
73. It was with reference to this meaning that it was
said above:
“Well-controlled bees get the pollen;
Well-balanced efforts meet to treat
Leaves, thread, and ships, and oil-tubes too,
Gain thus, not otherwise, the prize.
Let him set aside then this lax
Also this agitated state,
Steering here his mind at the sign
As the bee and the rest suggest”.

[Absorption in the Cognitive Series]

74. So, while he is guiding his mind in this way,

confronting the sign, [then knowing]: “Now
absorption will succeed,” there arises in him mind-
door adverting with that same earth kasiṇa as its

405
object, interrupting the [occurrence of consciousness
as] life-continuum, and evoked by the constant
repeating of “earth, earth.” After that, either four or
five impulsions impel on that same object, the last one
of which is an impulsion of the fine-material sphere.
The rest are of the sense sphere, but they have
stronger applied thought, sustained thought,
happiness, bliss, and unification of mind than the
normal ones. They are called “preliminary work”
[consciousnesses] because they are the preliminary
work for absorption; [138] and they are also called
“access” [consciousnesses] because of their nearness to
absorption because they happen in its neighbourhood,
just as the words “village access” and “city access” are
used for a place near to a village, etc.; and they are
also called “conformity” [consciousnesses] because
they conform to those that precede the “preliminary
work” [consciousnesses] and to the absorption that
follows. And the last of these is also called “change-of-
lineage” because it transcends the limited [sense-
sphere] lineage and brings into being the exalted [fine-
material-sphere] lineage.[18]
75. But omitting repetitions,[19] then either the first is
the “preliminary work,” the second “access,” the third
“conformity,” and the fourth, “change-of-lineage,” or
else the first is “access,” the second “conformity,” and
the third “change-of-lineage.” Then either the fourth

406
[in the latter case] or the fifth [in the former case] is the
absorption consciousness. For it is only either the
fourth or the fifth that fixes in absorption. And that is
according as there is swift or sluggish direct-
knowledge. (cf. XXI.117) Beyond that, impulsion
lapses and the life-continuum[20] takes over.
76. But the Abhidhamma scholar, the Elder Godatta,
quoted this text: “Preceding profitable states are a
condition, as repetition condition, for succeeding
profitable states” (Paṭṭh I 5). Adding, “It is owing to
the repetition condition that each succeeding state is
strong, so there is absorption also in the sixth and
seventh.”
77. That is rejected by the commentaries with the
remark that it is merely that elder’s opinion, adding
that, “It is only either in the fourth or the fifth[21] that
there is absorption. Beyond that, impulsion lapses. It is
said to do so because of nearness of the life-
continuum.” And that has been stated in this way after
consideration, so it cannot be rejected. For just as a
man who is running towards a precipice and wants to
stop cannot do so when he has his foot on the edge but
falls over it, so there can be no fixing in absorption in
the sixth or the seventh because of the nearness to the
life-continuum. That is why it should be understood
that there is absorption only in the fourth or the fifth.

407
78. But that absorption is only of a single conscious
moment. For there are seven instances in which the
normal extent[22] [of the cognitive series] does not
apply. They are in the cases of the first absorption, the
mundane kinds of direct-knowledge, the four paths,
fruition next after the path, life-continuum jhāna in the
fine-material and immaterial kinds of becoming, the
base consisting of neither perception nor non-
perception as condition for cessation [of perception
and feeling], and the fruition attainment in one
emerging from cessation. Here the fruition next after
the path does not exceed three [consciousnesses in
number]; [139] the [consciousnesses] of the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception as
condition for cessation do not exceed two [in number];
there is no measure of the [number of consciousnesses
in the] life-continuum in the fine-material and
immaterial [kinds of becoming]. In the remaining
instances [the number of consciousnesses is] one only.
So absorption is of a single consciousness moment.
After that, it lapses into the life-continuum. Then the
life-continuum is interrupted by adverting for the
purpose of reviewing the jhāna, next to which comes
the reviewing of the jhāna.

[The First Jhāna]

408
79. At this point, “Quite secluded from sense desires,
secluded from unprofitable things he enters upon and
dwells in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by
applied and sustained thought with happiness and
bliss born of seclusion” (Vibh 245), and so he has
attained the first jhāna, which abandons five factors,
possesses five factors, is good in three ways, possesses
ten characteristics, and is of the earth kasiṇa.
80. Herein, quite secluded from sense desires means
having secluded himself from, having become
without, having gone away from, sense desires. Now,
this word quite (eva) should be understood to have the
meaning of absoluteness. Precisely because it has the
meaning of absoluteness it shows how, on the actual
occasion of entering upon and dwelling in the first
jhāna, sense desires as well as being non-existent then
are the first jhāna’s contrary opposite, and it also
shows that the arrival takes place only (eva) through
the letting go of sense desires. How?
81. When absoluteness is introduced thus, “quite
secluded from sense desires,” what is expressed is
this: sense desires are certainly incompatible with this
jhāna; when they exist, it does not occur, just as when
there is darkness, there is no lamplight; and it is only
by letting go of them that it is reached, just as the
further bank is reached only by letting go of the near
bank. That is why absoluteness is introduced.

409
82. Here it might be asked: But why is this [word
“quite”] mentioned only in the first phrase and not in
the second? How is this, might he enter upon and
dwell in the first jhāna even when not secluded from
unprofitable things?—It should not be regarded in
that way. It is mentioned in the first phrase as the
escape from them; for this jhāna is the escape from
sense desires since it surmounts the sense-desire
element and since it is incompatible with greed for
sense desires, according as it is said: “The escape from
sense desires is this, that is to say, renunciation” (D III
275). But in the second phrase [140] the word eva
should be adduced and taken as said, as in the
passage, “Bhikkhus, only (eva) here is there an ascetic,
here a second ascetic” (M I 63). For it is impossible to
enter upon and dwell in jhāna unsecluded also from
unprofitable things, in other words, the hindrances
other than that [sense desire]. So this word must be
read in both phrases thus: “Quite secluded from sense
desires, quite secluded from unprofitable things.” And
although the word “secluded” as a general term
includes all kinds of seclusion, that is to say, seclusion
by substitution of opposites, etc., and bodily seclusion,
etc.,[23] still only the three, namely, bodily seclusion,
mental seclusion, and seclusion by suppression
(suspension) should be regarded here.
83. But this term “sense desires” should be regarded

410
as including all kinds, that is to say, sense desires as
object as given in the Niddesa in the passage
beginning, “What are sense desires as object? They are
agreeable visible objects …” (Nidd I 1), and the sense
desires as defilement given there too and in the
Vibhaṅga thus: “Zeal as sense desire (kāma), greed as
sense desire, zeal and greed as sense desire, thinking
as sense desire, greed as sense desire, thinking and
greed as sense desire”[24] (Nidd I 2; Vibh 256). That
being so, the words “quite secluded from sense
desires” properly mean “quite secluded from sense
desires as object,” and express bodily seclusion, while
the words “secluded from unprofitable things”
properly mean “secluded from sense desires as
defilement or from all unprofitable things,” and
express mental seclusion. And in this case giving up of
pleasure in sense desires is indicated by the first since
it only expresses seclusion from sense desires as
object, while acquisition of pleasure in renunciation is
indicated by the second since it expresses seclusion
from sense desire as defilement.
84. And with sense desires as object and sense desires
as defilement expressed in this way, it should also be
recognized that the abandoning of the objective basis
for defilement is indicated by the first of these two
phrases and the abandoning of the [subjective]
defilement by the second; also that the giving up of

411
the cause of cupidity is indicated by the first and [the
giving up of the cause] of stupidity by the second; also
that the purification of one’s occupation is indicated
by the first and the educating of one’s inclination by
the second.
This, firstly, is the method here when the words
from sense desires are treated as referring to sense
desires as object.
85. But if they are treated as referring to sense desires
as defilement, then it is simply just zeal for sense
desires (kāmacchanda) in the various forms of zeal
(chanda), greed (rāga), etc., that is intended as “sense
desires” (kāma) (§83, 2nd quotation). [141] And
although that [lust] is also included by [the word]
“unprofitable,” it is nevertheless stated separately in
the Vibhaṅga in the way beginning, “Herein, what are
sense desires? Zeal as sense desire …” (Vibh 256)
because of its incompatibility with jhāna. Or,
alternatively, it is mentioned in the first phrase
because it is sense desire as defilement and in the
second phrase because it is included in the
“unprofitable.” And because this [lust] has various
forms, therefore “from sense desires” is said instead of
“from sense desire.”
86. And although there may be unprofitableness in
other states as well, nevertheless only the hindrances

412
are mentioned subsequently in the Vibhaṅga thus,
“Herein, what states are unprofitable? Lust …” (Vibh
256), etc., in order to show their opposition to, and
incompatibility with, the jhāna factors. For the
hindrances are the contrary opposites of the jhāna
factors: what is meant is that the jhāna factors are
incompatible with them, eliminate them, abolish them.
And it is said accordingly in the Peṭaka (Peṭakopadesa):
“Concentration is incompatible with lust, happiness
with ill will, applied thought with stiffness and torpor,
bliss with agitation and worry, and sustained thought
with uncertainty” (not in Peṭakopadesa).
87. So in this case it should be understood that
seclusion by suppression (suspension) of lust is
indicated by the phrase quite secluded from sense
desires, and seclusion by suppression (suspension) of
[all] five hindrances by the phrase secluded from
unprofitable things. But omitting repetitions, that of
lust is indicated by the first and that of the remaining
hindrances by the second. Similarly with the three
unprofitable roots, that of greed, which has the five
cords of sense desire (M I 85) as its province, is
indicated by the first, and that of hate and delusion,
which have as their respective provinces the various
grounds for annoyance (A IV 408; V 150), etc., by the
second. Or with the states consisting of the floods, etc.,
that of the flood of sense desires, of the bond of sense

413
desires, of the canker of sense desires, of sense-desire
clinging, of the bodily tie of covetousness, and of the
fetter of greed for sense desires, is indicated by the
first, and that of the remaining floods, bonds, cankers,
clingings, ties, and fetters, is indicated by the second.
Again, that of craving and of what is associated with
craving is indicated by the first, and that of ignorance
and of what is associated with ignorance is indicated
by the second. Furthermore, that of the eight thought-
arisings associated with greed (XIV.90) is indicated by
the first, and that of the remaining kinds of
unprofitable thought-arisings is indicated by the
second.
This, in the first place, is the explanation of the
meaning of the words “quite secluded from sense
desires, secluded from unprofitable things.”
88. So far the factors abandoned by the jhāna have
been shown. And now, in order to show the factors
associated with it, which is accompanied by applied and
sustained thought is said. [142] Herein, applied thinking
(vitakkana) is applied thought (vitakka); hitting upon, is
what is meant.[25] It has the characteristic of directing
the mind on to an object (mounting the mind on its
object). Its function is to strike at and thresh—for the
meditator is said, in virtue of it, to have the object
struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied
thought. It is manifested as the leading of the mind

414
onto an object. Sustained thinking (vicaraṇa) is
sustained thought (vicāra); continued sustainment
(anusañcaraṇa), is what is meant. It has the
characteristic of continued pressure on (occupation
with) the object. Its function is to keep conascent
[mental] states [occupied] with that. It is manifested as
keeping consciousness anchored [on that object].
89. And, though sometimes not separate, applied
thought is the first impact of the mind in the sense that
it is both gross and inceptive, like the striking of a bell.
Sustained thought is the act of keeping the mind
anchored, in the sense that it is subtle with the
individual essence of continued pressure, like the
ringing of the bell. Applied thought intervenes, being
the interference of consciousness at the time of first
arousing [thought], like a bird’s spreading out its
wings when about to soar into the air, and like a bee’s
diving towards a lotus when it is minded to follow up
the scent of it. The behaviour of sustained thought is
quiet, being the near non-interference of
consciousness, like the bird’s planing with outspread
wings after soaring into the air, and like the bee’s
buzzing above the lotus after it has dived towards it.
90. In the commentary to the Book of Twos[26] this is
said: “Applied thought occurs as a state of directing
the mind onto an object, like the movement of a large
bird taking off into the air by engaging the air with

415
both wings and forcing them downwards. For it
causes absorption by being unified. Sustained thought
occurs with the individual essence of continued
pressure, like the bird’s movement when it is using
(activating) its wings for the purpose of keeping hold
on the air. For it keeps pressing the object[27]”. That
fits in with the latter’s occurrence as anchoring. This
difference of theirs becomes evident in the first and
second jhānas [in the fivefold reckoning].
91. Furthermore, applied thought is like the hand that
grips firmly and sustained thought is like the hand that
rubs, when one grips a tarnished metal dish firmly
with one hand and rubs it with powder and oil and a
woollen pad with the other hand. Likewise, when a
potter has spun his wheel with a stroke on the stick
and is making a dish [143], his supporting hand is like
applied thought and his hand that moves back and forth
is like sustained thought. Likewise, when one is
drawing a circle, the pin that stays fixed down in the
centre is like applied thought, which directs onto the
object, and the pin that revolves round it is like
sustained thought, which continuously presses.
92. So this jhāna occurs together with this applied
thought and this sustained thought and it is called,
“accompanied by applied and sustained thought” as a
tree is called “accompanied by flowers and fruits.” But
in the Vibhaṅga the teaching is given in terms of a

416
person[28] in the way beginning, “He is possessed,
fully possessed, of this applied thought and this
sustained thought” (Vibh 257). The meaning should be
regarded in the same way there too.
93. Born of seclusion: here secludedness (vivitti) is
seclusion (viveka); the meaning is, disappearance of
hindrances. Or alternatively, it is secluded (vivitta),
thus it is seclusion; the meaning is, the collection of
states associated with the jhāna is secluded from
hindrances. “Born of seclusion” is born of or in that
kind of seclusion.
94. Happiness and bliss: it refreshes (pīnayati), thus it is
happiness (pīti). It has the characteristic of endearing
(sampiyāyanā). Its function is to refresh the body and
the mind; or its function is to pervade (thrill with
rapture). It is manifested as elation. But it is of five
kinds as minor happiness, momentary happiness,
showering happiness, uplifting happiness, and
pervading (rapturous) happiness.
Herein, minor happiness is only able to raise the hairs
on the body. Momentary happiness is like flashes of
lightning at different moments. Showering happiness
breaks over the body again and again like waves on
the sea shore.
95. Uplifting happiness can be powerful enough to
levitate the body and make it spring up into the air.

417
For this was what happened to the Elder Mahā-Tissa,
resident at Puṇṇavallika. He went to the shrine terrace
on the evening of the full-moon day. Seeing the
moonlight, he faced in the direction of the Great
Shrine [at Anurādhapura], thinking, “At this very
hour the four assemblies[29] are worshipping at the
Great Shrine!” By means of objects formerly seen
[there] he aroused uplifting happiness with the
Enlightened One as object, and he rose into the air like
a painted ball bounced off a plastered floor and
alighted on the terrace of the Great Shrine.
96. And this was what happened to the daughter of a
clan in the village of Vattakālaka near the Girikaṇḍaka
Monastery when she sprang up into the air owing to
strong uplifting happiness with the Enlightened One
as object. As her parents were about to go to the
monastery in the evening, it seems, in order to hear
the Dhamma [144], they told her: “My dear, you are
expecting a child; you cannot go out at an unsuitable
time. We shall hear the Dhamma and gain merit for
you.” So they went out. And though she wanted to go
too, she could not well object to what they said. She
stepped out of the house onto a balcony and stood
looking at the Ākāsacetiya Shrine at Girikaṇḍaka lit by
the moon. She saw the offering of lamps at the shrine,
and the four communities as they circumambulated it
to the right after making their offerings of flowers and

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perfumes; and she heard the sound of the massed
recital by the Community of Bhikkhus. Then she
thought: “How lucky they are to be able to go to the
monastery and wander round such a shrine terrace
and listen to such sweet preaching of Dhamma!”
Seeing the shrine as a mound of pearls and arousing
uplifting happiness, she sprang up into the air, and
before her parents arrived she came down from the air
into the shrine terrace, where she paid homage and
stood listening to the Dhamma.
97. When her parents arrived, they asked her, “What
road did you come by?” She said, “I came through the
air, not by the road,” and when they told her, “My
dear, those whose cankers are destroyed come
through the air. But how did you come?” she replied:
“As I was standing looking at the shrine in the
moonlight a strong sense of happiness arose in me
with the Enlightened One as its object. Then I knew no
more whether I was standing or sitting, but only that I
was springing up into the air with the sign that I had
grasped, and I came to rest on this shrine terrace.”
So uplifting happiness can be powerful enough to
levitate the body, make it spring up into the air.
98. But when pervading (rapturous) happiness arises, the
whole body is completely pervaded, like a filled
bladder, like a rock cavern invaded by a huge

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inundation.
99. Now, this fivefold happiness, when conceived and
matured, perfects the twofold tranquillity, that is,
bodily and mental tranquillity. When tranquillity is
conceived and matured, it perfects the twofold bliss,
that is, bodily and mental bliss. When bliss is
conceived and matured, it perfects the threefold
concentration, that is, momentary concentration,
access concentration, and absorption concentration.
Of these, what is intended in this context by
happiness is pervading happiness, which is the root of
absorption and comes by growth into association with
absorption. [145]
100. But as to the other word: pleasing (sukhana) is
bliss (sukha). Or alternatively: it thoroughly (SUṭṭhu)
devours (KHĀdati), consumes (KHAṇati),[30] bodily
and mental affliction, thus it is bliss (sukha). It has
gratifying as its characteristic. Its function is to
intensify associated states. It is manifested as aid.
And wherever the two are associated, happiness is
the contentedness at getting a desirable object, and
bliss is the actual experiencing of it when got. Where
there is happiness there is bliss (pleasure); but where
there is bliss there is not necessarily happiness.
Happiness is included in the formations aggregate;
bliss is included in the feeling aggregate. If a man,

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exhausted[31] in a desert, saw or heard about a pond
on the edge of a wood, he would have happiness; if he
went into the wood’s shade and used the water, he
would have bliss. And it should be understood that
this is said because they are obvious on such
occasions.
101. Accordingly, (a) this happiness and this bliss are
of this jhāna, or in this jhāna; so in this way this jhāna
is qualified by the words with happiness and bliss [and
also born of seclusion]. Or alternatively: (b) the words
happiness and bliss (pītisukhaṃ) can be taken as “the
happiness and the bliss” independently, like “the
Dhamma and the Discipline” (dhammavinaya), and so
then it can be taken as seclusion-born happiness-and-
bliss of this jhāna, or in this jhāna; so in this way it is
the happiness and bliss [rather than the jhāna] that are
born of seclusion. For just as the words “born of
seclusion” can [as at (a)] be taken as qualifying the
word “jhāna,” so too they can be taken here [as at (b)]
as qualifying the expression “happiness and bliss,”
and then that [total expression] is predicated of this
[jhāna]. So it is also correct to call “happiness-and-bliss
born-of-seclusion” a single expression. In the
Vibhaṅga it is stated in the way beginning, “This bliss
accompanied by this happiness” (Vibh 257). The
meaning should be regarded in the same way there
too.

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102. First jhāna: this will be explained below (§119).
Enters upon (upasampajja): arrives at; reaches, is what
is meant; or else, taking it as “makes enter”
(upasampādayitvā), then producing, is what is meant. In
the Vibhaṅga this is said: “’Enters upon’: the gaining,
the regaining, the reaching, the arrival at, the
touching, the realizing of, the entering upon
(upasampadā, the first jhāna” (Vibh 257), the meaning
of which should be regarded in the same way.
103. And dwells in (viharati): by becoming possessed of
jhāna of the kind described above through dwelling in
a posture favourable to that [jhāna], he produces a
posture, a procedure, a keeping, an enduring, a
lasting, a behaviour, a dwelling, of the person. For this
is said in the Vibhaṅga: “’Dwells in’: poses, proceeds,
keeps, endures, lasts, behaves, dwells; [146] hence
’dwells’ is said” (Vibh 252).
104. Now, it was also said above which abandons five
factors, possesses five factors (§79; cf. M I 294). Herein,
the abandoning of the five factors should be
understood as the abandoning of these five
hindrances, namely, lust, ill will, stiffness and torpor,
agitation and worry, and uncertainty; for no jhāna
arises until these have been abandoned, and so they
are called the factors of abandoning. For although
other unprofitable things too are abandoned at the

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moment of jhāna, still only these are specifically
obstructive to jhāna.
105. The mind affected through lust by greed for
varied objective fields does not become concentrated
on an object consisting in unity, or being
overwhelmed by lust, it does not enter on the way to
abandoning the sense-desire element. When pestered
by ill will towards an object, it does not occur
uninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness and
torpor, it is unwieldy. When seized by agitation and
worry, it is unquiet and buzzes about. When stricken
by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way to accomplish
the attainment of jhāna. So it is these only that are
called factors of abandoning because they are
specifically obstructive to jhāna.
106. But applied thought directs the mind onto the
object; sustained thought keeps it anchored there.
Happiness produced by the success of the effort
refreshes the mind whose effort has succeeded
through not being distracted by those hindrances; and
bliss intensifies it for the same reason. Then unification
aided by this directing onto, this anchoring, this
refreshing and this intensifying, evenly and rightly
centres (III.3) the mind with its remaining associated
states on the object consisting in unity. Consequently,
possession of five factors should be understood as the
arising of these five, namely, applied thought,

423
sustained thought, happiness, bliss and unification of
mind.
107. For it is when these are arisen that jhāna is said to
be arisen, which is why they are called the five factors
of possession. Therefore it should not be assumed that
the jhāna is something other which possesses them.
But just as “The army with the four factors” (Vin IV
104) and “Music with the five factors” (M-a II 300) and
“The path with the eight factors (eightfold path)” are
stated simply in terms of their factors, so this too [147]
should be understood as stated simply in terms of its
factors, when it is said to “have five factors” or
“possess five factors.”
108. And while these five factors are present also at
the moment of access and are stronger in access than
in normal consciousness, they are still stronger here
than in access and acquire the characteristic of the
fine-material sphere. For applied thought arises here
directing the mind on to the object in an extremely
lucid manner, and sustained thought does so pressing
the object very hard, and the happiness and bliss
pervade the entire body. Hence it is said: “And there is
nothing of his whole body not permeated by the
happiness and bliss born of seclusion” (D I 73). And
unification too arises in the complete contact with the
object that the surface of a box’s lid has with the
surface of its base. This is how they differ from the

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others.
109. Although unification of mind is not actually
listed among these factors in the [summary] version
[beginning] “which is accompanied by applied and
sustained thought” (Vibh 245), nevertheless it is
mentioned [later] in the Vibhaṅga as follows: “’Jhāna’:
it is applied thought, sustained thought, happiness,
bliss, unification”(Vibh 257), and so it is a factor too;
for the intention with which the Blessed One gave the
summary is the same as that with which he gave the
exposition that follows it.
110. Is good in three ways, possesses ten characteristics
(§79): the goodness in three ways is in the beginning,
middle, and end. The possession of the ten
characteristics should be understood as the
characteristics of the beginning, middle, and end, too.
Here is the text:
111. “Of the first jhāna, purification of the way is the
beginning, intensification of equanimity is the middle,
and satisfaction is the end.
“’Of the first jhāna, purification of the way is the
beginning’: how many characteristics has the
beginning? The beginning has three characteristics: the
mind is purified of obstructions to that [jhāna];
because it is purified the mind makes way for the
central [state of equilibrium, which is the] sign of

425
serenity; because it has made way the mind enters into
that state. And it is since the mind becomes purified of
obstructions and, through being purified, makes way
for the central [state of equilibrium, which is the] sign
of serenity and, having made way, enters into that
state, that the purification of the way is the beginning
of the first jhāna. These are the three characteristics of
the beginning. Hence it is said: ’The first jhāna is good
in the beginning which possesses three characteristics.’
[148]
112. “’Of the first jhāna intensification of equanimity
is the middle’: how many characteristics has the
middle? The middle has three characteristics. He
[now] looks on with equanimity at the mind that is
purified; he looks on with equanimity at it as having
made way for serenity; he looks on with equanimity at
the appearance of unity.[32] And in that he [now] looks
on with equanimity at the mind that is purified and
looks on with equanimity at it as having made way for
serenity and looks on with equanimity at the
appearance of unity, that intensification of equanimity
is the middle of the first jhāna. These are the three
characteristics of the middle. Hence it is said: ’The first
jhāna is good in the middle which possesses three
characteristics.’
113. “’Of the first jhāna satisfaction is the end’: how
many characteristics has the end? The end has four

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characteristics. The satisfaction in the sense that there
was non-excess of any of the states arisen therein, and
the satisfaction in the sense that the faculties had a
single function, and the satisfaction in the sense that
the appropriate energy was effective, and the
satisfaction in the sense of repetition, are the
satisfaction in the end of the first jhāna. These are the
four characteristics of the end. Hence it is said: ’The
first jhāna is good in the end which possesses four
characteristics’” (Paṭis I 167–68).
114. Herein, purification of the way is access together
with its concomitants. Intensification of equanimity is
absorption. Satisfaction is reviewing. So some
comment.[33] But it is said in the text, “The mind
arrived at unity enters into purification of the way, is
intensified in equanimity, and is satisfied by
knowledge” (Paṭis I 167), and therefore it is from the
standpoint within actual absorption that purification of
the way firstly should be understood as the approach,
with intensification of equanimity as the function of
equanimity consisting in specific neutrality, and
satisfaction as the manifestation of clarifying
knowledge’s function in accomplishing non-excess of
states. How?
115. Firstly, in a cycle [of consciousness] in which
absorption arises the mind becomes purified from the
group of defilements called hindrances that are an

427
obstruction to jhāna. Being devoid of obstruction
because it has been purified, it makes way for the
central [state of equilibrium, which is the] sign of
serenity. Now, it is the absorption concentration itself
occurring evenly that is called the sign of serenity. But
the consciousness immediately before that [149]
reaches that state by way of change in a single
continuity (cf. XXII.1–6), and so it is said that it makes
way for the central [state of equilibrium, which is the] sign
of serenity. And it is said that it enters into that state by
approaching it through having made way for it. That
is why in the first place purification of the way, while
referring to aspects existing in the preceding
consciousness, should nevertheless be understood as
the approach at the moment of the first jhāna’s actual
arising.
116. Secondly, when he has more interest in purifying,
since there is no need to re-purify what has already
been purified thus, it is said that he looks on with
equanimity at the mind that is purified. And when he has
no more interest in concentrating again what has
already made way for serenity by arriving at the state
of serenity, it is said that he looks on with equanimity at it
as having made way for serenity. And when he has no
more interest in again causing appearance of unity in
what has already appeared as unity through
abandonment of its association with defilement in

428
making way for serenity, it is said that he looks on with
equanimity at the appearance of unity. That is why
intensification of equanimity should be understood as
the function of equanimity that consists in specific
neutrality.
117. And lastly, when equanimity was thus
intensified, the states called concentration and
understanding produced there, occurred coupled
together without either one exceeding the other. And
also the [five] faculties beginning with faith occurred
with the single function (taste) of deliverance owing to
deliverance from the various defilements. And also
the energy appropriate to that, which was favourable
to their state of non-excess and single function, was
effective. And also its repetition occurs at that
moment.[34] Now, all these [four] aspects are only
produced because it is after seeing with knowledge
the various dangers in defilement and advantages in
cleansing that satisfiedness, purifiedness and
clarifiedness ensue accordingly. That is the reason
why it was said that satisfaction should be understood
as the manifestation of clarifying knowledge’s
function in accomplishing non-excess, etc., of states
(§114).
118. Herein, satisfaction as a function of knowledge is
called “the end” since the knowledge is evident as due
to onlooking equanimity, according as it is said: “He

429
looks on with complete equanimity at the mind thus
exerted; then the understanding faculty is outstanding
as understanding due to equanimity. Owing to
equanimity the mind is liberated from the many sorts
of defilements; then the understanding faculty is
outstanding as understanding due to liberation.
Because of being liberated these states come to have a
single function; then [the understanding faculty is
outstanding as understanding due to] development in
the sense of the single function”[35] (Paṭis II 25).
119. Now, as to the words and so he has attained the first
jhāna … of the earth kasiṇa (§79): Here it is first because
it starts a numerical series; [150] also it is first because
it arises first. It is called jhāna because of lighting
(upanijjhāna) the object and because of burning up
(jhāpana) opposition (Paṭis I 49). The disk of earth is
called earth kasiṇa (paṭhavīkasiṇa—lit. “earth universal”)
in the sense of entirety,[36] and the sign acquired with
that as its support and also the jhāna acquired in the
earth-kasiṇa sign are so called too. So that jhāna
should be understood as of the earth kasiṇa in this
sense, with reference to which it was said above “and
so he has attained to the first jhāna … of the earth
kasiṇa.”
120. When it has been attained in this way, the mode
of its attainment must be discerned by the meditator

430
as if he were a hair-splitter or a cook. For when a very
skilful archer, who is working to split a hair, actually
splits the hair on one occasion, he discerns the modes
of the position of his feet, the bow, the bowstring, and
the arrow thus: “I split the hair as I stood thus, with
the bow thus, the bowstring thus, the arrow thus.”
From then on he recaptures those same modes and
repeats the splitting of the hair without fail. So too the
meditator must discern such modes as that of suitable
food, etc., thus: “I attained this after eating this food,
attending on such a person, in such a lodging, in this
posture at this time.” In this way, when that
[absorption] is lost, he will be able to recapture those
modes and renew the absorption, or while
familiarizing himself with it he will be able to repeat
that absorption again and again.
121. And just as when a skilled cook is serving his
employer, he notices whatever he chooses to eat and
from then on brings only that sort and so obtains a
reward, so too this meditator discerns such modes as
that of the food, etc., at the time of the attaining, and
he recaptures them and re-obtains absorption each
time it is lost. So he must discern the modes as a hair-
splitter or a cook does.
122. And this has been said by the Blessed One:
“Bhikkhus, suppose a wise, clever, skilful cook set
various kinds of sauces before a king or a king’s

431
minister, such as sour, bitter, sharp, [151] sweet,
peppery and unpeppery, salty and unsalty sauces;
then the wise, clever, skilful cook learned his master’s
sign thus ’today this sauce pleased my master’ or ’he
held out his hand for this one’ or ’he took a lot of this
one’ or ’he praised this one’ or ’today the sour kind
pleased my master’ or ’he held out his hand for the
sour kind’ or ’he took a lot of the sour kind’ or ’he
praised the sour kind’ … or ’he praised the unsalty
kind’; then the wise, clever, skilful cook is rewarded
with clothing and wages and presents. Why is that?
Because that wise, clever, skilful cook learned his
master’s sign in this way. So too, bhikkhus, here a
wise, clever, skilful bhikkhu dwells contemplating the
body as a body … He dwells contemplating feelings as
feelings … consciousness as consciousness … mental
objects as mental objects, ardent, fully aware and
mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for
the world. As he dwells contemplating mental objects
as mental objects, his mind becomes concentrated, his
defilements are abandoned. He learns the sign of that.
Then that wise, clever, skilful bhikkhu is rewarded
with a happy abiding here and now, he is rewarded
with mindfulness and full awareness. Why is that?
Because that wise, clever, skilful bhikkhu learned his
consciousness’s sign” (S V 151–52).
123. And when he recaptures those modes by

432
apprehending the sign, he just succeeds in reaching
absorption, but not in making it last. It lasts when it is
absolutely purified from states that obstruct
concentration.
124. When a bhikkhu enters upon a jhāna without
[first] completely suppressing lust by reviewing the
dangers in sense desires, etc., and without [first]
completely tranquillizing bodily irritability[37] by
tranquillizing the body, and without [first] completely
removing stiffness and torpor by bringing to mind the
elements of initiative, etc., (§55), and without [first]
completely abolishing agitation and worry by bringing
to mind the sign of serenity, etc., [152] and without
[first] completely purifying his mind of other states
that obstruct concentration, then that bhikkhu soon
comes out of that jhāna again, like a bee that has gone
into an unpurified hive, like a king who has gone into
an unclean park.
125. But when he enters upon a jhāna after [first]
completely purifying his mind of states that obstruct
concentration, then he remains in the attainment even
for a whole day, like a bee that has gone into a
completely purified hive, like a king who has gone
into a perfectly clean park. Hence the Ancients said:
“So let him dispel any sensual lust, and
resentment,

433
 Agitation as well, and then torpor, and doubt as
the fifth;
There let him find joy with a heart that is glad in
seclusion,
Like a king in a garden where all and each corner
is clean.”
126. So if he wants to remain long in the jhāna, he
must enter upon it after [first] purifying his mind from
obstructive states.

[Extension of the Sign]

In order to perfect the development of

consciousness he should besides extend the
counterpart sign according as acquired. Now, there
are two planes for extension, namely, access and
absorption; for it is possible to extend it on reaching
access and on reaching absorption. But the extending
should be done consistently in one [or the other],
which is why it was said “he should besides extend
the counterpart sign according as acquired.”
127. The way to extend it is this. The meditator should
not extend the sign as a clay bowl or a cake or boiled
rice or a creeper or a piece of cloth is extended. He
should first delimit with his mind successive sizes for

434
the sign, according as acquired, that is to say, one
finger, two fingers, three fingers, four fingers, and
then extend it by the amount delimited, just as a
ploughman delimits with the plough the area to be
ploughed and then ploughs within the area delimited,
or just as bhikkhus fixing a boundary first observe the
marks and then fix it. He should not, in fact, extend it
without having delimited [the amount it is to be
extended by]. After that has been done, he can further
extend it, doing so by delimiting successive
boundaries of, say, a span, a ratana (=2 spans), the
veranda, the surrounding space,[38] the monastery,
and the boundaries of the village, the town, the
district, the kingdom and the ocean, [153] making the
extreme limit the world-sphere or even beyond.
128. Just as young swans first starting to use their
wings soar a little distance at a time, and by gradually
increasing it eventually reach the presence of the
moon and sun, so too when a bhikkhu extends the
sign by successive delimitations in the way described,
he can extend it up to the limit of the world-sphere or
even beyond.
129. Then that sign [appears] to him like an ox hide
stretched out with a hundred pegs[39] over the earth’s
ridges and hollows, river ravines, tracts of scrub and
thorns, and rocky inequalities (see M III 105) in any

435
area to which it has been extended.
When a beginner has reached the first jhāna in this
sign, he should enter upon it often without reviewing
it much. For the first jhāna factors occur crudely and
weakly in one who reviews it much. Then because of
that they do not become conditions for higher
endeavour. While he is endeavouring for the
unfamiliar [higher jhāna] he falls away from the first
jhāna and fails to reach the second.
130. Hence the Blessed One said: “Bhikkhus, suppose
there were a foolish stupid mountain cow, with no
knowledge of fields and no skill in walking on craggy
mountains, who thought: ’What if I walked in a
direction I never walked in before, ate grass I never ate
before, drank water I never drank before?’ and
without placing her forefoot properly she lifted up her
hind foot; then she would not walk in the direction she
never walked in before or eat the grass she never ate
before or drink the water she never drank before, and
also she would not get back safely to the place where
she had thought, ’What if I walked in a direction I
never walked in before … drank water I never drank
before?’ Why is that? Because that mountain cow was
foolish and stupid with no knowledge of fields and no
skill in walking on craggy mountains. So too,
bhikkhus, here is a certain foolish stupid bhikkhu with
no knowledge of fields and no skill, quite secluded

436
from sense desires, secluded from unprofitable things,
in entering upon and dwelling in the first jhāna, which
is accompanied by applied thought and sustained
thought with happiness and bliss born of seclusion; he
does not repeat, develop or cultivate that sign or
properly establish it. He thinks: ’What if with the
subsiding of applied and sustained thought I entered
upon and dwelt in the second jhāna, which is … with
happiness and bliss born of concentration?’ [154] He is
unable with the subsiding of applied and sustained
thought to enter upon and dwell in the second jhāna,
which is … with happiness and bliss born of
concentration. Then he thinks: ’What if, quite secluded
from sense desires, secluded from unprofitable things,
I entered upon and dwelt in the first jhāna, which is …
with happiness and bliss born of seclusion?’ He is
unable, quite secluded from sense desires, secluded
from unprofitable things, to enter upon and dwell in
the first jhāna which is … with happiness and bliss
born of seclusion. This bhikkhu is called one who has
slipped between the two, who has fallen between the
two, just like the foolish stupid mountain cow with no
knowledge of fields and no skill in walking on craggy
mountains …” (A IV 418–19).
131. Therefore he should acquire mastery in the five
ways first of all with respect to the first jhāna. Herein,
these are the five kinds of mastery: mastery in

437
adverting, mastery in attaining, mastery in resolving
(steadying the duration), mastery in emerging, and
mastery in reviewing. “He adverts to the first jhāna
where, when, and for as long as, he wishes; he has no
difficulty in adverting; thus it is mastery in adverting.
He attains the first jhāna where … he has no difficulty
in attaining; thus it is mastery in attaining” (Paṭis I
100), and all the rest should be quoted in detail
(XXIII.27).
132. The explanation of the meaning here is this.
When he emerges from the first jhāna and first of all
adverts to the applied thought, then, next to the
adverting that arose interrupting the life-continuum,
either four or five impulsions impel with that applied
thought as their object. Then there are two life-
continuum [consciousnesses]. Then there is adverting
with the sustained thought as its object and followed
by impulsions in the way just stated. When he is able
to prolong his conscious process uninterruptedly in
this way with the five jhāna factors, then his mastery
of adverting is successful. But this mastery is found at
its acme of perfection in the Blessed One’s Twin
Marvel (Paṭis I 125), or for others on the aforesaid
occasions. There is no quicker mastery in adverting
than that.
133. The venerable Mahā-Moggallāna’s ability to enter
upon jhāna quickly, as in the taming of the royal nāga-

438
serpent Nandopananda (XII.106f.), is called mastery in
attaining.
134. Ability to remain in jhāna for a moment
consisting in exactly a finger-snap or exactly ten
finger-snaps is called mastery in resolving (steadying
the duration).
Ability to emerge quickly in the same way is called
mastery in emerging.
135. The story of the Elder Buddharakkhita may be
told in order to illustrate both these last. [155] Eight
years after his admission to the Community that elder
was sitting in the midst of thirty thousand bhikkhus
possessed of supernormal powers who had gathered
to attend upon the sickness of the Elder Mahā-
Rohanagutta at Therambatthala. He saw a royal
supaṇṇa (bird) swooping down from the sky
intending to seize an attendant royal nāga-serpent as
he was getting rice-gruel accepted for the elder. The
Elder Buddharakkhita created a rock meanwhile, and
seizing the royal nāga by the arm, he pushed him
inside it. The royal supaṇṇa gave the rock a blow and
made off. The senior elder remarked: “Friends, if
Rakkhita had not been there, we should all have been
put to shame.”[40]
136. Mastery in reviewing is described in the same
way as mastery in adverting; for the reviewing

439
impulsions are in fact those next to the adverting
mentioned there (§132).
137. When he has once acquired mastery in these five
ways, then on emerging from the now familiar first
jhāna he can regard the flaws in it in this way: “This
attainment is threatened by the nearness of the
hindrances, and its factors are weakened by the
grossness of the applied and sustained thought.” He
can bring the second jhāna to mind as quieter and so
end his attachment to the first jhāna and set about
doing what is needed for attaining the second.
138. When he has emerged from the first jhāna,
applied and sustained thought appear gross to him as
he reviews the jhāna factors with mindfulness and full
awareness, while happiness and bliss and unification
of mind appear peaceful. Then, as he brings that same
sign to mind as “earth, earth” again and again with
the purpose of abandoning the gross factors and
obtaining the peaceful factors, [knowing] “now the
second jhāna will arise,” there arises in him mind-door
adverting with that same earth kasiṇa as its object,
interrupting the life-continuum. After that, either four
or five impulsions impel on that same object, the last
one of which is an impulsion of the fine-material
sphere belonging to the second jhāna. The rest are of
the sense sphere of the kinds already stated (§74).

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 [The Second Jhāna]

139. And at this point, “With the stilling of applied

and sustained thought he enters upon and dwells in
the second jhāna, which has internal confidence and
singleness of mind without applied thought, without
sustained thought, with happiness and bliss born of
concentration” (Vibh 245), and so he has attained the
second jhāna, which abandons two factors, possesses
three factors, is good in three ways, possesses ten
characteristics and is of the earth kasiṇa. [156]
140. Herein, with the stilling of applied and sustained
thought: with the stilling, with the surmounting, of
these two, namely, applied thought and sustained
thought; with their non-manifestation at the moment
of the second jhāna, is what is meant. Herein, although
none of the states belonging to the first jhāna exist in
the second jhāna—for the contact, etc. (see M III 25), in
the first jhāna are one and here they are another—it
should be understood all the same that the phrase
“with the stilling of applied and sustained thought” is
expressed in this way in order to indicate that the
attaining of the other jhānas, beginning with that of
the second from the first, is effected by the
surmounting of the gross factor in each case.
141. Internal: here one’s own internal[41] is intended;

441
but that much is actually stated in the Vibhaṅga too
with the words “internally in oneself” (Vibh 258). And
since one’s own internal is intended, the meaning here
is this: born in oneself, generated in one’s own
continuity.
142. Confidence: it is faith that is called confidence. The
jhāna “has confidence” because it is associated with
confidence as a cloth “has blue colour” because it is
associated with blue colour. Or alternatively, that
jhāna is stated to “have confidence” because it makes
the mind confident with the confidence possessed by
it and by stilling the disturbance created by applied
and sustained thought. And with this conception of
the meaning the word construction must be taken as
“confidence of mind.” But with the first-mentioned
conception of the meaning the words “of mind” must
be construed with “singleness[42]”.
143. Here is the construction of the meaning in that
case. Unique (eka) it comes up (udeti), thus it is single
(ekodi); the meaning is, it comes up as the superlative,
the best, because it is not overtopped by applied and
sustained thought, for the best is called “unique” in
the world. Or it is permissible to say that when
deprived of applied and sustained thought it is
unique, without companion. Or alternatively: it
evokes (udāyati) associated states, thus it is an evoker
(udi); the meaning is, it arouses. And that is unique

442
(eka) in the sense of best, and it is an evoker (udi), thus
it is a unique evoker (ekodi = single). This is a term for
concentration. Then, since the second jhāna gives
existingness to (bhāveti), augments, this single [thing],
it “gives singleness” (ekodibhāva). But as this single
[thing] is a mind’s, not a being’s or a soul’s, so
singleness of mind is said.
144. It might be asked: But does not this faith exist in
the first jhāna too, and also this concentration with the
name of the “single [thing]?” Then why is only this
second jhāna said to have confidence and singleness of
mind?—It may be replied as follows: It is because that
first jhāna [157] is not fully confident owing to the
disturbance created by applied and sustained thought,
like water ruffled by ripples and wavelets. That is
why, although faith does exist in it, it is not called
“confidence.” And there too concentration is not fully
evident because of the lack of full confidence. That is
why it is not called “singleness” there. But in this
second jhāna faith is strong, having got a footing in the
absence of the impediments of applied and sustained
thought; and concentration is also evident through
having strong faith as its companion. That may be
understood as the reason why only this jhāna is
described in this way.
145. But that much is actually stated in the Vibhaṅga
too with the words: “’Confidence’ is faith, having

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faith, trust, full confidence. ’Singleness of mind’ is
steadiness of consciousness … right concentration”
(Vibh 258). And this commentary on the meaning
should not be so understood as to conflict with the
meaning stated in that way, but on the contrary so as
to agree and concur with it.
146. Without applied thought, without sustained thought:
since it has been abandoned by development, there is
no applied thought in this, or of this, [jhāna], thus it is
without applied thought. The same explanation
applies to sustained thought. Also it is said in the
Vibhaṅga: “So this applied thought and this sustained
thought are quieted, quietened, stilled, set at rest, set
quite at rest, done away with, quite done away with,
[43] dried up, quite dried up, made an end of; hence it
is said: without applied thought, without sustained
thought” (Vibh 258).
Here it may be asked: Has not this meaning already
been established by the words “with the stilling of
applied and sustained thought?” So why is it said
again “without applied thought, without sustained
thoughts?”—It may be replied: Yes, that meaning has
already been established. But this does not indicate
that meaning. Did we not say earlier: “The phrase
’with the stilling of applied and sustained thought’ is
expressed in this way in order to indicate that the act
of attaining the other jhānas, beginning with that of

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the second from the first, is effected by the
surmounting of the gross factor in each case?” (§140).
147. Besides, this confidence comes about with the act
of stilling, not the darkness of defilement, but the
applied and sustained thought. And the singleness
comes about, not as in access jhāna with the
abandoning of the hindrances, nor as in the first jhāna
with the manifestation of the factors, but with the act
of stilling the applied and sustained thought. So that
[first] clause indicates the cause of the confidence and
singleness. In the same way this jhāna is without
applied thought and without sustained thought, not as
in the third and fourth jhānas or as in eye-
consciousness, etc., with just absence, but with the
actual act of stilling the applied and sustained
thought. So that [first clause] also indicates the cause
of the state without applied and sustained thought; it
does not indicate the bare absence of applied and
sustained thought. [158] The bare absence of applied
and sustained thought is indicated by this [second]
clause, namely, “without applied thought, without
sustained thought.” Consequently it needs to be stated
notwithstanding that the first has already been stated.
148. Born of concentration: born of the first-jhāna
concentration, or born of associated concentration, is
the meaning. Herein, although the first was born of
associated concentration too, still it is only this

445
concentration that is quite worthy to be called
“concentration” because of its complete confidence
and extreme immobility due to absence of disturbance
by applied and sustained thought. So only this [jhāna]
is called “born of concentration,” and that is in order
to recommend it.
With happiness and bliss is as already explained.
Second: second in numerical series. Also second
because entered upon second.
149. Then it was also said above which abandons two
factors, possesses three factors (§139). Herein, the
abandoning of two factors should be understood as
the abandoning of applied thought and sustained
thought. But while the hindrances are abandoned at
the moment of the access of the first jhāna, in the case
of this jhāna the applied thought and sustained
thought are not abandoned at the moment of its
access. It is only at the moment of actual absorption
that the jhāna arises without them. Hence they are
called its factors of abandoning.
150. Its possession of three factors should be
understood as the arising of the three, that is,
happiness, bliss, and unification of mind. So when it is
said in the Vibhaṅga, “’Jhāna’: confidence, happiness,
bliss, unification of mind” (Vibh 258), this is said
figuratively in order to show that jhāna with its

446
equipment. But, excepting the confidence, this jhāna
has literally three factors qua factors that have attained
to the characteristic of lighting (see §119), according as
it is said: “What is jhāna of three factors on that
occasion? It is happiness, bliss, unification of mind”
(Vibh 263).
The rest is as in the case of the first jhāna.
151. Once this has been obtained in this way, and he
has mastery in the five ways already described, then
on emerging from the now familiar second jhāna he
can regard the flaws in it thus: “This attainment is
threatened by the nearness of applied and sustained
thought; ’Whatever there is in it of happiness, of
mental excitement, proclaims its grossness’ (D I 37),
and its factors are weakened by the grossness of the
happiness so expressed.” He can bring the third jhāna
to mind as quieter and so end his attachment to the
second jhāna and set about doing what is needed for
attaining the third.
152. When he has emerged from the second jhāna
[159] happiness appears gross to him as he reviews the
jhāna factors with mindfulness and full awareness,
while bliss and unification appear peaceful. Then as he
brings that same sign to mind as “earth, earth” again
and again with the purpose of abandoning the gross
factor and obtaining the peaceful factors, [knowing]

447
“now the third jhāna will arise,” there arises in him
mind-door adverting with that same earth kasiṇa as its
object, interrupting the life-continuum. After that,
either four or five impulsions impel on that same
object, the last one of which is an impulsion of the
fine-material sphere belonging to the third jhāna. The
rest are of the kinds already stated (§74).

[The Third Jhāna]

153. And at this point, “With the fading away of

happiness as well he dwells in equanimity, and
mindful and fully aware, he feels bliss with his body;
he enters upon and dwells in the third jhāna, on
account of which the Noble Ones announce: ’He
dwells in bliss who has equanimity and is mindful’
(Vibh 245), and so he has attained the third jhāna,
which abandons one factor, possesses two factors, is
good in three ways, possesses ten characteristics, and
is of the earth kasiṇa.
154 Herein, with the fading away of happiness as well
(pītiyā ca virāgā): fading away is distaste for, or
surmounting of, happiness of the kind already
described. But the words “as well” (ca) between the
two [words pītiyā and virāgā] have the meaning of a

448
conjunction;[44] they conjoin [to them] either the word
“stilling” or the expression “the stilling of applied and
sustained thought” [in the description of the second
jhāna]. Herein, when taken as conjoining “stilling” the
construction to be understood is “with the fading
away and, what is more, with the stilling, of
happiness.” With this construction “fading away” has
the meaning of distaste; so the meaning can be
regarded as “with distaste for, and with the stilling of,
happiness.” But when taken as conjoining the words
“stilling of applied and sustained thought,” then the
construction to be understood is “with the fading of
happiness and, further, with the stilling of applied and
sustained thought.” With this construction “fading
away” has the meaning of surmounting; so this
meaning can be regarded as “with the surmounting of
happiness and with the stilling of applied and
sustained thought.”
155. Of course, applied and sustained thought have
already been stilled in the second jhāna, too. However,
this is said in order to show the path to this third jhāna
and in order to recommend it. For when “with the
stilling of applied and sustained thought” is said, it is
declared that the path to this jhāna is necessarily by
the stilling of applied and sustained thought. And just
as, although mistaken view of individuality, etc., are
not abandoned in the attaining of the third noble path

449
[but in the first], yet when it is recommended by
describing their abandonment thus, “With the
abandoning of the five lower fetters” (A I 232), [160]
then it awakens eagerness in those trying to attain that
third noble path—so too, when the stilling of applied
and sustained thought is mentioned, though they are
not actually stilled here [but in the second], this is a
recommendation. Hence the meaning expressed is
this: “With the surmounting of happiness and with the
stilling of applied and sustained thought.”
156. He dwells in equanimity: it watches [things] as they
arise (UPApattito IKKHATI), thus it is equanimity
(upekkhā—or onlooking); it sees fairly, sees without
partiality (a-pakkha-patita), is the meaning. A possessor
of the third jhāna is said to “dwell in equanimity”
since he possesses equanimity that is clear, abundant
and sound.
Equanimity is of ten kinds; six-factored equanimity,
equanimity as a divine abiding, equanimity as an
enlightenment factor, equanimity of energy,
equanimity about formations, equanimity as a feeling,
equanimity about insight, equanimity as specific
neutrality, equanimity of jhāna and equanimity of
purification.
157. Herein, six factored equanimity is a name for the
equanimity in one whose cankers are destroyed. It is

450
the mode of non-abandonment of the natural state of
purity when desirable or undesirable objects of the six
kinds come into focus in the six doors described thus:
“Here a bhikkhu whose cankers are destroyed is
neither glad nor sad on seeing a visible object with the
eye: he dwells in equanimity, mindful and fully
aware” (A III 279).
158. Equanimity as a divine abiding is a name for
equanimity consisting in the mode of neutrality
towards beings described thus: “He dwells intent
upon one quarter with his heart endued with
equanimity” (D I 251).
159. Equanimity as an enlightenment factor is a name for
equanimity consisting in the mode of neutrality in
conascent states described thus: “He develops the
equanimity enlightenment factor depending on
relinquishment” (M I 11).
160. Equanimity of energy is a name for the equanimity
otherwise known as neither over-strenuous nor over-
lax energy described thus: “From time to time he
brings to mind the sign of equanimity” (A I 257).
161. Equanimity about formations is a name for
equanimity consisting in neutrality about
apprehending reflexion and composure regarding the
hindrances, etc., described thus: “How many kinds of
equanimity about formations arise through

451
concentration? How many kinds of equanimity about
formations arise through insight? Eight kinds of
equanimity about formations arise through
concentration. Ten kinds of equanimity about
formations arise through insight”[45] (Paṭis I 64). [161]
162. Equanimity as a feeling is a name for the
equanimity known as neither-pain-nor-pleasure
described thus: “On the occasion on which a sense-
sphere profitable consciousness has arisen
accompanied by equanimity” (Dhs §156).
163. Equanimity about insight is a name for equanimity
consisting in neutrality about investigation described
thus: “What exists, what has become, that he
abandons, and he obtains equanimity” (M II 264–65, A
IV 70f).
164. Equanimity as specific neutrality is a name for
equanimity consisting in the equal efficiency of
conascent states; it is contained among the “or-
whatever states” beginning with zeal (XIV.133; Dhs-a
132).
165. Equanimity of jhāna is a name for equanimity
producing impartiality towards even the highest bliss
described thus: “He dwells in equanimity” (Vibh 245).
166. Purifying equanimity is a name for equanimity
purified of all opposition, and so consisting in

452
uninterestedness in stilling opposition described thus:
“The fourth jhāna, which … has mindfulness purified
by equanimity” (Vibh 245).
167. Herein, six-factored equanimity, equanimity as a
divine abiding, equanimity as an enlightenment factor,
equanimity as specific neutrality, equanimity of jhāna
and purifying equanimity are one in meaning, that is,
equanimity as specific neutrality. Their difference,
however, is one of position,[46] like the difference in a
single being as a boy, a youth, an adult, a general, a
king, and so on. Therefore of these it should be
understood that equanimity as an enlightenment
factor, etc., are not found where there is six-factored
equanimity; or that six-factored equanimity, etc., are
not found where there is equanimity as an
enlightenment factor.
And just as these have one meaning, so also
equanimity about formations and equanimity about
insight have one meaning too; for they are simply
understanding classed in these two ways according to
function.
168. Just as, when a man has seen a snake go into his
house in the evening and has hunted for it with a
forked stick, and then when he has seen it lying in the
grain store and has looked to discover whether it is
actually a snake or not, and then by seeing three

453
marks[47] has no more doubt, and so there is neutrality
in him about further investigating whether or not it is
a snake, [162] so too, when a man has begun insight,
and he sees with insight knowledge the three
characteristics, then there is neutrality in him about
further investigating the impermanence, etc., of
formations, and that neutrality is called equanimity
about insight.
169. But just as, when the man has caught hold of the
snake securely with the forked stick and thinks, “How
shall I get rid of the snake without hurting it or getting
bitten by it?” then as he is seeking only the way to get
rid of it, there is neutrality in him about the catching
hold of it, so too, when a man, through seeking the
three characteristics, sees the three kinds of becoming
as if burning, then there is neutrality in him about
catching hold of formations, and that neutrality is
called equanimity about formations.
170. So when equanimity about insight is established,
equanimity about formations is established too. But it
is divided into two in this way according to function,
in other words, according to neutrality about
investigating and about catching hold.
Equanimity of energy and equanimity as feeling are
different both from each other and from the rest.
171. So, of these kinds of equanimity, it is equanimity

454
of jhāna that is intended here. That has the
characteristic of neutrality. Its function is to be
unconcerned. It is manifested as uninterestedness. Its
proximate cause is the fading away of happiness.
Here it may be said: Is this not simply equanimity as
specific neutrality in the meaning? And that exists in
the first and second jhānas as well; so this clause, “He
dwells in equanimity,” ought to be stated of those
also. Why is it not?—[It may be replied:] Because its
function is unevident there since it is overshadowed
by applied thought and the rest. But it appears here
with a quite evident function, with head erect, as it
were, because it is not overshadowed by applied
thought and sustained thought and happiness. That is
why it is stated here.
The commentary on the meaning of the clause “He
dwells in equanimity” is thus completed in all its
aspects.
172. Now, as to mindful and fully aware: here, he
remembers (sarati), thus he is mindful (sata). He has
full awareness (sampajānāti), thus he is fully aware
(sampajāna). This is mindfulness and full awareness
stated as personal attributes. Herein, mindfulness has
the characteristic of remembering. Its function is not to
forget. It is manifested as guarding. Full awareness
has the characteristic of non-confusion. Its function is

455
to investigate (judge). It is manifested as scrutiny.
173. Herein, although this mindfulness and this full
awareness exist in the earlier jhānas as well—for one
who is forgetful and not fully aware does not attain
even access, let alone absorption—yet, because of the
[comparative] grossness of those jhānas, the mind’s
going is easy [there], like that of a man on [level]
ground, and so the functions of mindfulness and full
awareness are not evident in them. [163] But it is only
stated here because the subtlety of this jhāna, which is
due to the abandoning of the gross factors, requires
that the mind’s going always includes the functions of
mindfulness and full awareness, like that of a man on
a razor’s edge.
174. What is more, just as a calf that follows a cow
returns to the cow when taken away from her if not
prevented, so too, when this third jhāna is led away
from happiness, it would return to happiness if not
prevented by mindfulness and full awareness, and
would rejoin happiness. And besides, beings are
greedy for bliss, and this kind of bliss is exceedingly
sweet since there is none greater. But here there is
non-greed for the bliss owing to the influence of the
mindfulness and full awareness, not for any other
reason. And so it should also be understood that it is
stated only here in order to emphasize this meaning
too.

456
175. Now, as to the clause he feels bliss with his body:
here, although in one actually possessed of the third
jhāna there is no concern about feeling bliss,
nevertheless he would feel the bliss associated with
his mental body, and after emerging from the jhāna he
would also feel bliss since his material body would
have been affected by the exceedingly superior matter
originated by that bliss associated with the mental
body.[48] It is in order to point to this meaning that the
words “he feels bliss with his body” are said.
176. Now, as to the clause, that … on account of
which the Noble Ones announce: He dwells in bliss
who has equanimity and is mindful: here it is the
jhāna, on account of which as cause, on account of
which as reason, the Noble Ones, that is to say, the
Enlightened Ones, etc., “announce, teach, declare,
establish, reveal, expound, explain, clarify” (Vibh 259)
that person who possesses the third jhāna—they
praise, is what is intended. Why? Because “he dwells
in bliss who has equanimity and is mindful. He enters
upon and dwells in that third jhāna” (taṃ … tatiyaṃ
jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati) is how the construction
should be understood here. But why do they praise
him thus? Because he is worthy of praise.
177. For this man is worthy of praise since he has
equanimity towards the third jhāna though it
possesses exceedingly sweet bliss and has reached the

457
perfection of bliss, and he is not drawn towards it by a
liking for the bliss, and he is mindful with the
mindfulness established in order to prevent the arising
of happiness, and he feels with his mental body the
undefiled bliss beloved of Noble Ones, cultivated by
Noble Ones. Because he is worthy of praise in this
way, it should be understood, Noble Ones praise him
with the words, “He dwells in bliss who has
equanimity and is mindful,” thus declaring the special
qualities that are worthy of praise.
[164] Third: it is the third in the numerical series; and it
is third because it is entered upon third.
178. Then it was said, which abandons one factor,
possesses two factors (§153): here the abandoning of the
one factor should be understood as the abandoning of
happiness. But that is abandoned only at the moment
of absorption, as applied thought and sustained
thought are at that of the second jhāna; hence it is
called its factor of abandoning.
179. The possession of the two factors should be
understood as the arising of the two, namely, bliss and
unification. So when it is said in the Vibhaṅga,
“’Jhāna’: equanimity, mindfulness, full awareness,
bliss, unification of mind” (Vibh 260), this is said
figuratively in order to show that jhāna with its
equipment. But, excepting the equanimity and

458
mindfulness and full awareness, this jhāna has
literally only two factors qua factors that have attained
to the characteristic of lighting (see §119), according as
it is said, “What is the jhāna of two factors on that
occasion? It is bliss and unification of mind” (Vibh
264).
The rest is as in the case of the first jhāna.
180. Once this has been obtained in this way, and
once he has mastery in the five ways already
described, then on emerging from the now familiar
third jhāna, he can regard the flaws in it thus: “This
attainment is threatened by the nearness of happiness;
’Whatever there is in it of mental concern about bliss
proclaims its grossness’ (D I 37; see Ch. IX, n. 20), and
its factors are weakened by the grossness of the bliss
so expressed.” He can bring the fourth jhāna to mind
as quieter and so end his attachment to the third jhāna
and set about doing what is needed for attaining the
fourth.
181. When he has emerged from the third jhāna, the
bliss, in other words, the mental joy, appears gross to
him as he reviews the jhāna factors with mindfulness
and full awareness, while the equanimity as feeling
and the unification of mind appear peaceful. Then, as
he brings that same sign to mind as “earth, earth”
again and again with the purpose of abandoning the

459
gross factor and obtaining the peaceful factors,
[knowing] “now the fourth jhāna will arise,” there
arises in him mind-door adverting with that same
earth kasiṇa as its object, interrupting the life-
continuum. After that either four or five impulsions
impel on that same object, [165] the last one of which
is an impulsion of the fine-material sphere belonging
to the fourth jhāna. The rest are of the kinds already
stated (§74).
182. But there is this difference: blissful (pleasant)
feeling is not a condition, as repetition condition, for
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, and [the
preliminary work] must be aroused in the case of the
fourth jhāna with neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling;
consequently these [consciousnesses of the
preliminary work] are associated with neither-painful-
nor-pleasant feeling, and here happiness vanishes
simply owing to their association with equanimity.

[The Fourth Jhāna]

183. And at this point, “With the abandoning of

pleasure and pain and with the previous
disappearance of joy and grief he enters upon and
dwells in the fourth jhāna, which has neither-pain-nor-

460
pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to
equanimity” (Vibh 245), and so he has attained the
fourth jhāna, which abandons one factor, possesses
two factors, is good in three ways, possesses ten
characteristics, and is of the earth kasiṇa.
184. Herein, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain:
with the abandoning of bodily pleasure and bodily
pain. With the previous: which took place before, not in
the moment of the fourth jhāna. Disappearance of joy
and grief: with the previous disappearance of the two,
that is, mental bliss (pleasure) and mental pain; with
the abandoning, is what is meant.
185. But when does the abandoning of these take
place? At the moment of access of the four jhānas. For
[mental] joy is only abandoned at the moment of the
fourth-jhāna access, while [bodily] pain, [mental] grief,
and [bodily] bliss (pleasure) are abandoned
respectively at the moments of access of the first,
second, and third jhānas. So although the order in
which they are abandoned is not actually mentioned,
nevertheless the abandoning of the pleasure, pain, joy,
and grief, is stated here according to the order in
which the faculties are summarized in the Indriya
Vibhaṅga (Vibh 122).
186. But if these are only abandoned at the moments
of access of the several jhānas, why is their cessation

461
said to. take place in the jhāna itself in the following
passage: “And where does the arisen pain faculty
cease without remainder? Here, bhikkhus, quite
secluded from sense desires, secluded from
unprofitable things, a bhikkhu enters upon and dwells
in the first jhāna, which is … born of seclusion. It is
here that the arisen pain faculty ceases without
remainder … Where does the arisen grief faculty
[cease without remainder? … in the second jhāna] …
Where does the arisen pleasure faculty [cease without
remainder? … in the third jhāna] … Where does the
arisen joy faculty cease without remainder? [166]
Here, bhikkhus, with the abandoning of pleasure and
pain [and with the previous disappearance of joy and
grief] a bhikkhu enters upon and dwells in the fourth
jhāna, which … has mindfulness purified by
equanimity. It is here that the arisen joy faculty ceases
without remainder” (S V 213–15).
It is said in that way there referring to reinforced
cessation. For in the first jhāna, etc., it is their
reinforced cessation, not just their cessation, that takes
place. At the moment of access it is just their cessation,
not their reinforced cessation, that takes place.
187. For accordingly, during the first jhāna access,
which has multiple adverting, there could be rearising
of the [bodily] pain faculty[49] due to contact with
gadflies, flies, etc. or the discomfort of an uneven seat,

462
though that pain faculty had already ceased, but not
so during absorption. Or else, though it has ceased
during access, it has not absolutely ceased there since
it is not quite beaten out by opposition. But during
absorption the whole body is showered with bliss
owing to pervasion by happiness. And the pain
faculty has absolutely ceased in one whose body is
showered with bliss, since it is beaten out then by
opposition.
188. And during the second-jhāna access too, which
has multiple advertings, there could be rearising of the
[mental] grief faculty, although it had already ceased
there, because it arises when there is bodily weariness
and mental vexation, which have applied thought and
sustained thought as their condition, but it does not
arise when applied and sustained thought are absent.
When it arises, it does so in the presence of applied
and sustained thought, and they are not abandoned in
the second-jhāna access; but this is not so in the second
jhāna itself because its conditions are abandoned
there.
189. Likewise in the third-jhāna access there could be
rearising of the abandoned [bodily] pleasure faculty in
one whose body was pervaded by the superior
materiality originated by the [consciousness associated
with the] happiness. But not so in the third jhāna itself.
For in the third jhāna the happiness that is a condition

463
for the [bodily] bliss (pleasure) has ceased entirely.
Likewise in the fourth-jhāna access there could be re-
arising of the abandoned [mental] joy faculty because
of its nearness and because it has not been properly
surmounted owing to the absence of equanimity
brought to absorption strength. But not so in the
fourth jhāna itself. And that is why in each case (§186)
the words “without remainder” are included thus: “It
is here that the arisen pain faculty ceases without
remainder.”
190. Here it may be asked: Then if these kinds of
feeling are abandoned in the access in this way, why
are they brought in here? It is done so that they can be
readily grasped. For the neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling described here by the words “which has
neither-pain-nor-pleasure” is subtle, hard to recognize
and not readily grasped. So just as, when a cattle-
herd[50] wants to catch a refractory ox that cannot be
caught at all by approaching it, he collects all the cattle
into one pen [167] and lets them out one by one, and
then [he says] “That is it; catch it,” and so it gets
caught as well, so too the Blessed One has collected all
these [five kinds of feeling] together so that they can
be grasped readily; for when they are shown collected
together in this way, then what is not [bodily] pleasure
(bliss) or [bodily] pain or [mental] joy or [mental] grief
can still be grasped in this way: “This is neither-

464
painful-nor-pleasant feeling.”
191. Besides, this may be understood as said in order
to show the condition for the neither-painful-nor-
pleasant mind-deliverance. For the abandoning of
[bodily] pain, etc., are conditions for that, according as
it is said: “There are four conditions, friend, for the
attainment of the neither-painful-nor-pleasant mind-
deliverance. Here, friend, with the abandoning of
pleasure and pain and with the previous
disappearance of joy and grief a bhikkhu enters upon
and dwells in the fourth jhāna … equanimity. These
are the four conditions for the attainment of the
neither-painful-nor-pleasant mind-deliverance” (M I
296).
192. Or alternatively, just as, although mistaken view
of individuality, etc., have already been abandoned in
the earlier paths, they are nevertheless mentioned as
abandoned in the description of the third path for the
purpose of recommending it (cf. §155), so too these
kinds of feeling can be understood as mentioned here
for the purpose of recommending this jhāna. Or
alternatively, they can be understood as mentioned for
the purpose of showing that greed and hate are very
far away owing to the removal of their conditions; for
of these, pleasure (bliss) is a condition for joy, and joy
for greed; pain is a condition for grief and grief for
hate. So with the removal of pleasure (bliss), etc.,

465
greed and hate are very far away since they are
removed along with their conditions.
193. Which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure: no pain owing
to absence of pain; no pleasure owing to absence of
pleasure (bliss). By this he indicates the third kind of
feeling that is in opposition both to pain and to
pleasure, not the mere absence of pain and pleasure.
This third kind of feeling named neither-pain-nor-
pleasure is also called “equanimity.” It has the
characteristic of experiencing what is contrary to both
the desirable and the undesirable. Its function is
neutral. Its manifestation is unevident. Its proximate
cause should be understood as the cessation of
pleasure (bliss).
194. And has purity of mindfulness due to equanimity: has
purity of mindfulness brought about by equanimity.
For the mindfulness in this jhāna is quite purified, and
its purification is effected by equanimity, not by
anything else. That is why it is said to have purity of
mindfulness due to equanimity. Also it is said in the
Vibhaṅga: “This mindfulness is cleared, purified,
clarified, by equanimity; hence it is said to have purity
of mindfulness due to equanimity” (Vibh 261). [168]
And the equanimity due to which there comes to be
this purity of mindfulness should be understood as
specific neutrality in meaning. And not only
mindfulness is purified by it here, but also all

466
associated states. However, the teaching is given
under the heading of mindfulness.
195. Herein, this equanimity exists in the three lower
jhānas too; but just as, although a crescent moon exists
by day but is not purified or clear since it is outshone
by the sun’s radiance in the daytime or since it is
deprived of the night, which is its ally owing to
gentleness and owing to helpfulness to it, so too, this
crescent moon of equanimity consisting in specific
neutrality exists in the first jhāna, etc., but it is not
purified since it is outshone by the glare of the
opposing states consisting in applied thought, etc.,
and since it is deprived of the night of equanimity-as-
feeling for its ally; and because it is not purified, the
conascent mindfulness and other states are not
purified either, like the unpurified crescent moon’s
radiance by day. That is why no one among these [first
three jhānas] is said to have purity of mindfulness due
to equanimity. But here this crescent moon consisting
in specific neutrality is utterly pure because it is not
outshone by the glare of the opposing states consisting
in applied thought, etc., and because it has the night of
equanimity-as-feeling for its ally. And since it is
purified, the conascent mindfulness and other states
are purified and clear also, like the purified crescent
moon’s radiance. That, it should be understood, is
why only this jhāna is said to have purity of

467
mindfulness due to equanimity.
196. Fourth: it is fourth in numerical series; and it is
fourth because it is entered upon fourth.
197. Then it was said, which abandons one factor,
possesses two factors (§183); here the abandoning of the
one factor should be understood as the abandoning of
joy. But that joy is actually abandoned in the first
impulsions of the same cognitive series (cf. §185).
Hence it is called its factor of abandoning.
The possession of the two factors should be
understood as the arising of the two, namely,
equanimity as feeling and unification of mind.
The rest is as stated in the case of the first jhāna.
This, in the first place, is according to the fourfold
reckoning of jhāna.

[The Fivefold Reckoning of Jhāna]

198. When, however, he is developing fivefold jhāna,

then, on emerging from the now familiar first jhāna,
he can regard the flaws in it in this way: “This
attainment is threatened by the nearness of the
hindrances, and its factors are weakened by the
grossness of applied thought.” [169] He can bring the

468
second jhāna to mind as quieter and so end his
attachment to the first jhāna and set about doing what
is needed for attaining the second.
199. Now, he emerges from the first jhāna mindfully
and fully aware; and only applied thought appears
gross to him as he reviews the jhāna factors, while the
sustained thought, etc., appear peaceful. Then, as he
brings that same sign to mind as “earth, earth” again
and again with the purpose of abandoning the gross
factor and obtaining the peaceful factors, the second
jhāna arises in him in the way already described.
Its factor of abandoning is applied thought only.
The four beginning with sustained thought are the
factors that it possesses. The rest is as already stated.
200. When this has been obtained in this way, and
once he has mastery in the five ways already
described, then on emerging from the now familiar
second jhāna he can regard the flaws in it in this way:
“This attainment is threatened by the nearness of
applied thought, and its factors are weakened by the
grossness of sustained thought.” He can bring the
third jhāna to mind as quieter and so end his
attachment to the second jhāna and set about doing
what is needed for attaining the third.
201. Now, he emerges from the second jhāna
mindfully and fully aware; only sustained thought

469
appears gross to him as he reviews the jhāna factors,
while happiness, etc., appear peaceful. Then, as he
brings that same sign to mind as “earth, earth” again
and again with the purpose of abandoning the gross
factor and obtaining the peaceful factors, the third
jhāna arises in him in the way already described.
Its factor of abandoning is sustained thought only.
The three beginning with happiness, as in the second
jhāna in the fourfold reckoning, are the factors that it
possesses. The rest is as already stated.
202. So that which is the second in the fourfold
reckoning becomes the second and third in the
fivefold reckoning by being divided into two. And
those which are the third and fourth in the former
reckoning become the fourth and fifth in this
reckoning. The first remains the first in each case.

The fourth chapter called “The

Description of the Earth Kasiṇa” in the
Treatise on the Development of
Concentration in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

470
Notes for Chapter IV

1. “They say it is the Dakkhiṇagiri in the Magadha

country” (Vism-mhṭ 116). There is mention of a
Dakkhiṇagiri-vihāra at M-a II 293 and elsewhere.
2. Read pamukhesu sosayanti. Pamukha not thus in
PED.
3. “A ’water port of entry’ is a port of entry on the sea
or on an estuary. A ’land port of entry’ is one on the
edge of a forest and acts as the gateway on the
road of approach to great cities” (Vism-mhṭ 116).
4. “Said in the Old Commentary. ’One who is learning
the earth kasiṇa’: one who is apprehending,
grasping, an earth kasiṇa as a ’learning sign’. The
meaning is, one who is producing an earth kasiṇa
that has become the sign of learning; and here
’arousing’ should be regarded as the establishing
of the sign in that way. ’In earth’: in an earth disk
of the kind about to be described. ’Apprehends the
sign’: he apprehends in that, with knowledge
connected with meditative development, the sign
of earth of the kind about to be described, as one
does with the eye the sign of the face in a looking-
glass. ’Made up’: prepared in the manner about to
be described. ’Not made up’: in a disk of earth

471
 consisting of an ordinary threshing-floor disk,
and so on. ’Bounded’: only in one that has bounds.
As regard the words ’the size of a bushel’, etc., it
would be desirable that a bushel and a saucer
were of equal size, but some say that ’the size of a
saucer’ is a span and four fingers, and the ’the size
of a bushel’ is larger than that. ’He sees to it that that
sign is well apprehended’: that meditator makes that
disk of earth a well-apprehended sign. When,
after apprehending the sign in it by opening the
eyes, and looking and then closing them again, it
appears to him as he adverts to it just as it did at
the moment of looking with open eyes, then he
has made it well apprehended. Having
thoroughly established his mindfulness there,
observing it again and again with his mind not
straying outside, he sees that it is ’well attended to’.
When it is well attended to thus by adverting and
attending again and again by producing much
repetition and development instigated by that, he
sees that it is ’well defined’. ’To that object’: to that
object called earth kasiṇa, which has appeared
rightly owing to its having been well
apprehended. ’He anchors his mind’: by bringing
his own mind to access jhāna he anchors it, keeps
it from other objects” (Vism-mhṭ 119).
5. “Gaṅgā (= ’river’) is the name for the Ganges in

472
 India and for the Mahavaeligaṅgā, Sri Lanka’s
principal river. However, in the Island of Sri
Lanka there is a river, it seems, called the
Rāvanagaṅgā. The clay in the places where the
banks are cut away by its stream is the colour of
dawn” (Vism-mhṭ 119).
6. “’Apprehend the sign’: apprehend with the mind
the sign apprehended by the eye in the earth
kasiṇa. ’And develop it’: the apprehending of the
sign as it occurs should be continued intensively
and constantly practiced” (Vism-mhṭ 120).
7. “Just as one who sees his reflection (mukha-nimitta
—lit. “face-sign”) on the surface of a looking-glass
does not open his eyes too widely or too little (in
order to get the effect), nor does he review the
colour of the looking-glass or give attention to its
characteristic, but rather looks with moderately
opened eyes and sees only the sign of his face, so
too this meditator looks with moderately opened
eyes at the earth kasiṇa and is occupied only with
the sign” (Vism-mhṭ 121).
8. “The dawn colour that is there in the kasiṇa
should not be thought about, though it cannot be
denied that it is apprehended by eye-
consciousness. That is why, instead of saying
here, ’should not be looked at,’ he says that it

473
should not be apprehended by reviewing. Also
the earth element’s characteristic of hardness,
which is there, should not be given attention
because the apprehension has to be done through
the channel of seeing. And after saying, ’while not
ignoring the colour’ he said, ’relegating the colour
to the position of a property of the physical
support,’ showing that here the concern is not
with the colour, which is the channel, but rather
that this colour should be treated as an accessory
of the physical support; the meaning is that the
kasiṇa (disk) should be given attention with
awareness of both the accompanying earth-aspect
and its ancillary colour-aspect, but taking the
earth-aspect with its ancillary concomitant colour
as both supported equally by that physical
support [the disk]. ’On the concept as the mental
datum since that is what is outstanding’: the term
of ordinary usage ’earth’ (pathavī) as applied to
earth with its accessories, since the prominence of
its individual effect is due to outstandingness of
the earth element: ’setting the mind’ on that
mental datum consisting of a [name-] concept
(paññatti-dhamma), the kasiṇa should be given
attention as ’earth, earth.’—If the mind is to be set
on a mere concept by means of a term of common
usage, ought earth to be given attention by means

474
 of different names?It can be. What is wrong? It is
to show that that is done he said, ’Mahī, medinī,’
and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 122).
9. “’Comes into focus’: becomes the resort of mind-
door impulsion” (Vism-mhṭ 122).
10. “Why should he not? If, after the learning sign
was produced, he went on developing it by
looking at the disk of the earth, there would be no
arising of the counterpart sign” (Vism-mhṭ 122).
11. “Stamped with the three characteristics of the
formed beginning with rise (see A I 152), or
marked with the three characteristics beginning
with impermanence” (Vism-mhṭ 122).
12. “If ’it is not like that’—is not possessed of colour,
etc.—then how is it the object of jhāna? It is in
order to answer that question that the sentence
beginning, ’For it is …’ is given. ’Born of the
perception’: produced by the perception during
development, simply born from the perception
during development. Since there is no arising
from anywhere of what has no individual essence,
he therefore said, ’Being the mere mode of
appearance’” (Vism-mhṭ 122). See Ch. VIII, n. 11.
13. Bhavaṅga (life-continuum, lit. “constituent of
becoming”) and javana (impulsion) are first
mentioned in this work at I.57 (see n. 16); this is

475
the second mention. The “cognitive series” (citta-
vīthi) so extensively used here is unknown as such
in the Piṭakas. Perhaps the seed from which it
sprang may exist in, say, such passages as: “Due
to eye and to visible data eye-consciousness
arises. The coincidence of the three is contact.
With contact as condition there is feeling. What he
feels he perceives. What he perceives he thinks
about4. What he thinks about he diversifies [by
means of craving, pride and false view] … Due to
mind and to mental data …” (M I 111). And: “Is
the eye permanent or impermanent … Are visible
objects permanent or impermanent? … Is the
mind permanent or impermanent? Are mental
data … Is mind-consciousness … Is mind-contact
… Is any feeling, any perception, any formation,
any consciousness, that arises with mind-contact
as condition permanent or impermanent?” (M III
279). And: “These five faculties [of eye, etc.] each
with its separate objective field and no one of
them experiencing as its objective field the
province of any other, have mind as their refuge,
and mind experiences their provinces as its
objective field” (M I 295). This treatment of
consciousness implies, as it were, more than even
a “double thickness” of consciousness. An
already-formed nucleus of the cognitive series,

476
based on such Sutta Piṭakas material, appears in
the Abhidhamma Piṭakas. The following two
quotations show how the commentary (bracketed
italics) expands the Abhidhamma Piṭakas
treatment.
(i) “Herein, what is eye-consciousness
element? Due to eye and to visible data (as
support condition, and to functional mind
element (= 5-door adverting), as disappearance
condition, and to the remaining three immaterial
aggregates as conascence condition) there arises
consciousness … which is eye-consciousness
element. [Similarly with the other four sense
elements.] Herein, what is mind element? Eye-
consciousness having arisen and ceased, next to
that there arises consciousness … which is
appropriate (profitable or unprofitable) mind
element (in the mode of receiving). [Similarly
with the other four sense elements.] Or else it is
the first reaction to any mental datum (to be taken
as functional mind element in the mode of mind-
door adverting). Herein, what is mind-
consciousness element? Eye-consciousness having
arisen and ceased, next to that there arises mind
element. (Resultant) mind element having arisen
and ceased, also (next to that there arises resultant
mind-consciousness element in the mode of

477
investigating; and that having arisen and ceased,
next to that there arises functional mind-
consciousness element in the mode of
determining; and that having arisen and ceased)
next to that there arises consciousness … which is
appropriate mind-consciousness element (in the
mode of impulsion). [Similarly with the other four
sense elements.] Due to (life-continuum) mind
and to mental data there arises consciousness …
which is appropriate (impulsion) mind-
consciousness element (following on the above-
mentioned mind-door adverting)” (Vibh 87–90
and Vibh-a 81f.).
(ii) “Eye-consciousness and its associated
states are a condition, as proximity condition, for
(resultant) mind element and for its associated
states. Mind element and its associated states are
a condition, as proximity condition, for (root-
causeless resultant) mind-consciousness element (in
the mode of investigating) and for its associated
states. (Next to that, the mind-consciousness elements
severally in the modes of determining, impulsion,
registration, and life-continuum should be mentioned,
though they are not, since the teaching is abbreviated.)
[Similarly for the other four senses and mind-
consciousness element]. Preceding profitable
(impulsion) states are a condition, as proximity

478
 condition, for subsequent indeterminate
(registration, life-continuum) states [etc.]” (Paṭṭh II,
and Comy., 33–34).
The form that the two kinds (5-door and
mind-door) of the cognitive series take is shown
in Table V. The following are some Piṭakas
references for the individual modes: bhavaṅga
(life-continuum): Paṭṭh I 159, 160, 169, 324;
āvajjana (adverting) Paṭṭh I 159, 160, 169, 324;
sampaṭicchana (receiving), santīraṇa (investigating),
voṭṭhapana (determining), and tadārammaṇa
(registration) appear only in the Commentaries.
Javana (impulsion): Paṭis II 73, 76. The following
references may also be noted here: anuloma
(conformity), Paṭṭh I 325. Cuti-citta (death
consciousness), Paṭṭh I 324. Paṭisandhi (rebirth-
linking), Vism-mhṭ 1, 320, etc.; Paṭis II 72, etc.
14. North or south to avoid facing the rising sun in
coming or going. Kosa is not in PED; “one and a
half kosa = 3,000 bows” (Vism-mhṭ 123).
15. Twenty-six kinds of “aimless” (lit. “animal”) talk
are given in the Suttas (e.g. M II 1; III 113), which
the commentary increases to thirty-two (M-a III
233). The ten instances of talk are those given in
the Suttas (e.g. M I 145; III 113). See Ch. I, n.12.
16. “One who is occupied with exercising and caring

479
 for the body” (Vism-mhṭ 124).
17. Buddha—“possessed of wit”: not in PED; see M-a I
39.
18. “It guards the line (gaṃ tāyati), thus it is lineage
(gotta). When it occurs limitedly, it guards the
naming (abhidhāna) and the recognition (buddhi) of
the naming as restricted to a definite scope
(ekaṃsa-visayatā). For just as recognition does not
take place without a meaning (attha) for its
objective support (ārammaṇa), so naming
(abhidhāna) does not take place without what is
named (abhidheyya). So it (the gotta) is said to
protect and keep these. But the limited should be
regarded as the materiality peculiar to sense-
sphere states, which are the resort of craving for
sense desires, and destitute of the exalted (fine-
material and immaterial) or the unsurpassed
(supramundane). The exalted lineage is
explainable in the same way” (Vism-mhṭ 134).
19. See XVII.189 and note.
20. “The intention is that it is as if the sixth and
seventh impulsions had lapsed since impulsion
beyond the fifth is exhausted. The elder’s opinion
was that just as the first impulsion, which lacks
the quality of repetition, does not arouse change-
of-lineage because of its weakness, while the

480
 second or the third, which have the quality of
repetition, can do so because they are strong on
that account, so too the sixth and seventh fix in
absorption owing to their strength due to their
quality of repetition. But it is unsupported by a
sutta or by any teacher’s statement in conformity
with a sutta. And the text quoted is not a reason
because strength due to the quality of repetition is
not a principle without exceptions (anekantikattā);
for the first volition, which is not a repetition, has
result experienceable here and now, while the
second to the sixth, which are repetitions, have
result experienceable in future becomings” (Vism-
mhṭ 135).
21. “’Either in the fourth or the fifth,’ etc., is said for the
purpose of concluding [the discussion] with a
paragraph showing the correctness of the
meaning already stated.—Herein, if the sixth and
seventh impulsions are said to have lapsed
because impulsion is exhausted, how does
seventh-impulsion volition come to have result
experienceable in the next rebirth and to be of
immediate effect on rebirth?This is not owing to
strength got through a repetition condition.—
What then?It is owing to the difference in the
function’s position (kiriyāvatthā). For the function
[of impulsion] has three positions, that is, initial,

481
 medial and final. Herein, experienceability of
result in the next rebirth and immediateness of
effect on rebirth are due to the last volition’s final
position, not to its strength … So the fact that the
sixth and seventh lapse because impulsion is used
up cannot be objected to” (Vism-mhṭ 135). See
Table V.
22. “’The normal extent does not apply’ here ’in the seven
instances’ because of the immeasurability of the
conscious moment in some, and the extreme
brevity of the moment in others; for ’extent’ is
inapplicable here in the sense of complete
cognitive series, which is why ’in fruition next to
the path,’ etc., is said” (Vism mhṭ 136).
23. The five (see e.g. Paṭis II 220; M-a I 85) are
suppression (by concentration), substitution of
opposites (by insight), cutting off (by the path),
tranquillization (by fruition), and escape (as
Nibbāna); cf. five kinds of deliverance (e.g. M-a IV
168). The three (see e.g. Nidd I 26; M-a II 143) are
bodily seclusion (retreat), mental seclusion
(jhāna), and seclusion from the substance or
circumstances of becoming (Nibbāna).
24. Here saṅkappa (“thinking”) has the meaning of
“hankering.” Chanda, kāma and rāga and their
combinations need sorting out. Chanda (zeal,

482
 desire) is much used, neutral in colour, good or
bad according to context and glossed by “desire
to act”; technically also one of the four roads to
power and four predominances. Kāma (sense
desire, sensuality) loosely represents enjoyment of
the five sense pleasures (e.g. sense-desire sphere).
More narrowly it refers to sexual enjoyment (third
of the Five Precepts). Distinguished as subjective
desire (defilement) and objective things that
arouse it (Nidd I 1; cf. Ch. XIV, n.36). The figure
“five cords of sense desire” signifies simply these
desires with the five sense objects that attract
them. Rāga (greed) is the general term for desire
in its bad sense and identical with lobha, which
latter, however, appears technically as one of the
three root-causes of unprofitable action. Rāga is
renderable also by “lust” in its general sense.
Kāmacchanda (lust): a technical term for the first of
the five hindrances. Chanda-rāga (zeal and greed)
and kāma-rāga (greed for sense desires) have no
technical use.
25. Ūhana—“hitting upon”: possibly connected with
ūhanati (to disturb—see M I 243; II 193).
Obviously connected here with the meaning of
āhananapariyāhanana (“striking and threshing”) in
the next line. For the similes that follow here, see
Peṭ 142.

483
26. Of the Aṅguttara Nikāya? [The original could not
be traced anywhere in the Tipiṭaka, Aṭṭhakathā,
and other texts contained in the digitalised
Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana edition of the Vipassana
Research Institute. Dhs-a 114 quotes the same
passage, but gives the source as aṭṭhakathāyaṃ, “in
the commentary.” BPS ed.]
27. These two sentences, “So hi ekaggo hutvā appeti”
and “So hi ārammaṇaṃ anumajjati,” are not in Be
and Ae.
28. Puggalādhiṭṭhāna—“in terms of a person”; a
technical commentarial term for one of the ways
of presenting a subject. They are dhammā-desanā
(discourse about principles), and puggala-desanā
(discourse about persons), both of which may be
treated either as dhammādhiṭṭhāna (in terms of
principles) or puggalādhiṭṭhāna (in terms of
persons). See M-a I 24.
29. The four assemblies (parisā) are the bhikkhus,
bhikkhunīs, laymen followers and laywomen
followers.
30. For this word play see also XVII.48. Khaṇati is
only given in normal meaning of “to dig” in PED.
There seems to be some confusion of meaning
with khayati (to destroy) here, perhaps suggested
by khādati (to eat). This suggests a rendering here

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 and in Ch. XVII of “to consume” which makes
sense. Glossed by avadāriyati, to break or dig: not
in PED. See CPD “avadārana.”
31. Kantāra-khinna—“exhausted in a desert”; khinna is
not in PED.
32. Four unities (ekatta) are given in the preceding
paragraph of the same Paṭisambhidā ref.: “The
unity consisting in the appearance of
relinquishment in the act of giving, which is
found in those resolved upon generosity (giving
up); the unity consisting in the appearance of the
sign of serenity, which is found in those who
devote themselves to the higher consciousness;
the unity consisting in the appearance of the
characteristic of fall, which is found in those with
insight; the unity consisting in the appearance of
cessation, which is found in noble persons” (Paṭis
I 167). The second is meant here.
33. “The inmates of the Abhayagiri Monastery in
Anurādhapura” (Vism-mhṭ 144).
34. “’Its’: of that jhāna consciousness. ’At that
moment’: at the moment of dissolution; for when
the moment of arising is past, repetition occurs
starting with the moment of presence” (Vism-mhṭ
145). A curious argument; see §182.
35. The quotation is incomplete and the end should

485
 read, “… ekarasaṭṭhena bhāvanāvasena paññāvasena
paññindriyaṃ adhimattaṃ hoti.”
36. “In the sense of the jhāna’s entire object. It is not
made its partial object” (Vism-mhṭ 147).
37. Kāya-duṭṭhulla—“bodily irritability”: explained
here as “bodily disturbance (daratha), excitement
of the body (kāya-sāraddhatā)” by Vism-mhṭ
(p.148); here it represents the hindrance of ill will;
cf. M III 151, 159, where commented on as
kāyālasiya—“bodily inertia” (M-a IV 202, 208).
PED, only gives meaning of “wicked, lewd” for
duṭṭhulla, for which meaning see e.g. A I 88, Vin-a
528; cf. IX.69.
38. For pamukha—“veranda” see n. 2 above. Pariveṇa
—“surrounding space”: this meaning, not given
in PED, is brought out clearly in XI.7.
39. Samabbhāhata—“stretch flat”: not in this sense in
PED. This word replaces the word suvihata used
at M III 105 where this clause is borrowed from.
At XI.92, the same word (apparently in another
sense) is glossed by pellana = “pushing” (not in
PED) at Vism-mhṭ 362. M-a IV 153 glosses suvihata
with “pasāretvā suṭṭhu vihata” which suggests
“stretched” rather than “beaten”; harati rather
than hanati.
40. What the story is trying to illustrate is the rapidity

486
 with which the elder entered the jhāna, controlled
its duration, and emerged, which is the necessary
preliminary to the working of a marvel (the
creation of a rock in this case; XII.57). The last
remark seems to indicate that all the others would
have been too slow (see Vism-mhṭ 150).
41. See XIV.192 and note.
42. In the Pali, sampasādanaṃ cetaso ekodibhāvaṃ: cetaso
(“of mind”) comes between sampasādanaṃ
(“confidence”) and ekodibhāvaṃ (“singleness”) and
so can be construed with either.
43. Appita—“done away with”: Appitā ti vināsaṃ
gamitā (“Appita” means “made to go to
annihilation”) (Vism-mhṭ 153). This meaning,
though not in PED, is given in CPD.
44. Sampiṇḍana—“conjunction”: gram. term for the
word ca (and). This meaning not given in PED. Cf.
M-a I 40.
45. The “eight kinds” are those connected with the
eight jhānas, the “ten kinds” those connected with
the four paths, the four fruitions, the void
liberation, and the signless liberation.
46. Avatthā—“position, occasion.” Not in PED; see
CPD.
47. Sovatthika-ttaya—”three marks;” cf. XXI.49.

487
48. For consciousness-originated materiality see
XX.30 ff.
49. “They say that with the words, ’There could be
the arising of the pain faculty,’ it is shown that
since grief arises even in obtainers of jhāna, it is
demonstrated thereby that hate can exist without
being a hindrance just as greed can; for grief does
not arise without hate. Nor, they say, is there any
conflict with the Paṭṭhāna text to be fancied here,
since what is shown there is only grief that occurs
making lost jhāna its object because the grief that
occurs making its object a jhāna that has not been
lost is not relevant there. And they say that it
cannot be maintained that grief does not arise at
all in those who have obtained jhāna since it did
arise in Asita who had the eight attainments (Sn
691), and he was not one who had lost jhāna. So
they say. That is wrong because there is no hate
without the nature of a hindrance. If there were, it
would arise in fine-material and immaterial
beings, and it does not. Accordingly when in such
passages as, ’In the immaterial state, due to the
hindrance of lust there is the hindrance of
stiffness and torpor … the hindrance of agitation,
the hindrance of ignorance’ (Paṭṭh II 291), ill will
and worry are not mentioned as hindrances, that
does not imply that they are not hindrances even

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 by supposing that it was because lust, etc., were
not actually hindrances and were called
hindrances there figuratively because of
resemblance to hindrances. And it is no reason to
argue, ’it is because it arose in Asita,’ since there is
falling away from jhāna with the arising of grief.
The way to regard that is that when the jhāna is
lost for some trivial reason such men reinstate it
without difficulty” (Vism-mhṭ 158–59).
50. Gopa—“cowherd (or guardian)”: not in PED.

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 Chapter V
The Remaining Kasiṇas
(Sesa-kasiṇa-niddesa)

[The Water Kasiṇa]

1. [170] Now, the water kasiṇa comes next after the

earth kasiṇa (III.105). Here is the detailed explanation.
One who wants to develop the water kasiṇa should,
as in the case of the earth kasiṇa, seat himself
comfortably and apprehend the sign in water that “is
either made up or not made up,” etc.; and so all the
rest should be repeated in detail (IV.22). And as in this
case, so with all those that follow [in this chapter]. We
shall in fact not repeat even this much and shall only
point out what is different.
2. Here too, when someone has had practice in
previous [lives], the sign arises for him in water that is
not made up, such as a pool, a lake, a lagoon, or the
ocean as in the case of the Elder Cūḷa-Sīva. The
venerable one, it seems, thought to abandon gain and
honour and live a secluded life. He boarded a ship at
Mahātittha (Mannar) and sailed to Jambudīpa (India).
As he gazed at the ocean meanwhile, the kasiṇa sign,

490
the counterpart of that ocean, arose in him.
3. Someone with no such previous practice should
guard against the four faults of a kasiṇa (IV.24) and
not apprehend the water as one of the colours, blue,
yellow, red or white. He should fill a bowl or a four-
footed water pot[1] to the brim with water
uncontaminated by soil, taken in the open through a
clean cloth [strainer], or with any other clear unturbid
water. He should put it in a screened place on the
outskirts of the monastery as already described and
seat himself comfortably. He should neither review its
colour nor bring its characteristic to mind.
Apprehending the colour as belonging to its physical
support, he should set his mind on the [name] concept
as the most outstanding mental datum, and using any
among the [various] names for water (āpo) such as
“rain” (ambu), “liquid” (udaka), “dew” (vāri), “fluid”
(salila),[2] he should develop [the kasiṇa] by using
[preferably] the obvious “water, water.”
4. As he develops it in this way, the two signs
eventually arise in him in the way already described.
Here, however, the learning sign has the appearance
of moving. [171] If the water has bubbles of froth
mixed with it, the learning sign has the same
appearance, and it is evident as a fault in the kasiṇa.
But the counterpart sign appears inactive, like a crystal

491
fan set in space, like the disk of a looking-glass made
of crystal. With the appearance of that sign he reaches
access jhāna and the jhāna tetrad and pentad in the
way already described.

[The Fire Kasiṇa]

5. Anyone who wants to develop the fire kasiṇa

should apprehend the sign in fire. Herein, when
someone with merit, having had previous practice, is
apprehending the sign, it arises in him in any sort of
fire, not made up, as he looks at the fiery combustion
in a lamp’s flame or in a furnace or in a place for
baking bowls or in a forest conflagration, as in the
Elder Cittagutta’s case. The sign arose in that elder as
he was looking at a lamp’s flame while he was in the
Uposatha house on the day of preaching the Dhamma.
6. Anyone else should make one up. Here are the
directions for making it. He should split up some
damp heartwood, dry it, and break it up into short
lengths. He should go to a suitable tree root or to a
shed and there make a pile in the way done for baking
bowls, and have it lit. He should make a hole a span
and four fingers wide in a rush mat or a piece of
leather or a cloth, and after hanging it in front of the

492
fire, he should sit down in the way already described.
Instead of giving attention to the grass and sticks
below or the smoke above, he should apprehend the
sign in the dense combustion in the middle.
7. He should not review the colour as blue or yellow,
etc., or give attention to its characteristic as heat, etc.,
but taking the colour as belonging to its physical
support, and setting his mind on the [name] concept
as the most outstanding mental datum, and using any
among the names for fire (tejo) such as “the Bright
One” (pāvaka), “the Leaver of the Black Trail”
(kaṇhavattani), “the Knower of Creatures” (jātaveda),
“the Altar of Sacrifice” (hutāsana), etc., he should
develop [the kasiṇa] by using [preferably] the obvious
“fire, fire.”
8. As he develops it in this way the two signs
eventually arise in him as already described. Herein,
the learning sign appears like [the fire to keep] sinking
down as the flame keeps detaching itself. [172] But
when someone apprehends it in a kasiṇa that is not
made up, any fault in the kasiṇa is evident [in the
learning sign], and any firebrand, or pile of embers or
ashes, or smoke appears in it. The counterpart sign
appears motionless like a piece of red cloth set in
space, like a gold fan, like a gold column. With its
appearance he reaches access jhāna and the jhāna
tetrad and pentad in the way already described.

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 [The Air Kasiṇa]

9. Anyone who wants to develop the air kasiṇa

should apprehend the sign in air. And that is done
either by sight or by touch. For this is said in the
Commentaries: “One who is learning the air kasiṇa
apprehends the sign in air. He notices the tops of
[growing] sugarcane moving to and fro; or he notices
the tops of bamboos, or the tops of trees, or the ends of
the hair, moving to and fro; or he notices the touch of
it on the body.”
10. So when he sees sugarcanes with dense foliage
standing with tops level or bamboos or trees, or else
hair four fingers long on a man’s head, being struck by
the wind, he should establish mindfulness in this way:
“This wind is striking on this place.” Or he can
establish mindfulness where the wind strikes a part of
his body after entering by a window opening or by a
crack in a wall, and using any among the names for
wind (vāta) beginning with “wind” (vāta), “breeze”
(māluta), “blowing” (anila), he should develop [the
kasiṇa] by using [preferably] the obvious “air, air.”
11. Here the learning sign appears to move like the
swirl of hot [steam] on rice gruel just withdrawn from
an oven. The counterpart sign is quiet and motionless.
The rest should be understood in the way already

494
described.

[The Blue Kasiṇa]

12. Next it is said [in the Commentaries]: “One who is

learning the blue kasiṇa apprehends the sign in blue,
whether in a flower or in a cloth or in a colour
element.”[3] Firstly, when someone has merit, having
had previous practice, the sign arises in him when he
sees a bush with blue flowers, or such flowers spread
out on a place of offering, or any blue cloth or gem.
13. [173] But anyone else should take flowers such as
blue lotuses, girikaṇṇikā (morning glory) flowers, etc.,
and spread them out to fill a tray or a flat basket
completely so that no stamen or stalk shows or with
only their petals. Or he can fill it with blue cloth
bunched up together; or he can fasten the cloth over
the rim of the tray or basket like the covering of a
drum. Or he can make a kasiṇa disk, either portable as
described under the earth kasiṇa or on a wall, with
one of the colour elements such as bronze-green, leaf-
green, añjana-ointment black, surrounding it with a
different colour. After that, he should bring it to mind
as “blue, blue” in the way already described under the
earth kasiṇa.

495
14. And here too any fault in the kasiṇa is evident in
the learning sign; the stamens and stalks and the gaps
between the petals, etc., are apparent. The counterpart
sign appears like a crystal fan in space, free from the
kasiṇa disk. The rest should be understood as already
described.

[The Yellow Kasiṇa]

15. Likewise with the yellow kasiṇa; for this is said:

“One who is learning the yellow kasiṇa apprehends
the sign in yellow, either in a flower or in a cloth or in
a colour element.” Therefore here too, when someone
has merit, having had previous practice, the sign
arises in him when he sees a flowering bush or flowers
spread out, or yellow cloth or colour element, as in the
case of the Elder Cittagutta. That venerable one, it
seems, saw an offering being made on the flower altar,
with pattaṅga flowers[4] at Cittalapabbata, and as soon
as he saw it the sign arose in him the size of the flower
altar.
16. Anyone else should make a kasiṇa, in the way
described for the blue kasiṇa, with kaṇikāra flowers,
etc., or with yellow cloth or with a colour element. He
should bring it to mind as “yellow, yellow.” The rest is

496
as before.

[The Red Kasiṇa]

17. Likewise with the red kasiṇa; for this is said: “One
who is learning the red kasiṇa apprehends the sign in
red, [174] either in a flower or in a cloth or in a colour
element.” Therefore here too, when someone has
merit, having had previous practice, the sign arises in
him when he sees a bandhujīvaka (hibiscus) bush, etc.,
in flower, or such flowers spread out, or a red cloth or
gem or colour element.
18. But anyone else should make a kasiṇa, in the way
already described for the blue kasiṇa, with jayasumana
flowers or bandhujīvaka or red koraṇḍaka flowers, etc.,
or with red cloth or with a colour element. He should
bring it to mind as “red, red.” The rest is as before.

[The White Kasiṇa]

19. Of the white kasiṇa it is said: “One who is learning

the white kasiṇa apprehends the sign in white, either
in a flower or in a cloth or in a colour element.” So
firstly, when someone has merit, having had previous

497
practice, the sign arises in him when he sees a
flowering bush of such a kind or vassikasumana
(jasmine) flowers, etc., spread out, or a heap of white
lotuses or lilies, white cloth or colour element; and it
also arises in a tin disk, a silver disk, and the moon’s
disk.
20. Anyone else should make a kasiṇa, in the way
already described for the blue kasiṇa, with the white
flowers already mentioned, or with cloth or colour
element. He should bring it to mind as “white, white.”
The rest is as before.

[The Light Kasiṇa]

21. Of the light kasiṇa it is said: “One who is learning

the light kasiṇa apprehends the sign in light in a hole
in a wall, or in a keyhole, or in a window opening.” So
firstly, when someone has merit, having had previous
practice, the sign arises in him when he sees the circle
thrown on a wall or a floor by sunlight or moonlight
entering through a hole in a wall, etc., or when he sees
a circle thrown on the ground by sunlight or
moonlight coming through a gap in the branches of a
dense-leaved tree or through a gap in a hut made of
closely packed branches.

498
22. Anyone else should use that same kind of circle of
luminosity just described, developing it as
“luminosity, luminosity” or “light, light.” If he cannot
do so, he can light a lamp inside a pot, close the pot’s
mouth, make a hole in it and place it with the hole
facing a wall. The lamplight coming out of the hole
throws a circle on the wall. He should develop that
[175] as “light, light.” This lasts longer than the other
kinds.
23. Here the learning sign is like the circle thrown on
the wall or the ground. The counterpart sign is like a
compact bright cluster of lights. The rest is as before.

[The Limited-Space Kasiṇa]

24. Of the limited-space kasiṇa it is said: “One who is

learning the space kasiṇa apprehends the sign in a
hole in a wall, or in a keyhole, or in a window
opening.” So firstly, when someone has merit, having
had previous practice, the sign arises in him when he
sees any [such gap as a] hole in a wall.
25. Anyone else should make a hole a span and four
fingers broad in a well-thatched hut, or in a piece of
leather, or in a rush mat, and so on. He should
develop one of these, or a hole such as a hole in a wall,

499
as “space, space.”
26. Here the learning sign resembles the hole together
with the wall, etc., that surrounds it. Attempts to
extend it fail. The counterpart sign appears only as a
circle of space. Attempts to extend it succeed. The rest
should be understood as described under the earth
kasiṇa.[5]

[General]

27. He with Ten Powers, who all things did see,

Tells ten kasiṇas, each of which can be
The cause of fourfold and of fivefold jhāna,
The fine-material sphere’s own master key.
Now, knowing their descriptions and the way
To tackle each and how they are developed,
There are some further points that will repay
Study, each with its special part to play.
28. Of these, the earth kasiṇa is the basis for such
powers as the state described as “Having been one, he
becomes many” (D I 78), etc., and stepping or standing
or sitting on space or on water by creating earth, and
the acquisition of the bases of mastery (M II 13) by the
limited and measureless method.
29. The water kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as

500
diving in and out of the earth (D I 78), causing rain,
storms, creating rivers and seas, making the earth and
rocks and palaces quake (M I 253).
30. The fire kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
smoking, flaming, causing showers of sparks,
countering fire with fire, ability to burn only what one
wants to burn (S IV 290), [176] causing light for the
purpose of seeing visible objects with the divine eye,
burning up the body by means of the fire element at
the time of attaining Nibbāna (M-a IV 196).
31. The air kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
going with the speed of the wind, causing wind
storms.
32. The blue kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
creating black forms, causing darkness, acquisition of
the bases of mastery by the method of fairness and
ugliness, and attainment of the liberation by the
beautiful (see M II 12)
33. The yellow kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
creating yellow forms, resolving that something shall
be gold (S I 116), acquisition of the bases of mastery in
the way stated, and attainment of the liberation by the
beautiful.
34. The red kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
creating red forms, acquisition of the bases of mastery
in the way stated, and attainment of the liberation by

501
the beautiful.
35. The white kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
creating white forms, banishing stiffness and torpor,
dispelling darkness, causing light for the purpose of
seeing visible objects with the divine eye.
36. The light kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
creating luminous forms, banishing stiffness and
torpor, dispelling darkness, causing light for the
purpose of seeing visible objects with the divine eye.
37. The space kasiṇa is the basis for such powers as
revealing the hidden, maintaining postures inside the
earth and rocks by creating space inside them,
travelling unobstructed through walls, and so on.
38. The classification “above, below, around,
exclusive, measureless” applies to all kasiṇas; for this
is said: “He perceives the earth kasiṇa above, below,
around, exclusive, measureless” (M II 14), and so on.
39. Herein, above is upwards towards the sky’s level.
Below is downwards towards the earth’s level. Around
is marked off all around like the perimeter of a field.
For one extends a kasiṇa upwards only, another
downwards, another all round; or for some reason
another projects it thus as one who wants to see visible
objects with the divine eye projects light. [177] Hence
“above, below, around” is said. The word exclusive,
however, shows that anyone such state has nothing to

502
do with any other. Just as there is water and nothing
else in all directions for one who is actually in water,
so too, the earth kasiṇa is the earth kasiṇa only; it has
nothing in common with any other kasiṇa. Similarly in
each instance. Measureless means measureless
intentness. He is intent upon the entirety with his
mind, taking no measurements in this way: “This is its
beginning, this is its middle.”
40. No kasiṇa can be developed by any living being
described as follows: “Beings hindered by kamma, by
defilement or by kamma-result, who lack faith, zeal
and understanding, will be incapable of entering into
the certainty of rightness in profitable states” (Vibh
341).
41. Herein, the words hindered by kamma refer to those
who possess bad kamma entailing immediate effect
[on rebirth].[6] By defilement: who have fixed wrong
view[7] or are hermaphrodites or eunuchs. By kamma-
result: who have had a rebirth-linking with no
[profitable] root-cause or with only two [profitable]
root-causes. Lack faith: are destitute of faith in the
Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. Zeal: are destitute of
zeal for the unopposed way. Understanding: are
destitute of mundane and supramundane right view.
Will be incapable of entering into the certainty of rightness
in profitable states means that they are incapable of

503
entering into the noble path called “certainty” and
“rightness in profitable states.”
42. And this does not apply only to kasiṇas; for none
of them will succeed in developing any meditation
subject at all. So the task of devotion to a meditation
subject must be undertaken by a clansman who has no
hindrance by kamma-result, who shuns hindrance by
kamma and by defilement, and who fosters faith, zeal
and understanding by listening to the Dhamma,
frequenting good men, and so on.

The fifth chapter called “The Description

of the Remaining Kasiṇas” in the
Treatise on the Development of
Concentration in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

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Notes for Chapter V

1. Kuṇḍika—“a four-footed water pot”: not in PED.

2. English cannot really furnish five words for
water.
3. Vaṇṇa-dhātu—“colour element” should perhaps
have been rendered simply by “paint.” The one
Pali word “nīla” has to serve for the English blue,
green, and sometimes black.
4. Pattaṅga: not in PED. Āsana—“altar”: not in this
sense in PED.
5. In the Suttas the first eight kasiṇas are the same as
those given here, and they are the only ones
mentioned in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī (§160–203) and
Paṭisambhidā (Paṭis I 6). The Suttas give space
and consciousness as ninth and tenth respectively
(M II 14–15; D III 268; Netti 89, etc.). But these last
two appear to coincide with the first two
immaterial states, that is, boundless space and
boundless consciousness. The light kasiṇa given
here as ninth does not appear in the Suttas. It is
perhaps a development from the “perception of
light” (āloka-saññā) (A II 45). The limited-space
kasiṇa given here as tenth has perhaps been made
“limited’ in order to differentiate it from the first

505
 immaterial state. The commentary on the
consciousness kasiṇa (M-a III 261) says nothing on
this aspect. As to space, Vism-mhṭ (p. 373) says:
“The attainment of the immaterial states is not
produced by means of the space kasiṇa, and with
the words ’ending with the white kasiṇa’ (XXI.2)
the light kasiṇa is included in the white kasiṇa.”
For description of space (ākāsa) see Dhs-a 325,
Netti 29. Also Vism-mhṭ (p. 393) defines space
thus: “Wherever there is no obstruction, that is
called space.” Again the Majjhima Nikāya Ṭīkā
(commenting on MN 106) remarks: “[Sense
desires] are not called empty (ritta) in the sense
that space, which is entirely devoid of individual
essence, is called empty.”
6. The five kinds of bad kamma with immediate
effect on rebirth are, in that order of priority:
matricide, parricide, arahanticide, intentional
shedding of a Buddha’s blood, and causing a
schism in the Community, all of which cause
rebirth in hell and remaining there for the
remainder of the aeon (kappa), whatever other
kinds of kamma may have been performed (M-a
IV 109f.).
7. The no-cause view, moral-inefficacy-of-action
view, the nihilistic view that there is no such thing
as giving, and so on (see DN 2).

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 Chapter VI
Foulness as a Meditation Subject
(Asubha-kammaṭṭhāna-niddesa)

[General Definitions]

1. [178] Now, ten kinds of foulness, [as corpses]

without consciousness, were listed next after the
kasiṇas thus: the bloated, the livid, the festering, the
cut up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and
scattered, the bleeding, the worm infested, a skeleton
(III.105).
The bloated: it is bloated (uddhumāta) because bloated
by gradual dilation and swelling after (uddhaṃ) the
close of life, as a bellows is with wind. What is bloated
(uddhumāta) is the same as “the bloated”
(uddhumātaka). Or alternatively, what is bloated
(uddhumāta) is vile (kucchita) because of repulsiveness,
thus it is “the bloated” (uddhumātaka). This is a term
for a corpse in that particular state.
2. The livid: what has patchy discolouration is called
livid (vinīla). What is livid is the same as “the livid”
(vinīlaka). Or alternatively, what is livid (vinīla) is vile
(kucchita) because of repulsiveness, thus it is “the

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livid” (vinīlaka).[1] This is a term for a corpse that is
reddish-coloured in places where flesh is prominent,
whitish-coloured in places where pus has collected,
but mostly blue-black (nīla), as if draped with blue-
black cloth in the blue-black places.
3. The festering: what is trickling with pus in broken
places is festering (vipubba). What is festering is the
same as “the festering” (vipubbaka). Or alternatively,
what is festering (vipubba) is vile (kucchita) because of
repulsiveness, thus it is “the festering” (vipubbaka).
This is a term for a corpse in that particular state.

4. The cut up: what has been opened up[2] by cutting it

in two is called cut up (vicchidda). What is cut up is the
same as “the cut up” (vicchiddaka). Or alternatively,
what is cut up (vicchidda) is vile (kucchita) because of
repulsiveness, thus it is “the cut up” (vicchiddaka). This
is a term for a corpse cut in the middle. [179]
5. The gnawed: what has been chewed here and there
in various ways by dogs, jackals, etc., is what is
gnawed (vikkhāyita). What is gnawed is the same as
“the gnawed” (vikkhāyitaka). Or alternatively, what is
gnawed (vikkhāyita) is vile (kucchita) because of
repulsiveness, thus it is “the gnawed” (vikkhāyitaka).
This is a term for a corpse in that particular state.
6. The scattered: what is strewed about (vividhaṃ
khittaṃ) is scattered (vikkhittaṃ). What is scattered is

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the same as “the scattered” (vikkhittaka). Or
alternatively, what is scattered (vikkhitta) is vile
(kucchita) because of repulsiveness, thus it is “the
scattered” (vikkhittaka). This is a term for a corpse that
is strewed here and there in this way: “Here a hand,
there a foot, there the head” (cf. M I 58).
7. The hacked and scattered: it is hacked, and it is
scattered in the way just described, thus it is “hacked
and scattered” (hata-vikkhittaka). This is a term for a
corpse scattered in the way just described after it has
been hacked with a knife in a crow’s-foot pattern on
every limb.
8. The bleeding: it sprinkles (kirati), scatters, blood
(lohita), and it trickles here and there, thus it is “the
bleeding” (lohitaka). This is a term for a corpse
smeared with trickling blood.
9. The worm-infested: it is maggots that are called
worms (puḷuva); it sprinkles worms (puḷuve kirati), thus
it is worm-infested (puḷuvaka). This is a term for a
corpse full of maggots.
10. A skeleton: bone (aṭṭhi) is the same as skeleton
(aṭṭhika). Or alternatively, bone (aṭṭhi) is vile (kucchita)
because of repulsiveness, thus it is a skeleton (aṭṭhika).
This is a term both for a single bone and for a
framework of bones.
11. These names are also used both for the signs that

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arise with the bloated, etc., as their support, and for
the jhānas obtained in the signs.

[The Bloated]

12. Herein, when a meditator wants to develop the

jhāna called “of the bloated” by arousing the sign of
the bloated on a bloated body, he should in the way
already described approach a teacher of the kind
mentioned under the earth kasiṇa and learn the
meditation subject from him. In explaining the
meditation subject to him, the teacher should explain
it all, that is, the directions for going with the aim of
acquiring the sign of foulness, the characterizing of the
surrounding signs, the eleven ways of apprehending
the sign, the reviewing of the path gone by and come
by, concluding with the directions for absorption. And
when the meditator has learnt it all well, he should go
to an abode of the kind already described and live
there while seeking the sign of the bloated.
13. Meanwhile, when he hears people saying that at
some village gate or on some road or at some forest’s
edge or at the base of some rock or at the root of some
tree [180] or on some charnel ground a bloated corpse
is lying, he should not go there at once, like one who

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plunges into a river where there is no ford.
14. Why not? Because this foulness is beset by wild
beasts and non-human beings, and he might risk his
life there. Or perhaps the way to it goes by a village
gate or a bathing place or an irrigated field, and there
a visible object of the opposite sex might come into
focus. Or perhaps the body is of the opposite sex; for a
female body is unsuitable for a man, and a male body
for a woman. If only recently dead, it may even look
beautiful; hence there might be danger to the life of
purity. But if he judges himself thus, “This is not
difficult for one like me,” then he can go there.
15. And when he goes, he should do so only after he
has spoken to the senior elder of the Community or to
some well-known bhikkhu.
16. Why? Because if all his limbs are seized with
shuddering at the charnel ground, or if his gorge rises
when he is confronted with disagreeable objects such
as the visible forms and sounds of non-human beings,
lions, tigers, etc., or something else afflicts him, then
he whom he told will have his bowl and robe well
looked after in the monastery, or he will care for him
by sending young bhikkhus or novices to him.
17. Besides, robbers may meet there thinking a
charnel ground a safe place for them whether or not
they have done anything wrong. And when men chase

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them, they drop their goods near the bhikkhu and run
away. Perhaps the men seize the bhikkhu, saying “We
have found the thief with the goods,” and bully him.
Then he whom he told will explain to the men “Do not
bully him; he went to do this special work after telling
me,” and he will rescue him. This is the advantage of
going only after informing someone.
18. Therefore he should inform a bhikkhu of the kind
described and then set out eager to see the sign, and as
happy and joyful as a warrior-noble (khattiya) on his
way to the scene of anointing, as one going to offer
libations at the hall of sacrifice, or as a pauper on his
way to unearth a hidden treasure. And he should go
there in the way advised by the Commentaries.
19. For this is said: “One who is learning the bloated
sign of foulness goes alone with no companion, with
unremitting mindfulness established, with his sense
faculties turned inwards, with his mind not turned
outwards, reviewing the path gone by and come by. In
the place where the bloated sign of foulness [181] has
been left he notes any stone or termite-mound or tree
or bush or creeper there each with its particular sign
and in relation to the object. When he has done this, he
characterizes the bloated sign of foulness by the fact of
its having attained that particular individual essence.
(see §84) Then he sees that the sign is properly
apprehended, that it is properly remembered, that it is

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properly defined, by its colour, by its mark, by its
shape, by its direction, by its location, by its
delimitation, by its joints, by its openings, by its
concavities, by its convexities, and all round.
20. “When he has properly apprehended the sign,
properly remembered it, properly defined it, he goes
alone with no companion, with unremitting
mindfulness established, with his sense faculties
turned inwards, with his mind not turned outwards,
reviewing the path gone by and come by. When he
walks, he resolves that his walk is oriented towards it;
when he sits, he prepares a seat that is oriented
towards it.
21. “What is the purpose, what is the advantage of
characterizing the surrounding signs? Characterizing
the surrounding signs has non-delusion for its
purpose, it has non-delusion for its advantage. What is
the purpose, what is the advantage of apprehending
the sign in the [other] eleven ways? Apprehending the
sign in the [other] eleven ways has anchoring [the
mind] for its purpose, it has anchoring [the mind] for
its advantage. What is the purpose, what is the
advantage of reviewing the path gone by and come
by? Reviewing the path gone by and come by has
keeping [the mind] on the track for its purpose, it has
keeping [the mind] on the track for its advantage.

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22. “When he has established reverence for it by
seeing its advantages and by perceiving it as a
treasure and so come to love it, he anchors his mind
upon that object: ‘Surely in this way I shall be
liberated from ageing and death.’ Quite secluded from
sense desires, secluded from unprofitable things he
enters upon and dwells in the first jhāna …
[seclusion]. He has arrived at the first jhāna of the fine-
material sphere. His is a heavenly abiding and an
instance of the meritorious action consisting in
[meditative] development.” (Source untraced.)
23. So if he goes to the charnel ground to test his
control of mind, let him do so after striking the gong
or summoning a chapter. If he goes there mainly for
[developing that] meditation subject, let him go alone
with no companion, without renouncing his basic
meditation subject and keeping it always in mind,
taking a walking stick or a staff to keep off attacks by
dogs, etc., [182] ensuring unremitting mindfulness by
establishing it well, with his mind not turned
outwards because he has ensured that his faculties, of
which his mind is the sixth, are turned inwards.
24. As he goes out of the monastery he should note
the gate: “I have gone out in such a direction by such a
gate.” After that he should define the path by which
he goes: “This path goes in an easterly direction …
westerly … northerly … southerly direction” or “It

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goes in an intermediate direction”; and “In this place it
goes to the left, in this place to the right”; and “In this
place there is a stone, in this a termite-mound, in this a
tree, in this a bush, in this a creeper.” He should go to
the place where the sign is, defining in this way the
path by which he goes.
25. And he should not approach it upwind; for if he
did so and the smell of corpses assailed his nose, his
brain[3] might get upset, or he might throw up his
food, or he might repent his coming, thinking “What a
place of corpses I have come to!” So instead of
approaching it upwind, he should go downwind. If he
cannot go by a downwind path—if there is a mountain
or a ravine or a rock or a fence or a patch of thorns or
water or a bog in the way—then he should go
stopping his nose with the corner of his robe. These
are the duties in going.
26. When he has gone there in this way, he should not
at once look at the sign of foulness; he should make
sure of the direction. For perhaps if he stands in a
certain direction, the object does not appear clearly to
him and his mind is not wieldy. So rather than there
he should stand where the object appears clearly and
his mind is wieldy. And he should avoid standing to
leeward or to windward of it. For if he stands to
leeward he is bothered by the corpse smell and his
mind strays; and if he stands to windward and non-

515
human beings are dwelling there, they may get
annoyed and do him a mischief. So he should move
round a little and not stand too much to windward.
[183]
27. Then he should stand not too far off or too near, or
too much towards the feet or the head. For if he stands
too far off, the object is not clear to him, and if he
stands too near, he may get frightened. If he stands too
much towards the feet or the head, not all the foulness
becomes manifest to him equally. So he should stand
not too far off or too near, opposite the middle of the
body, in a place convenient for him to look at it.
28. Then he should characterize the surrounding signs
in the way stated thus: “In the place where the bloated
sign of foulness has been left he notes any stone … or
creeper there with its sign” (§19).
29. These are the directions for characterizing them. If
there is a rock in the eye’s focus near the sign, he
should define it in this way: “This rock is high or low,
small or large, brown or black or white, long or
round,” after which he should observe [the relative
positions] thus: “In this place, this is a rock, this is the
sign of foulness; this is the sign of foulness, this is a
rock.”
30. If there is a termite-mound, he should define it in
this way: “This is high or low, small or large, brown or

516
black or white, long or round,” after which he should
observe [the relative positions] thus: “In this place, this
is a termite-mound, this is the sign of foulness.”
31. If there is a tree, he should define it in this way:
“This is a pipal fig tree or a banyan fig tree or a
kacchaka fig tree or a kapittha fig tree; it is tall or short,
small or large, black or white,” after which he should
observe [the relative positions] thus: “In this place, this
is a tree, this is the sign of foulness.”
32. If there is a bush, he should define it in this way:
“This is a sindi bush or a karamanda bush or a kaṇavīra
bush or a koraṇḍaka bush; it is tall or short, small or
large,” after which he should observe [the relative
positions] thus: “In this place, this is a bush, this is the
sign of foulness.”
33. If there is a creeper, he should define it in this
way: “This is a pumpkin creeper or a gourd creeper or
a brown creeper or a black creeper or a stinking
creeper,” after which he should observe [the relative
positions] thus: “In this place, this is a creeper, this is
the sign of foulness; this is the sign of foulness, this is
a creeper.”
34. Also with its particular sign and in relation to the
object was said (§19); but that is included by what has
just been said; for he “characterizes it with its
particular sign” when he defines it again and again,

517
and he “characterizes it in relation to the object” when
he defines it by combining it each time in pairs thus:
“This is a rock, this is the sign of foulness; this is the
sign of foulness, this is a rock.”
35. Having done this, again he should bring to mind
the fact that it has an individual essence, its own state
of being bloated, which is not common to anything
else, since it was said that he defines[4] it by the fact of
its having attained that particular individual essence. The
meaning is that it should be defined according to
individual essence, according to its own nature, as
“the inflated,[5] the bloated.”
Having defined it in this way, he should apprehend
the sign in the following six ways, that is to say, (1) by
its colour, (2) by its mark, (3) by its shape, [184] (4) by
its direction, (5) by its location, (6) by its delimitation.
How?
36. (1) The meditator should define it by its colour
thus: “This is the body of one who is black or white or
yellow-skinned.”
37. (2) Instead of defining it by the female mark or the
male mark, he should define it by its mark thus: “This
is the body of one who was in the first phase of life, in
the middle phase, in the last phase.”
38. (3) By its shape: he should define it only by the

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shape of the bloated thus: “This is the shape of its
head, this is the shape of its neck, this is the shape of
its hand, this is the shape of its chest, this is the shape
of its belly, this is the shape of its navel, this is the
shape of its hips, this is the shape of its thigh, this is
the shape of its calf, this is the shape of its foot.”
39. (4) He should define it by its direction thus: “There
are two directions in this body, that is, down from the
navel as the lower direction, and up from it as the
upper direction.” Or alternatively, he can define it
thus: “I am standing in this direction; the sign of
foulness is in that direction.”
40. (5) He should define it by its location thus: “The
hand is in this location, the foot in this, the head in
this, the middle of the body in this.” Or alternatively,
he can define it thus: “I am in this location; the sign of
foulness is in that.”
41. (6) He should define it by its delimitation thus:
“This body is delimited below by the soles of the feet,
above by the tips of the hair, all round by the skin; the
space so delimited is filled up with thirty-two pieces
of corpse.” Or alternatively, he can define it thus:
“This is the delimitation of its hand, this is the
delimitation of its foot, this is the delimitation of its
head, this is the delimitation of the middle part of its
body.” Or alternatively, he can delimit as much of it as

519
he has apprehended thus: “Just this much of the
bloated is like this.”
42. However, a female body is not appropriate for a
man or a male one for a woman; for the object,
[namely, the repulsive aspect], does not make its
appearance in a body of the opposite sex, which
merely becomes a condition for the wrong kind of
excitement.[6] To quote the Majjhima Commentary:
“Even when decaying,[7] a woman invades a man’s
mind and stays there.” That is why the sign should be
apprehended in the six ways only in a body of the
same sex.
43. But when a clansman has cultivated the
meditation subject under former Enlightened Ones,
kept the ascetic practices, threshed out the great
primary elements, discerned formations, defined
mentality-materiality, eliminated the perception of a
being, done the ascetic’s [185] duties, lived the moral
life, and developed the development, when he
contains the seed [of turning away from formations],
and has mature knowledge and little defilement, then
the counterpart sign appears to him in the place while
he keeps looking. If it does not appear in that way,
then it appears to him as he is apprehending the sign
in the six ways.
44. But if it does not appear to him even then, he

520
should apprehend the sign again in five more ways:
(7) by its joints, (8) by its openings, (9) by its
concavities, (10) by its convexities, and (11) all round.
45. Herein, (7) by its joints is [properly] by its hundred
and eighty joints. But how can he define the hundred
and eighty joints in the bloated? Consequently he can
define it by its fourteen major joints thus: Three joints
in the right arm, three in the left arm, three in the right
leg, three in the left leg, one neck joint, one waist joint.
46. (8) By its openings: an “opening” is the hollow
between the arm [and the side], the hollow between
the legs, the hollow of the stomach, the hollow of the
ear. He should define it by its openings in this way. Or
alternatively, the opened or closed state of the eyes
and the opened or closed state of the mouth can be
defined.
47. (9) By its concavities: he should define any concave
place on the body such as the eye sockets or the inside
of the mouth or the base of the neck. Or he can define
it thus: “I am standing in a concave place, the body is
in a convex place.”
48. (10) By its convexities: he should define any raised
place on the body such as the knee or the chest or the
forehead. Or he can define it thus: “I am standing in a
convex place, the body is in a concave place.”
49. (11) All round: the whole body should be defined

521
all round. After working over the whole body with
knowledge, he should establish his mind thus, “The
bloated, the bloated,” upon any part that appears
clearly to him. If it has not appeared even yet, and if
there is special intensity of the bloatedness in the
belly,[8] he should establish his mind thus, “The
bloated, the bloated,” on that.
50. Now, as to the words, he sees that the sign is properly
apprehended, etc., the explanation is this. The meditator
should apprehend the sign thoroughly in that body in
the way of apprehending the sign already described.
He should advert to it with well-established
mindfulness. He should see that it is properly
remembered, properly defined, by doing that again
and again. Standing in a place not too far from and not
too near to the body, he should open his eyes, look
and apprehend the sign. [186] He should open his eyes
and look a hundred times, a thousand times,
[thinking], “Repulsiveness of the bloated,
repulsiveness of the bloated,” and he should close his
eyes and advert to it.
51. As he does so again and again, the learning sign
becomes properly apprehended by him. When is it
properly apprehended? When it comes into focus alike
whether he opens his eyes and looks or closes his eyes
and adverts, then it is called properly apprehended.

522
52. When he has thus properly apprehended the sign,
properly remembered it, and properly defined it, then
if he is unable to conclude his development on the
spot, he can go to his own lodging, alone, in the same
way as described of his coming, with no companion,
keeping that same meditation subject in mind, with
mindfulness well established, and with his mind not
turned outwards owing to his faculties being turned
inwards.
53. As he leaves the charnel ground he should define
the path he comes back by thus: “The path by which I
have left goes in an easterly direction, westerly …
northerly … southerly direction,” or “It goes in an
intermediate direction”; or “In this place it goes to the
left, in this place to the right”; and “In this place there
is a stone, in this a termite-mound, in this a tree, in this
a bush, in this a creeper.”
54. When he has defined the path he has come back
by and when, once back, he is walking up and down,
he should see that his walk is oriented towards it too;
the meaning is that he should walk up and down on a
piece of ground that faces in the direction of the sign
of foulness. And when he sits, he should prepare a
seat oriented towards it too.
55. But if there is a bog or a ravine or a tree or a fence
or a swamp in that direction, if he cannot walk up and

523
down on a piece of ground facing in that direction, if
he cannot prepare his seat thus because there is no
room for it, then he can both walk up and down and
sit in a place where there is room, even though it does
not face that way; but he should turn his mind in that
direction.
56. Now, as to the questions beginning with what is the
purpose … characterizing the surrounding signs? The
intention of the answer that begins with the words, has
non-delusion for its purpose, is this: If someone goes at
the wrong time to the place where the sign of the
bloated is, and opens his eyes for the purpose of
apprehending the sign by characterizing the
surrounding signs, then as soon as he looks the dead
body appears [187] as if it were standing up and
threatening[9] and pursuing him, and when he sees the
hideous and fearful object, his mind reels, he is like
one demented, gripped by panic, fear and terror, and
his hair stands on end. For among the thirty-eight
meditation subjects expounded in the texts no object is
so frightening as this one. There are some who lose
jhāna in this meditation subject. Why? Because it is so
frightening.
57. So the meditator must stand firm. Establishing his
mindfulness well, he should remove his fears in this
way: “No dead body gets up and pursues one. If that
stone or that creeper close to it were to come, the body

524
might come too; but since that stone or that creeper
does not come, the body will not come either. Its
appearance to you in this way is born: of your
perception, created by your perception. Today your
meditation subject has appeared to you. Do not be
afraid, bhikkhu.” He should laugh it off and direct his
mind to the sign. In that way he will arrive at
distinction. The words “Characterizing the
surrounding signs has non-delusion for its purpose”
are said on this account.
58. To succeed in apprehending the sign in the eleven
ways is to anchor the meditation subject. For the
opening of his eyes and looking conditions the arising
of the learning sign; and as he exercises his mind on
that the counterpart sign arises; and as he exercises his
mind on that he reaches absorption. When he is sure
of absorption, he works up insight and realizes
Arahantship. Hence it was said: apprehending the sign
in the [other] eleven ways has anchoring [the mind] for its
purpose.
59. The reviewing of the path gone by and come by has
keeping [the mind] on the track for its purpose: the
meaning is that the reviewing of the path gone by and
of the path come back by mentioned is for the purpose
of keeping properly to the track of the meditation
subject.

525
60. For if this bhikkhu is going along with his
meditation subject and people on the way ask him
about the day, “What is today, venerable sir?” or they
ask him some question [about Dhamma], or they
welcome him, he ought not to go on in silence,
thinking “I have a meditation subject.” The day must
be told, the question must be answered, even by
saying “I do not know” if he does not know, a
legitimate welcome must be responded to. [188] As he
does so, the newly acquired sign vanishes. But even if
it does vanish, he should still tell the day when asked;
if he does not know the answer to the question, he
should still say “I do not know,” and if he does know
it, he should explain it surely;[10] and he must respond
to a welcome. Also reception of visitors must be
attended to on seeing a visiting bhikkhu, and all the
remaining duties in the Khandhakas must be carried
out too, that is, the duties of the shrine terrace, the
duties of the Bodhi-tree terrace, the duties of the
Uposatha house, the duties of the refectory and the
bath house, and those to the teacher, the preceptor,
visitors, departing bhikkhus, and the rest.
61. And the newly acquired sign vanishes while he is
carrying out these too. When he wants to go again,
thinking “I shall go and take up the sign,” he finds he
cannot go to the charnel ground because it has been
invaded by non-human beings or by wild beasts, or

526
the sign has disappeared. For a bloated corpse only
lasts one or two days and then turns into a livid
corpse. Of all the meditation subjects there is none so
hard to come by as this.
62. So when the sign has vanished in this way, the
bhikkhu should sit down in his night quarters or in his
day quarters and first of all review the path gone by
and come by up to the place where he is actually
sitting cross-legged, doing it in this way: “I went out
of the monastery by this gate, I took a path leading in
such and such a direction, I turned left at such and
such a place, I turned right at such and such a place, in
one part of it there was a stone, in another a termite-
mound or a tree or a bush or a creeper; having gone by
that path, I saw the foulness in such and such a place, I
stood there facing in such and such a direction and
observed such and such surrounding signs, I
apprehended the sign of foulness in this way; I left the
charnel ground in such and such a direction, I came
back by such and such a path doing this and this, and
I am now sitting here.”
63. As he reviews it in this way, the sign becomes
evident and appears as if placed in front of him; the
meditation subject rides in its track as it did before.
Hence it was said: the reviewing of the path gone by and
come by has keeping [the mind] on the track for its purpose.

527
64. Now, as to the words, when he has established
reverence for it by seeing its advantages and by
perceiving it as a treasure and so come to love it, he
anchors the mind on that object: here, having gained
jhāna by exercising his mind on the repulsiveness in
the bloated, he should increase insight with the jhāna
as its proximate cause, and then he should see the
advantages in this way: [189] “Surely in this way I
shall be liberated from ageing and death.”
65. Just as a pauper who acquired a treasure of gems
would guard and love it with great affection, feeling
reverence for it as one who appreciates the value of it,
“I have got what is hard indeed to get!” so too [this
bhikkhu] should guard the sign, loving it and feeling
reverence for it as one who appreciates the value of it,
“I have got this meditation subject, which is indeed as
hard to get as a very valuable treasure is for a pauper
to get. For one whose meditation subject is the four
elements discerns the four primary elements in
himself, one whose meditation subject is breathing
discerns the wind in his own nostrils, and one whose
meditation subject is a kasiṇa makes a kasiṇa and
develops it at his ease, so these other meditation
subjects are easily got. But this one lasts only one, or
two days, after which it turns into a livid corpse. There
is none harder to get than this one.” In his night
quarters and in his day quarters he should keep his

528
mind anchored there thus, “Repulsiveness of the
bloated, repulsiveness of the bloated.” And he should
advert to the sign, bring it to mind and strike at it with
thought and applied thought over and over again.
66. As he does so, the counterpart sign arises. Here is
the difference between the two signs. The learning
sign appears as a hideous, dreadful and frightening
sight; but the counterpart sign appears like a man with
big limbs lying down after eating his fill.
67. Simultaneously with his acquiring the counterpart
sign, his lust is abandoned by suppression owing to
his giving no attention externally to sense desires [as
object]. And owing to his abandoning of approval, ill
will is abandoned too, as pus is with the abandoning
of blood. Likewise stiffness and torpor are abandoned
through exertion of energy, agitation and worry are
abandoned through devotion to peaceful things that
cause no remorse; and uncertainty about the Master
who teaches the way, about the way, and about the
fruit of the way, is abandoned through the actual
experience of the distinction attained. So the five
hindrances are abandoned. And there are present
applied thought with the characteristic of directing the
mind on to that same sign, and sustained thought
accomplishing the function of pressing on the sign,
and happiness due to the acquisition of distinction,
and tranquillity due to the production of tranquillity

529
in one whose mind is happy, and bliss with that
tranquillity as its sign, [190] and unification that has
bliss as its sign due to the production of concentration
in one whose mind is blissful. So the jhāna factors
become manifest.
68. Thus access, which is the obverse of the first jhāna,
is produced in him too at that same moment. All after
that up to absorption in the first jhāna and mastery in
it should be understood as described under the earth
kasiṇa.
69. As regards the livid and the rest: the
characterizing already described, starting with the
going in the way beginning “One who is learning the
bloated sign of foulness goes alone with no
companion, with unremitting mindfulness
established” (§19), should all be understood with its
exposition and intention, substituting for the word
“bloated” the appropriate word in each case thus:
“One who is learning the livid sign of foulness …”,
“One who is learning the festering sign of foulness …”
But the differences are as follows.

[The Livid]

70. The livid should be brought to mind as

530
“Repulsiveness of the livid, repulsiveness of the livid.”
Here the learning sign appears blotchy-coloured; but
the counterpart sign’s appearance has the colour
which is most prevalent.

[The Festering]

71. The festering should be brought to mind as

“Repulsiveness of the festering, repulsiveness of the
festering.” Here the learning sign appears as though
trickling; but the counterpart sign appears motionless
and quiet.

[The Cut Up]

72. The cut up is found on a battlefield or in a robbers’

forest or on a charnel ground where kings have
robbers cut up or in the jungle in a place where men
are torn up by lions and tigers. So, if when he goes
there, it comes into focus at one adverting although
lying in different places, that is good. If not, then he
should not touch it with his own hand; for by doing so
he would become familiar with it.[11] He should get a
monastery attendant or one studying to become an

531
ascetic or someone else to put it together in one place.
If he cannot find anyone to do it, he should put it
together with a walking stick or a staff in such a way
that there is only a finger’s breadth separating [the
parts]. Having put it together thus, he should bring it
to mind as “Repulsiveness of the cut up, repulsiveness
of the cut up.” Herein, the learning sign appears as
though cut in the middle; but the counterpart sign
appears whole. [191]

[The Gnawed]

73. The gnawed should be brought to mind as

“Repulsiveness of the gnawed, repulsiveness of the
gnawed.” Here the learning sign appears as though
gnawed here and there; but the counterpart sign
appears whole.

[The Scattered]

74. After getting the scattered put together or putting it

together in the way described under the cut up so that
there is only a finger’s breadth, separating [the pieces],
it should be brought to mind as “Repulsiveness of the

532
scattered, repulsiveness of the scattered.” Here the
learning sign appears with the gaps evident; but the
counterpart sign appears whole.

[The Hacked and Scattered]

75. The hacked and scattered is found in the same places

as those described under the cut up. Therefore, after
going there and getting it put together or putting it
together in the way described under the cut up so that
there is only a finger’s breadth separating [the pieces],
it should be brought to mind as “Repulsiveness of the
hacked and scattered, repulsiveness of the hacked and
scattered.” Here, when the learning sign becomes
evident, it does so with the fissures of the wounds; but
the counterpart sign appears whole.

[The Bleeding]

76. The bleeding is found at the time when [blood] is

trickling from the openings of wounds received on
battlefields, etc., or from the openings of burst boils
and abscesses when the hands and feet have been cut
off. So on seeing that, it should be brought to mind as

533
“Repulsiveness of the bleeding, repulsiveness of the
bleeding.” Here the learning sign appears to have the
aspect of moving like a red banner struck by wind; but
the counterpart sign appears quiet.

[The Worm-Infested]

77. There is a worm-infested corpse when at the end of

two or three days a mass of maggots oozes out from
the corpse’s nine orifices, and the mass lies there like a
heap of paddy or boiled rice as big as the body,
whether the body is that of a dog, a jackal, a human
being,[12] an ox, a buffalo, an elephant, a horse, a
python, or what you will. It can be brought to mind
with respect to anyone of these as “Repulsiveness of
the worm-infested, repulsiveness of the worm-
infested.” For the sign arose for the Elder Cūḷa-
Piṇḍapātika-Tissa in the corpse of an elephant’s
carcass in the Kāḷadīghavāpi reservoir. Here the
learning sign appears as though moving; but the
counterpart sign appears quiet, like a ball of boiled
rice.

[A Skeleton]

534
78. A skeleton is described in various aspects in the
way beginning “As though he were looking at a
corpse thrown onto a charnel ground, a skeleton with
flesh and blood, held together by sinews” (D II 296).
[192] So he should go in the way already described to
where it has been put, and noticing any stones, etc.,
with their surrounding signs and in relation, to the
object, he should characterize it by the fact of its having
attained that particular individual essence thus, “This is a
skeleton,” and he should apprehend the sign in the
eleven ways by colour and the rest. But if he looks at
it, [apprehending it only] by its colour as white, it does
not appear to him [with its individual essence as
repulsive], but only as a variant of the white kasiṇa.
Consequently he should only look at it as ‘a skeleton’
in the repulsive aspect.
79. “Mark” is a term for the hand, etc., here, so he
should define it by its mark according to hand, foot,
head, chest, arm, waist, thigh, and shin. He should
define it by its shape, however, according as it is long,
short, square, round, small or large. By its direction and
by its location are as already described (§39–40).
Having defined it by its delimitation according to the
periphery of each bone, he should reach absorption by
apprehending whichever appears most evident to
him. But it can also be defined by its concavities and by
its convexities according to the concave and convex

535
places in each bone. And it can also be defined by
position thus: “I am standing in a concave place, the
skeleton is in a convex place; or I am standing in a
convex place, the skeleton is in a concave place.” It
should be defined by its joints according as any two
bones are joined together. It should be defined by its
openings according to the gaps separating the bones. It
should be defined all round by directing knowledge to
it comprehensively thus: “In this place there is this
skeleton.” If the sign does not arise even in this way,
then the mind should be established on the frontal
bone. And in this case, just as in the case of those that
precede it beginning with the worm-infested, the
apprehending of the sign should be observed in this
elevenfold manner as appropriate.
80. This meditation subject is successful with a whole
skeleton frame and even with a single bone as well. So
having learnt the sign in anyone of these in the eleven
ways, he should bring it to mind as “Repulsiveness of
a skeleton, repulsiveness of a skeleton.” Here the
learning sign and the counterpart sign are alike, so it is
said. That is correct for a single bone. But when the
learning sign becomes manifest in a skeleton frame,
what is correct [to say] is that there are gaps in the
learning sign while the counterpart sign appears
whole. [193] And the learning sign even in a single
bone should be dreadful and terrifying but the

536
counterpart sign produces happiness and joy because
it brings access.
81. What is said in the Commentaries in this context
allows that deduction. For there, after saying this,
“There is no counterpart sign in the four divine
abidings and in the ten kinds of foulness; for in the
case of the divine abidings the sign is the breaking
down of boundaries itself, and in the case of the ten
kinds of foulness the sign comes into being as soon as
the repulsiveness is seen, without any thinking about
it,” it is again said, immediately next: “Here the sign is
twofold: the learning sign and the counterpart sign.
The learning sign appears hideous, dreadful and
terrifying,” and so on. So what we said was well
considered. And it is only this that is correct here.
Besides, the appearance of a woman’s whole body as a
collection of bones to the Elder Mahā-Tissa through
his merely looking at her teeth demonstrates this here
(see I.55).

[General]

82. The Divine Ruler with ten hundred eyes

Did him with the Ten Powers eulogize,
Who, fair in fame, made known as cause of jhāna

537
 This foulness of ten species in such wise.
Now, knowing their description and the way
To tackle each and how they are developed,
There are some further points that will repay
Study, each with its special part to play.
83. One who has reached jhāna in anyone of these
goes free from cupidity; he resembles [an Arahant]
without greed because his greed has been well
suppressed. At the same time, however, this
classification of foulness should be understood as
stated in accordance with the particular individual
essences successively reached by the [dead] body and
also in accordance with the particular subdivisions of
the greedy temperament.
84. When a corpse has entered upon the repulsive
state, it may have reached the individual essence of
the bloated or anyone of the individual essences
beginning with that of the livid. So the sign should be
apprehended as “Repulsiveness of the bloated,”
“Repulsiveness of the livid,” according to whichever
he has been able to find. This, it should be understood,
is how the classification of foulness comes to be
tenfold with the body’s arrival at each particular
individual essence.
85. And individually the bloated suits one who is
greedy about shape since it makes evident the

538
disfigurement of the body’s shape. The livid suits one
who is greedy about the body’s colour since it makes
evident the disfigurement of the skin’s colour. The
festering [194] suits one who is greedy about the smell
of the body aroused by scents, perfumes, etc., since it
makes evident the evil smells connected with this sore,
the body. The cut up suits one who is greedy about
compactness in the body since it makes evident the
hollowness inside it. The gnawed suits one who is
greedy about accumulation of flesh in such parts of
the body as the breasts since it makes it evident how a
fine accumulation of flesh comes to nothing. The
scattered suits one who is greedy about the grace of the
limbs since it makes it evident how limbs can be
scattered. The hacked and scattered suits one who is
greedy about a fine body as a whole since it makes
evident the disintegration and alteration of the body
as a whole. The bleeding suits one who is greedy about
elegance produced by ornaments since it makes
evident its repulsiveness when smeared with blood.
The worm-infested suits one who is greedy about
ownership of the body since it makes it evident how
the body is shared with many families of worms. A
skeleton suits one who is greedy about fine teeth since
it makes evident the repulsiveness of the bones in the
body. This, it should be understood, is how the
classification of foulness comes to be tenfold according

539
to the subdivisions of the greedy temperament.
86. But as regards the tenfold foulness, just as it is
only by virtue of its rudder that a boat keeps steady in
a river with turbulent[13] waters and a rapid current,
and it cannot be steadied without a rudder, so too
[here], owing to the weak hold on the object,
consciousness when unified only keeps steady by
virtue of applied thought, and it cannot be steadied
without applied thought, which is why there is only
the first jhāna here, not the second and the rest.
87. And repulsive as this object is, still it arouses joy
and happiness in him by his seeing its advantages
thus, “Surely in this way I shall be liberated from ageing
and death,” and by his abandoning the hindrances’
oppression; just as a garbage heap does in a flower-
scavenger by his seeing the advantages thus, “Now I
shall get a high wage,” and as the workings of purges
and emetics do in a man suffering the pains of
sickness.
88. This foulness, while of ten kinds, has only one
characteristic. For though it is of ten kinds,
nevertheless its characteristic is only its impure,
stinking, disgusting and repulsive state (essence). And
foulness appears with this characteristic not only in a
dead body but also in a living one, as it did to the
Elder Mahā-Tissa who lived at Cetiyapabbata (I.55),

540
and to the novice attendant on the Elder
Saṅgharakkhita while he was watching the king riding
an elephant. For a living body is just as foul as a dead
one, [195] only the characteristic of foulness is not
evident in a living body, being hidden by adventitious
embellishments.
89. This is the body’s nature: it is a collection of over
three hundred bones, jointed by one hundred and
eighty joints, bound together by nine hundred sinews,
plastered over with nine hundred pieces of flesh,
enveloped in the moist inner skin, enclosed in the
outer cuticle, with orifices here and there, constantly
dribbling and trickling like a grease pot, inhabited by
a community of worms, the home of disease, the basis
of painful states, perpetually oozing from the nine
orifices like a chronic open carbuncle, from both of
whose eyes eye-filth trickles, from whose ears comes
ear-filth, from whose nostrils snot, from whose mouth
food and bile and phlegm and blood, from whose
lower outlets excrement and urine, and from whose
ninety-nine thousand pores the broth of stale sweat
seeps, with bluebottles and their like buzzing round it,
which when untended with tooth sticks and mouth-
washing and head-anointing and bathing and
underclothing and dressing would, judged by the
universal repulsiveness of the body, make even a king,
if he wandered from village to village with his hair in

541
its natural wild disorder, no different from a flower-
scavenger or an outcaste or what you will. So there is
no distinction between a king’s body and an outcaste’s
in so far as its impure stinking nauseating
repulsiveness is concerned.
90. But by rubbing out the stains on its teeth with
tooth sticks and mouth-washing and all that, by
concealing its private parts under several cloths, by
daubing it with various scents and salves, by pranking
it with nosegays and such things, it is worked up into
a state that permits of its being taken as “I” and
“mine.” So men delight in women and women in men
without perceiving the true nature of its characteristic
foulness, now masked by this adventitious
adornment. But in the ultimate sense there is no place
here even the size of an atom fit to lust after.
91. And then, when any such bits of it as head hairs,
body hairs, nails, teeth, spittle, snot, excrement or
urine have dropped off the body, beings will not touch
them; they are ashamed, humiliated and disgusted.
But as long as anyone of these things remains in it,
though it is just as repulsive, they take it as agreeable,
desirable, permanent, [196] pleasant, self, because they
are wrapped in the murk of ignorance and dyed with
affection and greed for self. Taking it as they do, they
resemble the old jackal who saw a flower not yet fallen
from a kiṃsuka tree in a forest and yearned after it,

542
thinking, “This is a piece of meat, it is a piece of meat.”
92. There was a jackal chanced to see
A flowering kiṃsuka in a wood;
In haste he went to where it stood:
“I have found a meat-bearing tree!”
He chewed the blooms that fell, but could,
Of course, find nothing fit to eat;
He took it thus: “Unlike the meat
There on the tree, this is no good.”
A wise man will not think to treat
As foul only the part that fell,
But treats as foul the part as well
That in the body has its seat.
Fools cannot in their folly tell;
They take the body to be fair,
And soon get caught in Evil’s snare
Nor can escape its painful spell.
But since the wise have thus laid bare
This filthy body’s nature, so,
Be it alive or dead, they know
There is no beauty lurking there.
93. For this is said:
“This filthy body stinks outright
Like ordure, like a privy’s site;
This body men that have insight

543
 Condemn, as object of a fool’s delight.
“A tumour where nine holes abide
Wrapped in a coat of clammy hide
And trickling filth on every side,
Polluting the air with stenches far and wide.
“If it perchance should come about
That what is inside it came out,
Surely a man would need a knout
With which to put the crows and dogs to rout.”
94. So a capable bhikkhu should apprehend the sign
wherever the aspect of foulness is manifest, whether in
a living body or in a dead one, and he should make
the meditation subject reach absorption.
The sixth chapter called “The Description of Foulness
as a Meditation Subject” in the Treatise on the
Development of Concentration in the Path of
Purification composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

544
Notes for Chapter VI

1. It is not possible to render such associative and

alliterative derivations of meaning into English.
They have nothing to do with the historical
development of words, and their purpose is
purely mnemonic.
2. Apavārita—“opened up”: not in PED.
3. This does not imply what we, now, might
suppose. See the description of “brain” in VIII.126
and especially VIII.136. What is meant is perhaps
that he might get a cold or catarrh.
4. Reference back to §19 requires sabhāvato
upalakkhati rather than sabhāvato vavaṭṭhāpeti, but
so the readings have it.
5. Vaṇita—“inflated”: glossed by Vism-mhṭ with
sūna (swollen). Not in PED in this sense.
6. Vipphandana—“wrong kind of excitement”: Vism-
mhṭ says here “Kilesaparipphandanass’ eva nimittaṃ
hotī ti attho (the meaning is, it becomes the sign for
interference by (activity of) defilement” (Vism-
mhṭ 170). Phandati and vipphandati are both given
only such meanings as “to throb, stir, twitch” and
paripphandati is not in PED. For the sense of wrong
(vi-) excitement (phandana) cf. IV.89 and XIV.132

545
 and note. There seems to be an association of
meaning between vipphāra, vyāpāra, vipphandana,
īhaka, and paripphandana (perhaps also ābhoga) in
the general senses of interestedness, activity,
concern, interference, intervention, etc.
7. The Harvard text has ugghāṭita, but Vism-mhṭ (p.
170) reads “ugghāṇitā (not in PED) pī-tī
uddhumātakabhāvappattā pi sabbaso kuthita-sarīrā-pī-
ti attho.”
8. “Udara-pariyosānaṃ uparisarīram” (Vism-mhṭ 172).
Pariyosāna here means “intensity” though
normally it means “end”; but see PED pariyosita.
9. There is no sense of ajjhottharati given in PED that
fits here. Cf. I.56.
10. Reading ekaṃsena (surely) with Harvard text
rather than ekadesena (partly).
11. “He would come to handle it without disgust as a
corpse-burner would” (Vism-mhṭ 176.).
12. Reading manussa with Sinhalese ed.
13. Aparisaṇṭhita—“turbulent.” Parisaṇṭhāti (to quiet)
is not in PED. Aparisaṇṭhita is not in CPD.

546
 Chapter VII
Six Recollections
(Cha-anussati-niddesa)

1. [197] Now, ten recollections were listed next after

the ten kinds of foulness (III.105). As to these:
Mindfulness (sati) itself is recollection (anussati)
because it arises again and again; or alternatively, the
mindfulness (sati) that is proper (anurūpa) for a
clansman gone forth out of faith, since it occurs only in
those instances where it should occur, is “recollection”
(anussati).
The recollection arisen inspired by the Enlightened
One is the recollection of the Buddha. This is a term for
mindfulness with the Enlightened One’s special
qualities as its object.
The recollection arisen inspired by the Law is the
recollection of the Dhamma.[1] This is a term for
mindfulness with the special qualities of the Law’s
being well proclaimed, etc., as its object.
The recollection arisen inspired by the Community
is the recollection of the Saṅgha. This is a term for
mindfulness with the Community’s special qualities of
being entered on the good way, etc., as its object.

547
 The recollection arisen inspired by virtue is the
recollection of virtue. This is a term for mindfulness
with the special qualities of virtue’s untornness, etc.,
as its object.
The recollection arisen inspired by generosity is the
recollection of generosity. This is a term for mindfulness
with generosity’s special qualities of free generosity,
etc., as its object.
The recollection arisen inspired by deities is the
recollection of deities. This is a term for mindfulness
with the special qualities of one’s own faith, etc., as its
object with deities standing as witnesses.
The recollection arisen inspired by death is the
recollection of death. This is a term for mindfulness with
the termination of the life faculty as its object.
[Mindfulness occupied with the body (kāya-gatā sati—lit.
“body-gone mindfulness”):] it is gone (gata) to the
material body (kāya) that is analyzed into head hairs,
etc., or it is gone into the body, thus it is “body-gone”
(kāya-gatā). It is body-gone (kāya-gatā) and it is
mindfulness (sati), thus it is “body-gone-mindfulness”
(kāyagatasati—single compound); but instead of
shortening [the vowel] thus in the usual way, “body-
gone mindfulness” (kāyagatā sati—compound adj. +
noun) is said. This is a term for mindfulness that has
as its object the sign of the bodily parts consisting of

548
head hairs and the rest.
The mindfulness arisen inspired by breathing
(ānāpāna) is mindfulness of breathing. This is a term for
mindfulness that has as its object the sign of in-breaths
and out-breaths.
The recollection arisen inspired by peace is the
recollection of peace. This is a term that has as its object
the stilling of all suffering.

[(1) Recollection of the Enlightened

One]

2. [198] Now, a meditator with absolute confidence[2]

who wants to develop firstly the recollection of the
Enlightened One among these ten should go into
solitary retreat in a favourable abode and recollect the
special qualities of the Enlightened One, the Blessed
One, as follows:
That Blessed One is such since he is accomplished,
fully enlightened, endowed with [clear] vision and
[virtuous] conduct, sublime, the knower of worlds, the
incomparable leader of men to be tamed, the teacher
of gods and men, enlightened and blessed (M I 37; A
III 285).

549
3. Here is the way he recollects: “That Blessed One is
such since he is accomplished, he is such since he is
fully enlightened, … he is such since he is blessed”—
he is so for these several reasons, is what is meant.

[Accomplished]

4. Herein, what he recollects firstly is that the Blessed

One is accomplished (arahanta) for the following
reasons: (i) because of remoteness (āraka), and (ii)
because of his enemies (ari) and (iii) the spokes (ara)
having been destroyed (hata), and (iv) because of his
worthiness (araha) of requisites, etc., and (v) because of
absence of secret (rahābhāva) evil-doing.[3]
5. (i) He stands utterly remote and far away from all
defilements because he has expunged all trace of
defilement by means of the path—because of such
remoteness (āraka) he is accomplished (arahanta).
A man remote (āraka) indeed we call
From something he has not at all;
The Saviour too that has no stain
May well the name “accomplished” (arahanta)
gain.
6. (ii) And these enemies (ari), these defilements, are
destroyed (hata) by the path—because the enemies are

550
thus destroyed he is accomplished (arahanta) also.
The enemies (ari) that were deployed,
Greed and the rest, have been destroyed (hata)
By his, the Helper’s, wisdom’s sword,
So he is “accomplished” (arahanta), all accord.
7. (iii) Now, this wheel of the round of rebirths with
its hub made of ignorance and of craving for
becoming, with its spokes consisting of formations of
merit and the rest, with its rim of ageing and death,
which is joined to the chariot of the triple becoming by
piercing it with the axle made of the origins of cankers
(see M I 55), has been revolving throughout time that
has no beginning. All of this wheel’s spokes (ara) were
destroyed (hata) by him at the Place of Enlightenment,
as he stood firm with the feet of energy on the ground
of virtue, wielding with the hand of faith the axe of
knowledge that destroys kamma—because the spokes
are thus destroyed he is accomplished (arahanta) also.
8. Or alternatively, it is the beginningless round of
rebirths that is called the “wheel of the round of
rebirths.” Ignorance is its hub because it is its root.
Ageing-and-death is its rim because it terminates it.
The remaining ten states [of the dependent
origination] are its spokes because ignorance is their
root and ageing-and-death their termination.
9. Herein, ignorance is unknowing about suffering

551
and the rest. And ignorance in sensual becoming [199]
is a condition for formations in sensual becoming.
Ignorance in fine-material becoming is a condition for
formations in fine-material becoming. Ignorance in
immaterial becoming is a condition for formations in
immaterial becoming.
10. Formations in sensual becoming are a condition
for rebirth-linking consciousness in sensual becoming.
And similarly with the rest.
11. Rebirth-linking consciousness in sensual becoming
is a condition for mentality-materiality in sensual
becoming. Similarly in fine-material becoming. In
immaterial becoming it is a condition for mentality
only.
12. Mentality-materiality in sensual becoming is a
condition for the sixfold base in sensual becoming.
Mentality-materiality in fine-material becoming is a
condition for three bases in fine-material becoming.
Mentality in immaterial becoming is a condition for
one base in immaterial becoming.
13. The sixfold base in sensual becoming is a
condition for six kinds of contact in sensual becoming.
Three bases in fine-material becoming are conditions
for three kinds of contact in fine-material becoming.
The mind base alone in immaterial becoming is a
condition for one kind of contact in immaterial

552
becoming.
14. The six kinds of contact in sensual becoming are
conditions for six kinds of feeling in sensual becoming.
Three kinds of contact in fine-material becoming are
conditions for three kinds of feeling there too. One
kind of contact in immaterial becoming is a condition
for one kind of feeling there too.
15. The six kinds of feeling in sensual becoming are
conditions for the six groups of craving in sensual
becoming. Three in the fine-material becoming are for
three there too. One kind of feeling in the immaterial
becoming is a condition for one group of craving in
the immaterial becoming. The craving in the several
kinds of becoming is a condition for the clinging there.
16. Clinging, etc., are the respective conditions for
becoming and the rest. In what way? Here someone
thinks, “I shall enjoy sense desires,” and with sense-
desire clinging as condition he misconducts himself in
body, speech, and mind. Owing to the fulfilment of his
misconduct he reappears in a state of loss
(deprivation). The kamma that is the cause of his
reappearance there is kamma-process becoming, the
aggregates generated by the kamma are rebirth-
process becoming, the generating of the aggregates is
birth, their maturing is ageing, their dissolution is
death.

553
17. Another thinks, “I shall enjoy the delights of
heaven,” and in the parallel manner he conducts
himself well. Owing to the fulfilment of his good
conduct he reappears in a [sensual-sphere] heaven.
The kamma that is the cause of his reappearance there
is kamma-process becoming, and the rest as before.
18. Another thinks, “I shall enjoy the delights of the
Brahmā-world,” and with sense-desire clinging as
condition he develops loving-kindness, compassion,
gladness, and equanimity.[4] [200] Owing to the
fulfilment of the meditative development he is reborn
in the Brahmā-world. The kamma that is the cause of
his rebirth there is kamma-process becoming, and the
rest is as before.
19. Yet another thinks, “I shall enjoy the delights of
immaterial becoming,” and with the same condition
he develops the attainments beginning with the base
consisting of boundless space. Owing to the fulfilment
of the development he is reborn in one of these states.
The kamma that is the cause of his rebirth there is
kamma-process becoming, the aggregates generated
by the kamma are rebirth-process becoming, the
generating of the aggregates is birth, their maturing is
ageing, their dissolution is death (see M II 263). The
remaining kinds of clinging are construable in the
same way.

554
20. So, “Understanding of discernment of conditions
thus, ’Ignorance is a cause, formations are causally
arisen, and both these states are causally arisen,’ is
knowledge of the causal relationship of states.
Understanding of discernment of conditions thus, ’In
the past and in the future ignorance is a cause,
formations are causally arisen, and both these states
are causally arisen,’ is knowledge of the causal
relationship of states” (Paṭis I 50), and all the clauses
should be given in detail in this way.
21. Herein, ignorance and formations are one
summarization; consciousness, mentality-materiality,
the sixfold base, contact, and feeling are another;
craving, clinging, and becoming are another; and birth
and ageing-and-death are another. Here the first
summarization is past, the two middle ones are
present, and birth and ageing-and-death are future.
When ignorance and formations are mentioned,
thentates, became dispassionate towards them, when
his greed faded away, when he was liberated, then he
destroyed, quite destroyed, abolished, the spokes of
this wheel of the round of rebirths of the kind just
described.
22. Now, the Blessed One knew, saw, understood,
and penetrated in all aspects this dependent
origination with its four summarizations, its three
times, its twenty aspects, and its three links.

555
“Knowledge is in the sense of that being known,[5]
and understanding is in the sense of the act of
understanding that. Hence it was said:
’Understanding of discernment of conditions is
knowledge of the causal relationship of states’” (Paṭis I
52). Thus when the Blessed One, by correctly knowing
these states with knowledge of relations of states,
became dispassionate towards them, when his greed
faded away, when he was liberated, then he
destroyed, quite destroyed, abolished, the spokes of
this wheel of the round of rebirths of the kind just
described.
Because the spokes are thus destroyed he is
accomplished (arahanta) also. [201]
The spokes (ara) of rebirth’s wheel have been
Destroyed (hata) with wisdom’s weapon keen
By him, the Helper of the World,
And so “accomplished” (arahanta) he is called.
23. (iv) And he is worthy (arahati) of the requisites of
robes, etc., and of the distinction of being accorded
homage because it is he who is most worthy of
offerings. For when a Perfect One has arisen,
important deities and human beings pay homage to
none else; for Brahmā Sahampati paid homage to the
Perfect One with a jewelled garland as big as Sineru,
and other deities did so according to their means, as

556
well as human beings as King Bimbisāra [of Magadha]
and the king of Kosala. And after the Blessed One had
finally attained Nibbāna, King Asoka renounced
wealth to the amount of ninety-six million for his sake
and founded eight-four thousand monasteries
throughout all Jambudīpa (India). And so, with all
these, what need to speak of others? Because of
worthiness of requisites he is accomplished (arahanta)
also.
So he is worthy, the Helper of the World,
Of homage paid with requisites; the word
“Accomplished” (arahanta) has this meaning in
the world:
Hence the Victor is worthy of that word.
24. (v) And he does not act like those fools in the
world who vaunt their cleverness and yet do evil, but
in secret for fear of getting a bad name. Because of
absence of secret (rahābhāva) evil-doing he is
accomplished (arahanta) also.
No secret evil deed may claim
An author so august; the name
“Accomplished” (arahanta) is his deservedly
By absence of such secrecy (rahābhāva).
25. So in all ways:
The Sage of remoteness unalloyed,
Vanquished defiling foes deployed,

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 The spokes of rebirth’s wheel destroyed,
Worthy of requisites employed,
Secret evil he does avoid:
For these five reasons he may claim
This word “accomplished” for his name.

[Fully Enlightened]

26. He is fully enlightened (sammāsambuddha) because

he has discovered (buddha) all things rightly (sammā)
and by himself (sāmaṃ).
In fact, all things were discovered by him rightly by
himself in that he discovered, of the things to be
directly known, that they must be directly known (that
is, learning about the four truths), of the things to be
fully understood that they must be fully understood
(that is, penetration of suffering), of the things to be
abandoned that they must be abandoned (that is,
penetration of the origin of suffering), of the things to
be realized that they must be realized (that is,
penetration of the cessation of suffering), and of the
things to be developed that they must be developed
(that is, penetration of the path). Hence it is said:
What must be directly known is directly known,
What has to be developed has been developed,

558
 What has to be abandoned has been abandoned;
And that, brahman, is why I am enlightened (Sn
558).
27. [202] Besides, he has discovered all things rightly
by himself step by step thus: The eye is the truth of
suffering; the prior craving that originates it by being
its root-cause is the truth of origin; the non-occurrence
of both is the truth of cessation; the way that is the act
of understanding cessation is the truth of the path.
And so too in the case of the ear, the nose, the tongue,
the body, and the mind.
28. And the following things should be construed in
the same way:
the six bases beginning with visible objects;
the six groups of consciousness beginning with
eye-consciousness;
the six kinds of contact beginning with eye-
contact;
the six kinds of feeling beginning with the eye-
contact-born;
the six kinds of perception beginning with
perception of visible objects;
the six kinds of volition beginning with volition
about visible objects;

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the six groups of craving beginning with craving
for visible objects;
the six kinds of applied thought beginning with
applied thought about visible objects;
the six kinds of sustained thought beginning with
sustained thought about visible objects;
the five aggregates beginning with the aggregate
of matter;
the ten kasiṇas;
the ten recollections;
the ten perceptions beginning with perception of
the bloated;
the thirty-two aspects [of the body] beginning
with head hairs;
the twelve bases;
the eighteen elements;
the nine kinds of becoming beginning with
sensual becoming;[6]
the four jhānas beginning with the first;
the four measureless states beginning with the
development of loving-kindness;
the four immaterial attainments;

560
 the factors of the dependent origination in reverse
order beginning with ageing-and-death and in
forward order beginning with ignorance (cf.
XX.9).

29. Herein, this is the construction of a single clause

[of the dependent origination]: Ageing-and-death is
the truth of suffering, birth is the truth of origin, the
escape from both is the truth of cessation, the way that
is the act of understanding cessation is the truth of the
path.
In this way he has discovered, progressively
discovered, completely discovered, all states rightly
and by himself step by step. Hence it was said above:
“He is fully enlightened because he has discovered all
things rightly and by himself” (§26).[7]

[Endowed With Clear Vision and

Virtuous Conduct]

30. He is endowed with [clear] vision and [virtuous]

conduct: vijjācaraṇasampanno = vijjāhi caraṇena ca
sampanno (resolution of compound).
Herein, as to [clear] vision: there are three kinds of
clear vision and eight kinds of clear vision. The three

561
kinds should be understood as stated in the
Bhayabherava Sutta (M I 22f.), and the eight kinds as
stated in the Ambaṭṭha Sutta (D I 100). For there eight
kinds of clear vision are stated, made up of the six
kinds of direct-knowledge together with insight and
the supernormal power of the mind-made [body].
31. [Virtuous] conduct should be understood as fifteen
things, that is to say: restraint by virtue, guarding of
the sense faculties, knowledge of the right amount in
eating, devotion to wakefulness, the seven good states,
[8] and the four jhānas of the fine-material sphere. For
it is precisely by means of these fifteen things that a
noble disciple conducts himself, that he goes towards
the deathless. That is why it is called “[virtuous]
conduct,” according as it is said, “Here, Mahānāma, a
noble disciple has virtue” (M I 355), etc, the whole of
which should be understood as given in the Middle
Fifty [of the Majjhima Nikāya].
[203] Now, the Blessed One is endowed with these
kinds of clear vision and with this conduct as well;
hence he is called “endowed with [clear] vision and
[virtuous] conduct.”
32. Herein, the Blessed One’s possession of clear
vision consists in the fulfilment of omniscience (Paṭis I
131), while his possession of conduct consists in the
fulfilment of the great compassion (Paṭis I 126). He

562
knows through omniscience what is good and harmful
for all beings, and through compassion he warns them
of harm and exhorts them to do good. That is how he
is possessed of clear vision and conduct, which is why
his disciples have entered upon the good way instead
of entering upon the bad way as the self-mortifying
disciples of those who are not possessed of clear vision
and conduct have done.[9]

[Sublime]

33. He is called sublime (sugata)[10] (i) because of a

manner of going that is good (sobhaṇa-gamana), (ii)
because of being gone to an excellent place (sundaraṃ
ṭhānaṃ gatattā), (iii) because of having gone rightly
(sammāgatattā), and (iv) because of enunciating rightly
(sammāgadattā).
(i) A manner of going (gamana) is called “gone”
(gata), and that in the Blessed One is good (sobhaṇa),
purified, blameless. But what is that? It is the noble
path; for by means of that manner of going he has
“gone” without attachment in the direction of safety—
thus he is sublime (sugata) because of a manner of
going that is good.
(ii) And it is to the excellent (sundara) place that he

563
has gone (gata), to the deathless Nibbāna—thus he is
sublime (sugata) also because of having gone to an
excellent place.
34. (iii) And he has rightly (sammā) gone (gata),
without going back again to the defilements
abandoned by each path. For this is said: “He does not
again turn, return, go back, to the defilements
abandoned by the stream entry path, thus he is
sublime … he does not again turn, return, go back, to
the defilements abandoned by the Arahant path, thus
he is sublime” (old commentary?). Or alternatively, he
has rightly gone from the time of [making his
resolution] at the feet of Dīpaṅkara up till the
Enlightenment Session, by working for the welfare
and happiness of the whole world through the
fulfilment of the thirty perfections and through
following the right way without deviating towards
either of the two extremes, that is to say, towards
eternalism or annihilationism, towards indulgence in
sense pleasures or self-mortification—thus he is
sublime also because of having gone rightly.

35. (iv) And he enunciates[11] (gadati) rightly (sammā);

he speaks only fitting speech in the fitting place—thus
he is sublime also because of enunciating rightly.
Here is a sutta that confirms this: “Such speech as
the Perfect One knows to be untrue and incorrect,

564
conducive to harm, and displeasing and unwelcome to
others, that he does not speak. And such speech as the
Perfect One knows to be true and correct, but
conducive to harm, and displeasing and unwelcome to
others, that he does not speak. [204] And such speech
as the Perfect One knows to be true and correct,
conducive to good, but displeasing and unwelcome to
others, that speech the Perfect One knows the time to
expound. Such speech as the Perfect One knows to be
untrue and incorrect, and conducive to harm, but
pleasing and welcome to others, that he does not
speak. And such speech as the Perfect One knows to
be true and correct, but conducive to harm, though
pleasing and welcome to others, that he does not
speak. And such speech as the Perfect One knows to
be true and correct, conducive to good, and pleasing
and welcome to others, that speech the Perfect One
knows the time to expound” (M I 395)—thus he is
sublime also because of enunciating rightly.

[Knower of Worlds]

36. He is the knower of worlds because he has known

the world in all ways. For the Blessed One has
experienced, known and penetrated the world in all
ways to its individual essence, its arising, its cessation,

565
and the means to its cessation, according as it is said:
“Friend, that there is a world’s end where one neither
is born nor ages nor dies nor passes away nor
reappears, which is to be known or seen or reached by
travel—that I do not say. Yet I do not say that there is
ending of suffering without reaching the world’s end.
Rather, it is in this fathom-long carcass with its
perceptions and its consciousness that I make known
the world, the arising of the world, the cessation of the
world, and the way leading to the cessation of the
world.
“Tis utterly impossible
To reach by travel the world’s end;
But there is no escape from pain
Until the world’s end has been reached.
It is a sage, a knower of the worlds,
Who gets to the world’s end, and it is he
Whose life divine is lived out to its term;
He is at peace who the world’s end has known
And hopes for neither this world nor the next” (S
I 62).
37. Moreover, there are three worlds: the world of
formations, the world of beings, and the world of
location. Herein, in the passage, “One world: all
beings subsist by nutriment” (Paṭis I 122), [205] the
world of formations is to be understood. In the
passage, “’The world is eternal’ or ’The world is not

566
eternal’” (M I 426) it is the world of beings. In the
passage:
“As far as moon and sun do circulate
Shining[12] and lighting up the [four] directions,
Over a thousand times as great a world
Your power holds unquestionable sway” (M I
328)—
it is the world of location. The Blessed One has
known that in all ways too.
38. Likewise, because of the words: “One world: all
beings subsist by nutriment. Two worlds: mentality
and materiality. Three worlds: three kinds of feeling.
Four worlds: four kinds of nutriment. Five worlds:
five aggregates as objects of clinging. Six worlds: six
internal bases. Seven worlds: seven stations of
consciousness. Eight worlds: eight worldly states.
Nine worlds: nine abodes of beings. Ten worlds: ten
bases. Twelve worlds: twelve bases. Eighteen worlds:
eighteen elements” (Paṭis I 122),[13] this world of
formations was known to him in all ways.
39. But he knows all beings’ habits, knows their
inherent tendencies, knows their temperaments,
knows their bents, knows them as with little dust on
their eyes and with much dust on their eyes, with keen
faculties and with dull faculties, with good behaviour
and with bad behaviour, easy to teach and hard to

567
teach, capable and incapable [of achievement] (cf.
Paṭis I 121), therefore this world of beings was known
to him in all ways.
40. And as the world of beings so also the world of
location. For accordingly this [world measures as
follows]:
One world-sphere[14] is twelve hundred thousand
leagues and thirty-four hundred and fifty leagues
(1,203,450) in breadth and width. In circumference,
however:
[The measure of it] all around
Is six and thirty hundred thousand
And then ten thousand in addition,
Four hundred too less half a hundred (3,610,350).
41. Herein:
Two times a hundred thousand leagues
And then four nahutas as well (240,000):
This earth, this “Bearer of All Wealth,”
Has that much thickness, as they tell.
And its support:
Four times a hundred thousand leagues
And then eight nahutas as well (480,000):
The water resting on the air
Has that much thickness, as they tell.

568
 And the support of that: [206]
Nine times a hundred thousand goes
The air out in the firmament
And sixty thousand more besides (960,000)
So this much is the world’s extent.
42. Such is its extent. And these features are to be
found in it:
Sineru, tallest of all mountains, plunges down
into the sea
Full four and eighty thousand leagues, and
towers up in like degree
Seven concentric mountain rings surround Sineru
in suchwise
That each of them in depth and height is half its
predecessor’s size:
Vast ranges called Yugandhara, Īsadhara,
Karavīka,
Sudassana, Nemindhara, Vinataka, Assakaṇṇa.
Heavenly [breezes fan] their cliffs agleam with
gems, and here reside
The Four Kings of the Cardinal Points, and other
gods and sprites beside.[15]
Himālaya’s lofty mountain mass rises in height

569
 five hundred leagues
And in its width and in its breadth it covers quite
three thousand leagues,
And then it is bedecked besides with four and
eighty thousand peaks.[16]
The Jambu Tree called Nāga lends the name, by
its magnificence,
To Jambudīpa’s land; its trunk, thrice five leagues
in circumference,
Soars fifty leagues, and bears all round branches
of equal amplitude,
So that a hundred leagues define diameter and
altitude.
43.The World-sphere Mountains’ line of summits
plunges down into the sea
Just two and eighty thousand leagues, and towers
up in like degree,
Enringing one world-element all round in its
entirety.

And the size of the Jambu (Rose-apple) Tree is the

same as that of the Citrapāṭaliya Tree of the Asura
demons, the Simbali Tree of the Garuḷa demons, the
Kadamba Tree in [the western continent of]

570
Aparagoyana, the Kappa Tree [in the northern
continent] of the Uttarakurus, the Sirīsa Tree in [the
eastern continent of] Pubbavideha, and the
Pāricchattaka Tree [in the heaven] of the Deities of the
Thirty-three (Tāvatiṃsa).[17] Hence the Ancients said:
The Pāṭali, Simbali, and Jambu, the deities’
Pāricchattaka,
The Kadamba, the Kappa Tree and the Sirīsa as
the seventh.
44. [207] Herein, the moon’s disk is forty-nine leagues
[across] and the sun’s disk is fifty leagues. The realm
of Tāvatiṃsa (the Thirty-three Gods) is ten thousand
leagues. Likewise the realm of the Asura demons, the
great Avīci (unremitting) Hell, and Jambudīpa (India).
Aparagoyāna is seven thousand leagues. Likewise
Pubbavideha. Uttarakurū is eight thousand leagues.
And herein, each great continent is surrounded by five
hundred small islands. And the whole of that
constitutes a single world-sphere, a single world-
element. Between [this and the adjacent world-
spheres] are the Lokantarika (world-interspace) hells.
[18] So the world-spheres are infinite in number, the
world-elements are infinite, and the Blessed One has
experienced, known and penetrated them with the
infinite knowledge of the Enlightened Ones.
45. Therefore this world of location was known to him

571
in all ways too. So he is “knower of worlds” because
he has seen the world in all ways.

[Incomparable Leader of Men to be

Tamed]

46. In the absence of anyone more distinguished for

special qualities than himself, there is no one to
compare with him, thus he is incomparable. For in this
way he surpasses the whole world in the special
quality of virtue, and also in the special qualities of
concentration, understanding, deliverance, and
knowledge and vision of deliverance. In the special
quality of virtue he is without equal, he is the equal
only of those [other Enlightened Ones] without equal,
he is without like, without double, without
counterpart; … in the special quality of knowledge
and vision of deliverance he is … without counterpart,
according as it is said: “I do not see in the world with
its deities, its Māras and its Brahmās, in this
generation with its ascetics and brahmans, with its
princes and men,[19] anyone more perfect in virtue
than myself” (S I 139), with the rest in detail, and
likewise in the Aggappasāda Sutta (A II 34; It 87), and
so on, and in the stanzas beginning, “I have no teacher
and my like does not exist in all the world” (M I 171),

572
all of which should be taken in detail.
47. He guides (sāreti) men to be tamed (purisa-damme),
thus he is leader of men to be tamed (purisadammasārathī);
he tames, he disciplines, is what is meant. Herein,
animal males (purisā) and human males, and non-
human males that are not tamed but fit to be tamed
(dametuṃ yuttā) are “men to be tamed” (purisadammā).
For the animal males, namely, the royal nāga (serpent)
Apalāla, Cūḷodara, Mahodara, Aggisikha,
Dhūmasikha, the royal nāga Āravāḷa, the elephant
Dhanapālaka, and so on, were tamed by the Blessed
One, freed from the poison [of defilement] and
established in the refuges and the precepts of virtue;
and also the human males, namely, Saccaka the
Nigaṇṭhas’ (Jains’) son, the brahman student
Ambaṭṭha, [208] Pokkharasāti, Soṇadaṇḍa, Kūṭadanta,
and so on; and also the non-human males, namely, the
spirits Āḷavaka, Sūciloma and Kharaloma, Sakka Ruler
of Gods, etc.,[20] were tamed and disciplined by
various disciplinary means. And the following sutta
should be given in full here: “I discipline men to be
tamed sometimes gently, Kesi, and I discipline them
sometimes roughly, and I discipline them sometimes
gently and roughly” (A II 112).
48. Then the Blessed One moreover further tames
those already tamed, doing so by announcing the first
jhāna, etc., respectively to those whose virtue is

573
purified, etc., and also the way to the higher path to
stream enterers, and so on.
Or alternatively, the words incomparable leader of men
to be tamed can be taken together as one clause. For
the Blessed One so guides men to be tamed that in a
single session they may go in the eight directions [by
the eight liberations] without hesitation. Thus he is
called the incomparable leader of men to be tamed. And
the following sutta passage should be given in full
here: “Guided by the elephant-tamer, bhikkhus, the
elephant to be tamed goes in one direction …” (M III
222).

[Teacher of Gods and Men]

49. He teaches (anusāsati) by means of the here and

now, of the life to come, and of the ultimate goal,
according as befits the case, thus he is the Teacher
(satthar). And furthermore this meaning should be
understood according to the Niddesa thus: “’Teacher
(satthar)’: the Blessed One is a caravan leader (satthar)
since he brings home caravans (sattha). Just as one who
brings a caravan home gets caravans across a
wilderness, gets them across a robber-infested
wilderness, gets them across a wild-beast-infested

574
wilderness, gets them across a foodless wilderness,
gets them across a waterless wilderness, gets them
right across, gets them quite across, gets them
properly across, gets them to reach a land of safety, so
too the Blessed One is a caravan leader, one who
brings home the caravans, he gets them across a
wilderness, gets them across the wilderness of birth”
(Nidd I 446).
50. Of gods and men: devamanussānaṃ = devānañ ca
manussānañ ca (resolution of compound). This is said
in order to denote those who are the best and also to
denote those persons capable of progress. For the
Blessed One as a teacher bestowed his teaching upon
animals as well. For when animals can, through
listening to the Blessed One’s Dhamma, acquire the
benefit of a [suitable rebirth as] support [for progress],
and with the benefit of that same support they come,
in their second or third rebirth, to partake of the path
and its fruition.
51. Maṇḍūka, the deity’s son, and others illustrate
this. While the Blessed One was teaching the Dhamma
to the inhabitants of the city of Campā on the banks of
the Gaggarā Lake, it seems, a frog (maṇḍūka)
apprehended a sign in the Blessed One’s voice. [209] A
cowherd who was standing leaning on a stick put his
stick on the frog’s head and crushed it. He died and
was straight away reborn in a gilded, divine palace,

575
twelve leagues broad in the realm of the Thirty-three
(Tāvatiṃsa). He found himself there, as if waking up
from sleep, amidst a host of celestial nymphs, and he
exclaimed, “So I have actually been reborn here. What
deed did I do?” When he sought for the reason, he
found it was none other than his apprehension of the
sign in the Blessed One’s voice. He went with his
divine palace at once to the Blessed One and paid
homage at his feet. Though the Blessed One knew
about it, he asked him:
“Who now pays homage at my feet,
Shining with glory of success,
Illuminating all around
With beauty so outstanding?”
“In my last life I was a frog,
The waters of a pond my home;
A cowherd’s crook ended my life
While listening to your Dhamma” (Vv 49).
The Blessed One taught him the Dhamma. Eighty-
four thousand creatures gained penetration to the
Dhamma. As soon as the deity’s son became
established in the fruition of stream-entry he smiled
and then vanished.

[Enlightened]

576
52. He is enlightened (buddha) with the knowledge that
belongs to the fruit of liberation, since everything that
can be known has been discovered (buddha) by him.
Or alternatively, he discovered (bujjhi) the four
truths by himself and awakened (bodhesi) others to
them, thus and for other such reasons he is
enlightened (buddha). And in order to explain this
meaning the whole passage in the Niddesa beginning
thus: “He is the discoverer (bujjhitar) of the truths, thus
he is enlightened (buddha). He is the awakened
(bodhetar) of the generation, thus he is enlightened
(buddha)” (Nidd I 457), or the same passage from the
Paṭisambhidā (Paṭis I 174), should be quoted in detail.

[Blessed]

53. Blessed (bhagavant) is a term signifying the respect

and veneration accorded to him as the highest of all
beings and distinguished by his special qualities.[21]
Hence the Ancients said:
“Blessed” is the best of words,
“Blessed” is the finest word;
Deserving awe and veneration,
Blessed is the name therefore.
54. Or alternatively, names are of four kinds: denoting

577
a period of life, describing a particular mark,
signifying a particular acquirement, and fortuitously
arisen,[22] which last in the current usage of the world
is called “capricious.” Herein, [210] names denoting a
period of life are those such as “yearling calf” (vaccha),
“steer to be trained” (damma), “yoke ox” (balivaddha),
and the like. Names describing a particular mark are
those such as “staff-bearer” (daṇḍin), “umbrella-
bearer” (chattin), “topknot-wearer” (sikhin), “hand
possessor” (karin—elephant), and the like. Names
signifying a particular acquirement are those such as
“possessor of the threefold clear vision” (tevijja),
“possessor of the six direct-knowledges” (chaḷabhiñña),
and the like. Such names are Sirivaḍḍhaka
(“Augmenter of Lustre”), Dhanavaḍḍhaka
(“Augmenter of Wealth”), etc., are fortuitously arisen
names; they have no reference to the word-meanings.
55. This name, Blessed, is one signifying a particular
acquirement; it is not made by Mahā-Māyā, or by King
Suddhodana, or by the eighty thousand kinsmen, or
by distinguished deities like Sakka, Santusita, and
others. And this is said by the General of the Law:[23]
“’Blessed’: this is not a name made by a mother …
This [name] ’Buddha,’ which signifies final liberation,
is a realistic description of Buddhas (Enlightened
Ones), the Blessed Ones, together with their
obtainment of omniscient knowledge at the root of an

578
Enlightenment [Tree]” (Paṭis I 174; Nidd I 143).
56. Now, in order to explain also the special qualities
signified by this name they cite the following stanza:
Bhagī bhajī bhāgī vibhattavā iti
Akāsi bhaggan ti garū ti bhāgyavā
Bahūhi ñāyehi subhāvitattano
Bhavantago so bhagavā ti vuccati.
The reverend one (garu) has blessings (bhagī), is a
frequenter (bhajī), a partaker (bhāgī), a possessor of
what has been analyzed (vibhattavā);
He has caused abolishing (bhagga), he is fortunate
(bhāgyavā),
He has fully developed himself (subhāvitattano) in
many ways;
He has gone to the end of becoming (bhavantago);
thus is called “Blessed” (bhagavā).
The meaning of these words should be understood
according to the method of explanation given in the
Niddesa (Nidd I 142).[24]
57. But there is this other way:
Bhāgyavā bhaggavā yutto bhagehi ca vibhattavā.
Bhattavā vanta-gamano bhavesu: bhagavā tato.
He is fortunate (bhāgyavā), possessed of abolishment

579
(bhaggavā), associated with blessings (yutto bhagehi),
and a possessor of what has been analyzed
(vibhattavā).
He has frequented (bhattavā), and he has rejected
going in the kinds of becoming (VAnta-GAmano
BHAvesu), thus he is Blessed (Bhagavā).
58. Herein, by using the characteristic of language
beginning with “vowel augmentation of syllable,
elision of syllable” (see Kāśika VI.3.109), or by using
the characteristic of insertion beginning with [the
example of] pisodara, etc. (see Pāṇini, Gaṇapāṭha 6, 3,
109), it may be known that he [can also] be called
“blessed” (bhagavā) when he can be called “fortunate”
(bhāgyavā) owing to the fortunateness (bhāgya) to have
reached the further shore [of the ocean of perfection]
of giving, virtue, etc., which produce mundane and
supramundane bliss (See Khp-a 108.).
59. [Similarly], he [can also] be called “blessed”
(bhagavā) when he can be called “possessed of
abolishment” (bhaggavā) owing to the following
menaces having been abolished; for he has abolished
(abhañji) all the hundred thousand kinds of trouble,
anxiety and defilement classed as greed, as hate, as
delusion, and as misdirected attention; as
consciencelessness and shamelessness, as anger and
enmity, as contempt and domineering, as envy and

580
avarice, as deceit and fraud, as obduracy and
presumption, as pride and haughtiness, as vanity and
negligence, as craving and ignorance; as the three
roots of the unprofitable, kinds of misconduct,
defilement, stains, [211] fictitious perceptions, applied
thoughts, and diversifications; as the four
perversenesses, cankers, ties, floods, bonds, bad ways,
cravings, and clingings; as the five wildernesses in the
heart, shackles in the heart, hindrances, and kinds of
delight; as the six roots of discord, and groups of
craving; as the seven inherent tendencies; as the eight
wrongnesses; as the nine things rooted in craving; as
the ten courses of unprofitable action; as the sixty-two
kinds of [false] view; as the hundred and eight ways of
behaviour of craving[25]—or in brief, the five Māras,
that is to say, the Māras of defilement, of the
aggregates, and of kamma-formations, Māra as a
deity, and Māra as death.
And in this context it is said:
He has abolished (bhagga) greed and hate,
Delusion too, he is canker-free;
Abolished every evil state,
“Blessed” his name may rightly be.
60. And by his fortunateness (bhāgyavatā) is indicated
the excellence of his material body which bears a
hundred characteristics of merit; and by his having

581
abolished defects (bhaggadosatā) is indicated the
excellence of his Dhamma body. Likewise, [by his
fortunateness is indicated] the esteem of worldly
[people; and by his having abolished defects, the
esteem of] those who resemble him. [And by his
fortunateness it is indicated] that he is fit to be relied
on[26] by laymen; and [by his having abolished defects
that he is fit to be relied on by] those gone forth into
homelessness; and when both have relied on him, they
acquire relief from bodily and mental pain as well as
help with both material and Dhamma gifts, and they
are rendered capable of finding both mundane and
supramundane bliss.
61. He is also called “blessed” (bhagavā) since he is
“associated with blessings” (bhagehi yuttattā) such as
those of the following kind, in the sense that he “has
those blessings” (bhagā assa santi). Now, in the world
the word “blessing” is used for six things, namely,
lordship, Dhamma, fame, glory, wish, and endeavour.
He has supreme lordship over his own mind, either of
the kind reckoned as mundane and consisting in
“minuteness, lightness,” etc.,[27] or that complete in all
aspects, and likewise the supramundane Dhamma.
And he has exceedingly pure fame, spread through the
three worlds, acquired though the special quality of
veracity. And he has glory of all limbs, perfect in every
aspect, which is capable of comforting the eyes of

582
people eager to see his material body. And he has his
wish, in other words, the production of what is
wanted, since whatever is wanted and needed by him
as beneficial to himself or others is then and there
produced for him. And he has the endeavour, in other
words, the right effort, which is the reason why the
whole world venerates him.
62. [He can also] be called “blessed” (bhagavā) when
he can be called “a possessor of what has been analyzed”
(vibhattavā) owing to his having analyzed [and
clarified] all states into the [three] classes beginning
with the profitable; or profitable, etc., states into such
classes as aggregates, bases, elements, truths, faculties,
dependent origination, etc.; [212] or the noble truth of
suffering into the senses of oppressing, being formed,
burning, and changing; and that of origin into the
senses of accumulating, source, bond, and
impediment; and that of cessation into the senses of
escape, seclusion, being unformed, and deathless; and
that of the path into the senses of outlet, cause, seeing,
and predominance. Having analyzed, having
revealed, having shown them, is what is meant.
63. He [can also] be called “blessed” (bhagavā) when
he can be called one who “has frequented” (bhattavā)
owing to his having frequented (bhaji), cultivated,
repeatedly practiced, such mundane and
supramundane higher-than-human states as the

583
heavenly, the divine, and the noble abidings,[28] as
bodily, mental, and existential seclusion, as the void,
the desireless, and the signless liberations, and others
as well.
64. He [can also] be called “blessed” (bhagavā) when
he can be called one who “has rejected going in the kinds
of becoming” (vantagamano bhavesu) because in the three
kinds of becoming (bhava), the going (gamana), in other
words, craving, has been rejected (vanta) by him. And
the syllables bha from the word bhava, and ga from the
word gamana, and va from the word vanta with the
letter a lengthened, make the word bhagavā, just as is
done in the world [of the grammarians outside the
Dispensation] with the word mekhalā (waist-girdle)
since “garland for the private parts” (MEhanassa
KHAssa māLĀ) can be said.
65. As long as [the meditator] recollects the special
qualities of the Buddha in this way, “For this and this
reason the Blessed One is accomplished, … for this
and this reason he is blessed,” then: “On that occasion
his mind is not obsessed by greed, or obsessed by
hate, or obsessed by delusion; his mind has rectitude
on that occasion, being inspired by the Perfect One”
(A III 285).[29]
66. So when he has thus suppressed the hindrances by
preventing obsession by greed, etc., and his mind

584
faces the meditation subject with rectitude, then his
applied thought and sustained thought occur with a
tendency toward the Enlightened One’s special
qualities. As he continues to exercise applied thought
and sustained thought upon the Enlightened One’s
special qualities, happiness arises in him. With his
mind happy, with happiness as a proximate cause, his
bodily and mental disturbances are tranquilized by
tranquillity. When the disturbances have been
tranquilized, bodily and mental bliss arise in him.
When he is blissful, his mind, with the Enlightened
One’s special qualities for its object, becomes
concentrated, and so the jhāna factors eventually arise
in a single moment. But owing to the profundity of the
Enlightened One’s special qualities, or else owing to
his being occupied in recollecting special qualities of
many sorts, the jhāna is only access and does not reach
absorption. And that access jhāna itself is known as
“recollection of the Buddha” too, because it arises with
the recollection of the Enlightened One’s special
qualities as the means.
67. When a bhikkhu is devoted to this recollection of
the Buddha, he is respectful and deferential towards
the Master. He attains fullness of faith, mindfulness,
understanding and merit. He has much happiness and
gladness. He conquers fear and dread. [213] He is able
to endure pain. He comes to feel as if he were living in

585
the Master’s presence. And his body, when the
recollection of the Buddha’s special qualities dwells in
it, becomes as worthy of veneration as a shrine room.
His mind tends toward the plane of the Buddhas.
When he encounters an opportunity for transgression,
he has awareness of conscience and shame as vivid as
though he were face to face with the Master. And if he
penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a happy
destiny.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection of the Buddha
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This, firstly, is the section dealing with the
recollection of the Enlightened One in the detailed
explanation.

[(2) Recollection of the Dhamma]

68. One who wants to develop the recollection of the

Dhamma (Law) should go into solitary retreat and
recollect the special qualities of both the Dhamma
(Law) of the scriptures and the ninefold
supramundane Dhamma (state) as follows:
“The Dhamma is well proclaimed by the Blessed

586
One, visible here and now, not delayed (timeless),
inviting of inspection, onward-leading, and directly
experienceable by the wise” (M I 37; A III 285).

[Well Proclaimed]

69. Well proclaimed: in this clause the Dhamma of the

scriptures is included as well as the other; in the rest of
the clauses only the supramundane Dhamma is
included.
Herein, the Dhamma of the scriptures is well
proclaimed because it is good in the beginning, the
middle, and the end, and because it announces the life
of purity that is utterly perfect and pure with meaning
and with detail (see M I 179).
Even a single stanza of the Blessed One’s teaching is
good in the beginning with the first word, good in the
middle with the second, third, etc., and good in the
end with the last word, because the Dhamma is
altogether admirable. A sutta with a single sequence
of meaning[30] is good in the beginning with the
introduction, good in the end with the conclusion, and
good in the middle with what is in between. A sutta
with several sequences of meaning is good in the
beginning with the first sequence of meaning, good in

587
the end with the last sequence of meaning, and good
in the middle with the sequences of meaning in
between. Furthermore, it is good in the beginning with
the introduction [giving the place of] and the origin
[giving the reason for] its utterance. It is good in the
middle because it suits those susceptible of being
taught since it is unequivocal in meaning and
reasoned with cause and example. It is good in the end
with its conclusion that inspires faith in the hearers.
70. Also the entire Dhamma of the Dispensation is
good in the beginning with virtue as one’s own well-
being. It is good in the middle with serenity and
insight and with path and fruition. It is good in the
end with Nibbāna. Or alternatively, it is good in the
beginning with virtue and concentration. [214] It is
good in the middle with insight and the path. It is
good in the end with fruition and Nibbāna. Or
alternatively, it is good in the beginning because it is
the good discovery made by the Buddha. It is good in
the middle because it is the well-regulatedness of the
Dhamma. It is good in the end because it is the good
way entered upon by the Saṅgha. Or alternatively, it is
good in the beginning as the discovery of what can be
attained by one who enters upon the way of practice
in conformity after hearing about it. It is good in the
middle as the unproclaimed enlightenment [of
Paccekabuddhas]. It is good in the end as the

588
enlightenment of disciples.
71. And when listened to, it does good through
hearing it because it suppresses the hindrances, thus it
is good in the beginning. And when made the way of
practice it does good through the way being entered
upon because it brings the bliss of serenity and insight,
thus it is good in the middle. And when it has thus
been made the way of practice and the fruit of the way
is ready, it does good through the fruit of the way
because it brings [unshakable] equipoise, thus it is
good in the end.
So it is “well proclaimed” because of being good in
the beginning, the middle and the end.
72. Now, the life of purity, that is to say, the life of
purity of the Dispensation and the life of purity of the
path, which the Blessed One announces, which he
shows in various ways when he teaches the Dhamma,
is “with meaning” because of perfection of meaning,
and it is “with detail” because of perfection of detail,
as it is proper that it should be. It is “with meaning”
because it conforms to the words declaring its
meaning by pronouncing, clarifying, revealing,
expounding, and explaining it. It is “with detail”
because it has perfection of syllables, words, details,
style, language, and descriptions. It is “with meaning”
owing to profundity of meaning and profundity of

589
penetration. It is “with detail” owing to profundity of
law and profundity of teaching. It is “with meaning”
because it is the province of the discriminations of
meaning and of perspicuity. It is “with detail” because
it is the province of the discriminations of law and of
language (see XIV.21). It is “with meaning” since it
inspires confidence in persons of discretion, being
experienceable by the wise. It is “with detail” since it
inspires confidence in worldly persons, being a fit
object of faith. It is “with meaning” because its
intention is profound. It is “with detail” because its
words are clear. It is “utterly perfect” with the
complete perfection due to absence of anything that
can be added. It is “pure” with the immaculateness
due to absence of anything to be subtracted.
73. Furthermore, it is “with meaning” because it
provides the particular distinction[31] of achievement
through practice of the way, and it is “with detail”
because it provides the particular distinction of
learning through mastery of scripture. It is “utterly
perfect” because it is connected with the five
aggregates of Dhamma beginning with virtue.[32] It is
“pure” because it has no imperfection, because it exists
for the purpose of crossing over [the round of rebirths’
flood (see M I 134)], and because it is not concerned
with worldly things.

590
 So it is “well proclaimed” because it “announces the
life of purity that is utterly perfect and pure with
meaning and with detail.”
Or alternatively, it is well proclaimed since it has been
properly proclaimed with no perversion of meaning.
For the meaning of other sectarians’ law suffers
perversion since there is actually no obstruction in the
[215] things described there as obstructive and
actually no outlet in the things described there as
outlets, which is why their law is ill-proclaimed; but
not so the Blessed One’s Law, whose meaning suffers
no perversion since the things described there as
obstructions and the things described there as outlets
are so in actual fact.
So, in the first place, the Dhamma of the scriptures
is “well proclaimed.”
74. The supramundane Dhamma is well proclaimed
since both the way that accords with Nibbāna and the
Nibbāna that accords with the way have been
proclaimed, according as it is said: “The way leading
to Nibbāna has been properly declared to the disciples
by the Blessed One, and Nibbāna and the way meet.
Just as the water of the Ganges meets and joins with
the water of the Yamunā, so too the way leading to
Nibbāna has been properly declared to the disciples
by the Blessed One, and Nibbāna and the way meet”

591
(D II 223).
75. And here the noble path, which is the middle way
since it does not approach either extreme, is well
proclaimed in being proclaimed to be the middle way.
The fruits of asceticism, where defilements are
tranquilized, are well proclaimed too in being
proclaimed to have tranquilized defilement.
Nibbāna, whose individual essence is eternal,
deathless, the refuge, the shelter, etc., is well proclaimed
too in being proclaimed to have an individual essence
that is eternal, and so on.
So the supramundane Dhamma is also “well
proclaimed.”

[Visible Here and Now]

76. Visible here and now: firstly, the noble path is

“visible here and now” since it can be seen by a noble
person himself when he has done away with greed,
etc., in his own continuity, according as it is said:
“When a man is dyed with greed, brahman, and is
overwhelmed and his mind is obsessed by greed, then
he thinks for his own affliction, he thinks for others’
affliction, he thinks for the affliction of both, and he

592
experiences mental suffering and grief. When greed
has been abandoned, he neither thinks for his own
affliction, nor thinks for others’ affliction, nor thinks
for the affliction of both, and he does not experience
mental suffering and grief. This, brahman, is how the
Dhamma is visible here and now” (A I 156). [216]
77. Furthermore, the ninefold supramundane
Dhamma is also visible here and now, since when
anyone has attained it, it is visible to him through
reviewing knowledge without his having to rely on
faith in another.
78. Or alternatively, the view (diṭṭhi) that is
recommended (pasattha—pp. of root saṃs) is “proper
view” (sandiṭṭhi). It conquers by means of proper view,
thus it “has proper view” (sandiṭṭhika—“visible here
and now”). For in this way the noble path conquers
defilements by means of the proper view associated
with it, and the noble fruition does so by means of the
proper view that is its cause, and Nibbāna does so by
means of the proper view that has Nibbāna as its
objective field. So the ninefold supramundane
Dhamma “has the proper view” (sandiṭṭhika—“is
visible here and now”) since it conquers by means of
proper view, just as a charioteer (rathika) is so called
because he conquers by means of a chariot (ratha).
79. Or alternatively, it is seeing (dassana) that is called

593
“the seen” (diṭṭha); then diṭṭha and sandiṭṭha are
identical in meaning as “seeing.” It is worthy of being
seen (diṭṭha), thus it is “visible here and now”
(sandiṭṭhika). For the supramundane Dhamma (law)
arrests the fearful round [of kamma, etc.,] as soon as it
is seen by means of penetration consisting in
development [of the path] and by means of
penetration consisting in realization [of Nibbāna]. So it
is “visible here and now” (sandiṭṭhika) since it is
worthy of being seen (diṭṭha), just as one who is
clothable (vattihika)[33] is so called because he is
worthy of clothes (vattha).

[Not Delayed]

80. It has no delay (lit. “takes no time”—kāla) in the

matter of giving its own fruit, thus it is “without
delay” (akāla). “Without delay” is the same as “not
delayed” (akālika). What is meant is that instead of
giving its fruit after creating a delay (using up time),
say, five days, seven days, it gives its fruit
immediately next to its own occurrence (see Sn 226).
81. Or alternatively, what is delayed (kālika—lit.
“what takes time”) is what needs some distant[34] time
to be reached before it can give its fruit. What is that?

594
It is the mundane law of profitable [kamma]. This,
however, is undelayed (na kālika) because its fruit
comes immediately next to it, so it is “not delayed”
(akālika).
This is said with reference to the path.

[Inviting of Inspection]

82. It is worthy of an invitation to inspect (ehipassa-

vidhi) given thus: “Come and see this Dhamma” (ehi
passa imaṃ dhammaṃ), thus it is “inviting of
inspection” (ehipassika). But why is it worthy of this
invitation? Because it is found and because of its
purity. For if a man has said that there is money or
gold in an empty fist, he cannot say, “Come and see
it.” Why not? Because it is not found. And on the other
hand, while dung or urine may well be found, a man
cannot, for the purpose of cheering the mind by
exhibiting beauty, say, “Come and see this;” on the
contrary, they have to be covered up with grass and
leaves. Why? Because of their impurity. But this
ninefold supramundane Dhamma is actually found as
such in its individual essence, and it is as pure as the
full moon’s disk in a cloudless sky, as a gem of pure
water on bleached cloth. [217] Consequently, it is

595
worthy of the invitation to inspect since it is found and
pure, thus it is “inviting of inspection.”

[Onward-Leading]

83. The word opanayika (“onward-leading”) is

[equivalent to the gerund] upanetabba (“ought to—can
—be induced”). Here is an exposition. An inducing
(upanayana) is an inducement (upanaya). [As the four
paths and four fruitions] this [Dhamma] is worth
inducing (upanayanaṃ arahati) [that is, arousing] in
one’s own mind [subjectively] by means of
development, without any question of whether or not
one’s clothing or one’s head is on fire (see A IV 320),
thus it is “onward-leading” (opanayika). This applies to
the [above-mentioned eight] formed supramundane
states (dhammas). But the unformed [dhamma] is
worth inducing by one’s own mind [to become the
mind’s object], thus it is “onward-leading,” too; the
meaning is that it is worth treating as one’s shelter by
realizing it.
84. Or alternatively, what induces (upaneti) [the noble
person] onwards to Nibbāna is the noble path, which
is thus inductive (upaneyya). Again, what can (ought
to) be induced (upanetabba) to realizability is the

596
Dhamma consisting in fruition and Nibbāna, which is
thus inductive (upaneyya), too. The word upaneyya is
the same as the word opanayika.[35]

[Is Directly Experienceable by the

Wise]

85. Is directly experienceable by the wise: it can be

experienced by all the kinds of wise men beginning
with the “acutely wise” (see A II 135) each in himself
thus: “The path has been developed, fruition attained,
and cessation realized, by me.” For it does not happen
that when a preceptor has developed the path his co-
resident abandons his defilements, nor does a co-
resident dwell in comfort owing to the preceptor’s
attainment of fruition, nor does he realize the Nibbāna
realized by the preceptor. So this is not visible in the
way that an ornament on another’s head is, but rather
it is visible only in one’s own mind. What is meant is
that it can be undergone by wise men, but it is not the
province of fools.
86. Now, in addition, this Dhamma is well
proclaimed. Why? Because it is visible here and now.
It is visible here and now because it is not delayed. It
is not delayed because it invites inspection. And what

597
invites inspection is onward-leading.
87. As long as [the meditator] recollects the special
qualities of the Dhamma in this way, then: “On that
occasion his mind is not obsessed by greed, or
obsessed by hate, or obsessed by delusion; his mind
has rectitude on that occasion, being inspired by the
Dhamma” (A III 285).
So when he has suppressed the hindrances in the
way already described (§66), the jhāna factors arise in
a single conscious moment. But owing to the
profundity of the Dhamma’s special qualities, or else
owing to his being occupied in recollecting special
qualities of many sorts, the jhāna is only access and
does not reach absorption. And that access jhāna itself
is known as “recollection of the Dhamma” too because
it arises with the recollection of the Dhamma’s special
qualities as the means.
88. [218] When a bhikkhu is devoted to this
recollection of the Dhamma, he thinks: “I never in the
past met a master who taught a law that led onward
thus, who possessed this talent, nor do I now see any
such a master other than the Blessed One.” Seeing the
Dhamma’s special qualities in this way, he is
respectful and deferential towards the Master. He
entertains great reverence for the Dhamma and attains
fullness of faith, and so on. He has much happiness

598
and gladness. He conquers fear and dread. He is able
to endure pain. He comes to feel as if he were living in
the Dhamma’s presence. And his body, when the
recollection of the Dhamma’s special qualities dwells
in it, becomes as worthy of veneration as a shrine
room. His mind tends towards the realization of the
peerless Dhamma. When he encounters an
opportunity for transgression, he has vivid awareness
of conscience and shame on recollecting the well-
regulatedness of the Dhamma. And if he penetrates no
higher, he is at least headed for a happy destiny.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection of the Dhamma
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
the Dhamma in the detailed explanation.

[(3) Recollection of the Saṅgha]

89. One who wants to develop the recollection of the

Community should go into solitary retreat and
recollect the special qualities of the community of
Noble Ones as follows:
“The community of the Blessed One’s disciples has

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entered on the good way, the community of the
Blessed One’s disciples has entered on the straight
way, the community of the Blessed One’s disciples has
entered on the true way, the community of the Blessed
One’s disciples has entered on the proper way, that is
to say, the four pairs of men, the eight persons; this
community of the Blessed One’s disciples is fit for
gifts, fit for hospitality, fit for offerings, fit for
reverential salutation, as an incomparable field of
merit for the world” (A III 286).

[Entered on the Good, Straight, True,

Proper Way]

90. Herein, entered on the good way (supaṭipanna) is

thoroughly entered on the way (suṭṭhu paṭipanna).
What is meant is that it has entered on a way
(paṭipanna) that is the right way (sammā-paṭipadā), the
way that is irreversible, the way that is in conformity
[with truth], the way that has no opposition, the way
that is regulated by the Dhamma. They hear (suṇanti)
attentively the Blessed One’s instruction, thus they are
his disciples (sāvaka—lit. “hearers”). The community of
the disciples is the community of those disciples. The
meaning is that the total of disciples forms a
communality because it possesses in common both

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virtue and [right] view. [219] That right way, being
straight, unbent, uncrooked, unwarped, is called noble
and true and is known as proper owing to its
becomingness, therefore the noble community that has
entered on that is also said to have entered on the
straight way, entered on the true way, and entered on the
proper way.
91. Those who stand on the path can be understood to
have entered on the good way since they possess the
right way. And those who stand in fruition can be
understood to have entered on the good way with
respect to the way that is now past since by means of
the right way they have realized what should be
realized.
92. Furthermore, the Community has entered on the
good way because it has entered on the way according
as instructed in the well-proclaimed Dhamma and
Discipline (dhamma-vinaya), and because it has entered
on the immaculate way. It has entered on the straight
way because it has entered on the way avoiding the
two extremes and taking the middle course, and
because it has entered on the way of the abandonment
of the faults of bodily and verbal crookedness,
tortuousness and warpedness. It has entered on the true
way because Nibbāna is what is called “true” and it
has entered on the way with that as its aim. It has
entered on the proper way because it has entered on the

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way of those who are worthy of proper acts [of
veneration].
93. The word yadidaṃ (“that is to say”) = yāni imāni.
The four pairs of men: taking them pairwise, the one
who stands on the first path and the one who stands in
the first fruition as one pair, in this way there are four
pairs. The eight persons: taking them by persons, the
one who stands on the first path as one and the one
who stands in the first fruition as one, in this way
there are eight persons. And there in the compound
purisa-puggala (persons) the words purisa and puggala
have the same meaning, but it is expressed in this way
to suit differing susceptibility to teaching.
This community of the Blessed One’s disciples: this
community of the Blessed One’s disciples taken by
pairs as the four pairs of men (purisa) and individually
as the eight persons (purisa-puggala).

[Fit for Gifts]

94. As to fit for gifts, etc.: what should be brought

(ānetvā) and given (hunitabba) is a gift (āhuna—lit.
“sacrifice”); the meaning is, what is to be brought even
from far away and donated to the virtuous. It is a term
for the four requisites. The Community is fit to receive

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that gift (sacrifice) because it makes it bear great fruit,
thus it is “fit for gifts” (āhuneyya).
95. Or alternatively, all kinds of property, even when
the bringer comes (āgantvā) from far away, can be
given (hunitabba) here, thus the Community “can be
given to” (āhavanīya); or it is fit to be given to by Sakka
and others, thus it “can be given to.” And the
brahmans’ fire is called “to be given (sacrificed) to”
(āhavanīya), for they believe that what is sacrificed to it
brings great fruit. [220] But if something is to be
sacrificed to for the sake of the great fruit brought by
what is sacrificed to it, then surely the Community
should be sacrificed to; for what is sacrificed (given) to
the Community has great fruit, according as it is said:
“Were anyone to serve the fire
Out in the woods a hundred years,
And pay one moment’s homage too
To men of self-development,
His homage would by far excel
His hundred years of sacrifice” (Dhp 107).
And the words āhavanīya (“to be sacrificed to”),
which is used in the schools,[36] is the same in
meaning as this word āhuneyya (“fit for gifts”) used
here. There is only the mere trifling difference of
syllables. So it is “fit for gifts.”

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 [Fit for Hospitality]

96. Fit for hospitality (pāhuneyya): “hospitality” (pāhuna)

is what a donation to visitors is called, prepared with
all honours for the sake of dear and beloved relatives
and friends who have come from all quarters. But
even more than to such objects of hospitality, it is
fitting that it should be given also to the Community;
for there is no object of hospitality so fit to receive
hospitality as the Community since it is encountered
after an interval between Buddhas and possesses
wholly endearing and lovable qualities. So it is “fit for
hospitality” since the hospitality is fit to be given to it
and it is fit to receive it.
But those who take the text to be pāhavanīya (“fit to
be given hospitality to”) have it that the Community is
worthy to be placed first and so what is to be given
should first of all be brought here and given (sabba-
Paṭhamaṃ Ānetvā ettha HUNitabbaṃ), and for that
reason it is “fit to be given hospitality to” (pāhavanīya)
or since it is worthy to be given to in all aspects (sabba-
Pakārena ĀHAVANAṃ arahati), it is thus “fit to be
given hospitality to” (pāhavanīya). And here this is
called pāhuneyya in the same sense.

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 [Fit for Offering]

97. ”Offering” (dakkhiṇa) is what a gift is called that is

to be given out of faith in the world to come. The
Community is worthy of that offering, or it is helpful
to that offering because it purifies it by making it of
great fruit, thus it is fit for offerings (dakkhiṇeyya).

[Fit for Salutation]

It is worthy of being accorded by the whole world

the reverential salutation (añjali-kamma) consisting in
placing both hands [palms together] above the head,
thus it is fit for reverential salutation (añjalikaraṇīya).

[As an Incomparable Field of Merit for

the World]

98. As an incomparable field of merit for the world: as a

place without equal in the world for growing merit;
just as the place for growing the king’s or minister’s
rice or corn is the king’s rice-field or the king’s corn-
field, so the Community is the place for growing the

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whole world’s merit. For the world’s various kinds of
merit leading to welfare and happiness grow with the
Community as their support. Therefore the
Community is “an incomparable field of merit for the
world.”
99. As long as he recollects the special qualities of the
Saṅgha in this way, classed as “having entered on the
good way,” etc., [221] then: “On that occasion his
mind is not obsessed by greed, or obsessed by hate, or
obsessed by delusion; his mind has rectitude on that
occasion, being inspired by the Saṅgha” (A III 286).
So when he has suppressed the hindrances in the
way already described (§66), the jhāna factors arise in
a single conscious moment. But owing to the
profundity of the Community’s special qualities, or
else owing to his being occupied in recollecting special
qualities of many sorts, the jhāna is only access and
does not reach absorption. And that access jhāna itself
is known as “recollection of the Saṅgha” too because it
arises with the recollection of the Community’s special
qualities as the means.
100. When a bhikkhu is devoted to this recollection of
the Community, he is respectful and deferential
towards the Community. He attains fullness of faith,
and so on. He has much happiness and bliss. He
conquers fear and dread. He is able to endure pain. He

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comes to feel as if he were living in the Community’s
presence. And his body, when the recollection of the
Sangha’s special qualities dwells in it, becomes as
worthy of veneration as an Uposatha house where the
Community has met. His mind tends towards the
attainment of the Community’s special qualities.
When he encounters an opportunity for transgression,
he has awareness of conscience and shame as vividly
as if he were face to face with the Community. And if
he penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a
happy destiny.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection of the Saṅgha
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
the Community in the detailed explanation.

[(4) Recollection of Virtue]

101. One who wants to develop the recollection of

virtue should go into solitary retreat and recollect his
own different kinds of virtue in their special qualities
of being untorn, etc., as follows:
Indeed, my various kinds of virtue are “untorn,

607
unrent, unblotched, unmottled, liberating, praised by
the wise, not adhered to, and conducive to
concentration” (A III 286). And a layman should
recollect them in the form of laymen’s virtue while one
gone forth into homelessness should recollect them in
the form of the virtue of those gone forth.
102. Whether they are the virtues of laymen or of
those gone forth, when no one of them is broken in the
beginning or in the end, not being torn like a cloth
ragged at the ends, then they are untorn. [222] When
no one of them is broken in the middle, not being rent
like a cloth that is punctured in the middle, then they
are unrent. When they are not broken twice or thrice in
succession, not being blotched like a cow whose body
is some such colour as black or red with discrepant-
coloured oblong or round patch appearing on her back
or belly, then they are unblotched. When they are not
broken all over at intervals, not being mottled like a
cow speckled with discrepant-coloured spots, then
they are unmottled.
103. Or in general they are untorn, unrent, unblotched,
unmottled when they are undamaged by the seven
bonds of sexuality (I.144) and by anger and enmity
and the other evil things (see §59).
104. Those same virtues are liberating since they
liberate by freeing from the slavery of craving. They

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are praised by the wise because they are praised by such
wise men as Enlightened Ones. They are not adhered to
(aparāmaṭṭha) since they are not adhered to
(aparāmaṭṭhattā) with craving and [false] view, or
because of the impossibility of misapprehending
(parāmaṭṭhuṃ) that “There is this flaw in your virtues.”
They are conducive to concentration since they conduce
to access concentration and absorption concentration,
or to path concentration and fruition concentration.
105. As long as he recollects his own virtues in their
special qualities of being untorn, etc., in this way,
then: “On that occasion his mind is not obsessed by
greed, or obsessed by hate, or obsessed by delusion,
his mind has rectitude on that occasion, being inspired
by virtue” (A III 286).
So when he has suppressed the hindrances in the
way already described (§66), the jhāna factors arise in
a single conscious moment. But owing to the
profundity of the virtues’ special qualities, or owing to
his being occupied in recollecting special qualities of
many sorts, the jhāna is only access and does not reach
absorption. And that access jhāna itself is known as
“recollection of virtue” too because it arises with the
virtues’ special qualities as the means.
106. And when a bhikkhu is devoted to this
recollection of virtue, he has respect for the training.

609
He lives in communion [with his fellows in the life of
purity]. He is sedulous in welcoming. He is devoid of
the fear of self-reproach and so on. He sees fear in the
slightest fault. He attains fullness of faith, and so on.
He has much happiness and gladness. And if he
penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a happy
destiny.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection of his virtue
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
virtue in the detailed explanation. [223]

[(5) Recollection of Generosity]

107. One who wants to develop the recollection of

generosity should be naturally devoted to generosity
and the constant practice of giving and sharing. Or
alternatively, if he is one who is starting the
development of it, he should make the resolution:
“From now on, when there is anyone present to
receive, I shall not eat even a single mouthful without
having given a gift.” And that very day he should give
a gift by sharing according to his means and his ability

610
with those who have distinguished qualities. When he
has apprehended the sign in that, he should go into
solitary retreat and recollect his own generosity in its
special qualities of being free from the stain of avarice,
etc., as follows:
“It is gain for me, it is great gain for me, that in a
generation obsessed by the stain of avarice I abide
with my heart free from stain by avarice, and am
freely generous and open-handed, that I delight in
relinquishing, expect to be asked, and rejoice in giving
and sharing” (A III 287).
108. Herein, it is gain for me: it is my gain, advantage.
The intention is: I surely partake of those kinds of gain
for a giver that have been commended by the Blessed
One as follows: “A man who gives life [by giving
food] shall have life either divine or human” (A III 42),
and: “A giver is loved and frequented by many” (A III
40), and: “One who gives is ever loved, according to
the wise man’s law” (A III 41), and so on.
109. It is great gain for me: it is great gain for me that
this Dispensation, or the human state, has been gained
by me. Why? Because of the fact that “I abide with my
mind free from stain by avarice … and rejoice in giving and
sharing.”
110. Herein, obsessed by the stain of avarice is
overwhelmed by the stain of avarice. Generation:

611
beings, so called owing to the fact of their being
generated. So the meaning here is this: among beings
who are overwhelmed by the stain of avarice, which is
one of the dark states that corrupt the [natural]
transparency of consciousness (see A I 10) and which
has the characteristic of inability to bear sharing one’s
own good fortune with others.
111. Free from stain by avarice because of being both
free from avarice and from the other stains, greed,
hate, and the rest. I abide with my heart: I abide with my
consciousness of the kind already stated, is the
meaning. [224] But in the sutta, “I live the home life
with my heart free” (A III 287; V 331), etc., is said
because it was taught there as a [mental] abiding to
depend on [constantly] to Mahānāma the Sakyan, who
was a stream-enterer asking about an abiding to
depend on. There the meaning is “I live overcoming
…”
112. Freely generous: liberally generous. Open-handed:
with hands that are purified. What is meant is: with
hands that are always washed in order to give gifts
carefully with one’s own hands. That I delight in
relinquishing: the act of relinquishing (vossajjana) is
relinquishing (vossagga); the meaning is, giving up. To
delight in relinquishing is to delight in constant
devotion to that relinquishing. Expect to be asked
(yācayoga): accustomed to being asked (yācana-yogga)

612
because of giving whatever others ask for, is the
meaning. Yājayoga is a reading, in which case the
meaning is: devoted (yutta) to sacrifice (yāja), in other
words, to sacrificing (yajana). And rejoice in sharing: the
meaning is, he recollects thus: “I give gifts and I share
out what is to be used by myself, and I rejoice in
both.”
113. As long as he recollects his own generosity in its
special qualities of freedom from stain by avarice, etc.,
in this way, then: “On that occasion his mind is not
obsessed by greed, or obsessed by hate, or obsessed by
delusion; his mind has rectitude on that occasion,
being inspired by generosity” (A III 287).
So when he has suppressed the hindrances in the
way already described (§66), the jhāna factors arise in
a single conscious moment. But owing to the
profundity of the generosity’s special qualities, or
owing to his being occupied in recollecting the
generosity’s special qualities of many sorts, the jhāna
is only access and does not reach absorption. And that
access jhāna is known as “recollection of generosity”
too because it arises with the generosity’s special
qualities as the means.
114. And when a bhikkhu is devoted to this
recollection of generosity, he becomes ever more
intent on generosity, his preference is for non-greed,

613
he acts in conformity with loving-kindness, he is
fearless. He has much happiness and gladness. And if
he penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a
happy destiny.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection of his giving
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
generosity in the detailed explanation. [225]

[(6) Recollection of Deities]

115. One who wants to develop the recollection of

deities should possess the special qualities of faith,
etc., evoked by means of the noble path, and he should
go into solitary retreat and recollect his own special
qualities of faith, etc., with deities standing as
witnesses, as follows:
“There are deities of the Realm of the Four Kings
(devā cātummahārājikā), there are deities of the Realm of
the Thirty-three (devā tāvatiṃsā), there are deities who
are Gone to Divine Bliss (yāmā) … who are Contented
(tusitā) … who Delight in Creating (nimmānarati) …
who Wield Power Over Others’ Creations

614
(paranimmitavasavatti), there are deities of Brahmā’s
Retinue (brahmakāyikā), there are deities higher than
that. And those deities were possessed of faith such
that on dying here they were reborn there, and such
faith is present in me too. And those deities were
possessed of virtue … of learning … of generosity …
of understanding such that when they died here they
were reborn there, and such understanding is present
in me too” (A III 287).
116. In the sutta, however, it is said: “On the occasion,
Mahānāma, on which a noble disciple recollects the
faith, the virtue, the learning, the generosity, and the
understanding that are both his own and of those
deities,” on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by
greed …” (A III 287). Although this is said, it should
nevertheless be understood as said for the purpose of
showing that the special qualities of faith, etc., in
oneself are those in the deities, making the deities
stand as witnesses. For it is said definitely in the
Commentary: “He recollects his own special qualities,
making the deities stand as witnesses.”
117. As long as in the prior stage he recollects the
deities’ special qualities of faith, etc., and in the later
stage he recollects the special qualities of faith, etc.,
existing in himself, then: “On that occasion his mind is
not obsessed by greed, or obsessed by hate, or
obsessed by delusion, his mind has rectitude on that

615
occasion, being inspired by deities” (A III 288).
So when he has suppressed the hindrances in the
way already stated (§66), the jhāna factors arise in a
single conscious moment. But owing to the profundity
of the special qualities of faith, etc., or owing to his
being occupied in recollecting special qualities of
many sorts, the jhāna is only access and does not reach
absorption. And that access jhāna itself is known as
“recollection of deities” too because it arises with the
deities special qualities as the means. [226]
118. And when a bhikkhu is devoted to this
recollection of deities, he becomes dearly loved by
deities. He obtains even greater fullness of faith. He
has much happiness and gladness. And if he
penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a happy
destiny.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection of deities
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
deities in the detailed explanation.

[General]

616
119. Now, in setting forth the detail of these
recollections, after the words, “His mind has rectitude
on that occasion, being inspired by the Perfect One,” it
is added: “When a noble disciple’s mind has rectitude,
Mahānāma, the meaning inspires him, the law inspires
him, and the application of the law makes him glad.
When he is glad, happiness is born in him” (A III 285–
88). Herein, the meaning inspires him should be
understood as said of contentment inspired by the
meaning beginning, “This Blessed One is such since he
is …” (§2). The law inspires him is said of contentment
inspired by the text. The application of the law makes him
glad is said of both (cf. M-a I 173).
120. And when in the case of the recollection of deities
inspired by deities is said, this should be understood as
said either of the consciousness that occurs in the prior
stage inspired by deities or of the consciousness [that
occurs in the later stage] inspired by the special
qualities that are similar to those of the deities and are
productive of the deities’ state (cf. §117).
121. These six recollections succeed only in noble
disciples. For the special qualities of the Enlightened
One, the Law, and the Community, are evident to
them; and they possess the virtue with the special
qualities of untornness, etc., the generosity that is free
from stain by avarice, and the special qualities of faith,
etc., similar to those of deities.

617
122. And in the Mahānāma Sutta (A III 285 f.) they are
expounded in detail by the Blessed One in order to
show a stream-winner an abiding to depend upon
when he asked for one.
123. Also in the Gedha Sutta they are expounded in
order that a noble disciple should purify his
consciousness by means of the recollections and so
attain further purification in the ultimate sense thus:
“Here, bhikkhus, a noble disciple recollects the Perfect
One in this way: That Blessed One is such since he is
accomplished … His mind has rectitude on that
occasion. He has renounced, [227] got free from,
emerged from cupidity. Cupidity, bhikkhus, is a term
for the five cords of sense desire. Some beings gain
purity here by making this [recollection] their prop”
(A III 312).
124. And in the Sambādhokāsa Sutta taught by the
venerable Mahā-Kaccāna they are expounded as the
realization of the wide-open through the susceptibility
of purification that exists in the ultimate sense only in
a noble disciple thus: “It is wonderful, friends, it is
marvellous how the realization of the wide-open in
the crowded [house life] has been discovered by the
Blessed One who knows and sees, accomplished and
fully enlightened, for the purification of beings, [for
the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the
ending of pain and grief, for the attainment of the true

618
way], for the realization of Nibbāna, that is to say, the
six stations of recollection. What six? Here, friends, a
noble disciple recollects the Perfect One … Some
beings are susceptible to purification in this way” (A
III 314–15).
125. Also in the Uposatha Sutta they are expounded
in order to show the greatness of the fruit of the
Uposatha, as a mind-purifying meditation subject for a
noble disciple who is observing the Uposatha: “And
what is the Noble Ones’ Uposatha, Visākhā? It is the
gradual cleansing of the mind still sullied by
imperfections. And what is the gradual cleansing of
the mind still sullied by imperfections? Here, Visākhā,
a noble disciple recollects the Perfect One …” (A I 206–
11).
126. And in the Book of Elevens, when a noble
disciple has asked, “Venerable sir, in what way should
we abide who abide in various ways?” (A V 328), they
are expounded to him in order to show the way of
abiding in this way: “One who has faith is successful,
Mahānāma, not one who has no faith. One who is
energetic … One whose mindfulness is established …
One who is concentrated … One who has
understanding is successful, Mahānāma, not one who
has no understanding. Having established yourself in
these five things, Mahānāma, you should develop six
things. Here, Mahānāma, you should recollect the

619
Perfect One: That Blessed One is such since …” (A V
329–32).
127. Still, though this is so, they can be brought to
mind by an ordinary man too, if he possesses the
special qualities of purified virtue, and the rest. [228]
For when he is recollecting the special qualities of the
Buddha, etc., even only according to hearsay, his
consciousness settles down, by virtue of which the
hindrances are suppressed. In his supreme gladness
he initiates insight, and he even attains to
Arahantship, like the Elder Phussadeva who dwelt at
Kaṭakandhakāra.
128. That venerable one, it seems, saw a figure of the
Enlightened One created by Māra. He thought, “How
good this appears despite its having greed, hate and
delusion! What can the Blessed One’s goodness have
been like? For he was quite without greed, hate and
delusion!” He acquired happiness with the Blessed
One as object, and by augmenting his insight he
reached Arahantship.

The seventh chapter called “The

Description of Six Recollections” in the
Treatise on the Development of
Concentration in the Path of Purification

620
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

621
Notes for Chapter VII

1. The word dhamma—perhaps the most important

and frequently used of Pali words—has no single
equivalent in English because no English word
has both a generalization so wide and loose as the
word dhamma in its widest sense (which includes
“everything” that can be known or thought of in
any way) and at the same time an ability to be, as
it were, focused in a set of well-defined specific
uses. Roughly dhamma = what-can-be-
remembered or what-can-be-borne-in-mind
(dhāretabba) as kamma = what-can-be-done
(kātabba). The following two principal (and
overlapping) senses are involved here: (i) the Law
as taught, and (ii) objects of consciousness. (i) In
the first case the word has either been left
untranslated as “Dhamma” or “dhamma” or it
has been tendered as “Law” or “law.” This ranges
from the loose sense of the “Good Law,” “cosmic
law,” and “teaching” to such specific technical
senses as the “discrimination of law,” “causality,”
“being subject to or having the nature of.” (ii) In
the second case the word in its looser sense of
“something known or thought of” has either been
left untranslated as “dhamma” or rendered by
“state” (more rarely by “thing” or

622
“phenomenon”), while in its technical sense as
one of the twelve bases or eighteen elements
“mental object” and “mental datum” have been
used. The sometimes indiscriminate use of
“dhamma,” “state” and “law” in both the looser
senses is deliberate. The English words have been
reserved as far as possible for rendering dhamma
(except that “state” has sometimes been used to
render bhāva, etc., in the sense of “-ness”). Other
subsidiary meanings of a non-technical nature
have occasionally been otherwise rendered
according to context.
In order to avoid muddle it is necessary to
distinguish renderings of the word dhamma and
renderings of the words used to define it. The
word itself is a gerundive of the verb dharati (caus.
dhāreti—“to bear”) and so is the literal equivalent
of “[quality] that is to be borne.” But since the
grammatical meanings of the two words dharati
(“to bear”) and dahati (“to put or sort out,”
whence dhātu—“element”) sometimes coalesce, it
often comes very close to dhātu (but see VIII n. 68
and XI.104). If it is asked, what bears the qualities
to be borne? A correct answer here would
probably be that it is the event (samaya), as stated
in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī (§1, etc.), in which the
various dhammas listed there arise and are

623
 present, variously related to each other. The word
dhammin (thing qualified or “bearer of what is to
be borne”) is a late introduction as a logical term
(perhaps first used in Pali by Vism-mhṭ, see p.
534).
As to the definitions of the word, there are
several. At D-a I 99 four meanings are given:
moral (meritorious) special quality (guṇa),
preaching of the Law (desanā), scripture (pariyatti),
and “no-living-being-ness” (nissattatā). Four
meanings are also given at Dhs-a 38: scripture
(pariyatti), cause (of effect) as law (hetu), moral
(meritorious) special quality (guṇa), and “no-
living-being-ness and soullessness” (nissatta-
nijjīvatā). A wider definition is given at M-a I 17,
where the following meanings are distinguished:
scriptural mastery, (pariyatti—A III 86) truth,
(sacca—Vin I 12) concentration, (samādhi—D II 54)
understanding, (paññā—J-a I 280) nature, (pakati
—M I 162) individual essence, (sabhāva—Dhs 1)
voidness, (suññatā—Dhs 25) merit, (puñña—S I 82)
offence, (āpatti—Vin III 187) what is knowable,
(ñeyya—Paṭis II 194) “and so on” (see also VIII n.
68).
2. “’Absolute confidence’ is the confidence afforded by
the noble path. Development of the recollection
comes to success in him who has that, not in any

624
 other” (Vism-mhṭ 181). “Absolute confidence” is a
constituent of the first three “factors of stream-
entry” (see S V 196).
3. Cf. derivation of the word ariya (“noble”) at M-a I
21.
4. “Because of the words, ’Also all dhammas of the
three planes are sense desires (kāma) in the sense
of being desirable (kamanīya) (Cf. Nidd I 1: sabbepi
kāmāvacarā dhammā, sabbepi rūpāvacarā dhammā,
sabbepi arūpāvacarā dhammā … kāmanīyaṭṭhena …
kāmā), greed for becoming is sense-desire
clinging’ (Vism-mhṭ 184). See XII.72. For the “way
to the Brahmā-world” see M II 194–96; 207f.
5. Reading “taṃ ñātaṭṭthena ñāṇaṃ” with Vism-mhṭ.
6. See XVII.253f. The word bhava is rendered here
both by “existence” and by “becoming.” The
former, while less awkward to the ear, is
inaccurate if it is allowed a flavour of staticness.
“Becoming” will be more frequently used as this
work proceeds. Loosely the two senses tend to
merge. But technically, “existence” should
perhaps be used only for atthitā, which signifies
the momentary existence of a dhamma “possessed
of the three instants of arising, presence, and
dissolution.” “Becoming” then signifies the
continuous flow or flux of such triple-instant

625
 moments; and it occurs in three main modes:
sensual, fine-material, and immaterial. For
remarks on the words “being” and “essence” see
VIII n. 68.
7. “Is not unobstructed knowledge (anāvaraṇa-ñāṇa)
different from omniscient knowledge (sabbaññuta-
ñāṇa)? Otherwise the words “Six kinds of
knowledge unshared [by disciples]” (Paṭis I 3)
would be contradicted? [Note: The six kinds are:
knowledge of what faculties prevail in beings,
knowledge of the inclinations and tendencies of
beings, knowledge of the Twin Marvel,
knowledge of the attainment of the great
compassion, omniscient knowledge, and
unobstructed knowledge (see Paṭis I 133)].—There
is no contradiction, because two ways in which a
single kind of knowledge’s objective field occurs
are described for the purpose of showing by
means of this difference how it is not shared by
others.
It is only one kind of knowledge; but it is
called omniscient knowledge because its objective
field consists of formed, unformed, and
conventional (sammuti) [i.e. conceptual] dhammas
without remainder, and it is called unobstructed
knowledge because of its unrestricted access to
the objective field, because of absence of

626
obstruction. And it is said accordingly in the
Paṭisambhidā: “It knows all the formed and the
unformed without remainder, thus it is
omniscient knowledge. It has no obstruction
therein, thus it is unobstructed knowledge” (Paṭis
I 131), and so on. So they are not different kinds of
knowledge. And there must be no reservation,
otherwise it would follow that omniscient and
unobstructed knowledge had obstructions and
did not make all dhammas its object. There is not
in fact a minimal obstruction to the Blessed One’s
knowledge: and if his unobstructed knowledge
did not have all dhammas as its object, there
would be presence of obstruction where it did not
occur, and so it would not be unobstructed.
“Or alternatively, even if we suppose that they
are different, still it is omniscient knowledge itself
that is intended as ’unhindered’ since it is that
which occurs unhindered universally. And it is by
his attainment of that that the Blessed One is
known as Omniscient, All-seer, Fully
Enlightened, not because of awareness (avabodha)
of every dhamma at once, simultaneously (see M
II 127). And it is said accordingly in the
Paṭisambhidā: ’This is a name derived from the
final liberation of the Enlightened Ones, the
Blessed Ones, together with the acquisition of

627
omniscient knowledge at the root of the
Enlightenment Tree; this name “Buddha” is a
designation based on realization’ (Paṭis I 174). For
the ability in the Blessed One’s continuity to
penetrate all dhammas without exception was
due to his having completely attained to
knowledge capable of becoming aware of all
dhammas.
“Here it may be asked: But how then? When
this knowledge occurs, does it do so with respect
to every field simultaneously, or successively? For
firstly, if it occurs simultaneously with respect to
every objective field, then with the simultaneous
appearance of formed dhammas classed as past,
future and present, internal and external, etc., and
of unformed and conventional (conceptual)
dhammas, there would be no awareness of
contrast (paṭibhāga), as happens in one who looks
at a painted canvas from a distance. That being so,
it follows that all dhammas become the objective
field of the Blessed One’s knowledge in an
undifferentiated form (anirūpita-rūpana), as they
do through the aspect of not-self to those who are
exercising insight thus ’All dhammas are not-self’
(Dhp 279; Th 678; M I 230; II 64; S III 132; A I 286;
IV 14; Paṭis II 48, 62; Vin I 86. Cf. also A III 444; IV
88, 338; Sn 1076). And those do not escape this

628
difficulty who say that the Enlightened One’s
knowledge occurs with the characteristic of
presence of all knowable dhammas as its objective
field, devoid of discriminative thinking (vikappa-
rahita), and universal in time (sabba-kāla) and that
is why they are called ’All-seeing’ and why it is
said, ’The Nāga is concentrated walking and he is
concentrated standing’ (?).
They do not escape the difficulty since the
Blessed One’s knowledge would then have only a
partial objective field, because, by having the
characteristic of presence as its object, past, future
and conventional dhammas, which lack that
characteristic, would be absent. So it is wrong to
say that it occurs simultaneously with respect to
every objective field. Then secondly, if we say that
it occurs successively with respect to every
objective field, that is wrong too. For when the
knowable, classed in the many different ways
according to birth, place, individual essence, etc.,
and direction, place, time, etc., is apprehended
successively, then penetration without remainder
is not effected since the knowable is infinite. And
those are wrong too who say that the Blessed One
is All-seeing owing to his doing his defining by
taking one part of the knowable as that actually
experienced (paccakkha) and deciding that the rest

629
is the same because of the unequivocalness of its
meaning, and that such knowledge is not
inferential (anumānika) since it is free from doubt,
because it is what is doubtfully discovered that is
meant by inferential knowledge in the world.
And they are wrong because there is no such
defining by taking one part of the knowable as
that actually experienced and deciding that the
rest is the same because of the unequivocalness of
its meaning, without making all of it actually
experienced. For then that ’rest’ is not actually
experienced; and if it were actually experienced, it
would no longer be ’the rest.’
“All that is no argument.—Why not?Because
this is not a field for ratiocination; for the Blessed
One has said this: ’The objective field of
Enlightened Ones is unthinkable, it cannot be
thought out; anyone who tried to think it out
would reap madness and frustration’ (A II 80).
The agreed explanation here is this: Whatever the
Blessed One wants to know—either entirely or
partially—there his knowledge occurs as actual
experience because it does so without hindrance.
And it has constant concentration because of the
absence of distraction. And it cannot occur in
association with wishing of a kind that is due to
absence from the objective field of something that

630
he wants to know. There can be no exception to
this because of the words, ’All dhammas are
available to the adverting of the Enlightened One,
the Blessed One, are available at his wish, are
available to his attention, are available to his
thought’ (Paṭis II 195). And the Blessed One’s
knowledge that has the past and future as its
objective field is entirely actual experience since it
is devoid of assumption based on inference,
tradition or conjecture.
“And yet, even in that case, suppose he
wanted to know the whole in its entirety, then
would his knowledge not occur without
differentiation in the whole objective field
simultaneously? And so there would still be no
getting out of that difficulty?
“That is not so, because of its purifiedness.
Because the Enlightened One’s objective field is
purified and it is unthinkable. Otherwise there
would be no unthinkableness in the knowledge of
the Enlightened One, the Blessed One, if it
occurred in the same way as that of ordinary
people. So, although it occurs with all dhammas
as its object, it nevertheless does so making those
dhammas quite clearly defined, as though it had a
single dhamma as its object. This is what is
unthinkable here. ’

631
 There is as much knowledge as there is
knowable, there is as much knowable as there is
knowledge; the knowledge is limited by the
knowable, the knowable is limited by the
knowledge’ (Paṭis II l95). So he is Fully
Enlightened because he has rightly and by
himself discovered all dhammas together and
separately, simultaneously and successively,
according to his wish’ (Vism-mhṭ 190–91).
8. A possessor of “the seven” has faith, conscience,
shame, learning, energy, mindfulness, and
understanding (see D III 252). PED traces
saddhamma (as “the true dhamma,” etc.) to sant +
dhamma; but it is as likely traceable to srad +
dhamma = (good ground) for the placing of faith
(saddhā).
9. “Here the Master’s possession of vision shows the
greatness of understanding, and his possession of
conduct the greatness of his compassion. It was
through understanding that the Blessed One
reached the kingdom of the Dhamma, and
through compassion that he became the bestower
of the Dhamma. It was through understanding
that he felt revulsion for the round of rebirths,
and through compassion that he bore it. It was
through understanding that he fully understood
others’ suffering, and through compassion that he

632
undertook to counteract it. It was through
understanding that he was brought face to face
with Nibbāna, and through compassion that he
attained it. It was through understanding that he
himself crossed over, and through compassion
that he brought others across. It was through
understanding that he perfected the Enlightened
One’s state, and through compassion that he
perfected the Enlightened One’s task.
“Or it was through compassion that he faced
the round of rebirths as a Bodhisatta, and through
understanding that he took no delight in it.
Likewise it was through compassion that he
practiced non-cruelty to others, and through
understanding that he was himself fearless of
others. It was through compassion that he
protected others to protect himself, and through
understanding that he protected himself to
protect others. Likewise it was through
compassion that he did not torment others, and
through understanding that he did not torment
himself; so of the four types of persons beginning
with the one who practices for his own welfare (A
II 96) he perfected the fourth and best type.
Likewise it was through compassion that he
became the world’s helper, and through
understanding that he became his own helper. It

633
 was through compassion that he had humility [as
a Bodhisatta], and through understanding that he
had dignity [as a Buddha]. Likewise it was
through compassion that he helped all beings as a
father while owing to the understanding
associated with it his mind remained detached
from them all, and it was through understanding
that his mind remained detached from all
dhammas while owing to the compassion
associated with it that he was helpful to all beings.
For just as the Blessed One’s compassion was
devoid of sentimental affection or sorrow, so his
understanding was free from the thoughts of ’I’
and ’mine’” (Vism-mhṭ 192–93).
10. The following renderings have been adopted for
the most widely-used epithets for the Buddha.
Tathāgata, (Perfect One—for definitions see M-a I
45f.) Bhagavant (Blessed One), Sugata (Sublime
One). These renderings do not pretend to
literalness. Attempts to be literal here are apt to
produce a bizarre or quaint effect, and for that
very reason fail to render what is in the Pali.
11. Gadati—“to enunciate”: only noun gada in PED.
12. Bhanti—“they shine”: this form is not given in
PED under bhāti.
13. To take what is not self-evident in this paragraph,

634
 three kinds of feeling are pleasant, painful and
neither-painful-nor-pleasant (see MN 59). Four
kinds of nutriment are physical nutriment, contact,
mental volition, and consciousness (see M I 48,
and M-a I 207f.). The seven stations of consciousness
are: (1) sense sphere, (2) Brahmā’s Retinue, (3)
Ābhassara (Brahmā-world) Deities, (4)
Subhakiṇṇa (Brahmā-world) Deities, (5) base
consisting of boundless space, (6) base consisting
of boundless consciousness, (7) base consisting of
nothingness (see D III 253). The eight worldly states
are gain, fame, praise, pleasure, and their
opposites (see D III 260). The nine abodes of beings:
(1–4) as in stations of consciousness, (5)
unconscious beings, (6–9) the four immaterial
states (see D III 263). The ten bases are eye, ear,
nose, tongue, body, visible object, sound, odour,
flavour, tangible object.
14. Cakkavāḷa (world-sphere or universe) is a term for
the concept of a single complete universe as one
of an infinite number of such universes. This
concept of the cosmos, in its general form, is not
peculiar to Buddhism, but appears to have been
the already generally accepted one. The term loka-
dhātu (world-element), in its most restricted sense,
is one world-sphere, but it can be extended to
mean any number, for example, the set of world-

635
spheres dominated by a particular Brahmā (see
MN 120).
As thus conceived, a circle of “world-sphere
mountains” “like the rim of a wheel” (cakka—
Vism-mhṭ 198) encloses the ocean. In the centre of
the ocean stands Mount Sineru (or Meru),
surrounded by seven concentric rings of
mountains separated by rings of sea. In the ocean
between the outermost of these seven rings and
the enclosing “world-sphere mountain” ring are
the “four continents.”
“Over forty-two thousand leagues away”
(Dhs-a 313) the moon and the sun circulate above
them inside the world-sphere mountain ring, and
night is the effect of the sun’s going behind
Sineru. The orbits of the moon and sun are in the
sense-sphere heaven of the Four Kings
(Catumahārājā), the lowest heaven, which is a
layer extending from the world-sphere mountains
to the slopes of Sineru. The stars are on both sides
of them (Dhs-a 318). Above that come the
successive layers of the other five sense-sphere
heavens—the four highest not touching the earth
—and above them the fine-material Brahmā-
worlds, the higher of which extend over more
than one world-sphere (see A V 59). The world-
sphere rests on water, which rests on air, which

636
rests on space. World-spheres “lie adjacent to
each other in contact like bowls, leaving a
triangular unlit space between each three” (Vism-
mhṭ 199), called a “world-interspace” (see too M-a
IV 178). Their numbers extend thus in all four
directions to infinity on the supporting water’s
surface.
The southern continent of Jambudīpa is the
known inhabited world (but see e.g. DN 26).
Various hells (see e.g. MN 130; A V 173; Vin III
107) are below the earth’s surface. The lowest
sensual-sphere heaven is that of the Deities of the
Four Kings (Cātumahārājika). The four are
Dhataraṭṭha Gandhabba-rāja (King of the East),
Virūḷha Kumbhaṇḍa-rāja (King of the South),
Virūpaka Nāga-rāja (King of the West), and
Kuvera or Vessavaṇa Yakkha-rāja (King of the
North—see DN 32). Here the moon and sun
circulate. The deities of this heaven are often at
war with the Asura demons (see e.g. D II 285) for
possession of the lower slopes of Sineru. The next
higher is Tāvatiṃsa (the Heaven of the Thirty-
three), governed by Sakka, Ruler of Gods (sakka-
devinda). Above this is the heaven of the Yāma
Deities (Deities who have Gone to Bliss) ruled by
King Suyāma (not to be confused with Yama King
of the Underworld—see M III 179). Higher still

637
 come the Deities of the Tusita (Contented)
Heaven with King Santusita. The fifth of these
heavens is that of the Nimmānarati Deities
(Deities who Delight in Creating) ruled by King
Sunimmita. The last and highest of the sensual-
sphere heavens is the Paranimmitavasavatti
Heaven (Deities who Wield Power over Others’
Creations). Their king is Vasavatti (see A I 227; for
details see Vibh-a 519f.). Māra (Death) lives in a
remote part of this heaven with his hosts, like a
rebel with a band of brigands (M-a I 33f.). For
destruction and renewal of all this at the end of
the aeon, see Ch. XIII.
15. “Sineru is not only 84,000 leagues in height but
measures the same in width and breadth. For this
is said: ’Bhikkhus, Sineru, king of mountains, is
eighty-four thousand leagues in width and it is
eighty-four thousand leagues in breadth’ (A IV
100). Each of the seven surrounding mountains is
half as high as that last mentioned, that is,
Yugandhara is half as high as Sineru, and so on.
The great ocean gradually slopes from the foot of
the world-sphere mountains down as far as the
foot of Sineru, where it measures in depth as
much as Sineru’s height. And Yugandhara, which
is half that height, rests on the earth as Īsadhara
and the rest do; for it is said: ’Bhikkhus, the great

638
 ocean gradually slopes, gradually tends,
gradually inclines’ (Ud 53). Between Sineru and
Yugandhara and so on, the oceans are called
’bottomless’ (sīdanta). Their widths correspond
respectively to the heights of Sineru and the rest.
The mountains stand all round Sineru, enclosing
it, as it were. Yugandhara surrounds Sineru, then
Īsadhara surrounds Yugandhara, and likewise
with the others” (Vism-mhṭ 199).
16. For the commentarial descriptions of Himavant
(Himalaya) with its five peaks and seven great
lakes, see M-a III 54.
17. A-a commenting on A I 35 ascribes the Simbali
Tree to the Supaṇṇas or winged demons. The
commentary to Ud 5.5, incidentally, gives a
further account of all these things, only a small
portion of which are found in the Suttas.
18. See note 14.
19. The rendering of sadevamanussānaṃ by “with its
princes and men” is supported by the
commentary. See M-a II 20 and also M-a I 33
where the use of sammuti-deva for a royal
personage, not an actual god is explained. Deva is
the normal mode of addressing a king. Besides,
the first half of the sentence deals with deities and
it would be out of place to refer to them again in

639
 the clause related to mankind.
20. The references are these: Apalāla (Mahāvaṃsa, p.
242), “Dwelling in the Himalayas” (Vism-mhṭ
202), Cūḷodara and Mahodara (Mhv pp. 7–8; Dīp
pp. 21–23), Aggisikha and Dhūmasikha
(“Inhabitant of Sri Lanka”—Vism-mhṭ 202),
Āravāḷa and Dhanapālaka (Vin II 194–96; J-a V
333–37), Saccaka (MN 35 and 36), Ambaṭṭha (DN
3), Pokkharasāti (D I 109), Soṇadaṇḍa (DN 4),
Kūṭadanta (DN 5), Āḷavaka (Sn p. 31), Sūciloma
and Kharaloma (Sn p. 47f.), Sakka (D I 263f.).
21. For the breaking up of this compound cf. parallel
passage at M-a I 10.
22. Āvatthika—“denoting a period in life” (from
avatthā, see IV.167); not in PED; the meaning
given in the PED for liṅgika—“describing a
particular mark,” is hardly adequate for this ref.;
nemittika—“signifying a particular acquirement”
is not in this sense in PED. For more on names see
Dhs-a 390.
23. The commentarial name for the Elder Sāriputta to
whom the authorship of the Paṭisambhidā is
traditionally attributed. The Paṭisambhidā text
has “Buddha,” not “Bhagavā.”
24. “The Niddesa method is this: ’The word Blessed
(bhagavā) is a term of respect. Moreover, he has

640
abolished (bhagga) greed, thus he is blessed
(bhagavā); he has abolished hate, … delusion, …
views, … craving, … defilement, thus he is
blessed.
“’He divided (bhaji), analyzed (vibhaji), and
classified (paṭivibhaji) the Dhamma treasure, thus
he is blessed (bhagavā). He makes an end of the
kinds of becoming (bhavānaṃ antakaroti), thus he
is blessed (bhagavā). He has developed (bhāvita)
the body and virtue and the mind and
understanding, thus he is blessed (bhagavā).
“’Or the Blessed One is a frequenter (bhajī) of
remote jungle-thicket resting places with little
noise, with few voices, with a lonely atmosphere,
where one can lie hidden from people, favourable
to retreat, thus he is blessed (bhagavā).
“’Or the Blessed One is a partaker (bhāgī) of
robes, alms food, resting place, and the requisite
of medicine as cure for the sick, thus he is blessed
(bhagavā). Or he is a partaker of the taste of
meaning, the taste of the Law, the taste of
deliverance, the higher virtue, the higher
consciousness, the higher understanding, thus he
is blessed (bhagavā). Or he is a partaker of the four
jhānas, the four measureless states, the four
immaterial states, thus he is blessed. Or he is a

641
 partaker of the eight liberations, the eight bases of
mastery, the nine successive attainments, thus he
is blessed. Or he is a partaker of the ten
developments of perception, the ten kasiṇa
attainments, concentration due to mindfulness of
breathing, the attainment due to foulness, thus he
is blessed. Or he is a partaker of the ten powers of
Perfect Ones (see MN 12), of the four kinds of
perfect confidence (ibid), of the four
discriminations, of the six kinds of direct
knowledge, of the six Enlightened Ones’ states
[not shared by disciples (see note 7)], thus he is
blessed. Blessed One (bhagavā): this is not a name
made by a mother … This name, Blessed One, is a
designation based on realization”’ (Vism-mhṭ
207).
25. Here are explanations of those things in this list
that cannot be discovered by reference to the
index: The pairs, “anger and enmity” to “conceit
and negligence (M I 16). The “three roots” are
greed, hate, and delusion (D III 214). The “three
kinds of misconduct” are that of body, speech,
and mind (S V 75). The “three defilements” are
misconduct, craving and views (Ch. I.9,13). The
“three erroneous perceptions” (visama-saññā) are
those connected with greed, hate, and delusion
(Vibh 368). The three “applied thoughts” are

642
 thoughts of sense-desire, ill will, and cruelty (M I
114). The “three diversifications” (papañca) are
those due to craving, conceit, and [false] views
(XVI n. 17). “Four perversenesses”: seeing
permanence, pleasure, self, and beauty, where
there is none (Vibh 376). “Four cankers,” etc.
(XXII.47ff.). “Five wildernesses” and “shackles”
(M I 101). “Five kinds of delight”: delight in the
five aggregates (XVI.93). “Six roots of discord”:
anger, contempt, envy, fraud, evilness of wishes,
and adherence to one’s own view (D III 246).
“Nine things rooted in craving” (D III 288–89).
“Ten courses of unprofitable action”: killing,
stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, slander, harsh
speech, gossip, covetousness, ill will, wrong view
(M I 47, 286f.). “Sixty-two kinds of view”: (D I
12ff.; MN 102). “The hundred and eight ways of
behaviour of craving” (Vibh 400).
26. Abhigamanīya—“fit to be relied on”: abhigacchati
not in PED.
27. Vism-mhṭ says the word “etc.” includes the
following six: mahimā, patti, pākamma, īsitā, vasitā,
and yatthakāmāvasāyitā. “Herein, aṇimā means
making the body minute (the size of an atom—
aṇu). Laghimā means lightness of body; walking
on air, and so on. Mahimā means enlargement
producing hugeness of the body. Patti means

643
 arriving where one wants to go. Pākamma means
producing what one wants by resolving, and so
on. Isitā means self-mastery, lordship. Vasitā
means mastery of miraculous powers.
Yatthakāmāvasāyitā means attainment of perfection
in all ways in one who goes through the air or
does anything else of the sort” (Vism-mhṭ 210).
Yogabhāṣya 3.45.
28. The three “abidings” are these: heavenly abiding
= kasiṇa jhāna, divine abiding = loving-kindness
jhāna, etc., noble abiding = fruition attainment.
For the three kinds of seclusion, see IV, note 23.
29. Vism-mhṭ adds seven more plays on the word
bhagavā, which in brief are these: he is bhāgavā (a
possessor of parts) because he has the Dhamma
aggregates of virtue, etc. (bhāgā = part, vant =
possessor of). He is bhatavā (possessor of what is
borne) because he has borne (bhata) the
perfections to their full development. He has
cultivated the parts (bhāge vani), that is, he has
developed the various classes of attainments. He
has cultivated the blessings (bhage vani), that is,
the mundane and supramundane blessings. He is
bhattavā (possessor of devotees) because devoted
(bhatta) people show devotion (bhatti) to him on
account of his attainments. He has rejected
blessings (bhage vami) such as glory, lordship,

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 fame and so on. He has rejected the parts (bhāge
vami) such as the five aggregates of experience,
and so on (Vism-mhṭ 241–46).
As to the word “bhattavā”: at VII.63, it is
explained as “one who has frequented (bhaji)
attainments.” In this sense the attainments have
been “frequented” (bhatta) by him Vism-mhṭ (214
f.). uses the same word in another sense as
“possessor of devotees,” expanding it as bhattā
daḷhabhattikā assa bahu atthi (“he has many devoted
firm devotees”—Skr. bhakta). In PED under
bhattavant (citing also Vism 212) only the second
meaning is given. Bhatta is from the same root
(bhaj) in both cases.
For a short exposition of this recollection see
commentary to AN 1:16.1.
30. Anusandhi—“sequence of meaning”: a technical
commentarial term signifying both a particular
subject treated in a discourse, and also the way of
linking one subject with another in the same
discourse. At M-a I 175 three kinds are
distinguished: sequence of meaning in answer to
a question (pucchānusandhi—e.g. M I 36), that to
suit a personal idiosyncrasy, (ajjhāsayānusandhi
—e.g. M I 23) and that due to the natural course of
the teaching (yathānusandhi—e.g. the whole

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 development of MN 6).
31. Vyatti (byatti)—“particular distinction” (n. fm. vi +
añj); not so spelt in PED but see viyatti. Glossed by
Vism-mhṭ with veyyatti.
32. These “five aggregates” are those of virtue,
concentration, understanding, deliverance, and
knowledge and vision of deliverance.
33. Vatthika—“clothable”; not in PED.
34. Pakaṭṭha—“distant”; not in PED (= dura—Vism-
mhṭ 297).
35. This passage is only loosely renderable because
the exegesis here is based almost entirely on the
substitution of one Pali grammatical form for
another (padasiddhi). The reading opaneyyiko (for
opanayiko) does not appear in any Sinhalese text
(generally the most reliable); consequently the
sentence “opanayiko va opaneyyiko” (see Harvard
text) is absent in them, being superfluous. Vism-
mhṭ’s explanations are incorporated. This
paragraph depends on the double sense of upaneti
(upa + neti, to lead on or induce) and its
derivatives as (i) an attractive inducement and (ii)
a reliable guide, and so the word induce is
stretched a bit and inducive coined on the analogy
of conducive. Upanaya (inducement) is not in
PED, nor is upanayana (inducing) in this sense (see

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 also XIV.68). Upanayana means in logic
“application,” “subsumption”; and also
upanetabba means “to be added”; see end of §72.
For allīyana (“treating as one’s shelter”) see
references in Glossary.
36. “In the Sarvāstivādin school and so on” (Vism-
mhṭ 230).

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 Chapter VIII
Other Recollections as Meditation
Subjects
(Anussati-kammaṭṭhāna-niddesa)

[(7) Mindfulness of Death]

1. [229] Now comes the description of the

development of mindfulness of death, which was
listed next (III.105).
[Definitions]

Herein, death (maraṇa) is the interruption of the life

faculty included within [the limits of] a single
becoming (existence). But death as termination
(cutting off), in other words, the Arahant’s termination
of the suffering of the round, is not intended here, nor
is momentary death, in other words, the momentary
dissolution of formations, nor the “death” of
conventional (metaphorical) usage in such expressions
as “dead tree,” “dead metal,” and so on.
2. As intended here it is of two kinds, that is to say,
timely death and untimely death. Herein, timely death

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comes about with the exhaustion of merit or with the
exhaustion of a life span or with both. Untimely death
comes about through kamma that interrupts [other,
life-producing] kamma.
3. Herein, death through exhaustion of merit is a term
for the kind of death that comes about owing to the
result of [former] rebirth-producing kamma’s having
finished ripening although favourable conditions for
prolonging the continuity of a life span may be still
present. Death through exhaustion of a life span is a term
for the kind of death that comes about owing to the
exhaustion of the normal life span of men of today,
which measures only a century owing to want of such
excellence in destiny [as deities have] or in time [as
there is at the beginning of an aeon] or in nutriment
[as the Uttarakurus and so on have].[1] Untimely death
is a term for the death of those whose continuity is
interrupted by kamma capable of causing them to fall
(cāvana) from their place at that very moment, as in the
case of Dūsi-Māra (see M I 337), Kalāburājā (see J-a III
39), etc.,[2] or for the death of those whose [life’s]
continuity is interrupted by assaults with weapons,
etc., due to previous kamma. [230] All these are
included under the interruption of the life faculty of
the kinds already stated. So mindfulness of death is
the remembering of death, in other words, of the
interruption of the life faculty.

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 [Development]

4. One who wants to develop this should go into

solitary retreat and exercise attention wisely in this
way: “Death will take place; the life faculty will be
interrupted,” or “Death, death.”
5. If he exercises his attention unwisely in recollecting
the [possible] death of an agreeable person, sorrow
arises, as in a mother on recollecting the death of her
beloved child she bore; and gladness arises in
recollecting the death of a disagreeable person, as in
enemies on recollecting the death of their enemies; and
no sense of urgency arises on recollecting the death of
neutral people, as happens in a corpse-burner on
seeing a dead body; and anxiety arises on recollecting
one’s own death, as happens in a timid person on
seeing a murderer with a poised dagger.
6. In all that there is neither mindfulness nor sense of
urgency nor knowledge. So he should look here and
there at beings that have been killed or have died, and
advert to the death of beings already dead but
formerly seen enjoying good things, doing so with
mindfulness, with a sense of urgency and with
knowledge, after which he can exercise his attention in
the way beginning, “Death will take place.” By so
doing he exercises it wisely. He exercises it as a [right]

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means, is the meaning.[3]
7. When some exercise it merely in this way, their
hindrances get suppressed, their mindfulness becomes
established with death as its object, and the meditation
subject reaches access.
[Eight Ways of Recollecting Death]

8. But one who finds that it does not get so far should
do his recollecting of death in eight ways, that is to
say: (1) as having the appearance of a murderer, (2) as
the ruin of success, (3) by comparison, (4) as to sharing
the body with many, (5) as to the frailty of life, (6) as
signless, (7) as to the limitedness of the extent, (8) as to
the shortness of the moment.
9. 1. Herein, as having the appearance of a murderer: he
should do his recollecting thus, “Just as a murderer
appears with a sword, thinking, ’I shall cut this man’s
head off,’ and applies it to his neck, so death appears.”
Why? Because it comes with birth and it takes away
life.
10. As budding toadstools always come up lifting
dust on their tops, so beings are born along with aging
and death. For accordingly their rebirth-linking
consciousness reaches aging immediately next to its
arising and then breaks up together with its associated

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aggregates, like a stone that falls from the summit of a
rock. [231] So to begin with, momentary death comes
along with birth. But death is inevitable for what is
born; consequently the kind of death intended here
also comes along with birth.
11. Therefore, just as the risen sun moves on towards
its setting and never turns back even for a little while
from wherever it has got to, or just as a mountain
torrent sweeps by with a rapid current, ever flowing
and rushing on and never turning back even for a little
while, so too this living being travels on towards death
from the time when he is born, and he never turns
back even for a little while. Hence it is said:
“Right from the very day a man
Has been conceived inside a womb
He cannot but go on and on,
Nor going can he once turn back” (J-a IV 494).
12. And whilst he goes on thus death is as near to him
as drying up is to rivulets in the summer heat, as
falling is to the fruits of trees when the sap reaches
their attachments in the morning, as breaking is to clay
pots tapped by a mallet, as vanishing is to dewdrops
touched by the sun’s rays. Hence it is said:
“The nights and days go slipping by
As life keeps dwindling steadily
Till mortals’ span, like water pools

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 In failing rills, is all used up” (S I 109).
“As there is fear, when fruits are ripe,
That in the morning they will fall,
So mortals are in constant fear,
When they are born, that they will die.
And as the fate of pots of clay
Once fashioned by the potter’s hand,
Or small or big or baked or raw,[4]
Condemns them to be broken up,
So mortals’ life leads but to death” (Sn p. 576f.).
“The dewdrop on the blade of grass
Vanishes when the sun comes up;
Such is a human span of life;
So, mother, do not hinder me” (J-a IV 122).
13. So this death, which comes along with birth, is like
a murderer with poised sword. And like the murderer
who applies the sword to the neck, it carries off life
and never returns to bring it back. [232] That is why,
since death appears like a murderer with poised
sword owing to its coming along with birth and
carrying off life, it should be recollected as “having the
appearance of a murderer.”
14. 2. As the ruin of success: here success shines as long
as failure does not overcome it. And the success does
not exist that might endure out of reach of failure.
Accordingly:

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 “He gave with joy a hundred millions
After conquering all the earth,
Till in the end his realm came down
To less than half a gall-nut’s worth.
Yet when his merit was used up,
His body breathing its last breath,
The Sorrowless Asoka too[5]
Felt sorrow face to face with death.”
15. Furthermore, all health ends in sickness, all youth
ends in aging, all life ends in death; all worldly
existence is procured by birth, haunted by aging,
surprised by sickness, and struck down by death.
Hence it is said:
“As though huge mountains made of rock
So vast they reached up to the sky
Were to advance from every side,
Grinding beneath them all that lives,
So age and death roll over all,
Warriors, priests, merchants, and craftsmen,
The outcastes and the scavengers,
Crushing all beings, sparing none.
And here no troops of elephants,
No charioteers, no infantry,
No strategy in form of spells,
No riches, serve to beat them off” (S I 102).
This is how death should be recollected as the “ruin

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of success” by defining it as death’s final ruining of
life’s success.
16. 3. By comparison: by comparing oneself to others.
Herein, death should be recollected by comparison in
seven ways, that is to say: with those of great fame,
with those of great merit, with those of great strength,
with those of great supernormal power, with those of
great understanding, with Paccekabuddhas, with fully
enlightened Buddhas. How? [233]
17. Although Mahāsammata, Mandhātu,
Mahāsudassana, Daḷhanemi, Nimi,[6] etc.,[7] were
greatly famous and had a great following, and though
they had amassed enormous wealth, yet death
inevitably caught up with them at length, so how shall
it not at length overtake me?
Great kings like Mahāsammata,
Whose fame did spread so mightily,
All fell into death’s power too;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way, firstly, by
comparison with those of great fame.
18. How by comparison with those of great merit?
Jotika, Jaṭila, Ugga,
And Meṇḍaka, and Puṇṇaka
These, the world said, and others too,

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 Did live most meritoriously;
Yet they came one and all to death;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison
with those of great merit.
19. How by comparison with those of great strength?
Vāsudeva, Baladeva,
Bhīmasena, Yuddhiṭṭhila,
And Cāṇura the wrestler,
Were in the Exterminator’s power.
Throughout the world they were renowned
As blessed with strength so mighty;
They too went to the realm of death;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison
with those of great strength.
20. How by comparison with those of great
supernormal power?
The second of the chief disciples,
The foremost in miraculous powers,
Who with the point of his great toe
Did rock Vejayanta’s Palace towers,
Like a deer in a lion’s jaw, he too,
Despite miraculous potency,
Fell in the dreadful jaws of death;

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 What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison
with those of great supernormal power.
21. How by comparison with those of great
understanding? [234]
The first of the two chief disciples
Did so excel in wisdom’s art
That, save the Helper of the World,
No being is worth his sixteenth part.
But though so great was Sāriputta’s
Understanding faculty,
He fell into death’s power too;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison
with those of great understanding.
22. How by comparison with Paccekabuddhas? Even
those who by the strength of their own knowledge
and energy crushed all the enemy defilements and
reached enlightenment for themselves, who [stood
alone] like the horn of the rhinoceros (see Sn p. 35f.),
who were self-perfected, were still not free from death.
So how should I be free from it?
To help them in their search for truth
The Sages various signs employed,
Their knowledge brought them self-perfection,

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 Their cankers were at length destroyed.
Like the rhinoceros’s horn
They lived alone in constancy,
But death they could no way evade;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison
with Paccekabuddhas.
23. How by comparison with fully enlightened Buddhas?
Even the Blessed One, whose material body was
embellished with the eighty lesser details and adorned
with the thirty-two marks of a great man (see MN 91;
DN 30), whose Dhamma body brought to perfection
the treasured qualities of the aggregates of virtue, etc.,
[8] made pure in every aspect, who overpassed
greatness of fame, greatness of merit, greatness of
strength, greatness of supernormal power and
greatness of understanding, who had no equal, who
was the equal of those without equal, without double,
accomplished and fully enlightened—even he was
suddenly quenched by the downpour of death’s rain,
as a great mass of fire is quenched by the downpour of
a rain of water.
And so the Greatest Sage possessed
Such mighty power in every way,
And it was not through fear or guilt
That over him Death held his sway.

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 No being, not even one without
Guilt or pusillanimity,
But will be smitten down; so how I
Will he not conquer those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison
with fully enlightened Buddhas.
24. When he does his recollecting in this way by
comparing himself with others possessed of such great
fame, etc., in the light of the universality of death,
thinking, “Death will come to me even as it did to
those distinguished beings,” then his meditation
subject reaches access. This is how death should be
recollected by comparison. [235]
25. 4. As to the sharing of the body with many: this body
is shared by many. Firstly, it is shared by the eighty
families of worms. There too, creatures live in
dependence on the outer skin, feeding on the outer
skin; creatures live in dependence on the inner skin,
feeding on the inner skin; creatures live in dependence
on the flesh, feeding on the flesh; creatures live in
dependence on the sinews, feeding on the sinews;
creatures live in dependence on the bones, feeding on
the bones; and creatures live in dependence on the
marrow, feeding on the marrow. And there they are
born, grow old and die, evacuate, and make water;
and the body is their maternity home, their hospital,

659
their charnel-ground, their privy and their urinal. The
body can also be brought to death with the upsetting
of these worms. And just as it is shared with the eighty
families of worms, so too it is shared by the several
hundred internal diseases, as well as by such external
causes of death as snakes, scorpions, and what not.
26. And just as when a target is set up at a crossroads
and then arrows, spears, pikes, stones, etc., come from
all directions and fall upon it, so too all kinds of
accidents befall the body, and it also comes to death
through these accidents befalling it. Hence the Blessed
One said: “Here, bhikkhus, when day is departing and
night is drawing on,[9] a bhikkhu considers thus: ’In
many ways I can risk death. A snake may bite me, or a
scorpion may sting me, or a centipede may sting me. I
might die of that, and that would set me back. Or I
might stumble and fall, or the food I have eaten might
disagree with me, or my bile might get upset, or my
phlegm might get upset [and sever my joints as it
were] like knives. I might die of that, and that would
set me back’” (A III 306).
That is how death should be recollected as to
sharing the body with many.
27. 5. As to the frailty of life: this life is impotent and
frail. For the life of beings is bound up with breathing,
it is bound up with the postures, it is bound up with

660
cold and heat, it is bound up with the primary
elements, and it is bound up with nutriment.
28. Life occurs only when the in-breaths and out-
breaths occur evenly. But when the wind in the
nostrils that has gone outside does not go in again, or
when that which has gone inside does not come out
again, then a man is reckoned to be dead.
And it occurs only when the four postures are found
occurring evenly. [236] But with the prevailing of
anyone of them the life process is interrupted.
And it occurs only when cold and heat are found
occurring evenly. But it fails when a man is overcome
by excessive cold or heat.
And it occurs only when the four primary elements
are found occurring evenly. But with the disturbance
of the earth element even a strong man’s life can be
terminated if his body becomes rigid, or with the
disturbance of one of the elements beginning with
water if his body becomes flaccid and petrified with a
flux of the bowels, etc., or if he is consumed by a bad
fever, or if he suffers a severing of his limb-joint
ligatures (cf. XI.102).
And life occurs only in one who gets physical
nutriment at the proper time; but if he gets none, he
uses his life up.

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 This is how death should be recollected as to the
frailty of life.
29. 6. As signless: as indefinable. The meaning is that it
is unpredictable. For in the case of all beings:
The span, the sickness, and the time, and where
The body will be laid, the destiny:
The living world can never know[10] these things;
There is no sign foretells when they will be.
30. Herein, firstly the span has no sign because there is
no definition such as: Just so much must be lived, no
more than that. For beings [die in the various stages of
the embryo, namely], at the time of the kalala, of the
abbuda, of the pesi, of the ghana, at one month gone,
two months gone, three months gone, four months
gone, five months gone … ten months gone, and on
the occasion of coming out of the womb. And after
that they die this side or the other of the century.
31. And the sickness has no sign because there is no
definition such as: Beings die only of this sickness, not
of any other. For beings die of eye disease or of any
one among those beginning with ear disease (see A V
110).
32. And the time has no sign because there is no
definition such as: One has to die only at this time, not
at any other. For beings die in the morning and at any

662
of the other times such as noon.
33. And where the body will be laid down has no sign
because there is no definition such as: When people
die, they must drop their bodies only here, not
anywhere else. For the person of those born inside a
village is dropped outside the village, and that of
those born outside the village is dropped inside it.
Likewise that of those born in water is dropped on
land, and that of those born on land in water. And this
can be multiplied in many ways. [237]
34. And the destiny has no sign because there is no
definition such as: One who dies there must be reborn
here. For there are some who die in a divine world
and are reborn in the human world, and there are
some who die in the human world and are reborn in a
divine world, and so on. And in this way the world
goes round and round the five kinds of destinies like
an ox harnessed to a machine.
This is how death should be recollected as signless.
35. 7. As to the limitedness of the extent: the extent of
human life is short now. One who lives long lives a
hundred years, more or less. Hence the Blessed One
said: “Bhikkhus, this human life span is short. There is
a new life to be gone to, there are profitable [deeds] to
be done, there is the life of purity to be led. There is no
not dying for the born. He who lives long lives a

663
hundred years, more or less …”
“The life of humankind is short;
A wise man holds it in contempt
And acts as one whose head is burning;
Death will never fail to come” (S I 108).
And he said further: “Bhikkhus, there was once a
teacher called Araka …” (A IV 136), all of which sutta
should be given in full, adorned as it is with seven
similes.
36. And he said further: “Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu
develops mindfulness of death thus, ’Oh, let me live a
night and day that I may attend to the Blessed One’s
teaching, surely much could be done by me,’ and
when a bhikkhu develops mindfulness of death thus,
’Oh, let me live a day that I may attend to the Blessed
One’s teaching, surely much could be done by me,’
and when a bhikkhu develops mindfulness of death
thus, ’Oh, let me live as long as it takes to chew and
swallow four or five mouthfuls that I may attend to
the Blessed One’s teaching, surely much could be
done by me’—these are called bhikkhus who dwell in
negligence and slackly develop mindfulness of death
for the destruction of cankers. [238]
37. “And, bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu develops
mindfulness of death thus, ’Oh, let me live for as long
as it takes to chew and swallow a single mouthful that

664
I may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching, surely
much could be done by me,’ and when a bhikkhu
develops mindfulness of death thus, ’Oh, let me live as
long as it takes to breathe in and breathe out, or as
long as it takes to breathe out and breathe in, that I
may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching, surely much
could be done by me’—these are called bhikkhus who
dwell in diligence and keenly develop mindfulness of
death for the destruction of cankers” (A III 305–6).
38. So short in fact is the extent of life that it is not
certain even for as long as it takes to chew and
swallow four or five mouthfuls.
This is how death should be recollected as to the
limitedness of the extent.
39. 8. As to the shortness of the moment: in the ultimate
sense the life-moment of living beings is extremely
short, being only as much as the occurrence of a single
conscious moment. Just as a chariot wheel, when it is
rolling, rolls [that is, touches the ground] only on one
point of [the circumference of] its tire, and, when it is
at rest, rests only on one point, so too, the life of living
beings lasts only for a single conscious moment. When
that consciousness has ceased, the being is said to
have ceased, according as it is said: “In a past
conscious moment he did live, not he does live, not he
will live. In a future conscious moment not he did live,

665
not he does live, he will live. In the present conscious
moment not he did live, he does live, not he will live.”
“Life, person, pleasure, pain—just these alone
Join in one conscious moment that flicks by.
Ceased aggregates of those dead or alive
Are all alike, gone never to return.
No [world is] born if [consciousness is] not
Produced; when that is present, then it lives;
When consciousness dissolves, the world is dead:
The highest sense this concept will allow”[11]
(Nidd I 42).
This is how death should be recollected as to the
shortness of the moment.
[Conclusion]

40. So while he does his recollecting by means of one

or other of these eight ways, his consciousness
acquires [the support of] repetition owing to the
reiterated attention, mindfulness settles down with
death as its object, the hindrances are suppressed, and
the jhāna factors make their appearance. But since the
object is stated with individual essences,[12] and since
it awakens a sense of urgency, the jhāna does not
reach absorption and is only access. [239] Now, with
special development, the supramundane jhāna and the

666
second and the fourth immaterial jhānas reach
absorption even with respect to states with individual
essences. For the supramundane reaches absorption
by means of progressive development of the
purification and the immaterial jhānas do so by means
of development consisting in the surmounting of the
object (see Ch. X) since there [in those two immaterial
jhānas] there is merely the surmounting of the object
of jhāna that had already reached absorption. But here
[in mundane mindfulness of death] there is neither so
the jhāna only reaches access. And that access is
known as “mindfulness of death” too since it arises
through its means.
41. A bhikkhu devoted to mindfulness of death is
constantly diligent. He acquires perception of
disenchantment with all kinds of becoming
(existence). He conquers attachment to life. He
condemns evil. He avoids much storing. He has no
stain of avarice about requisites. Perception of
impermanence grows in him, following upon which
there appear the perceptions of pain and not-self. But
while beings who have not developed [mindfulness
of] death fall victims to fear, horror and confusion at
the time of death as though suddenly seized by wild
beasts, spirits, snakes, robbers, or murderers, he dies
undeluded and fearless without falling into any such
state. And if he does not attain the deathless here and

667
now, he is at least headed for a happy destiny on the
breakup of the body.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection about death
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
death in the detailed explanation.

[(8) Mindfulness Occupied with the

Body]

42. Now comes the description of the development of

mindfulness occupied with the body as a meditation
subject, which is never promulgated except after an
Enlightened One’s arising, and is outside the province
of any sectarians. It has been commended by the
Blessed One in various ways in different suttas thus:
“Bhikkhus, when one thing is developed and
repeatedly practiced, it leads to a supreme sense of
urgency, to supreme benefit, to supreme surcease of
bondage, to supreme mindfulness and full awareness,
to acquisition of knowledge and vision, to a happy life
here and now, to realization of the fruit of clear vision
and deliverance. What is that one thing? It is

668
mindfulness occupied with the body” (A I 43). And
thus: “Bhikkhus, they savour the deathless who
savour mindfulness occupied with the body; they do
not savour the deathless who do not savour
mindfulness occupied with the body.[13] [240] They
have savoured the deathless who have savoured
mindfulness occupied with the body; they have not
savoured … They have neglected … they have not
neglected … They have missed … they have found the
deathless who have found mindfulness occupied with
the body” (A I 45). And it has been described in
fourteen sections in the passage beginning, “And how
developed, bhikkhus, how repeatedly practiced is
mindfulness occupied with the body of great fruit, of
great benefit? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, gone to the
forest …” (M III 89), that is to say, the sections on
breathing, on postures, on the four kinds of full
awareness, on attention directed to repulsiveness, on
attention directed to elements, and on the nine
charnel-ground contemplations.
43. Herein, the three, that is to say, the sections on
postures, on the four kinds of full awareness (see M-a I
253f.), and on attention directed to elements, as they
are stated [in that sutta], deal with insight. Then the
nine sections on the charnel-ground contemplations,
as stated there, deal with that particular phase of
insight knowledge called contemplation of danger.

669
And any development of concentration in the bloated,
etc., that might be implied there has already been
explained in the Description of Foulness (Ch. VI). So
there are only the two, that is, the sections on
breathing and on directing attention to repulsiveness,
that, as stated there, deal with concentration. Of these
two, the section on breathing is a separate meditation
subject, namely, mindfulness of breathing.
[Text]

44. What is intended here as mindfulness occupied

with the body is the thirty-two aspects. This
meditation subject is taught as the direction of
attention to repulsiveness thus: “Again, bhikkhus, a
bhikkhu reviews this body, up from the soles of the
feet and down from the top of the hair and contained
in the skin, as full of many kinds of filth thus: In this
body there are head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth,
skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidney, heart,
liver, midriff, spleen, lungs, bowels, entrails, gorge,
dung, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears,
grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine” (M III
90), the brain being included in the bone marrow in
this version [with a total of only thirty-one aspects].
45. Here is the description of the development
introduced by a commentary on the text.

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 [Word Commentary]

This body: this filthy body constructed out of the four

primary elements. Up from the soles of the feet: from the
soles of the feet upwards. Down from the top of the hair:
from the highest part of the hair downwards.
Contained in the skin: terminated all round by the skin.
Reviews … as full of many kinds of filth: [241] he sees that
this body is packed with the filth of various kinds
beginning with head hairs. How? “In this body there
are head hairs … urine.”
46. Herein, there are means, there are found. In this: in
this, which is expressed thus: “Up from the soles of the
feet and down from the top of the hair and contained
in the skin, as full of many kinds of filth.” Body: the
carcass; for it is the carcass that is called “body” (kāya)
because it is a conglomeration of filth, because such
vile (kucchita) things as the head hairs, etc., and the
hundred diseases beginning with eye disease, have it
as their origin (āya).
Head hairs, body hairs: these things beginning with
head hairs are the thirty-two aspects. The construction
here should be understood in this way: In this body
there are head hairs, in this body there are body hairs.
47. No one who searches throughout the whole of this
fathom-long carcass, starting upwards from the soles

671
of the feet, starting downwards from the top of the
head, and starting from the skin all round, ever finds
even the minutest atom at all beautiful in it, such as a
pearl, or a gem, or beryl, or aloes,[14] or saffron, or
camphor, or talcum powder; on the contrary he finds
nothing but the various very malodorous, offensive,
drab-looking sorts of filth consisting of the head hairs,
body hairs, and the rest. Hence it is said: “In this body
there are head hairs, body hairs … urine.”
This is the commentary on the word-construction
here.
[Development]

48. Now, a clansman who, as a beginner, wants to

develop this meditation subject should go to a good
friend of the kind already described (III.61–73) and
learn it. And the teacher who expounds it to him
should tell him the sevenfold skill in learning and the
tenfold skill in giving attention.
[The Sevenfold Skill in Learning]

Herein, the sevenfold skill in learning should be

told thus: (1) as verbal recitation, (2) as mental
recitation, (3) as to colour, (4) as to shape, (5) as to
direction, (6) as to location, (7) as to delimitation.

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49. 1. This meditation subject consists in giving
attention to repulsiveness. Even if one is master of the
Tipiṭaka, the verbal recitation should still be done at the
time of first giving it attention. For the meditation
subject only becomes evident to some through
recitation, as it did to the two elders who learned the
meditation subject from the Elder Mahā Deva of the
Hill Country (Malaya). On being asked for the
meditation subject, it seems, the elder [242] gave the
text of the thirty-two aspects, saying, “Do only this
recitation for four months.” Although they were
familiar respectively with two and three Piṭakas, it
was only at the end of four months of recitation of the
meditation subject that they became stream-enterers,
with right apprehension [of the text]. So the teacher
who expounds the meditation subject should tell the
pupil to do the recitation verbally first.
50. Now, when he does the recitation, he should
divide it up into the “skin pentad,” etc., and do it
forwards and backwards. After saying “Head hairs,
body hairs, nails, teeth, skin,” he should repeat it
backwards, “Skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head hairs.”
51. Next to that, with the “kidney pentad,” after
saying “Flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidney,”
he should repeat it backwards, “Kidney, bone
marrow, bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body
hairs, head hairs.”

673
52. Next, with the “lungs pentad,” after saying
“Heart, liver, midriff, spleen, lungs,” he should repeat
it backwards, “Lungs, spleen, midriff, liver, heart;
kidney, bone marrow, bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth,
nails, body hairs, head hairs.”
53. Next, with the “brain pentad,” after saying
“Bowels, entrails, gorge, dung, brain,” he should
repeat it backwards, “Brain, dung, gorge, entrails,
bowels; lungs, spleen, midriff, liver, heart; kidney,
bone marrow, bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails,
body hairs, head hairs.”
54. Next, with the “fat sextad,” after saying “Bile,
phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat,” he should repeat it
backwards, “Fat, sweat, blood, pus, phlegm, bile;
brain, dung, gorge, entrails, bowels; lungs, spleen,
midriff, liver, heart; kidney, bone marrow, bones,
sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head
hairs.”
55. Next, with the “urine sextad,” after saying “Tears,
grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, urine,” he should
repeat it backwards, “Urine, oil of the joints, snot,
spittle, grease, tears; fat, sweat, blood, pus, phlegm,
bile; brain, dung, gorge, entrails, bowels; lungs,
spleen, midriff, liver, heart; kidney, bone marrow,
bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head
hairs.” [243]

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56. The recitation should be done verbally in this way
a hundred times, a thousand times, even a hundred
thousand times. For it is through verbal recitation that
the meditation subject becomes familiar, and the mind
being thus prevented from running here and there, the
parts become evident and seem like [the fingers of] a
pair of clasped hands,[15] like a row of fence posts.
57. 2. The mental recitation should be done just as it is
done verbally. For the verbal recitation is a condition
for the mental recitation, and the mental recitation is a
condition for the penetration of the characteristic [of
foulness].[16]
58. 3. As to colour: the colour of the head hairs, etc.,
should be defined.
4. As to shape: their shape should be defined too.
5. As to direction: in this body, upwards from the
navel is the upward direction, and downwards from it
is the downward direction. So the direction should be
defined thus: “This part is in this direction.”
6. As to location: the location of this or that part
should be defined thus: “This part is established in
this location.”
59. 7. As to delimitation: there are two kinds of
delimitation, that is, delimitation of the similar and
delimitation of the dissimilar. Herein, delimitation of

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the similar should be understood in this way: “This
part is delimited above and below and around by
this.” Delimitation of the dissimilar should be
understood as non-intermixed-ness in this way: “Head
hairs are not body hairs, and body hairs are not head
hairs.”
60. When the teacher tells the skill in learning in seven
ways thus, he should do so knowing that in certain
suttas this meditation subject is expounded from the
point of view of repulsiveness and in certain suttas
from the point of view of elements. For in the Mahā
Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) it is expounded only as
repulsiveness. In the Mahā Hatthipadopama Sutta
(MN 28), in the Mahā Rāhulovāda Sutta (MN 62), and
the Dhātuvibhaṅga (MN 140, also Vibh 82), it is
expounded as elements. In the Kāyagatāsati Sutta
(MN 119), however, four jhānas are expounded with
reference to one to whom it has appeared as a colour
[kasiṇa] (see III.107). Herein, it is an insight meditation
subject that is expounded as elements and a serenity
meditation subject that is expounded as repulsiveness.
Consequently it is only the serenity meditation subject
[that is relevant] here.
[The Tenfold Skill in Giving Attention]

61. Having thus told the sevenfold skill in learning, he

676
should tell the tenfold skill in giving attention as
follows: (1) as to following the order, (2) not too
quickly, (3) not too slowly (4) as to warding off
distraction, (5) as to surmounting the concept, (6) as to
successive leaving, (7) as to absorption, (8)–(10) as to
the three suttantas.
62. 1. Herein, as to following the order: from the time of
beginning the recitation [244] attention should be
given following the serial order without skipping. For
just as when someone who has no skill climbs a thirty-
two-rung ladder using every other step, his body gets
exhausted and he falls without completing the climb,
so too, one who gives it attention skipping [parts]
becomes exhausted in his mind and does not complete
the development since he fails to get the satisfaction
that ought to be got with successful development.
63. 2. Also when he gives attention to it following the
serial order, he should do so not too quickly. For just as
when a man sets out on a three-league journey, even if
he has already done the journey out and back a
hundred times rapidly without taking note of
[turnings] to be taken and avoided, though he may
finish his journey, he still has to ask how to get there,
so too, when the meditator gives his attention to the
meditation subject too quickly, though he may reach
the end of the meditation subject, it still does not
become clear or bring about any distinction. So he

677
should not give his attention to it too quickly.
64. 3. And as “not too quickly,” so also not too slowly.
For just as when a man wants to do a three-league
journey in one day, if he loiters on the way among
trees, rocks, pools, etc., he does not finish the journey
in a day and needs two or three to complete it, so too,
if the meditator gives his attention to the meditation
subject too slowly, he does not get to the end and it
does not become a condition for distinction.
65. 4. As to warding off distraction: he must ward off
[temptation] to drop the meditation subject and to let
his mind get distracted among the variety of external
objects. For if not, just as when a man has entered on a
one-foot-wide cliff path, if he looks about here and
there without watching his step, he may miss his
footing and fall down the cliff, which is perhaps as
high as a hundred men, so too, when there is outward
distraction, the meditation subject gets neglected and
deteriorates. So he should give his attention to it
warding off distraction.
66. 5. As to surmounting the concept: this [name-]
concept beginning with “head hairs, body hairs” must
be surmounted and consciousness established on [the
aspect] “repulsive.” For just as when men find a water
hole in a forest in a time of drought, they hang up
some kind of signal there such as a palm leaf, and

678
people come to bathe and drink guided by the signal,
[245] but when the way has become plain with their
continual traffic, there is no further need of the signal
and they go to bathe and drink there whenever they
want, so too, when repulsiveness becomes evident to
him as he is giving his attention to the meditation
subject through the means of the [name-] concept
“head hairs, body hairs,” he must surmount the
concept “head hairs, body hairs” and establish
consciousness on only the actual repulsiveness.
67. 6. As to successive leaving: in giving his attention he
should eventually leave out any [parts] that do not
appear to him. For when a beginner gives his attention
to head hairs, his attention then carries on till it arrives
at the last part, that is, urine and stops there; and
when he gives his attention to urine, his attention then
carries on till it arrives back at the first part, that is,
head hairs, and stops there. As he persists in giving
his attention thus, some parts appear to him and
others do not. Then he should work on those that have
appeared till one out of any two appears the clearer.
He should arouse absorption by again and again
giving attention to the one that has appeared thus.
68. Here is a simile. Suppose a hunter wanted to catch
a monkey that lived in a grove of thirty-two palms,
and he shot an arrow through a leaf of the palm that
stood at the beginning and gave a shout; then the

679
monkey went leaping successively from palm to palm
till it reached the last palm; and when the hunter went
there too and did as before, it came back in like
manner to the first palm; and being followed thus
again and again, after leaping from each place where a
shout was given, it eventually jumped on to one palm,
and firmly seizing the palm shoot’s leaf spike in the
middle, would not leap any more even when shot—so
it is with this.
69. The application of the simile is this. The thirty-two
parts of the body are like the thirty-two palms in the
grove. The monkey is like the mind. The meditator is
like the hunter. The range of the meditator’s mind in
the body with its thirty-two parts as object is like the
monkey’s inhabiting the palm grove of thirty-two
palms. The settling down of the meditator’s mind in
the last part after going successively [from part to
part] when he began by giving his attention to head
hairs is like the monkey’s leaping from palm to palm
and going to the last palm, [246] when the hunter shot
an arrow through the leaf of the palm where it was
and gave a shout. Likewise in the return to the
beginning. His doing the preliminary work on those
parts that have appeared, leaving behind those that
did not appear while, as he gave his attention to them
again and again, some appeared to him and some did
not, is like the monkey’s being followed and leaping

680
up from each place where a shout is given. The
meditator’s repeated attention given to the part that in
the end appears the more clearly of any two that have
appeared to him and his finally reaching absorption, is
like the monkey’s eventually stopping in one palm,
firmly seizing the palm shoot’s leaf spike in the
middle and not leaping up even when shot.
70. There is another simile too. Suppose an alms-food-
eater bhikkhu went to live near a village of thirty-two
families, and when he got two lots of alms at the first
house he left out one [house] beyond it, and next day,
when he got three lots of [alms at the first house] he
left out two [houses] beyond it, and on the third day
he got his bowl full at the first [house], and went to the
sitting hall and ate—so it is with this.
71. The thirty-two aspects are like the village with the
thirty-two families. The meditator is like the alms-food
eater. The meditator’s preliminary work is like the
alms-food eater’s going to live near the village. The
meditator’s continuing to give attention after leaving
out those parts that do not appear and doing his
preliminary work on the pair of parts that do appear is
like the alms-food eater’s getting two lots of alms at
the first house and leaving out one [house] beyond it,
and like his next day getting three [lots of alms at the
first house] and leaving out two [houses] beyond it.
The arousing of absorption by giving attention again

681
and again to that which has appeared the more clearly
of two is like the alms-food eater’s getting his bowl
full at the first [house] on the third day and then going
to the sitting hall and eating.
72. 7. As to absorption: as to absorption part by part.
The intention here is this: it should be understood that
absorption is brought about in each one of the parts.
73. 8–10. As to the three suttantas: the intention here is
this: it should be understood that the three suttantas,
namely, those on higher consciousness,[17] on
coolness, and on skill in the enlightenment factors,
have as their purpose the linking of energy with
concentration.
74. 8. Herein, this sutta should be understood to deal
with higher consciousness: “Bhikkhus, there are three
signs that should be given attention from time to time
by a bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness. The sign
of concentration should be given attention from time
to time, the sign of exertion should be given attention
from time to time, the sign of equanimity should be
given attention from time to time. [247] If a bhikkhu
intent on higher consciousness gives attention only to
the sign of concentration, then his consciousness may
conduce to idleness. If a bhikkhu intent on higher
consciousness gives attention only to the sign of
exertion, then his consciousness may conduce to

682
agitation. If a bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness
gives attention only to the sign of equanimity, then his
consciousness may not become rightly concentrated
for the destruction of cankers. But, bhikkhus, when a
bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness gives
attention from time to time to the sign of concentration
… to the sign of exertion … to the sign of equanimity,
then his consciousness becomes malleable, wieldy and
bright, it is not brittle and becomes rightly
concentrated for the destruction of cankers.
75. “Bhikkhus, just as a skilled goldsmith or
goldsmith’s apprentice prepares his furnace and heats
it up and puts crude gold into it with tongs; and he
blows on it from time to time, sprinkles water on it
from time to time, and looks on at it from time to time;
and if the goldsmith or goldsmith’s apprentice only
blew on the crude gold, it would burn and if he only
sprinkled water on it, it would cool down, and if he
only looked on at it, it would not get rightly refined;
but, when the goldsmith or goldsmith’s apprentice
blows on the crude gold from time to time, sprinkles
water on it from time to time, and looks on at it from
time to time, then it becomes malleable, wieldy and
bright, it is not brittle, and it submits rightly to being
wrought; whatever kind of ornament he wants to
work it into, whether a chain or a ring or a necklace or
a gold fillet, it serves his purpose.

683
76. “So too, bhikkhus, there are three signs that
should be given attention from time to time by a
bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness … becomes
rightly concentrated for the destruction of cankers.
[248] He attains the ability to be a witness, through
realization by direct-knowledge, of any state realizable
by direct-knowledge to which he inclines his mind,
whenever there is occasion” (A I 256–58).[18]
77. 9. This sutta deals with coolness: “Bhikkhus, when
a bhikkhu possesses six things, he is able to realize the
supreme coolness. What six? Here, bhikkhus, when
consciousness should be restrained, he restrains it;
when consciousness should be exerted, he exerts it;
when consciousness should be encouraged, he
encourages it; when consciousness should be looked
on at with equanimity, he looks on at it with
equanimity. He is resolute on the superior [state to be
attained], he delights in Nibbāna. Possessing these six
things a bhikkhu is able to realize the supreme
coolness” (A III 435).
78. 10. Skill in the enlightenment factors has already
been dealt with in the explanation of skill in
absorption (IV.51, 57) in the passage beginning,
“Bhikkhus, when the mind is slack, that is not the time
for developing the tranquillity enlightenment factor
…” (S V 113).

684
79. So the meditator should make sure that he has
apprehended this sevenfold skill in learning well and
has properly defined this tenfold skill in giving
attention, thus learning the meditation subject
properly with both kinds of skill.
[Starting the Practice]

80. If it is convenient for him to live in the same

monastery as the teacher, then he need not get it
explained in detail thus [to begin with], but as he
applies himself to the meditation subject after he has
made quite sure about it he can have each successive
stage explained as he reaches each distinction.
One who wants to live elsewhere, however, must
get it explained to him in detail in the way already
given, and he must turn it over and over, getting all
the difficulties solved. He should leave an abode of an
unsuitable kind as described in the Description of the
Earth Kasiṇa, and go to live in a suitable one. Then he
should sever the minor impediments (IV.20) and set
about the preliminary work for giving attention to
repulsiveness.
[The Thirty-two Aspects in Detail]

81. When he sets about it, he should first apprehend

685
the [learning] sign in head hairs. How? The colour
should be defined first by plucking out one or two
head hairs and placing them on the palm of the hand.
[249] He can also look at them in the hair-cutting
place, or in a bowl of water or rice gruel. If the ones he
sees are black when he sees them, they should be
brought to mind as “black;” if white, as “white;” if
mixed, they should be brought to mind in accordance
with those most prevalent. And as in the case of head
hairs, so too the sign should be apprehended visually
with the whole of the “skin pentad.”
82. Having apprehended the sign thus and (a) defined
all the other parts of the body by colour, shape,
direction, location, and delimitation (§58), he should
then (b) define repulsiveness in five ways, that is, by
colour, shape, odour, habitat, and location.
83. Here is the explanation of all the parts given in
successive order.
[Head Hairs]

(a) Firstly head hairs are black in their normal colour,

the colour of fresh ariṭṭhaka seeds.[19] As to shape, they
are the shape of long round measuring rods.[20] As to
direction, they lie in the upper direction. As to location,
their location is the wet inner skin that envelops the

686
skull; it is bounded on both sides by the roots of the
ears, in front by the forehead, and behind by the nape
of the neck.[21] As to delimitation, they are bounded
below by the surface of their own roots, which are
fixed by entering to the amount of the tip of a rice
grain into the inner skin that envelops the head. They
are bounded above by space, and all round by each
other. There are no two hairs together. This is their
delimitation by the similar. Head hairs are not body
hairs, and body hairs are not head hairs; being
likewise not intermixed with the remaining thirty-one
parts, the head hairs are a separate part. This is their
delimitation by the dissimilar. Such is the definition of
head hairs as to colour and so on.
84. (b) Their definition as to repulsiveness in the five
ways, that is, by colour, etc., is as follows. Head hairs
are repulsive in colour as well as in shape, odour,
habitat, and location.
85. For on seeing the colour of a head hair in a bowl of
inviting rice gruel or cooked rice, people are disgusted
and say, “This has got hairs in it. Take it away.” So
they are repulsive in colour. Also when people are
eating at night, they are likewise disgusted by the
mere sensation of a hair-shaped akka-bark or makaci-
bark fibre. So they are repulsive in shape.
86. And the odour of head hairs, unless dressed with a

687
smearing of oil, scented with flowers, etc., is most
offensive. And it is still worse when they are put in the
fire. [250] Even if head hairs are not directly repulsive
in colour and shape, still their odour is directly
repulsive. Just as a baby’s excrement, as to its colour,
is the colour of turmeric and, as to its shape, is the
shape of a piece of turmeric root, and just as the
bloated carcass of a black dog thrown on a rubbish
heap, as to its colour, is the colour of a ripe palmyra
fruit and, as to its shape, is the shape of a [mandolin-
shaped] drum left face down, and its fangs are like
jasmine buds, and so even if both these are not directly
repulsive in colour and shape, still their odour is
directly repulsive, so too, even if head hairs are not
directly repulsive in colour and shape, still their odour
is directly repulsive.
87. But just as pot herbs that grow on village sewage
in a filthy place are disgusting to civilized people and
unusable, so also head hairs are disgusting since they
grow on the sewage of pus, blood, urine, dung, bile,
phlegm, and the like. This is the repulsive aspect of
the habitat.
88. And these head hairs grow on the heap of the
[other] thirty-one parts as fungi do on a dung-hill.
And owing to the filthy place they grow in they are
quite as unappetizing as vegetables growing on a
charnel-ground, on a midden, etc., as lotuses or water

688
lilies growing in drains, and so on. This is the
repulsive aspect of their location.
89. And as in the case of head hairs, so also the
repulsiveness of all the parts should be defined (b) in
the same five ways by colour, shape, odour, habitat,
and location. All, however, must be defined
individually (a) by colour, shape, direction, location,
and delimitation, as follows.
[Body Hairs]

90. Herein, firstly, as to natural colour, body, hairs are

not pure black like head hairs but blackish brown. As
to shape, they are the shape of palm roots with the tips
bent down. As to direction, they lie in the two
directions. As to location, except for the locations
where the head hairs are established, and for the
palms of the hands and soles of the feet, they grow in
most of the rest of the inner skin that envelops the
body. As to delimitation, they are bounded below by
the surface of their own roots, which are fixed by
entering to the extent of a likhā [22] into the inner skin
that envelops the body, above by space, and all round
by each other. There are no two body hairs together.
This is the delimitation by the similar. But their
delimitation by the dissimilar is like that for the head
hairs. [Note: These two last sentences are repeated

689
verbatim at the end of the description of each part.
They are not translated in the remaining thirty parts].
[Nails]

91. “Nails” is the name for the twenty nail plates.

They are all white as to colour. As to shape, they are the
shape of fish scales. As to direction: the toenails are in
the lower direction; the fingernails are in the upper
direction. [251] So they grow in the two directions. As
to location, they are fixed on the tips of the backs of the
fingers and toes. As to delimitation, they are bounded
in the two directions by the flesh of the ends of the
fingers and toes, and inside by the flesh of the backs of
the fingers and toes, and externally and at the end by
space, and all round by each other. There are no two
nails together …
[Teeth]

92. There are thirty-two tooth bones in one whose

teeth are complete. They are white in colour. As to
shape, they are of various shapes; for firstly in the
lower row, the four middle teeth are the shape of
pumpkin seeds set in a row in a lump of clay; that on
each side of them has one root and one point and is
the shape of a jasmine bud; each one after that has two
roots and two points and is the shape of a wagon

690
prop; then two each side with three roots and three
points, then two each side four-rooted and four-
pointed. Likewise in the upper row. As to direction,
they lie in the upper direction. As to location, they are
fixed in the jawbones. As to delimitation, they are
bounded by the surface of their own roots which are
fixed in the jawbones; they are bounded above by
space, and all round by each other. There are no two
teeth together …
[Skin (Taca)]

93. The inner skin envelops the whole body. Outside

it is what is called the outer cuticle, which is black,
brown or yellow in colour, and when that from the
whole of the body is compressed together, it amounts
to only as much as a jujube-fruit kernel. But as to
colour, the skin itself is white; and its whiteness
becomes evident when the outer cuticle is destroyed
by contact with the flame of a fire or the impact of a
blow and so on.
94. As to shape, it is the shape of the body in brief. But
in detail, the skin of the toes is the shape of silkworms’
cocoons; the skin of the back of the foot is the shape of
shoes with uppers; the skin of the calf is the shape of a
palm leaf wrapping cooked rice; the skin of the thighs
is the shape of a long sack full of paddy; the skin of the

691
buttocks is the shape of a cloth strainer full of water;
the skin of the back is the shape of hide streched over
a plank; the skin of the belly is the shape of the hide
stretched over the body of a lute; the skin of the chest
is more or less square; the skin of both arms is the
shape of the hide stretched over a quiver; the skin of
the backs of the hands is the shape of a razor box, or
the shape of a comb case; the skin of the fingers is the
shape of a key box; the skin of the neck is the shape of
a collar for the throat; the skin of the face [252] is the
shape of an insects’ nest full of holes; the skin of the
head is the shape of a bowl bag.
95. The meditator who is discerning the skin should
first define the inner skin that covers the face, working
his knowledge over the face beginning with the upper
lip. Next, the inner skin of the frontal bone. Next, he
should define the inner skin of the head, separating, as
it were, the inner skin’s connection with the bone by
inserting his knowledge in between the cranium bone
and the inner skin of the head, as he might his hand in
between the bag and the bowl put in the bag. Next, the
inner skin of the shoulders. Next, the inner skin of the
right arm forwards and backwards; and then in the
same way the inner skin of the left arm. Next, after
defining the inner skin of the back, he should define
the inner skin of the right leg forwards and
backwards; then the inner skin of the left leg in the

692
same way. Next, the inner skin of the groin, the
paunch, the bosom and the neck should be
successively defined. Then, after defining the inner
skin of the lower jaw next after that of the neck, he
should finish on arriving at the lower lip. When he
discerns it in the gross in this way, it becomes evident
to him more subtly too.
96. As to direction, it lies in both directions. As to
location, it covers the whole body. As to delimitation, it
is bounded below by its fixed surface, and above by
space …
[Flesh]

97. There are nine hundred pieces of flesh. As to

colour, it is all red, like kiṃsuka flowers. As to shape, the
flesh of the calves is the shape of cooked rice in a
palm-leaf bag. The flesh of the thighs is the shape of a
rolling pin.[23] The flesh of the buttocks is the shape of
the end of an oven. The flesh of the back is the shape
of a slab of palm sugar. The flesh between each two
ribs is the shape of clay mortar squeezed thin in a
flattened opening. The flesh of the breast is the shape
of a lump of clay made into a ball and flung down.
The flesh of the two upper arms is the shape of a large
skinned rat and twice the size. When he discerns it
grossly in this way, it becomes evident to him subtly

693
too.
98. As to direction, it lies in both directions. As to
location, it is plastered over the three hundred and odd
bones. [253] As to delimitation, it is bounded below by
its surface, which is fixed on to the collection of bones,
and above by the skin, and all round each by each
other piece …
[Sinews]

99. There are nine hundred sinews. As to colour, all

the sinews are white. As to shape, they have various
shapes. For five of great sinews that bind the body
together start out from the upper part of the neck and
descend by the front, and five more by the back, and
then five by the right and five by the left. And of those
that bind the right hand, five descend by the front of
the hand and five by the back; likewise those that bind
the left hand. And of those that bind the right foot,
five descend by the front and five by the back;
likewise those that bind the left foot. So there are sixty
great sinews called “body supporters” which descend
[from the neck] and bind the body together; and they
are also called “tendons.” They are all the shape of
yam shoots. But there are others scattered over various
parts of the body, which are finer than the last-named.
They are the shape of strings and cords. There are

694
others still finer, the shape of creepers. Others still
finer are the shape of large lute strings. Yet others are
the shape of coarse thread. The sinews in the backs of
the hands and feet are the shape of a bird’s claw. The
sinews in the head are the shape of children’s head
nets. The sinews in the back are the shape of a wet net
spread out in the sun. The rest of the sinews, following
the various limbs, are the shape of a net jacket fitted to
the body.
100. As to direction, they lie in the two directions. As
to location, they are to be found binding the bones of
the whole body together. As to delimitation, they are
bounded below by their surface, which is fixed on to
the three hundred bones, and above by the portions
that are in contact with the flesh and the inner skin,
and all round by each other …
[Bones]

101. Excepting the thirty-two teeth bones, these

consist of the remaining sixty-four hand bones, sixty-
four foot bones, sixty-four soft bones dependent on the
flesh, two heel bones; then in each leg two ankle
bones, two shin bones, one knee bone and one thigh
bone; then two hip bones, eighteen spine bones, [254]
twenty-four rib bones, fourteen breast bones, one
heart bone (sternum), two collar bones, two shoulder

695
blade bones,[24] two upper-arm bones, two pairs of
forearm bones, two neck bones, two jaw bones, one
nose bone, two eye bones, two ear bones, one frontal
bone, one occipital bone, nine sincipital bones. So
there are exactly three hundred bones. As to colour,
they are all white. As to shape, they are of various
shapes.
102. Herein, the end bones of the toes are the shape of
kataka seeds. Those next to them in the middle sections
are the shape of jackfruit seeds. The bones of the base
sections are the shape of small drums. The bones of
the back of the foot are the shape of a bunch of bruised
yarns. The heel bone is the shape of the seed of a
single-stone palmyra fruit.
103. The ankle bones are the shape of [two] play balls
bound together. The shin bones, in the place where
they rest on the ankle bones, are the shape of a sindi
shoot without the skin removed. The small shin bone
is the shape of a[toy] bow stick. The large one is the
shape of a shrivelled snake’s back. The knee bone is
the shape of a lump of froth melted on one side.
Herein, the place where the shin bone rests on it is the
shape of a blunt cow’s horn. The thigh bone is the
shape of a badly-pared[25] handle for an axe or
hatchet. The place where it fits into the hip bone is the
shape of a play ball. The place in the hip bone where it

696
is set is the shape of a big punnāga fruit with the end
cut off.
104. The two hip bones, when fastened together, are
the shape of the ring-fastening of a smith’s hammer.
The buttock bone on the end [of them] is the shape of
an inverted snake’s hood. It is perforated in seven or
eight places. The spine bones are internally the shape
of lead-sheet pipes put one on top of the other;
externally they are the shape of a string of beads. They
have two or three rows of projections next to each
other like the teeth of a saw.
105. Of the twenty-four rib bones, the incomplete ones
are the shape of incomplete sabres, [255] and the
complete ones are the shape of complete sabres; all
together they are like the outspread wings of a white
cock. The fourteen breast bones are the shape of an old
chariot frame.[26] The heart bone (sternum) is the
shape of the bowl of a spoon. The collar bones are the
shape of small metal knife handles. The shoulder-
blade bones are the shape of a Sinhalese hoe worn
down on one side.
106. The upper-arm bones are the shape of looking
glass handles. The forearm bones are the shape of a
twin palm’s trunks. The wrist bones are the shape of
lead-sheet pipes stuck together. The bones of the back
of the hand are the shape of a bundle of bruised yams.

697
As to the fingers, the bones of the base sections are the
shape of small drums; those of the middle sections are
the shape of immature jackfruit seeds; those of the end
sections are the shape of kataka seeds.
107. The seven neck bones are the shape of rings of
bamboo stem threaded one after the other on a stick.
The lower jawbone is the shape of a smith’s iron
hammer ring-fastening. The upper one is the shape of
a knife for scraping [the rind off sugarcanes]. The
bones of the eye sockets and nostril sockets are the
shape of young palmyra seeds with the kernels
removed. The frontal bone is the shape of an inverted
bowl made of a shell. The bones of the ear-holes are
the shape of barbers’ razor boxes. The bone in the
place where a cloth is tied [round the head] above the
frontal bone and the ear holes is the shape of a piece of
curled-up toffee flake.[27] The occipital bone is the
shape of a lopsided coconut with a hole cut in the end.
The sincipital bones are the shape of a dish made of an
old gourd held together with stitches.
108. As to direction, they lie in both directions. As to
location, they are to be found indiscriminately
throughout the whole body. But in particular here, the
head bones rest on the neck bones, the neck bones on
the spine bones, the spine bones on the hip bones, the
hip bones on the thigh bones, the thigh bones on the
knee bones, the knee bones on the shin bones, the shin

698
bones on the ankle bones, the ankle bones on the
bones of the back of the foot. As to delimitation, they
are bounded inside by the bone marrow, above by the
flesh, at the ends and at the roots by each other …
[Bone Marrow]

109. This is the marrow inside the various bones. As

to colour, it is white. As to shape, [256] that inside each
large bone is the shape of a large cane shoot moistened
and inserted into a bamboo tube. That inside each
small bone is the shape of a slender cane shoot
moistened and inserted in a section of bamboo twig.
As to direction, it lies in both directions. As to location,
it is set inside the bones. As to delimitation, it is
delimited by the inner surface of the bones …
[Kidney]

110. This is two pieces of flesh with a single ligature.

As to colour, it is dull red, the colour of pālibhaddaka
(coral tree) seeds. As to shape, it is the shape of a pair
of child’s play balls; or it is the shape of a pair of
mango fruits attached to a single stalk. As to direction,
it lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found on either side of the heart flesh, being fastened
by a stout sinew that starts out with one root from the
base of the neck and divides into two after going a

699
short way. As to delimitation, the kidney is bounded by
what appertains to kidney …
[Heart]

111. This is the heart flesh. As to colour, it is the colour

of the back of a red-lotus petal. As to shape, it is the
shape of a lotus bud with the outer petals removed
and turned upside down; it is smooth outside, and
inside it is like the interior of a kosātakī (loofah gourd).
In those who possess understanding it is a little
expanded; in those without understanding it is still
only a bud. Inside it there is a hollow the size of a
punnāga seed’s bed where half a pasata measure of
blood is kept, with which as their support the mind
element and mind-consciousness element occur.
112. That in one of greedy temperament is red; that in
one of hating temperament is black; that in one of
deluded temperament is like water that meat has been
washed in; that in one of speculative temperament is
like lentil soup in colour; that in one of faithful
temperament is the colour of [yellow] kanikāra flowers;
that in one of understanding temperament is limpid,
clear, unturbid, bright, pure, like a washed gem of
pure water, and it seems to shine.
113. As to direction, it lies in the upper direction. As to
location, it is to be found in the middle between the

700
two breasts, inside the body. As to delimitation, it is
bounded by what appertains to heart … [257]
[Liver]

114. This is a twin slab of flesh. As to colour, it is a

brownish shade of red, the colour of the not-too-red
backs of white water-lily petals. As to shape, with its
single root and twin ends, it is the shape of a koviḷāra
leaf. In sluggish people it is single and large; in those
possessed of understanding there are two or three
small ones. As to direction, it lies in the upper
direction. As to location, it is to be found on the right
side, inside from the two breasts. As to delimitation, it
is bounded by what appertains to liver …

[Midriff] [28]

115. This is the covering of the flesh, which is of two

kinds, namely, the concealed and the unconcealed. As
to colour, both kinds are white, the colour of dukūla
(muslin) rags. As to shape, it is the shape of its location.
As to direction, the concealed midriff lies in the upper
direction, the other in both directions. As to location,
the concealed midriff is to be found concealing the
heart and kidney; the unconcealed is to be found
covering the flesh under the inner skin throughout the

701
whole body. As to delimitation, it is bounded below by
the flesh, above by the inner skin, and all round by
what appertains to midriff …
[Spleen]

116. This is the flesh of the belly’s “tongue.” As to

colour, it is blue, the colour of nigguṇḍi flowers. As to
shape, it is seven fingers in size, without attachments,
and the shape of a black calf’s tongue. As to direction, it
lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found near the upper side of the belly to the left of the
heart. When it comes out through a wound a being’s
life is terminated. As to delimitation, it is bounded by
what appertains to spleen …
[Lungs]

117. The flesh of the lungs is divided up into two or

three pieces of flesh. As to colour, it is red, the colour of
not very ripe udumbara fig fruits. As to shape, it is the
shape of an unevenly cut thick slice of cake. Inside, it
is insipid and lacks nutritive essence, like a lump of
chewed straw, because it is affected by the heat of the
kamma-born fire [element] that springs up when there
is need of something to eat and drink. As to direction, it
lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found inside the body between the two breasts,

702
hanging above the heart [258] and liver and concealing
them. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to lungs …
[Bowel]

118. This is the bowel tube; it is looped[29] in twenty-

one places, and in a man it is thirty-two hands long,
and in a woman, twenty-eight hands. As to colour, it is
white, the colour of lime [mixed] with sand. As to
shape, it is the shape of a beheaded snake coiled up
and put in a trough of blood. As to direction, it lies in
the two directions. As to location, it is fastened above
at the gullet and below to the excrement passage
(rectum), so it is to be found inside the body between
the limits of the gullet and the excrement passage. As
to delimitation, it is bounded by what pertains to bowel
…
[Entrails (Mesentery)]

119. This is the fastening in the places where the

bowel is coiled. As to colour, it is white, the colour of
dakasītalika[30] (white edible water lily) roots. As to
shape, it is the shape of those roots too. As to direction,
it lies in the two directions. As to location, it is to be
found inside the twenty-one coils of the bowel, like the

703
strings to be found inside rope-rings for wiping the
feet on, sewing them together, and it fastens the
bowel’s coils together so that they do not slip down in
those working with hoes, axes, etc., as the marionette-
strings do the marionette’s wooden [limbs] at the time
of the marionette’s being pulled along. As to
delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to
entrails …
[Gorge]

120. This is what has been eaten, drunk, chewed and

tasted, and is present in the stomach. As to colour, it is
the colour of swallowed food. As to shape, it is the
shape of rice loosely tied in a cloth strainer. As to
direction, it is in the upper direction. As to location, it is
in the stomach.
121. What is called the “stomach” is [a part of] the
bowel-membrane, which is like the swelling [of air]
produced in the middle of a length of wet cloth when
it is being [twisted and] wrung out from the two ends.
It is smooth outside. Inside, it is like a balloon of
cloth[31] soiled by wrapping up meat refuse; or it can
be said to be like the inside of the skin of a rotten jack
fruit. It is the place where worms dwell seething in
tangles: the thirty-two families of worms, such as
round worms, boil-producing worms, “palm-splinter”

704
worms, needle-mouthed worms, tape-worms, thread
worms, and the rest.[32] When there is no food and
drink, [259] etc., present, they leap up shrieking and
pounce upon the heart’s flesh; and when food and
drink, etc., are swallowed, they wait with uplifted
mouths and scramble to snatch the first two or three
lumps swallowed. It is these worms’ maternity home,
privy, hospital and charnel ground. Just as when it has
rained heavily in a time of drought and what has been
carried by the water into the cesspit at the gate of an
outcaste village—the various kinds of ordure[33] such
as urine, excrement, bits of hide and bones and
sinews, as well as spittle, snot, blood, etc.—gets mixed
up with the mud and water already collected there;
and after two or three days the families of worms
appear, and it ferments, warmed by the energy of the
sun’s heat, frothing and bubbling on the top, quite
black in colour, and so utterly stinking and loathsome
that one can scarcely go near it or look at it, much less
smell or taste it, so too, [the stomach is where] the
assortment of food, drink, etc., falls after being
pounded up by the tongue and stuck together with
spittle and saliva, losing at that moment its virtues of
colour, smell, taste, etc., and taking on the appearance
of weavers’ paste and dogs’ vomit, then to get soused
in the bile and phlegm and wind that have collected
there, where it ferments with the energy of the

705
stomach-fire’s heat, seethes with the families of
worms, frothing and bubbling on the top, till it turns
into utterly stinking nauseating muck, even to hear
about which takes away any appetite for food, drink,
etc., let alone to see it with the eye of understanding.
And when the food, drink, etc., fall into it, they get
divided into five parts: the worms eat one part, the
stomach-fire bums up another part, another part
becomes urine, another part becomes excrement, and
one part is turned into nourishment and sustains the
blood, flesh and so on.
122. As to delimitation, it is bounded by the stomach
lining and by what appertains to gorge …
[Dung]

123. This is excrement. As to colour, it is mostly the

colour of eaten food. As to shape, it is the shape of its
location. As to direction, it is in the lower direction. As
to location, it is to be found in the receptacle for
digested food (rectum).
124. The receptacle for digested food is the lowest
part at the end of the bowel, between the navel and
the root of the spine. [260] It measures eight
fingerbreadths in height and resembles a bamboo
tube. Just as when rain water falls on a higher level it
runs down to fill a lower level and stays there, so too,

706
the receptacle for digested food is where any food,
drink, etc., that have fallen into the receptacle for
undigested food, have been continuously cooked and
simmered by the stomach-fire, and have got as soft as
though ground up on a stone, run down to through
the cavities of the bowels, and it is pressed down there
till it becomes impacted like brown clay pushed into a
bamboo joint, and there it stays.
125. As to delimitation, it is bounded by the receptacle
for digested food and by what appertains to dung …
[Brain]

126. This is the lumps of marrow to be found inside

the skull. As to colour, it is white, the colour of the
flesh of a toadstool; it can also be said that it is the
colour of turned milk that has not yet become curd. As
to shape, it is the shape of its location. As to direction, it
belongs to the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found inside the skull, like four lumps of dough put
together to correspond with the [skull’s] four sutured
sections. As to delimitation, it is bounded by the skull’s
inner surface and by what appertains to brain …
[Bile]

127. There are two kinds of bile: local bile and free

707
bile. Herein as to colour, the local bile is the colour of
thick madhuka oil; the free bile is the colour of faded
ākulī flowers. As to shape, both are the shape of their
location. As to direction, the local bile belongs to the
upper direction; the other belongs to both directions.
As to location, the free bile spreads, like a drop of oil
on water, all over the body except for the fleshless
parts of the head hairs, body hairs, teeth, nails, and the
hard dry skin. When it is disturbed, the eyes become
yellow and twitch, and there is shivering and
itching[34] of the body. The local bile is situated near
the flesh of the liver between the heart and the lungs.
It is to be found in the bile container (gall bladder),
which is like a large kosātakī (loofah) gourd pip. When
it is disturbed, beings go crazy and become demented,
they throw off conscience and shame and do the
undoable, speak the unspeakable, and think the
unthinkable. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to bile … [261]
[Phlegm]

128. The phlegm is inside the body and it measures a

bowlful. As to colour, it is white, the colour of the juice
of nāgabalā leaves. As to shape, it is the shape of its
location. As to direction, it belongs to the upper
direction. As to location, it is to be found on the

708
stomach’s surface. Just as duckweed and green scum
on the surface of water divide when a stick or a
potsherd is dropped into the water and then spread
together again, so too, at the time of eating and
drinking, etc., when the food, drink, etc., fall into the
stomach, the phlegm divides and then spreads
together again. And if it gets weak the stomach
becomes utterly disgusting with a smell of ordure, like
a ripe boil or a rotten hen’s egg, and then the belchings
and the mouth reek with a stench like rotting ordure
rising from the stomach, so that the man has to be
told, “Go away, your breath smells.” But when it
grows plentiful it holds the stench of ordure beneath
the surface of the stomach, acting like the wooden lid
of a privy. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to phlegm …
[Pus]

129. Pus is produced by decaying blood. As to colour,

it is the colour of bleached leaves; but in a dead body
it is the colour of stale thickened gruel. As to shape, it is
the shape of its location. As to direction, it belongs to
both directions. As to location, however, there is no
fixed location for pus where it could be found stored
up. Wherever blood stagnates and goes bad in some
part of the body damaged by wounds with stumps
and thorns, by burns with fire, etc., or where boils,

709
carbuncles, etc., appear, it can be found there. As to
delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to pus …
[Blood]

130. There are two kinds of blood: stored blood and

mobile blood. Herein, as to colour, stored blood is the
colour of cooked and thickened lac solution; mobile
blood is the colour of clear lac solution. As to shape,
both are the shape of their locations. As to direction,
the stored blood belongs to the upper direction; the
other belongs to both directions. As to location, except
for the fleshless parts of the head hairs, body hairs,
teeth, nails, and the hard dry skin, the mobile blood
permeates the whole of the clung-to (kammically-
acquired)[35] body by following the network of veins.
The stored blood fills the lower part of the liver’s site
[262] to the extent of a bowlful, and by its splashing
little by little over the heart, kidney and lungs, it keeps
the kidney, heart, liver and lungs moist. For it is when
it fails to moisten the kidney, heart, etc., that beings
become thirsty. As to delimitation, it is bounded by
what appertains to blood …
[Sweat]

131. This is the water element that trickles from the

710
pores of the body hairs, and so on. As to colour, it is the
colour of clear sesame oil. As to shape, it is the shape of
its location. As to direction, it belongs to both
directions. As to location, there is no fixed location for
sweat where it could always be found like blood. But
if the body is heated by the heat of a fire, by the sun’s
heat, by a change of temperature, etc., then it trickles
from all the pore openings of the head hairs and body
hairs, as water does from a bunch of unevenly cut lily-
bud stems and lotus stalks pulled up from the water.
So its shape should also be understood to correspond
to the pore-openings of the head hairs and body hairs.
And the meditator who discerns sweat should only
give his attention to it as it is to be found filling the
pore-openings of the head hairs and body hairs. As to
delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to sweat
…
[Fat]

132. This is a thick unguent. As to colour, it is the

colour of sliced turmeric. As to shape, firstly in the
body of a stout man it is the shape of turmeric-
coloured dukūla (muslin) rags placed between the
inner skin and the flesh. In the body of a lean man it is
the shape of turmeric-coloured dukūla (muslin) rags
placed in two or three thicknesses on the shank flesh,
thigh flesh, back flesh near the spine, and belly-

711
covering flesh. As to direction, it belongs to both
directions. As to location, it permeates the whole of a
stout man’s body; it is to be found on a lean man’s
shank flesh, and so on. And though it was described
as “unguent” above, still it is neither used as oil on the
head nor as oil for the nose, etc., because of its utter
disgustingness. As to delimitation, it is bounded
below by the flesh, above by the inner skin, and all
round by what appertains to fat …
[Tears]

133. These are the water element that trickles from the
eye. As to colour, they are the colour of clear sesame
oil. As to shape, they are the shape of their location.
[263] As to direction, they belong to the upper
direction. As to location, they are to be found in the eye
sockets. But they are not stored in the eye sockets all
the while as the bile is in the bile container. But when
beings feel joy and laugh uproariously, or feel grief
and weep and lament, or eat particular kinds of wrong
food, or when their eyes are affected by smoke, dust,
dirt, etc., then being originated by the joy, grief, wrong
food, or temperature, they fill up the eye sockets or
trickle out. And the meditator who discerns tears
should discern them only as they are to be found
filling the eye sockets. As to delimitation, they are
bounded by what appertains to tears …

712
 [Grease]

134. This is a melted unguent. As to colour, it is the

colour of coconut oil. Also it can be said to be the
colour of oil sprinkled on gruel. As to shape, it is a film
the shape of a drop of unguent spread out over still
water at the time of bathing. As to direction, it belongs
to both directions. As to location, it is to be found
mostly on the palms of the hands, backs of the hands,
soles of the feet, backs of the feet, tip of the nose,
forehead, and points of the shoulders. And it is not
always to be found in the melted state in these
locations, but when these parts get hot with the heat of
a fire, the sun’s heat, upset of temperature or upset of
elements, then it spreads here and there in those
places like the film from the drop of unguent on the
still water at the time of bathing. As to delimitation, it is
bounded by what appertains to grease …
[Spittle]

135. This is water element mixed with froth inside the

mouth. As to colour, it is white, the colour of the froth.
As to shape, it is the shape of its location, or it can be
called “the shape of froth.” As to direction, it belongs to
the upper direction. As to location, it is to be found on
the tongue after it has descended from the cheeks on

713
both sides. And it is not always to be found stored
there; but when beings see particular kinds of food, or
remember them, or put something hot or bitter or
sharp or salty or sour into their mouths, or when their
hearts are faint, or nausea arises on some account,
then spittle appears and runs down from the cheeks
on both sides to settle on the tongue. It is thin at the tip
of the tongue, and thick at the root of the tongue. It is
capable, without getting used up, of wetting
unhusked rice or husked rice or anything else
chewable that is put into the mouth, like the water in a
pit scooped out in a river sand bank. [264] As to
delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to spittle
…
[Snot]

136. This is impurity that trickles out from the brain.

As to colour, it is the colour of a young palmyra kernel.
As to shape, it is the shape of its location. As to
direction, it belongs to the upper direction. As to
location, it is to be found filling the nostril cavities. And
it is not always to be found stored there; but rather,
just as though a man tied up curd in a lotus leaf,
which he then pricked with a thorn underneath, and
whey oozed out and dripped, so too, when beings
weep or suffer a disturbance of elements produced by
wrong food or temperature, then the brain inside the

714
head turns into stale phlegm, and it oozes out and
comes down by an opening in the palate, and it fills
the nostrils and stays there or trickles out. And the
meditator who discerns snot should discern it only as
it is to be found filling the nostril cavities. As to
delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to snot
…
[Oil of the Joints]

137. This is the slimy ordure inside the joints in the

body. As to colour, it is the colour of kaṇikāra gum. As
to shape, it is the shape of its location. As to direction, it
belongs to both directions. As to location, it is to be
found inside the hundred and eighty joints, serving
the function of lubricating the bones’ joints. If it is
weak, when a man gets up or sits down, moves
forward or backward, bends or stretches, then his
bones creak, and he goes about making a noise like the
snapping of fingers, and when he has walked only one
or two leagues’ distance, his air element gets upset
and his limbs pain him. But if a man has plenty of it,
his bones do not creak when he gets up, sits down,
etc., and even when he has walked a long distance, his
air element does not get upset and his limbs do not
pain him. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to oil of the joints …

715
 [Urine]

138. This is the urine solution. As to colour, it is the

colour of bean brine. As to shape, it is the shape of
water inside a water pot placed upside down. As to
direction, it belongs to the lower direction. As to
location, it is to be found inside the bladder. For the
bladder sack is called the bladder. Just as when a
porous pot with no mouth is put into a cesspool, [265]
then the solution from the cesspool gets into the
porous pot with no mouth even though no way of
entry is evident, so too, while the urinary secretion
from the body enters the bladder its way of entry is
not evident. Its way of exit, however, is evident. And
when the bladder is full of urine, beings feel the need
to make water. As to delimitation, it is delimited by the
inside of the bladder and by what is similar to urine.
This is the delimitation by the similar. But its
delimitation by the dissimilar is like that for the head
hairs (see note at end of §90).
[The Arising of Absorption]

139. When the meditator has defined the parts

beginning with the head hairs in this way by colour,
shape, direction, location and delimitation (§58), and
he gives his attention in the ways beginning with

716
“following the order, not too quickly” (§61) to their
repulsiveness in the five aspects of colour, shape,
smell, habitat, and location (§84f.), then at last he
surmounts the concept (§66). Then just as when a man
with good sight is observing a garland of flowers of
thirty-two colours knotted on a single string and all
the flowers become evident to him simultaneously, so
too, when the meditator observes this body thus,
“There are in this body head hairs,” then all these
things become evident to him, as it were,
simultaneously. Hence it was said above in the
explanation of skill in giving attention: “For when a
beginner gives his attention to head hairs, his attention
carries on till it arrives at the last part, that is, urine,
and stops there” (§67).
140. If he applies his attention externally as well when
all the parts have become evident in this way, then
human beings, animals, etc., as they go about are
divested of their aspect of beings and appear as just
assemblages of parts. And when drink, food, etc., is
being swallowed by them, it appears as though it were
being put in among the assemblage of parts.
141. Then, as he gives his attention to them again and
again as “Repulsive, repulsive,” employing the
process of “successive leaving,” etc. (§67), eventually
absorption arises in him. Herein, the appearance of the
head hairs, etc., as to colour, shape, direction, location,

717
and delimitation is the learning sign; their appearance
as repulsive in all aspects is the counterpart sign.
As he cultivates and develops that counterpart sign,
absorption arises in him, but only of the first jhāna, in
the same way as described under foulness as a
meditation subject (VI.64f.). And it arises singly in one
to whom only one part has become evident, or who
has reached absorption in one part and makes no
further effort about another.
142. But several first jhānas, according to the number
of parts, are produced in one to whom several parts
have become evident, or who has reached jhāna in one
and also makes further effort about another. As in the
case of the Elder Mallaka. [266]
The elder, it seems, took the Elder Abhaya, the
Dīgha reciter, by the hand,[36] and after saying “Friend
Abhaya, first learn this matter,” he went on: “The
Elder Mallaka is an obtainer of thirty-two jhānas in the
thirty-two parts. If he enters upon one by night and
one by day, he goes on entering upon them for over a
fortnight; but if he enters upon one each day, he goes
on entering upon them for over a month.”
143. And although this meditation is successful in this
way with the first jhāna, it is nevertheless called
“mindfulness occupied with the body” because it is
successful through the influence of the mindfulness of

718
the colour, shape, and so on.
144. And the bhikkhu who is devoted to this
mindfulness occupied with the body “is a conqueror
of boredom and delight, and boredom does not
conquer him; he dwells transcending boredom as it
arises. He is a conqueror of fear and dread, and fear
and dread do not conquer him; he dwells
transcending fear and dread as they arise. He is one
who bears cold and heat … who endures … arisen
bodily feelings that are … menacing to life” (M III 97);
he becomes an obtainer of the four jhānas based on the
colour aspect of the head hairs,[37] etc.; and he comes
to penetrate the six kinds of direct-knowledge (see
MN 6).
So let a man, if he is wise,
Untiringly devote his days
To mindfulness of body which
Rewards him in so many ways.
This is the section dealing with mindfulness
occupied with the body in the detailed treatise.

[(9) Mindfulness of Breathing]

145. Now comes the description of the development

of mindfulness of breathing as a meditation subject. It

719
has been recommended by the Blessed One thus:
“And, bhikkhus, this concentration through
mindfulness of breathing, when developed and
practiced much, is both peaceful and sublime, it is an
unadulterated blissful abiding, and it banishes at once
and stills evil unprofitable thoughts as soon as they
arise” (S V 321; Vin III 70).
[Text]

It has been described by the Blessed One as having

sixteen bases thus: “And how developed, bhikkhus,
how practiced much, is concentration through
mindfulness of breathing both peaceful and sublime,
an unadulterated blissful abiding, banishing at once
and stilling evil unprofitable thoughts as soon as they
arise?
“Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, gone to the forest or to
the root of a tree or to an empty place, sits down;
having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect,
established mindfulness in front of him, [267] ever
mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out.
“(i) Breathing in long, he knows: ’I breathe in long;’
or breathing out long, he knows: ’I breathe out long.’
(ii) Breathing in short, he knows: ’I breathe in short;’ or
breathing out short, he knows: ’I breathe out short.’
(iii) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in experiencing the

720
whole body;’ he trains thus: ’I shall breathe out
experiencing the whole body.’ (iv) He trains thus: ’I
shall breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation;’ he
trains thus: ’I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
formation.’
“(v) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in experiencing
happiness;’ he trains thus: ’I shall breathe out
experiencing happiness.’ (vi) He trains thus: ’I shall
breathe in experiencing bliss;’ he trains thus: ’I shall
breathe out experiencing bliss.’ (vii) He trains thus: ’I
shall breathe in experiencing the mental formation;’ he
trains thus: ’I shall breathe out experiencing the
mental formation.’ (viii) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe
in tranquilizing the mental formation;’ he trains thus:
’I shall breathe out tranquilizing the mental
formation.’
“(ix) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in experiencing
the [manner of] consciousness;’ he trains thus: ’I shall
breathe out experiencing the [manner of]
consciousness.’ (x) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in
gladdening the [manner of] consciousness;’ he trains
thus: ’I shall breathe out gladdening the [manner of]
consciousness.’ (xi) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in
concentrating the [manner of] consciousness;’ he trains
thus: ’I shall breathe out concentrating the [manner of]
consciousness.’ (xii) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in
liberating the [manner of] consciousness;’ he trains

721
thus: ’I shall breathe out liberating the [manner of]
consciousness.’
“(xiii) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in
contemplating impermanence;’ he trains thus: ’I shall
breathe out contemplating impermanence.’ (xiv) He
trains thus: ’I shall breathe in contemplating fading
away;’ he trains thus: ’I shall breathe out
contemplating fading away.’ (xv) He trains thus: ’I
shall breathe in contemplating cessation;’ he trains
thus: ’I shall breathe out contemplating cessation.’
(xvi) He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in contemplating
relinquishment;’ he trains thus: ’I shall breathe out
contemplating relinquishment’ (S V 321–22).
146. The description [of development] is complete in
all respects, however, only if it is given in due course
after a commentary on the text. So it is given here
(§186) introduced by a commentary on the [first part
of the] text.
[Word Commentary]

And how developed, bhikkhus, how practiced much, is

concentration through mindfulness of breathing: here in
the first place how is a question showing desire to
explain in detail the development of concentration
through mindfulness of breathing in its various forms.
Developed, bhikkhus, … is concentration through

722
mindfulness of breathing: this shows the thing that is
being asked about out of desire to explain it in its
various forms. How practiced much … as soon as they
arise?: here too the same explanation applies.
147. Herein, developed means aroused or increased,
concentration through mindfulness of breathing (lit.
“breathing-mindfulness concentration”) is either
concentration associated with mindfulness that
discerns breathing, or it is concentration on
mindfulness of breathing. Practiced much: practiced
again and again.
148. Both peaceful and sublime (santo c’ eva paṇīto ca): it
is peaceful in both ways and sublime in both ways; the
two words should each be understood as governed by
the word “both” (eva). What is meant? Unlike
foulness, which as a meditation subject is peaceful and
sublime only by penetration, but is neither (n’ eva)
peaceful nor sublime in its object since its object [in the
learning stage] is gross, and [after that] its object is
repulsiveness—unlike that, this is not unpeaceful or
unsublime in any way, but on the contrary it is
peaceful, stilled and quiet both on account of the
peacefulness of its object and on account of the
peacefulness of that one of its factors called
penetration. And it is sublime, something one cannot
have enough of, both on account of the sublimeness of
its object and on [268] account of the sublimeness of

723
the aforesaid factor. Hence it is called “both peaceful
and sublime.”
149. It is an unadulterated blissful abiding: it has no
adulteration, thus it is unadulterated; it is unalloyed,
unmixed, particular, special. Here it is not a question
of peacefulness to be reached through preliminary
work [as with the kasiṇas] or through access [as with
foulness, for instance]. It is peaceful and sublime in its
own individual essence too starting with the very first
attention given to it. But some[38] say that it is
“unadulterated” because it is unalloyed, possessed of
nutritive value and sweet in its individual essence too.
So it should be understood to be “unadulterated” and
a “blissful abiding” since it leads to the obtaining of
bodily and mental bliss with every moment of
absorption.
150. As soon as they arise: whenever they are not
suppressed. Evil: bad. Unprofitable (akusala) thoughts:
thoughts produced by unskilfulness (akosalla). It
banishes at once: it banishes, suppresses, at that very
moment. Stills (vūpasameti): it thoroughly calms (suṭṭhu
upasameti); or else, when eventually brought to
fulfilment by the noble path, it cuts off, because of
partaking of penetration; it tranquilizes, is what is
meant.
151. In brief, however, the meaning here is this:

724
“Bhikkhus, in what way, in what manner, by what
system, is concentration through mindfulness of
breathing developed, in what way is it practiced
much, that it is both peaceful … as soon as they arise?”
152. He now said, “Here, bhikkhus,” etc., giving the
meaning of that in detail.
Herein, here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu means: bhikkhus, in
this dispensation a bhikkhu. For this word here
signifies the [Buddha’s] dispensation as the
prerequisite for a person to produce concentration
through mindfulness of breathing in all its modes,[39]
and it denies that such a state exists in any other
dispensation. For this is said: “Bhikkhus, only here is
there an ascetic, here a second ascetic, here a third
ascetic, here a fourth ascetic; other dispensations are
devoid of ascetics” (M I 63; A II 238).[40] That is why it
was said above “in this dispensation a bhikkhu.”
153. Gone to the forest … or to an empty place: this
signifies that he has found an abode favourable to the
development of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing. For this bhikkhu’s mind has long been
dissipated among visible data, etc., as its object, and it
does not want to mount the object of concentration-
through-mindfulness-of-breathing; it runs off the track
like a chariot harnessed to a wild ox.[41] Now, suppose
a cowherd [269] wanted to tame a wild calf that had

725
been reared on a wild cow’s milk, he would take it
away from the cow and tie it up apart with a rope to a
stout post dug into the ground; then the calf might
dash to and fro, but being unable to get away, it
would eventually sit down or lie down by the post. So
too, when a bhikkhu wants to tame his own mind
which has long been spoilt by being reared on visible
data, etc., as object for its food and drink, he should
take it away from visible data, etc., as object and bring
it into the forest or to the root of a tree or to an empty
place and tie it up there to the post of in-breaths and
out-breaths with the rope of mindfulness. And so his
mind may then dash to and fro when it no longer gets
the objects it was formerly used to, but being unable to
break the rope of mindfulness and get away, it sits
down, lies down, by that object under the influence of
access and absorption. Hence the Ancients said:
154. “Just as a man who tames a calf
Would tie it to a post, so here
Should his own mind by mindfulness
Be firmly to the object tied.”
This is how an abode is favourable to his
development. Hence it was said above: “This signifies
that he has found an abode favourable to the
development of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing.”

726
155. Or alternatively, this mindfulness of breathing as
a meditation subject—which is foremost among the
various meditation subjects of all Buddhas, [some]
Paccekabuddhas and [some] Buddhas’ disciples as a
basis for attaining distinction and abiding in bliss here
and now—is not easy to develop without leaving the
neighbourhood of villages, which resound with the
noises of women, men, elephants, horses, etc., noise
being a thorn to jhāna (see A V 135), whereas in the
forest away from a village a meditator can at his ease
set about discerning this meditation subject and
achieve the fourth jhāna in mindfulness of breathing;
and then, by making that same jhāna the basis for
comprehension of formations [with insight] (XX.2f.),
he can reach Arahantship, the highest fruit. That is
why the Blessed One said “gone to the forest,” etc., in
pointing out a favourable abode for him.
156. For the Blessed One is like a master of the art of
building sites (see D I 9, 12; II 87). [270] As the master
of the art of building sites surveys the proposed site
for a town, thoroughly examines it, and then gives his
directions, “Build the town here,” and when the town
is safely finished, he receives great honour from the
royal family, so the Blessed One examines an abode as
to its suitability for the meditator, and he directs,
“Devote yourself to the meditation subject here,” and
later on, when the meditator has devoted himself to

727
the meditation subject and has reached Arahantship
and says, “The Blessed One is indeed fully
enlightened,” the Blessed One receives great honour.
157. And this bhikkhu is compared to a leopard. For
just as a great leopard king lurks in a grass wilderness
or a jungle wilderness or a rock wilderness in the
forest and seizes wild beasts—the wild buffalo, wild
ox, boar, etc.—so too, the bhikkhu who devotes
himself to his meditation subject in the forest, etc.,
should be understood to seize successively the paths
of stream-entry, once-return, non-return, and
Arahantship; and the noble fruitions as well. Hence
the Ancients said:
“For as the leopard by his lurking [in the forest]
seizes beasts
So also will this Buddhas’ son, with insight gifted,
strenuous,
By his retreating to the forest seize the highest
fruit of all” (Mil 369).
So the Blessed One said “gone to the forest,” etc., to
point out a forest abode as a place likely to hasten his
advancement.
158. Herein, gone to the forest is gone to any kind of
forest possessing the bliss of seclusion among the
kinds of forests characterized thus: “Having gone out
beyond the boundary post, all that is forest” (Paṭis I

728
176; Vibh 251), and “A forest abode is five hundred
bow lengths distant” (Vin IV 183). To the root of a tree:
gone to the vicinity of a tree. To an empty place: gone to
an empty, secluded space. And here he can be said to
have gone to an “empty place” if he has gone to any of
the remaining seven kinds of abode (resting place).[42]
[271]
159. Having thus indicated an abode that is suitable to
the three seasons, suitable to humour and
temperament,[43] and favourable to the development
of mindfulness of breathing, he then said sits down,
etc., indicating a posture that is peaceful and tends
neither to idleness nor to agitation. Then he said
having folded his legs crosswise, etc., to show firmness in
the sitting position, easy occurrence of the in-breaths
and out-breaths, and the means for discerning the
object.
160. Herein, crosswise is the sitting position with the
thighs fully locked. Folded: having locked. Set his body
erect: having placed the upper part of the body erect
with the eighteen backbones resting end to end. For
when he is seated like this, his skin, flesh and sinews
are not twisted, and so the feelings that would arise
moment by moment if they were twisted do not arise.
That being so, his mind becomes unified, and the
meditation subject, instead of collapsing, attains to

729
growth and increase.
161. Established mindfulness in front of him (parimukhaṃ
satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā) = having placed (ṭhapayitvā)
mindfulness (satiṃ) facing the meditation subject
(kammaṭṭhānābhimukhaṃ). Or alternatively, the
meaning can be treated here too according to the
method of explanation given in the Paṭisambhidā,
which is this: Pari has the sense of control (pariggaha),
mukhaṃ (lit. mouth) has the sense of outlet (niyyāna),
sati has the sense of establishment (upaṭṭhāna); that is
why parimukhaṃ satiṃ (’mindfulness as a controlled
outlet’) is said” (Paṭis I 176). The meaning of it in brief
is: Having made mindfulness the outlet (from
opposition, forgetfulness being thereby] controlled.[44]
162. Ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out:
having seated himself thus, having established
mindfulness thus, the bhikkhu does not abandon that
mindfulness; ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he
breathes out; he is a mindful worker, is what is meant.
[Word Commentary Continued—First
Tetrad]

163. (i) Now, breathing in long, etc., is said in order to

show the different ways in which he is a mindful
worker. For in the Paṭisambhidā, in the exposition of
the clause, “Ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he

730
breathes out,” this is said: “He is a mindful worker in
thirty-two ways: (1) when he knows unification of
mind and non-distraction by means of a long in-
breath, mindfulness is established in him; owing to
that mindfulness and that knowledge he is a mindful
worker. (2) When he knows unification of mind and
non-distraction by means of a long out-breath … (31)
by means of breathing in contemplating
relinquishment … (32) When he knows unification of
mind and non-distraction by means of breathing out
contemplating relinquishment, mindfulness is
established in him; owing to that mindfulness and that
knowledge he is a mindful worker” (Paṭis I 176).
164. Herein, breathing in long (assasanto) is producing a
long in-breath. [272] “Assāsa is the wind issuing out;
passāsa is the wind entering in” is said in the Vinaya
Commentary. But in the Suttanta Commentaries it is
given in the opposite sense. Herein, when any infant
comes out from the mother’s womb, first the wind
from within goes out and subsequently the wind from
without enters in with fine dust, strikes the palate and
is extinguished [with the infant’s sneezing]. This,
firstly, is how assāsa and passāsa should be understood.
165. But their length and shortness should be
understood by extent (addhāna). For just as water or
sand that occupies an extent of space is called a “long
water,” a “long sand,” a “short water,” a “short sand,”

731
so in the case of elephants’ and snakes’ bodies the in-
breaths and out-breaths regarded as particles[45]
slowly fill the long extent, in other words, their
persons, and slowly go out again. That is why they are
called “long.” They rapidly fill a short extent, in other
words, the person of a dog, a hare, etc., and rapidly go
out again. That is why they are called “short.”
166. And in the case of human beings some breathe in
and breathe out long, by extent of time, as elephants,
snakes, etc., do, while others breathe in and breathe
out short in that way as dogs, hares, etc., do. Of these,
therefore, the breaths that travel over a long extent in
entering in and going out are to be understood as long
in time; and the breaths that travel over a little extent
in entering in and going out, as short in time.
167. Now, this bhikkhu knows “I breathe in, I breathe
out, long” while breathing in and breathing out long
in nine ways. And the development of the foundation
of mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the
body should be understood to be perfected in one
aspect in him who knows thus, according as it is said
in the Paṭisambhidā:
168. “How, breathing in long, does he know: ’I
breathe in long,’ breathing out long, does he know: ’I
breathe out long?’ (1) He breathes in a long in-breath
reckoned as an extent. (2) He breathes out a long out-

732
breath reckoned as an extent. (3) He breathes in and
breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths reckoned
as an extent. As he breathes in and breathes out long
in-breaths and out-breaths reckoned as an extent, zeal
arises.[46] (4) Through zeal he breathes in a long in-
breath more subtle than before reckoned as an extent.
(5) Through zeal he breathes out a long out-breath
more subtle than before reckoned as an extent. (6)
Through zeal he breathes in and breathes out long in-
breaths and out-breaths more subtle than before
reckoned as an extent. As, through zeal, he breathes in
and breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths more
subtle than before reckoned as an extent, gladness
arises. [273] (7) Through gladness he breathes in a long
in-breath more subtle than before reckoned as an
extent. (8) Through gladness he breathes out a long
out-breath more subtle than before reckoned as an
extent. (9) Through gladness he breathes in and
breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths more
subtle than before reckoned as an extent. As, through
gladness, he breathes in and breathes out long in-
breaths and out-breaths more subtle than before
reckoned as an extent, his mind turns away from the
long in-breaths and out-breaths and equanimity is
established.
“Long in-breaths and out-breaths in these nine ways
are a body. The establishment (foundation)[47] is

733
mindfulness. The contemplation is knowledge. The
body is the establishment (foundation), but it is not the
mindfulness. Mindfulness is both the establishment
(foundation) and the mindfulness. By means of that
mindfulness and that knowledge he contemplates that
body. That is why ’development of the foundation
(establishment) of mindfulness consisting in
contemplation of the body as a body’ (see D II 290) is
said” (Paṭis I 177).
169. (ii) The same method of explanation applies also
in the case of short breaths. But there is this difference.
While in the former case “a long in-breath reckoned as
an extent” is said, here “a short in-breath reckoned as
a little [duration]” (Paṭis I 182) is given. So it must be
construed as “short” as far as the phrase “That is why
’development of the foundation (establishment) of
mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the body
as a body’ is said” (Paṭis I 183).
170. So it should be understood that it is when this
bhikkhu knows in-breaths and out-breaths in these
nine ways as “a [long] extent” and as “a little
[duration]” that “breathing in long, he knows ’I
breathe in long;’ … breathing out short, he knows ’I
breathe out short’ is said of him. And when he knows
thus:
“The long kind and the short as well,

734
 The in-breath and the out-breath too,
Such then are the four kinds that happen
At the bhikkhu’s nose tip here.”
171. (iii) He trains thus: “I shall breathe in … I shall
breathe out experiencing the whole body”: he trains thus:
“I shall breathe in making known, making plain, the
beginning, middle and end[48] of the entire in-breath
body. I shall breathe out making known, making
plain, the beginning, middle and end of the entire out-
breath body,” thus he trains. Making them known,
making them plain, in this way he both breathes in
and breathes out with consciousness associated with
knowledge. That is why it is said, “He trains thus: ’I
shall breathe in … shall breathe out …’”
172. To one bhikkhu the beginning of the in-breath
body or the out-breath body, distributed in particles,
[that is to say, regarded as successive arisings (see
note 45)] is plain, but not the middle or the end; he is
only able to discern the beginning and has difficulty
with the middle and the end. To another the middle is
plain, not the beginning or the end; he is only able to
discern the middle and has difficulty with the
beginning and the end. To another the end is plain,
not the beginning or the middle; he is only able to
discern the end [274] and has difficulty with the
beginning and the middle. To yet another all stages
are plain; he is able to discern them all and has no

735
difficulty with any of them. Pointing out that one
should be like the last-mentioned bhikkhu, he said:
“He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in … shall breathe out
experiencing the whole body.’”
173. Herein, he trains: he strives, he endeavours in this
way. Or else the restraint here in one such as this is
training in the higher virtue, his consciousness is
training in the higher consciousness, and his
understanding is training in the higher understanding
(see Paṭis I 184). So he trains in, repeats, develops,
repeatedly practices, these three kinds of training, on
that object, by means of that mindfulness, by means of
that attention. This is how the meaning should be
regarded here.
174. Herein, in the first part of the system (nos. i and
ii)[49] he should only breathe in and breathe out and
not do anything else at all, and it is only afterwards
that he should apply himself to the arousing of
knowledge, and so on. Consequently the present tense
is used here in the text, “He knows: ’I breathe in’ … he
knows: ’I breathe out.’” But the future tense in the
passage beginning “I shall breathe in experiencing the
whole body” should be understood as used in order to
show that the aspect of arousing knowledge, etc., has
to be undertaken from then on.
175. (iv) He trains thus: “I shall breathe in … shall

736
breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation;” he
trains thus: “I shall breathe in, shall breathe out
tranquilizing, completely tranquilizing, stopping,
stilling, the gross bodily formation[50]”.
176. And here both the gross and subtle state and also
[progressive] tranquilizing should be understood. For
previously, at the time when the bhikkhu has still not
discerned [the meditation subject], his body and his
mind are disturbed and so they are gross. And while
the grossness of the body and the mind has still not
subsided the in-breaths and out-breaths are gross.
They get stronger; his nostrils become inadequate, and
he keeps breathing in and out through his mouth. But
they become quiet and still when his body and mind
have been discerned. When they are still then the in-
breaths and out-breaths occur so subtly that he has to
investigate whether they exist or not.
177. Suppose a man stands still after running, or
descending from a hill, or putting down a big load
from his head, then his in-breaths and out-breaths are
gross, his nostrils become inadequate, and he keeps on
breathing in and out through his mouth. But when he
has rid himself of his fatigue and has bathed and
drunk [275] and put a wet cloth on his heart, and is
lying in the cool shade, then his in-breaths and out-
breaths eventually occur so subtly that he has to
investigate whether they exist or not; so too,

737
previously, at the time when the bhikkhu has still not
discerned, … he has to investigate whether they exist
or not.
178. Why is that? Because previously, at the time
when he has still not discerned, there is no concern in
him, no reaction, no attention, no reviewing, to the
effect that “I am [progressively] tranquilizing each
grosser bodily formation.” But when he has discerned,
there is. So his bodily formation at the time when he
has discerned is subtle in comparison with that at the
time when he has not. Hence the Ancients said:
“The mind and body are disturbed,
And then in excess it occurs;
But when the body is undisturbed,
Then it with subtlety occurs.”
179. In discerning [the meditation subject the
formation] is gross, and it is subtle [by comparison] in
the first-jhāna access; also it is gross in that, and subtle
[by comparison] in the first jhāna; in the first jhāna
and second-jhāna access it is gross, and in the second
jhāna subtle; in the second jhāna and third-jhāna
access it is gross, and in the third jhāna subtle; in the
third jhāna and fourth-jhāna access it is gross, and in
the fourth jhāna it is so exceedingly subtle that it even
reaches cessation. This is the opinion of the Dīgha and
Saṃyutta reciters. But the Majjhima reciters have it

738
that it is subtler in each access than in the jhāna below
too in this way: In the first jhāna it is gross, and in the
second-jhāna access it is subtle [by comparison, and so
on]. It is, however, the opinion of all that the bodily
formation occurring before the time of discerning
becomes tranquilized at the time of discerning, and
the bodily formation at the time of discerning becomes
tranquilized in the first-jhāna access … and the bodily
formation occurring in the fourth-jhāna access
becomes tranquilized in the fourth jhāna. This is the
method of explanation in the case of serenity.
180. But in the case of insight, the bodily formation
occurring at the time of not discerning is gross, and in
discerning the primary elements it is [by comparison]
subtle; that also is gross, and in discerning derived
materiality it is subtle; that also is gross, and in
discerning all materiality it is subtle; that also is gross,
and in discerning the immaterial it is subtle; that also
is gross, and in discerning the material and immaterial
it is subtle; that also is gross, and in discerning
conditions it is subtle; that also is gross, and in seeing
mentality-materiality with its conditions it is subtle;
that also is gross, and in insight that has the
characteristics [of impermanence, etc.,] as its object it
is subtle; that also is gross in weak insight while in
strong insight it is subtle.
Herein, the tranquilizing should be understood as

739
[the relative tranquillity] of the subsequent compared
with the previous. Thus should the gross and subtle
state, and the [progressive] tranquilizing, be
understood here. [276]
181. But the meaning of this is given in the
Paṭisambhidā together with the objection and
clarification thus:
“How is it that he trains thus: ’I shall breathe in …
shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation?
What are the bodily formations? Long in-breaths …
out-breaths [experiencing the whole body] belong to
the body; these things, being bound up with the body,
are bodily formations;’ he trains in tranquilizing,
stopping, stilling, those bodily formations.
“When there are such bodily formations whereby
there is bending backwards, sideways in all directions,
and forwards, and perturbation, vacillation, moving
and shaking of the body, he trains thus: ’I shall breathe
in tranquilizing the bodily formation;’ he trains thus: ’I
shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.’
When there are such bodily formations whereby there
is no bending backwards, sideways in all directions,
and forwards, and no perturbation, vacillation,
moving and shaking of the body, quietly, subtly, he
trains thus: ’I shall breathe in tranquilizing the bodily
formation;’ he trains thus: ’I shall breathe out

740
tranquilizing the bodily formation.’
182. “[Objection:] So then, he trains thus: ’I shall
breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation;’ he
trains thus: ’I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
formation’: that being so, there is no production of
awareness of wind, and there is no production of in-
breaths and out-breaths, and there is no production of
mindfulness of breathing, and there is no production
of concentration through mindfulness of breathing,
and consequently the wise neither enter into nor
emerge from that attainment.
183. “[Clarification:] So then, he trains thus: ’I shall
breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation;’ he
trains thus: ’I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
formation’: that being so, there is production of
awareness of wind, and there is production of in-
breaths and out-breaths, and there is production of
mindfulness of breathing, and there is production of
concentration through mindfulness of breathing, and
consequently the wise enter into and emerge from that
attainment.
184. “Like what? Just as when a gong is struck. At
first gross sounds occur and consciousness [occurs]
because the sign of the gross sounds is well
apprehended, well attended to, well observed; and
when the gross sounds have ceased, then afterwards

741
faint sounds occur and [consciousness occurs] because
the sign of the faint sounds is well apprehended, well
attended to, well observed; and when the faint sounds
have ceased, then [277] afterwards consciousness
occurs because it has the sign of the faint sounds as its
object[51]—so too, at first gross in-breaths and out-
breaths occur and [consciousness does not become
distracted] because the sign of the gross in-breaths and
out-breaths is well apprehended, well attended to,
well observed; and when the gross in-breaths and out-
breaths have ceased, then afterwards faint in-breaths
and out-breaths occur and [consciousness does not
become distracted] because the sign of the faint in-
breaths and out-breaths is well apprehended, well
attended to, well observed; and when the faint in-
breaths and out-breaths have ceased, then afterwards
consciousness does not become distracted because it
has the sign of the faint in-breaths and out-breaths as
its object.
“That being so, there is production of awareness of
wind, and there is production of in-breaths and out-
breaths, and there is production of mindfulness of
breathing, and there is production of concentration
through mindfulness of breathing, and consequently
the wise enter into and emerge from that attainment.
185. “In-breaths and out-breaths tranquilizing the
bodily formation are a body. The establishment

742
(foundation) is mindfulness. The contemplation is
knowledge. The body is the establishment
(foundation), but it is not the mindfulness.
Mindfulness is both the establishment (foundation)
and the mindfulness. By means of that mindfulness
and that knowledge he contemplates that body. That
is why ’development of the foundation
(establishment) of mindfulness consisting in
contemplation of the body as a body’ is said” (Paṭis I
184–186).
This, in the first place, is the consecutive word
commentary here on the first tetrad, which deals with
contemplation of the body.
[Method of Development]

186. The first tetrad is set forth as a meditation subject

for a beginner;[52] but the other three tetrads are
[respectively] set forth as the contemplations of
feeling, of [the manner of] consciousness, and of
mental objects, for one who has already attained jhāna
in this tetrad. So if a clansman who is a beginner
wants to develop this meditation subject, and through
insight based on the fourth jhāna produced in
breathing, to reach Arahantship together with the
discriminations, he should first do all the work
connected with the purification of virtue, etc., in the

743
way already described, after which he should learn
the meditation subject in five stages from a teacher of
the kind already described.
187. Here are the five stages: learning, questioning,
establishing, absorption, characteristic.
Herein, learning is learning the meditation subject.
Questioning is questioning about the meditation
subject. Establishing is establishing the meditation
subject. Absorption [278] is the absorption of the
meditation subject. Characteristic is the characteristic of
the meditation subject; what is meant is that it is the
ascertaining of the meditation subject’s individual
essence thus: “This meditation subject has such a
characteristic.”
188. Learning the meditation subject in the five stages
in this way, he neither tires himself nor worries the
teacher. So in giving this meditation subject consisting
in mindfulness of breathing attention, he can live
either with the teacher or elsewhere in an abode of the
kind already described, learning the meditation
subject in the five stages thus, getting a little
expounded at a time and taking a long time over
reciting it. He should sever the minor impediments.
After finishing the work connected with the meal and
getting rid of any dizziness due to the meal, he should
seat himself comfortably. Then, making sure he is not

744
confused about even a single word of what he has
learned from the teacher, he should cheer his mind by
recollecting the special qualities of the Three Jewels.
189. Here are the stages in giving attention to it: (1)
counting, (2) connection, (3) touching, (4) fixing, (5)
observing, (6) turning away, (7) purification, and (8)
looking back on these.
Herein, counting is just counting, connection is
carrying on, touching is the place touched [by the
breaths], fixing is absorption, observing is insight,
turning away is the path, purification is fruition, looking
back on these is reviewing.
190. 1. Herein, this clansman who is a beginner
should first give attention to this meditation subject by
counting. And when counting, he should not stop
short of five or go beyond ten or make any break in
the series. By stopping short of five his thoughts get
excited in the cramped space, like a herd of cattle shut
in a cramped pen. By going beyond ten his thoughts
take the number [rather than the breaths] for their
support. By making a break in the series he wonders if
the meditation subject has reached completion or not.
So he should do his counting without those faults.
191. When counting, he should at first do it slowly
[that is, late] as a grain measurer does. For a grain
measurer, having filled his measure, says “One,” and

745
empties it, and then refilling it, he goes on saying
’”One, one” while removing any rubbish he may have
noticed. And the same with “Two, two” and so on. So,
taking the in-breath or the out-breath, whichever
appears [most plainly], he should begin with “One,
one” [279] and count up to “Ten, ten,” noting each as
it occurs.
192. As he does his counting in this way, the in-
breaths and out-breaths become evident to him as they
enter in and issue out. Then he can leave off counting
slowly (late), like a grain measurer, and he can count
quickly [that is, early] as a cowherd does. For a skilled
cowherd takes pebbles in his pocket and goes to the
cow pen in the morning, whip in hand; sitting on the
bar of the gate, prodding the cows in the back, he
counts each one as it reaches the gate, saying “One,
two,” dropping a pebble for each. And the cows of the
herd, which have been spending the three watches of
the night uncomfortably in the cramped space, come
out quickly in parties, jostling each other as they
escape. So he counts quickly (early) “Three, four, five”
and so up to ten. In this way the in-breaths and out-
breaths, which had already become evident to him
while he counted them in the former way, now keep
moving along quickly.
193. Then, knowing that they keep moving along
quickly, not apprehending them either inside or

746
outside [the body], but apprehending them just as
they reach the [nostril] door, he can do his counting
quickly (early): “One, two, three, four, five; one, two,
three, four, five, six … seven … eight … nine … ten.”
For as long as the meditation subject is connected with
counting it is with the help of that very counting that
the mind becomes unified, just as a boat in a swift
current is steadied with the help of a rudder.
194. When he counts quickly, the meditation subject
becomes apparent to him as an uninterrupted process.
Then, knowing that it is proceeding uninterruptedly,
he can count quickly (early) in the way just described,
not discerning the wind either inside or outside [the
body]. For by bringing his consciousness inside along
with the incoming breath, it seems as if it were
buffeted by the wind inside or filled with fat.[53] By
taking his consciousness outside along with the
outgoing breath, it gets distracted by the multiplicity
of objects outside. However, his development is
successful when he fixes his mindfulness on the place
touched [by the breaths]. That is why it was said
above: “He can count quickly (early) in the way just
described, not discerning the wind either inside or
outside.”
195. But how long is he to go on counting? Until,
without counting, [280] mindfulness remains settled
on the in-breaths and out-breaths as its object. For

747
counting is simply a device for setting mindfulness on
the in-breaths and out-breaths as object by cutting off
the external dissipation of applied thoughts.
196. 2. Having given attention to it in this way by
counting, he should now do so by connection.
Connection is the uninterrupted following of the in-
breaths and out-breaths with mindfulness after
counting has been given up. And that is not by
following after the beginning, the middle and the end.
[54]

197. The navel is the beginning of the wind issuing

out, the heart is its middle and the nose-tip is its end.
The nose-tip is the beginning of the wind entering in,
the heart is its middle and the navel is its end. And if
he follows after that, his mind is distracted by disquiet
and perturbation according as it is said: “When he
goes in with mindfulness after the beginning, middle,
and end of the in-breath, his mind being distracted
internally, both his body and his mind are disquieted
and perturbed and shaky. When he goes out with
mindfulness after the beginning, middle and end of
the out-breath, his mind being distracted externally,
both his body and his mind are disquieted and
perturbed and shaky” (Paṭis I 165).
3–4. So when he gives his attention to it by
connection, he should do so not by the beginning,

748
middle and end, but rather by touching and by fixing.
198. There is no attention to be given to it by touching
separate from fixing as there is by counting separate
from connection. But when he is counting the breaths
in the place touched by each, he is giving attention to
them by counting and touching. When he has given
up counting and is connecting them by means of
mindfulness in that same place and fixing
consciousness by means of absorption, then he is said
to be giving his attention to them by connection,
touching and fixing. And the meaning of this may be
understood through the similes of the man who
cannot walk and the gatekeeper given in the
commentaries, and through the simile of the saw
given in the Paṭisambhidā.
199. Here is the simile of the man who cannot walk:
Just as a man unable to walk, who is rocking a swing
for the amusement of his children and their mother,
sits at the foot of the swing post and sees both ends
and the middle of the swing plank successively
coming and going, [281] yet does not move from his
place in order to see both ends and the middle, so too,
when a bhikkhu places himself with mindfulness, as it
were, at the foot of the post for anchoring
[mindfulness] and rocks the swing of the in-breaths
and out-breaths; he sits down with mindfulness on the
sign at that same place, and follows with mindfulness

749
the beginning, middle and end of the in-breaths and
out-breaths at the place touched by them as they come
and go; keeping his mind fixed there, he then sees
them without moving from his place in order to see
them. This is the simile of the man who cannot walk.
200. This is the simile of the gatekeeper: Just as a
gatekeeper does not examine people inside and
outside the town, asking, “Who are you? Where have
you come from? Where are you going? What have you
got in your hand?”—for those people are not his
concern—but he does examine each man as he arrives
at the gate, so too, the incoming breaths that have
gone inside and the outgoing breaths that have gone
outside are not this bhikkhu’s concern, but they are his
concern each time they arrive at the [nostril] gate itself.
201. Then the simile of the saw should be understood
from its beginning. For this is said:
“Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who knows not these three things
Development is not obtained.
“Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who does know these three things
Development can be obtained.”
202. “How is it that these three things are not the

750
object of a single consciousness, that they are
nevertheless not unknown, that the mind does not
become distracted, that he manifests effort, carries out
a task, and achieves an effect?
“Suppose there were a tree trunk placed on a level
piece of ground, and a man cut it with a saw. The
man’s mindfulness is established by the saw’s teeth
where they touch the tree trunk, without his giving
attention to the saw’s teeth as they approach and
recede, though they are not unknown to him as they
do so; and he manifests effort, carries out a task, and
achieves an effect. As the tree trunk placed on the level
piece of ground, so the sign for the anchoring of
mindfulness. As the saw’s teeth, so the in-breaths and
out-breaths. As the man’s mindfulness, established by
the saw’s teeth where they touch the tree trunk,
without his giving attention to the saw’s teeth as they
approach and recede, though they are not unknown to
him as they do so, and so he manifests effort, carries
out a task, and achieves an effect, [282] so too, the
bhikkhu sits, having established mindfulness at the
nose tip or on the upper lip, without giving attention
to the in-breaths and out-breaths as they approach and
recede, though they are not unknown to him as they
do so, and he manifests effort, carries out a task, and
achieves an effect.
203. “’Effort’: what is the effort? The body and the

751
mind of one who is energetic become wieldy—this is
the effort. What is the task? Imperfections come to be
abandoned in one who is energetic, and his applied
thoughts are stilled—this is the task. What is the
effect? Fetters come to be abandoned in one who is
energetic, and his inherent tendencies come to be done
away with—this is the effect.
“So these three things are not the object of a single
consciousness, and they are nevertheless not
unknown, and the mind does not become distracted,
and he manifests effort, carries out a task, and
achieves an effect.
“Whose mindfulness of breathing in
And out is perfect, well developed,
And gradually brought to growth
According as the Buddha taught,
’Tis he illuminates the world
Just like the full moon free from cloud”[55]
This is the simile of the saw. But here it is precisely
his not giving attention [to the breaths] as [yet to]
come and [already] gone[56] that should be
understood as the purpose.
204. When someone gives his attention to this
meditation subject, sometimes it is not long before the
sign arises in him, and then the fixing, in other words,
absorption adorned with the rest of the jhāna factors,

752
is achieved.
205. After someone has given his attention to
counting, then just as when a body that is disturbed
sits down on a bed or chair, the bed or chair sags
down and creaks and the cover gets rumpled, but
when a body that is not disturbed sits down, the bed
or chair neither sags down nor creaks, the cover does
not get rumpled, and it is as though filled with cotton
wool—why? because a body that is not disturbed is
light—so too, after he has given his attention to
counting, when the bodily disturbance has been stilled
by the gradual cessation of gross in-breaths and out-
breaths, then both the body and the mind become
light: the physical body is as though it were ready to
leap up into the air. [283]
206. When his gross in-breaths and out breaths have
ceased, his consciousness occurs with the sign of the
subtle in-breaths and out-breaths as its object. And
when that has ceased, it goes on occurring with the
successively subtler signs as its object. How?
207. Suppose a man stuck a bronze bell with a big iron
bar and at once a loud sound arose, his consciousness
would occur with the gross sound as its object; then,
when the gross sound had ceased, it would occur
afterwards with the sign of the subtle sound as its
object; and when that had ceased, it would go on

753
occurring with the sign of the successively subtler
sounds as its object. This is how it should be
understood. And this is given in detail in the passage
beginning, “Just as when a metal gong is struck”
(§184).
208. For while other meditation subjects become
clearer at each higher stage, this one does not: in fact,
as he goes on developing it, it becomes more subtle for
him at each higher stage, and it even comes to the
point at which it is no longer manifest.
However, when it becomes unmanifest in this way,
the bhikkhu should not get up from his seat, shake out
his leather mat, and go away. What should be done?
He should not get up with the idea “Shall I ask the
teacher?” or “Is my meditation subject lost?”; for by
going away, and so disturbing his posture, the
meditation subject has to be started anew. So he
should go on sitting as he was and [temporarily]
substitute the place [normally touched for the actual
breaths as the object of contemplation].[57]
209. These are the means for doing it. The bhikkhu
should recognize the unmanifest state of the
meditation subject and consider thus: “Where do these
in-breaths and out-breaths exist? Where do they not?
In whom do they exist? In whom not?” Then, as he
considers thus, he finds that they do not exist in one

754
inside the mother’s womb, or in those drowned in
water, or likewise in unconscious beings,[58] or in the
dead, or in those attained to the fourth jhāna, or in
those born into a fine-material or immaterial existence,
or in those attained to cessation [of perception and
feeling]. So he should apostrophize himself thus: “You
with all your wisdom are certainly not inside a
mother’s womb or drowned in water or in the
unconscious existence or dead or attained to the fourth
jhāna or born into the fine-material or immaterial
existence or attained to cessation. Those in-breaths and
out-breath are actually existent in you, only you are
not able to discern them because your understanding
is dull.” Then, fixing his mind on the place normally
touched [by the breaths], he should proceed to give his
attention to that.
210. These in-breaths and out-breaths occur striking
the tip of the nose in a long-nosed man [284] and the
upper lip in a short-nosed man. So he should fix the
sign thus: “This is the place where they strike.” This
was why the Blessed One said: “Bhikkhus, I do not say
of one who is forgetful, who is not fully aware, [that
he practices] development of mindfulness of
breathing” (M III 84).
211. Although any meditation subject, no matter
what, is successful only in one who is mindful and
fully aware, yet any meditation subject other than this

755
one gets more evident as he goes on giving it his
attention. But this mindfulness of breathing is difficult,
difficult to develop, a field in which only the minds of
Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, and Buddhas’ sons are at
home. It is no trivial matter, nor can it be cultivated by
trivial persons. In proportion as continued attention is
given to it, it becomes more peaceful and more subtle.
So strong mindfulness and understanding are
necessary here.
212. Just as when doing needlework on a piece of fine
cloth a fine needle is needed, and a still finer
instrument for boring the needle’s eye, so too, when
developing this meditation subject, which resembles
fine cloth, both the mindfulness, which is the
counterpart of the needle, and the understanding
associated with it, which is the counterpart of the
instrument for boring the needle’s eye, need to be
strong. A bhikkhu must have the necessary
mindfulness and understanding and must look for the
in-breaths and out-breaths nowhere else than the place
normally touched by them.
213. Suppose a ploughman, after doing some
ploughing, sent his oxen free to graze and sat down to
rest in the shade, then his oxen would soon go into the
forest. Now, a skilled ploughman who wants to catch
them and yoke them again does not wander through
the forest following their tracks, but rather he takes his

756
rope and goad and goes straight to the drinking place
where they meet, and he sits or lies there. Then after
the oxen have wandered about for a part of the day,
they come to the drinking place where they meet and
they bathe and drink, and when he sees that they have
come out and are standing about, he secures them
with the rope, and prodding them with the goad, he
brings them back, yokes them, and goes on with his
ploughing. So too, the bhikkhu should not look for the
in-breaths and out-breaths anywhere else than the
place normally touched by them. And he should take
the rope of mindfulness and the goad of
understanding, and fixing his mind on the place
normally touched by them, he should go on giving his
attention to that. [285] For as he gives his attention in
this way they reappear after no long time, as the oxen
did at the drinking place where they met. So he can
secure them with the rope of mindfulness, and yoking
them in that same place and prodding them with the
goad of understanding, he can keep on applying
himself to the meditation subject.
214. When he does so in this way, the sign[59] soon
appears to him. But it is not the same for all; on the
contrary, some say that when it appears it does so to
certain people producing a light touch like cotton or
silk-cotton or a draught.
215. But this is the exposition given in the

757
commentaries: It appears to some like a star or a
cluster of gems or a cluster of pearls, to others with a
rough touch like that of silk-cotton seeds or a peg
made of heartwood, to others like a long braid string
or a wreath of flowers or a puff of smoke, to others
like a stretched-out cobweb or a film of cloud or a
lotus flower or a chariot wheel or the moon’s disk or
the sun’s disk.
216. In fact this resembles an occasion when a number
of bhikkhus are sitting together reciting a suttanta.
When a bhikkhu asks, “What does this sutta appear
like to you?” one says, “It appears to me like a great
mountain torrent,” another “To me it is like a line of
forest trees,” another “To me it is like a spreading fruit
tree giving cool shade.” For the one sutta appears to
them differently because of the difference in their
perception. Similarly this single meditation subject
appears differently because of difference in
perception.[60] It is born of perception, its source is
perception, it is produced by perception. Therefore it
should be understood that when it appears differently
it is because of difference in perception.
217. And here, the consciousness that has in-breath as
its object is one, the consciousness that has out-breath
as its object is another, and the consciousness that has
the sign as its object is another. For the meditation
subject reaches neither absorption nor even access in

758
one who has not got these three things [clear]. But it
reaches access and also absorption in one who has got
these three things [clear]. For this is said:
“Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who knows not these three things
Development is not obtained.
Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who does know these three things
Development can be obtained” (Paṭis I 170). [286]
218. And when the sign has appeared in this way, the
bhikkhu should go to the teacher and tell him,
“Venerable sir, such and such has appeared to me.”
But [say the Dīgha reciters] the teacher should say
neither “This is the sign” nor “This is not the sign”;
after saying “It happens like this, friend,” he should
tell him, “Go on giving it attention again and again;”
for if he were told “It is the sign,” he might [become
complacent and] stop short at that (see M I 193f.), and
if he were told “It is not the sign,” he might get
discouraged and give up; so he should encourage him
to keep giving it his attention without saying either. So
the Dīgha reciters say, firstly. But the Majjhima reciters
say that he should be told, “This is the sign, friend.
Well done. Keep giving attention to it again and

759
again.”
219. Then he should fix his mind on that same sign;
and so from now on, his development proceeds by
way of fixing. For the Ancients said this:
“Fixing his mind upon the sign
And putting away[61] extraneous aspects,
The clever man anchors his mind
Upon the breathings in and out.”
220. So as soon as the sign appears, his hindrances are
suppressed, his defilements subside, his mindfulness
is established, and his consciousness is concentrated in
access concentration.
221. Then he should not give attention to the sign as
to its colour, or review it as to its [specific]
characteristic. He should guard it as carefully as a
king’s chief queen guards the child in her womb due
to become a Wheel-turning Monarch,[62] or as a farmer
guards the ripening crops; and he should avoid the
seven unsuitable things beginning with the unsuitable
abode and cultivate the seven suitable things. Then,
guarding it thus, he should make it grow and improve
with repeated attention, and he should practice the
tenfold skill in absorption (IV.42) and bring about
evenness of energy (IV.66).
222. As he strives thus, fourfold and fivefold jhāna is

760
achieved by him on that same sign in the same way as
described under the earth kasiṇa.
5–8. (See §189) However, when a bhikkhu has
achieved the fourfold and fivefold jhāna and wants to
reach purity by developing the meditation subject
through observing and through turning away, he should
make that jhāna familiar by attaining mastery in it in
the five ways (IV.131), and then embark upon insight
by defining mentality-materiality. How?
223. On emerging from the attainment, [287] he sees
that the in-breaths and out-breaths have the physical
body and the mind as their origin; and that just as,
when a blacksmith’s bellows are being blown, the
wind moves owing to the bag and to the man’s
appropriate effort, so too, in-breaths and out-breaths
are due to the body and the mind.
Next, he defines the in-breaths and out-breaths and
the body as “materiality,” and the consciousness and
the states associated with the consciousness as “the
immaterial [mind].” This is in brief (cf. M-a I 249); but
the details will be explained later in the defining of
mentality-materiality (XVIII.3f.).
224. Having defined mentality-materiality in this way,
he seeks its condition. With search he finds it, and so
overcomes his doubts about the way of mentality-
materiality’s occurrence in the three divisions of time

761
(Ch. XIX).
His doubts being overcome, he attributes the three
characteristics [beginning with that of suffering to
mentality and materiality], comprehending [them] by
groups (XX.2f.); he abandons the ten imperfections of
insight beginning with illumination, which arise in the
first stages of the contemplation of rise and fall
(XX.105f.), and he defines as “the path” the knowledge
of the way that is free from these imperfections
(XX.126f.).
He reaches contemplation of dissolution by
abandoning [attention to] arising. When all formations
have appeared as terror owing to the contemplation of
their incessant dissolution, he becomes dispassionate
towards them (Ch. XXI), his greed for them fades
away, and he is liberated from them (Ch. XXII).
After he has [thus] reached the four noble paths in
due succession and has become established in the
fruition of Arahantship, he at last attains to the
nineteen kinds of reviewing knowledge (XXII.19f.),
and he becomes fit to receive the highest gifts from the
world with its deities.
225. At this point his development of concentration
through mindfulness of breathing, beginning with
counting and ending with looking back (§189) is
completed.

762
 This is the commentary on the first tetrad in all
aspects.
[Word Commentary Continued—Second
Tetrad]

226. Now, since there is no separate method for

developing the meditation subject in the case of the
other tetrads, their meaning therefore needs only to be
understood according to the word commentary.
(v) He trains thus: “I shall breathe in … shall breathe
out experiencing happiness,” that is, making happiness
known, making it plain. Herein, the happiness is
experienced in two ways: (a) with the object, and (b)
with non-confusion.[63]
227. (a) How is the happiness experienced with the
object? He attains the two jhānas in which happiness is
present. At the time when he has actually entered
upon them the happiness is experienced with the
object owing to the obtaining of the jhāna, because of
the experiencing of the object. (b) How with non-
confusion? When, after entering upon and emerging
from one of the two jhānas accompanied by
happiness, [288] he comprehends with insight that
happiness associated with the jhāna as liable to
destruction and to fall, then at the actual time of the
insight the happiness is experienced with non-

763
confusion owing to the penetration of its
characteristics [of impermanence, and so on].
228. For this is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “When he
knows unification of mind and non-distraction
through long in-breaths, mindfulness is established in
him. By means of that mindfulness and that
knowledge that happiness is experienced. When he
knows unification of mind and non-distraction
through long out-breaths … through short in-breaths
… through short out-breaths … through in-breaths …
out-breaths experiencing the whole body … through
in-breaths … out-breaths tranquilizing the bodily
formation, mindfulness is established in him. By
means of that mindfulness and that knowledge that
happiness is experienced.
“It is experienced by him when he adverts, when he
knows, sees, reviews, steadies his mind, resolves with
faith, exerts energy, establishes mindfulness,
concentrates his mind, understands with
understanding, directly knows what is to be directly
known, fully understands what is to be fully
understood, abandons what is to be abandoned,
develops what is to be developed, realizes what is to
be realized. It is in this way that that happiness is
experienced” (Paṭis I 187).
229. (vi–viii) The remaining [three] clauses should be

764
understood in the same way as to meaning; but there
is this difference here. The experiencing of bliss must be
understood to be through three jhānas, and that of the
mental formation through four. The mental formation
consists of the two aggregates of feeling and
perception. And in the case of the clause, experiencing
bliss, it is said in the Paṭisambhidā in order to show the
plane of insight here [as well]: “’Bliss’: there are two
kinds of bliss, bodily bliss and mental bliss” (Paṭis I
188). Tranquilizing the mental formation: tranquilizing
the gross mental formation; stopping it, is the
meaning. And this should be understood in detail in
the same way as given under the bodily formation (see
§§176–85).
230. Here, moreover, in the “happiness” clause feeling
[which is actually being contemplated in this tetrad] is
stated under the heading of “happiness” [which is a
formation] but in the “bliss” clause feeling is stated in
its own form. In the two “mental-formation” clauses
the feeling is that [necessarily] associated with
perception because of the words, “Perception and
feeling belong to the mind, these things being bound
up with the mind are mental formations” (Paṭis I 188).
[289]
So this tetrad should be understood to deal with
contemplation of feeling.

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 [Word Commentary Continued—Third
Tetrad]

231. (ix) In the third tetrad the experiencing of the

[manner of] consciousness must be understood to be
through four jhānas.
(x) Gladdening the [manner of] consciousness: he trains
thus: “Making the mind glad, instilling gladness into
it, cheering it, rejoicing it, I shall breathe in, shall
breathe out.” Herein, there is gladdening in two ways,
through concentration and through insight.
How through concentration? He attains the two
jhānas in which happiness is present. At the time
when he has actually entered upon them he inspires
the mind with gladness, instils gladness into it, by
means of the happiness associated with the jhāna.
How through insight? After entering upon and
emerging from one of the two jhānas accompanied by
happiness, he comprehends with insight that
happiness associated with the jhāna as liable to
destruction and to fall; thus at the actual time of
insight he inspires the mind with gladness, instils
gladness into it, by making the happiness associated
with the jhāna the object. It is of one progressing in
this way that the words, “He trains thus: ’I shall
breathe in … shall breathe out gladdening the [manner

766
of] consciousness,’” are said.
232. (xi) Concentrating (samādahaṃ) the [manner of]
consciousness: evenly (samaṃ) placing (ādahanto) the
mind, evenly putting it on its object by means of the
first jhāna and so on. Or alternatively, when, having
entered upon those jhānas and emerged from them, he
comprehends with insight the consciousness
associated with the jhāna as liable to destruction and
to fall, then at the actual time of insight momentary
unification of the mind[64] arises through the
penetration of the characteristics [of impermanence,
and so on]. Thus the words, “He trains thus: ’I shall
breathe in … shall breathe out concentrating the
[manner of] consciousness,’” are said also of one who
evenly places the mind, evenly puts it on its object by
means of the momentary unification of the mind
arisen thus.
233. (xii) Liberating the [manner of] consciousness: he
both breathes in and breathes out delivering,
liberating, the mind from the hindrances by means of
the first jhāna, from applied and sustained thought by
means of the second, from happiness by means of the
third, from pleasure and pain by means of the fourth.
Or alternatively, when, having entered upon those
jhānas and emerged from them, he comprehends with
insight the consciousness associated with the jhāna as
liable to destruction and to fall, then at the actual time

767
of insight he delivers, liberates, the mind from the
perception of permanence by means of the
contemplation of impermanence, from the perception
of pleasure by means of the contemplation of pain,
from the perception of self by means of the
contemplation of not self, from delight by means of
the contemplation of dispassion, from greed by means
of the contemplation of fading away, from arousing by
means of the contemplation of cessation, from
grasping by means of the contemplation of
relinquishment. Hence it is said: [290] “He trains thus:
’I shall breathe in … shall breathe out liberating the
[manner of] consciousness.[65] ’” So this tetrad should
be understood to deal with contemplation of mind.
[Word Commentary Continued—Fourth
Tetrad]

234. (xiii) But in the fourth tetrad, as to contemplating

impermanence, here firstly, the impermanent should be
understood, and impermanence, and the
contemplation of impermanence, and one
contemplating impermanence.
Herein, the five aggregates are the impermanent.
Why? Because their essence is rise and fall and change.
Impermanence is the rise and fall and change in those
same aggregates, or it is their non-existence after

768
having been; the meaning is, it is the breakup of
produced aggregates through their momentary
dissolution since they do not remain in the same
mode. Contemplation of impermanence is contemplation
of materiality, etc., as “impermanent” in virtue of that
impermanence. One contemplating impermanence
possesses that contemplation. So it is when one such
as this is breathing in and breathing out that it can be
understood of him: “He trains thus: ’I shall breathe in
… shall breathe out contemplating
impermanence.’”[66]
235. (xiv) Contemplating fading away: there are two
kinds of fading away, that is, fading away as
destruction, and absolute fading away.[67] Herein,
“fading away as destruction” is the momentary
dissolution of formations. “Absolute fading away” is
Nibbāna. Contemplation of fading away is insight and
it is the path, which occurs as the seeing of these two.
It is when he possesses this twofold contemplation
that it can be understood of him: “He trains thus: ’I
shall breathe in … shall breathe out contemplating
fading away.’”
(xv) The same method of explanation applies to the
clause, contemplating cessation.
236. (xvi) Contemplating relinquishment: relinquishment
is of two kinds too, that is to say, relinquishment as

769
giving up, and relinquishment as entering into.
Relinquishment itself as [a way of] contemplation is
“contemplation of relinquishment.” For insight is
called both “relinquishment as giving up” and
“relinquishment as entering into” since [firstly],
through substitution of opposite qualities, it gives up
defilements with their aggregate-producing kamma
formations, and [secondly], through seeing the
wretchedness of what is formed, it also enters into
Nibbāna by inclining towards Nibbāna, which is the
opposite of the formed (XI.18). Also the path is called
both “relinquishment as giving up” and
“relinquishment as entering into” since it gives up
defilements with their aggregate-producing kamma-
formations by cutting them off, and it enters into
Nibbāna by making it its object. Also both [insight and
path knowledge] are called contemplation
(anupassanā) because of their re-seeing successively
(anu anu passanā) each preceding kind of knowledge.
[68] [291] It is when he possesses this twofold
contemplation that it can be understood of him: “He
trains thus: ’I shall breathe in … shall breathe out
contemplating relinquishment.’”
237. This tetrad deals only with pure insight while the
previous three deal with serenity and insight. This is
how the development of mindfulness of breathing
with its sixteen bases in four tetrads should be

770
understood.
[Conclusion]

This mindfulness of breathing with its sixteen bases

thus is of great fruit, of great benefit.
238. Its great beneficialness should be understood
here as peacefulness both because of the words, “And,
bhikkhus, this concentration through mindfulness of
breathing, when developed and much practiced, is
both peaceful and sublime” (S V 321), etc., and
because of its ability to cut off applied thoughts; for it
is because it is peaceful, sublime, and an
unadulterated blissful abiding that it cuts off the
mind’s running hither and thither with applied
thoughts obstructive to concentration, and keeps the
mind only on the breaths as object. Hence it is said:
“Mindfulness of breathing should be developed in
order to cut off applied thoughts” (A IV 353).
239. Also its great beneficialness should be
understood as the root condition for the perfecting of
clear vision and deliverance; for this has been said by
the Blessed One: “Bhikkhus, mindfulness of breathing,
when developed and much practiced, perfects the four
foundations of mindfulness. The four foundations of
mindfulness, when developed and much practiced,
perfect the seven enlightenment factors. The seven

771
enlightenment factors, when developed and much
practiced, perfect clear vision and deliverance” (M III
82).
240. Again its great beneficialness should be
understood to reside in the fact that it causes the final
in-breaths and out-breaths to be known; for this is said
by the Blessed One: “Rāhula, when mindfulness of
breathing is thus developed, thus practiced much, the
final in-breaths and out-breaths, too, are known as
they cease, not unknown” (M I 425f.).
241. Herein, there are three kinds of [breaths that are]
final because of cessation, that is to say, final in
becoming, final in jhāna, and final in death. For,
among the various kinds of becoming (existence), in-
breaths and out-breaths occur in the sensual-sphere
becoming, not in the fine-material and immaterial
kinds of becoming. That is why there are final ones in
becoming. In the jhānas they occur in the first three
but not in the fourth. That is why there are final ones
in jhāna. Those that arise along with the sixteenth
consciousness preceding the death consciousness [292]
cease together with the death consciousness. They are
called “final in death.” It is these last that are meant
here by “final.”
242. When a bhikkhu has devoted himself to this
meditation subject, it seems, if he adverts, at the

772
moment of arising of the sixteenth consciousness
before the death consciousness, to their arising, then
their arising is evident to him; if he adverts to their
presence, then their presence is evident to him; if he
adverts to their dissolution, then their dissolution is
evident to him; and it is so because he has thoroughly
discerned in-breaths and out-breaths as object.
243. When a bhikkhu has attained Arahantship by
developing some other meditation subject than this
one, he may be able to define his life term or not. But
when he has reached Arahantship by developing this
mindfulness of breathing with its sixteen bases, he can
always define his life term. He knows, “My vital
formations will continue now for so long and no
more.” Automatically he performs all the functions of
attending to the body, dressing and robing, etc., after
which he closes his eyes, like the Elder Tissa who lived
at the Koṭapabbata Monastery, like the Elder Mahā
Tissa who lived at the Mahā Karañjiya Monastery, like
the Elder Tissa the alms-food eater in the kingdom of
Devaputta, like the elders who were brothers and
lived at the Cittalapabbata monastery.
244. Here is one story as an illustration. After reciting
the Pātimokkha, it seems, on the Uposatha day of the
full moon, one of the two elders who were brothers
went to his own dwelling place surrounded by the
Community of Bhikkhus. As he stood on the walk

773
looking at the moonlight he calculated his own vital
formations, and he said to the Community of
Bhikkhus, “In what way have you seen bhikkhus
attaining Nibbāna up till now?” Some answered, “Till
now we have seen them attain Nibbāna sitting in their
seats.” Others answered, “We have seen them sitting
cross-legged in the air.” The elder said, “I shall now
show you one attaining Nibbāna while walking.” He
then drew a line on the walk, saying, “I shall go from
this end of the walk to the other end and return; when
I reach this line I shall attain Nibbāna.” So saying, he
stepped on to the walk and went to the far end. On his
return he attained Nibbāna in the same moment in
which he stepped on the line. [293]
So let a man, if he is wise,
Untiringly devote his days
To mindfulness of breathing, which
Rewards him always in these ways.
This is the section dealing with mindfulness of
breathing in the detailed explanation.

[(10) Recollection of Peace]

245. One who wants to develop the recollection of

peace mentioned next to mindfulness of breathing

774
(III.105) should go into solitary retreat and recollect
the special qualities of Nibbāna, in other words, the
stilling of all suffering, as follows:
“Bhikkhus, in so far as there are dhammas, whether
formed or unformed, fading away is pronounced the
best of them, that is to say, the disillusionment of
vanity, the elimination of thirst, the abolition of
reliance, the termination of the round, the destruction
of craving, fading away, cessation, Nibbāna” (A II 34).
246. Herein in so far as means as many as. Dhammas
[means] individual essences.[69] Whether formed or
unformed: whether made by conditions going together,
coming together, or not so made.[70] Fading away is
pronounced the best of them: of these formed and
unformed dhammas, fading away is pronounced the
best, is called the foremost, the highest.
247. Herein fading away is not mere absence of greed,
but rather it is that unformed dhamma which, while
given the names “disillusionment of vanity,” etc., in
the clause, “that is to say, the disillusionment of
vanity, … Nibbāna,” is treated basically as fading away.
[71] It is called disillusionment of vanity because on
coming to it all kinds of vanity (intoxication), such as
the vanity of conceit, and vanity of manhood, are
disillusioned, undone, done away with.[72] And it is
called elimination of thirst because on coming to it all

775
thirst for sense desires is eliminated and quenched.
But it is called abolition of reliance because on coming to
its reliance on the five cords of sense desire is
abolished. It is called termination of the round because
on coming to it the round of the three planes [of
existence] is terminated. It is called destruction of
craving because on coming to it craving is entirely
destroyed, fades away and ceases. It is called Nibbāna
(extinction) because it has gone away from (nikkhanta),
has escaped from (nissaṭa), is dissociated from craving,
which has acquired in common usage the name
“fastening” (vāna) because, by ensuring successive
becoming, craving serves as a joining together, a
binding together, a lacing together, of the four kinds of
generation, five destinies, seven stations of
consciousness and nine abodes of beings.[73] [294]
248. This is how peace, in other words, Nibbāna,
should be recollected according to its special qualities
beginning with disillusionment of vanity. But it
should also be recollected according to the other
special qualities of peace stated by the Blessed One in
the suttas beginning with: “Bhikkhus, I shall teach you
the unformed … the truth … the other shore … the
hard-to-see … the undecaying … the lasting … the
undiversified … the deathless … the auspicious … the
safe … the marvellous … the intact … the unafflicted
… the purity … the island … the shelter ….” (S IV

776
360–72).[74]
249. As he recollects peace in its special qualities of
disillusionment of vanity, etc., in this way, then: “On
that occasion his mind is not obsessed by greed or
obsessed by hate or obsessed by delusion; his mind
has rectitude on that occasion, being inspired by
peace” (see VII.65, etc.). So when he has suppressed
the hindrances in the way already described under the
recollection of the Enlightened One, etc., the jhāna
factors arise in a single moment. But owing to the
profundity of the special qualities of peace, or owing
to his being occupied in recollecting special qualities
of various kinds, the jhāna is only access and does not
reach absorption. And that jhāna itself is known as
“recollection of peace” too because it arises by means
of the special qualities of peace.
250. And as in the case of the six recollections, this
also comes to success only in a noble disciple. Still,
though this is so, it can nevertheless also be brought to
mind by an ordinary person who values peace. For
even by hearsay the mind has confidence in peace.
251. A bhikkhu who is devoted to this recollection of
peace sleeps in bliss and wakes in bliss, his faculties
are peaceful, his mind is peaceful, he has conscience
and shame, he is confident, he is resolved [to attain]
the superior [state], he is respected and honoured by

777
his fellows in the life of purity. And even if he
penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a happy
destiny.
So that is why a man of wit
Untiringly devotes his days
To mind the noble peace, which can
Reward him in so many ways.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of
peace in the detailed explanation.

The eighth chapter called “The

Description of Recollections as
Meditation Subjects” in the Treatise on
the Development of Concentration in the
Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.

778
Notes for Chapter VIII

1. Amplifications are from Vism-mhṭ, p. 236.

2. “The word ’etc.’ includes Nanda-yakkha, Nanda-
māṇava, and others” (Vism-mhṭ 236). See A-a II
104, and M-a IV 8.
3. For the expression upāya-manasikāra—“attention
as a [right] means” see M-a I 64.
4. This line is not in the Sutta-nipāta, but see D II
120, note.
5. The Emperor Asoka is referred to. His name
Asoka means “Sorrowless.” This story is in the
Asokāvadāna and Divyāvadāna, pp. 429–434.
6. The references for the names here and in the
following paragraphs are: Mahāsammata (J-a III
454; II 311), Mandhātu (J-a II 311), Mahāsudassana
(D II 169f.), Daḷhanemi (D III 59f.), Nimi (J-a VI
96f.), Jotika (Vism XII.41), Jaṭila (XII.41), Ugga (A-
a I 394), Meṇḍaka (XII.41f.), Puṇṇaka (XII.42),
Vāsudeva (J-a IV 81f.), Baladeva (J-a IV 81f.),
Bhīmasena (J-a V 426), Yuddhiṭṭhila (J-a V 426),
Cāṇura (J-a IV 81).
7. Pabhuti—“etc.”: this meaning is not in PED; see
§121.

779
8. Virtue, concentration, understanding, deliverance,
knowledge, and vision of deliverance.
9. Paṭihitāya—“drawing on”: not in PED; Vism-mhṭ
(p. 240) reads paṇitāya and explains by paccāgatāya
(come back).
10. Nāyare—“can know”: form not in PED; Vism-mhṭ
explains by ñāyanti.
11. “’Person’ (atta-bhāva) is the states other than the
already-mentioned life, feeling and consciousness.
The words ’just these alone’ mean that it is
unmixed with self (attā) or permanence” (Vism-
mhṭ 242). Atta-bhāva as used in the Suttas and in
this work is more or less a synonym for sakkāya in
the sense of person (body and mind) or
personality, or individual form. See Piṭaka refs. in
PED and e.g. this chapter §35 and XI.54.
“’When consciousness dissolves, the world is
dead”: just as in the case of the death-
consciousness, this world is also called ’dead’ in
the highest (ultimate) sense with the arrival of any
consciousness whatever at its dissolution, since its
cessation has no rebirth-linking (is ’cessation
never to return’). Nevertheless, though this is so,
’the highest sense this concept will allow (paññatti
paramatthiyā)’—the ultimate sense will allow this
concept of continuity, which is what the

780
expression of common usage ’Tissa lives, Phussa
lives’ refers to, and which is based on
consciousnesses [momentarily] existing along
with a physical support; this belongs to the
ultimate sense here, since, as they say, ’It is not
the name and surname that lives.’” (Vism-mhṭ
242, 801)
Something may be said about the word
paññatti here. Twenty-four kinds are dealt with in
the commentary to the Puggalapaññatti. The
Puggalapaññatti Schedule (mātikā) gives the
following six paññatti (here a making known, a
setting out): of aggregates, bases, elements, truths,
faculties, and persons. (Pug 1) The commentary
explains the word in this sense as paññāpana
(making known) and ṭhapana (placing), quoting
“He announces, teaches, declares (paññāpeti),
establishes” (cf. M III 248), and also “a well-
appointed (supaññatta) bed and chair” (?). It
continues: “The making known of a name (nāma-
paññatti) shows such and such dhammas and
places them in such and such compartments,
while the making known of the aggregates
(khandha-paññatti) and the rest shows in brief the
individual form of those making-known
(paññatti).”
It then gives six kinds of paññatti “according to

781
the commentarial method but not in the texts”: (1)
Concept of the existent (vijjamāna-paññatti), which is
the conceptualizing of (making known) a
dhamma that is existent, actual, become, in the
true and ultimate sense (e.g. aggregates, etc.). (2)
Concept of the non-existent, which is, for example,
the conceptualizing of “female,” “male,”
“persons,” etc., which are non-existent by that
standard and are only established by means of
current speech in the world; similarly “such
impossibilities as concepts of a fifth truth or the
other sectarians’ Atom, Primordial Essence,
World Soul, and the like.” (3) Concept of the non-
existent based on the existent, e.g. the expression,
“One with the three clear-visions,” where the
“person” (“one”) is nonexistent and the “clear-
visions” are existent. (4) Concept of the existent
based on the non-existent, e.g. the “female form,”
“visible form” (= visible datum base) being
existent and “female” non-existent. (5) Concept of
the existent based on the existent, e.g. “eye-
contact,” both “eye” and “contact” being existent.
(6) Concept of the non-existent based on the non-
existent, e.g. “banker’s son,” both being non-
existent.
Again two more sets of six are given as
“according to the Teachers, but not in the

782
Commentaries.” The first is: (1) Derivative concept
(upādā-paññatti); this, for instance, is a “being,”
which is a convention derived from the
aggregates of materiality, feeling, etc., though it
has no individual essence of its own
apprehendable in the true ultimate sense, as
materiality, say, has in its self-identity and its
otherness from feeling, etc.; or a “house” or a
“fist” or an “oven” as apart from its component
parts, or a “pitcher” or a “garment,” which are all
derived from those same aggregates; or “time” or
“direction,” which are derived from the
revolutions of the moon and sun; or the “learning
sign” or “counterpart sign” founded on some
aspect or other, which are a convention derived
from some real sign as a benefit of meditative
development: these are derived concepts, and this
kind is a “concept” (paññatti) in the sense of
“ability to be set up” (paññāpetabba = ability to be
conceptualized), but not in the sense of “making
known” (paññāpana). Under the latter heading this
would be a “concept of the nonexistent.” (2)
Appositional concept (upa-nidhā-p.): many varieties
are listed, namely, apposition of reference
(“second” as against “first,” “third” as against
“second,” “long” as against “short”); apposition
of what is in the hand (“umbrella-in-hand,”

783
“knife-in-hand”); apposition of association
(“earring-wearer,” “topknot-wearer,” “crest-
wearer”); apposition of contents (“corn-wagon,”
“ghee-pot”); apposition of proximity (“Indasālā
Cave,” “Piyaṅgu Cave”); apposition of
comparison (“golden coloured,” “with a bull’s
gait”); apposition of majority (“Padumassara-
brahman Village”); apposition of distinction
(“diamond ring”); and so on. (3) Collective concept
(samodhāna-p.), e.g., “eight-footed,” “pile of
riches.” (4) Additive concept (upanikkhitta-p.), e.g.
“one,” “two,” “three.” (5) Verisimilar concept (tajjā-
p.): refers to the individual essence of a given
dhamma, e.g. “earth,” “fire,” “hardness,” “heat.”
(6) Continuity concept (santati-p.): refers to the
length of continuity of life, e.g. “octogenarian,”
“nonagenarian.”
In the second set there are: (i) Concept according
to function (kicca-p.), e.g. “preacher,” “expounder
of Dhamma.” (ii) Concept according to shape
(saṇṭhāna-p.), e.g. “thin,” “stout,” “round,”
“square.” (iii) Concept according to gender (liṅga-p.),
e.g. “female,” “male.” (iv) Concept according to
location (bhūmi-p.), e.g. “of the sense sphere,”
“Kosalan.” (v) Concept as proper name (paccatta-p.),
e.g. “Tissa,” “Nāga,” “Sumana,” which are
making-known (appellations) by mere name-

784
 making. (vi) Concept of the unformed (asaṅkhata-
paññatti), e.g. “cessation,” “Nibbāna,” etc., which
make the unformed dhamma known—an existent
concept. (From commentary to Puggalapaññatti,
condensed—see also Dhs-a 390f.)
All this shows that the word paññatti carries
the meanings of either appellation or concept or
both together, and that no English word quite
corresponds.
12. “’But since the object is stated with individual
essences’: the breakup of states with individual
essences, their destruction, their fall—[all] that
has to do only with states with individual
essences. Hence the Blessed One said: ’Bhikkhus,
aging-and-death is impermanent, formed,
dependently arisen’ (S II 26). … If it cannot reach
absorption because of [its object being] states with
individual essences then what about the
supramundane jhānas and certain of the
immaterial jhānas? It was to answer this that he
said ’now with special development the
supramundane jhāna’ and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 243).
Kasiṇa jhāna, for example, has a concept (paññatti)
as its object (IV.29) and a concept is a dhamma
without individual essence (asabhāva-dhamma).
13. In the Aṅguttara text the negative and positive

785
 clauses are in the opposite order.
14. Agaru—“aloes”: not so spelled in PED; but see
agalu.
15. Hatthasaṅkhalikā—“the fingers of a pair of clasped
hands,” “a row of fingers (aṅgulīpanti) (Vism-mhṭ
246).
16. “For the penetration of the characteristic of
foulness, for the observation of repulsiveness as
the individual essence” (Vism-mhṭ 246).
17. “The higher consciousness” is a term for jhāna.
18. Vism-mhṭ explains “sati sati āyatane” (rendered
here by “whenever there is occasion” with
“tasmiṃ tasmiṃ pubbahetu-ādi-kāraṇe sati” (“when
there is this or that reason consisting in a previous
cause, etc.”); M-a IV 146 says: “Sati sati kāraṇe. Kim
pan’ ettha kāraṇan’ti. Abhiññā’ va kāraṇaṃ
(’Whenever there is a reason. But what is the
reason here? The direct-knowledge itself is the
reason’).”
19. Ariṭṭhaka as a plant is not in PED; see CPD—Sinh
penela uṭa.
20. There are various readings.
21. “Galavāṭaka,” here rendered by “nape of the
neck,” which the context demands. But elsewhere

786
 (e.g. IV.47, VIII.110) “base of the neck” seems
indicated, that is, where the neck fits on to the
body, or “gullet.”
22. A measure of length, as much as a “louse’s head.”
23. Nisadapota—“rolling pin”: (= silā-puttaka—Vism-
mhṭ 250) What is meant is probably the stone
roller, thicker in the middle than at the ends, with
which curry spices, etc., are normally rolled by
hand on a small stone slab in Sri Lanka today.
24. Koṭṭhaṭṭhīni—“shoulder-blade bones”: for koṭṭha (=
flat) cf. koṭṭhalika §97; the meaning is demanded
by the context, otherwise no mention would be
made of these two bones, and the description fits.
PED under this ref. has “stomach bone” (?).
Should one read a-tikhiṇa (blunt) or ati-khiṇa (very
sharp)?
25. Duttacchita—“badly pared”: tacchita, pp. of
tacchati to pare (e.g. with an adze); not in PED; see
M I 31,124; III 166.
26. Pañjara—“frame”: not quite in this sense in PED.
27. Saṅkuṭitaghaṭapuṇṇapaṭalakhaṇḍa—“a piece of
curled-up toffee flake.” The Sinhalese translation
suggests the following readings and resolution:
saṅkuthita (thickened or boiled down (?), rather
than saṅkuṭita, curled up); ghata-puṇṇa ([toffee?]

787
 “full of ghee”); paṭala (flake or slab); khaṇḍa
(piece).
28. Kilomaka—“midriff”: the rendering is obviously
quite inadequate for what is described here, but
there is no appropriate English word.
29. Obhagga—“looped”: not in this sense in PED; see
obhañjati (XI.64 and PED).
30. Dakasītalika: not in PED; rendered in Sinhalese
translation by helmaeli (white edible water lily).
31. Maṃsaka-sambupali-veṭhana-kiliṭṭha-pāvāra-
pupphaka-sadisa: this is rendered into Sinhalese by
kuṇu mas kasaḷa velu porõnā kaḍek pup (“an inflated
piece (or bag) of cloth, which has wrapped rotten
meat refuse”). In PED pāvāra is given as “cloak,
mantle” and (this ref.) as “the mango tree”; but
there seems to be no authority for the rendering
“mango tree,” which has nothing to do with this
context. Pupphaka (balloon) is not in PED (cf.
common Burmese spelling of bubbuḷa (bubble) as
pupphuḷa).
32. It would be a mistake to take the renderings of
these worms’ names too literally. Gaṇḍuppada
(boil-producing worm?) appears only as “earth
worm” in PED, which will not do here. The more
generally accepted reading seems to take
paṭatantuka and suttaka (tape-worm and thread-

788
 worm) as two kinds rather than paṭatantusuttaka;
neither is in PED.
33. Kuṇapa—“ordure”; PED only gives the meaning
“corpse,” which does not fit the meaning either
here or, e.g., at XI.21, where the sense of a dead
body is inappropriate.
34. Kaṇḍūyati—“to itch”: the verb is not in PED; see
kaṇḍu.
35. Upādiṇṇa—“clung-to”: see Ch. XIV, note 23.
36. Reference is sometimes made to the “hand-
grasping question” (hattha-gahaka pañhā). It may
be to this; but there is another mentioned at the
end of the commentary to the Dhātu-Vibhaṅga.
37. The allusion seems to be to the bases of mastery
(abhibhāyatana—or better, bases for
transcendence); see M II l3 and M-a III 257f.; but
see §60.
38. “’Some’ is said with reference to the inmates of
the Uttara (Northern) monastery [in
Anurādhapura]” (Vism-mhṭ 256).
39. “The words ’in all its aspects’ refer to the sixteen
bases; for these are only found in total in this
dispensation. When outsiders know mindfulness
of breathing they only know the first four modes”
(Vism-mhṭ 257).

789
40. “’The ascetic’ is a stream-enterer, the ’second
ascetic’ is a once-returner, the ’third ascetic’ is a
non-returner, the ’fourth ascetic’ is an Arahant”
(M-a II 4).
41. Kūṭa—“wild”: PED, this ref. gives “useless,”
which misses the point. Cf. M-a II 82; IV 198.
42. The nine kinds of abode (resting place) are the
forest and the root of a tree already mentioned,
and a rock, a hill cleft, a mountain cave, a charnel
ground, a jungle thicket, an open space, a heap of
straw (M I 181).
43. “In the hot season the forest is favourable, in the
cold season the root of a tree, in the rainy season
an empty place. For one of phlegmatic humour,
phlegmatic by nature, the forest is favourable, for
one of bilious humour the root of a tree, for one of
windy humour an empty place. For one of
deluded temperament the forest, for one of hating
temperament the root of a tree, for one of greedy
temperament an empty place” (Vism-mhṭ 258).
44. The amplification is from Vism-mhṭ 258.
45. “’Regarded as particles’: as a number of groups
(kalāpa)” (Vism-mhṭ 259). This conception of the
occurrence of breaths is based on the theory of
motion as “successive arisings in adjacent
locations” (desantaruppatti); see note 54 below. For

790
 “groups” see XX.2f.
46. “’Zeal arises’: additional zeal, which is profitable
and has the characteristic of desire to act, arises
due to the satisfaction obtained when the
meditation has brought progressive
improvement. ’More subtle than before’: more
subtle than before the already-described zeal
arose; for the breaths occur more subtly owing to
the meditation’s influence in tranquilizing the
body’s distress and disturbance. ’Gladness arises’:
fresh happiness arises of the kinds classed as
minor, etc., which is the gladness that
accompanies the consciousness occupied with the
meditation and is due to the fact that the
peacefulness of the object increases with the
growing subtlety of the breaths and to the fact
that the meditation subject keeps to its course.
’The mind turns away’: the mind turns away from
the breaths, which have reached the point at
which their manifestation needs investigating (see
§177) owing to their gradually increasing subtlety.
But some say (see Paṭis-a Ce, p. 351): ’It is when
the in-breaths and out-breaths have reached a
subtler state owing to the influence of the
meditation and the counterpart sign; for when
that has arisen, the mind turns away from the
normal breaths.’ ’Equanimity is established’:

791
 when concentration, classed as access and
absorption, has arisen in that counterpart sign,
then, since there is no need for further interest to
achieve jhāna, onlooking (equanimity) ensues,
which is specific neutrality” (Vism-mhṭ 260).
47. “’In these nine ways’: that occur in the nine ways
just described. ’Long in-breaths and out-breaths
are a body’: the in-breaths and out-breaths, which
exist as particles though they have the aspect of
length, constitute a ’body’ in the sense of a mass.
And here the sign that arises with the breaths as
its support is also called ’in-breath and out-
breath.’ (cf. e.g. §206) ’The establishment
(foundation) is mindfulness’: mindfulness is
called ’establishment (foundation)—(upaṭṭhāna)’
since it approaches (upagantvā) the object and
remains (tiṭṭhati) there. ’The contemplation is
knowledge’: contemplation of the sign by means
of serenity, and contemplation of mentality-
materiality by defining with insight the in-breaths
and out-breaths and the body, which is their
support, as materiality, and the consciousness and
the states associated with it as the immaterial
(mentality), are knowledge, in other words,
awareness of what is actually there (has actually
become). ’The body is the establishment
(foundation)’: there is that body, and mindfulness

792
approaches it by making it its object and remains
there, thus it is called ’establishment.’ And the
words ’the body is the establishment’ include the
other (the mental) kind of body too since the
above-mentioned comprehension by insight is
needed here too. ’But it is not the mindfulness’:
that body is not called ’mindfulness’ [though it is
called ’the establishment’]. ’Mindfulness is both
the establishment (foundation) and the
mindfulness,’ being so both in the sense of
remembering (sarana) and in the sense of
establishing (upatiṭṭhana). ’By means of that
mindfulness’: by means of that mindfulness
already mentioned. ’And that knowledge’: and
the knowledge already mentioned. ’That body’:
that in-breath-and-out-breath body and that
material body which is its support. ’He
contemplates (anupassati)’: he keeps re-seeing (anu
anu passati) with jhāna knowledge and with
insight knowledge. ’That is why “Development of
the foundation (establishment) of mindfulness
consisting in contemplation of the body as a
body” is said’: in virtue of that contemplation this
is said to be development of the foundation
(establishment) of mindfulness consisting in
contemplation of the body as a body of the kind
already stated. What is meant is this: the

793
contemplation of the body as an in-breath-and-
out-breath body as stated and of the physical
body that is its [material] support, which is not
contemplation of permanence, etc., in a body
whose individual essence is impermanent, etc.—
like the contemplation of a waterless mirage as
water—but which is rather contemplation of its
essence as impermanent, painful, not-self, and
foul, according as is appropriate, or alternatively,
which is contemplation of it as a mere body only,
by not contemplating it as containing anything
that can be apprehended as ’I’ or ’mine’ or
’woman’ or ’man’—all this is ’contemplation of
the body.’ The mindfulness associated with that
contemplation of the body, which mindfulness is
itself the establishment, is the ’establishment.’ The
development, the increase, of that is the
’development of the foundation (establishment) of
mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the
body.’” (Vism-mhṭ 261)
The compound satipaṭṭhāna is derived by the
Paṭisambhidā from sati (mindfulness) and
upaṭṭhāna (establishment—Paṭis I 182), but in the
Commentaries the resolution into sati and
paṭṭhāna (foundation) is preferred. (M-a I 237–38)
In the 118th Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya the first
tetrad is called development of the first

794
 foundation of mindfulness, or contemplation of
the body. (MN 10; DN 22) The object of the
Paṭisambhidā passage quoted is to demonstrate
this.
48. The beginning, middle and end are described in
§197, and the way they should be treated is given
in §199–201. What is meant is that the meditator
should know what they are and be aware of them
without his mindfulness leaving the tip of the
nose to follow after the breaths inside the body or
outside it, speculating on what becomes of them.
49. “’In the first part of the system’: in the first part of
the system of development; in the first two bases,
is what is intended. Of course, arousing of
knowledge must be admitted to take place here
too because of the presence of awareness of the
length and shortness of the breaths as they
actually are (as they actually become); and it is
not hard to do that, for it is merely the taking
account of them as they occur. That is why it is
put in the present tense here. But what follows is
as hard as for a man to walk on a razor’s edge;
which is why the future tense is used for the
subsequent stages in order to indicate the need for
exceptional prior effort” (Vism-mhṭ 263).
50. “’Bodily formation’: the in-breath and out-breath

795
 (see M I 301). For although it is consciousness-
originated, it is nevertheless called ’bodily
formation’ since its existence is bound up with the
kamma-born body and it is formed with that as
the means” (Vism-mhṭ 263).
51. “The faint sound itself as a sign is the ’sign of the
faint sounds’; it has that as its object. What is
meant? Of course, the faint sounds have ceased
too then; but the sign of the sounds has been well
apprehended and so consciousness occurs with
the sign of fainter sounds as its object. For as from
the outset he ascertains with undistracted
consciousness the sign of each sound as it ceases,
eventually his consciousness occurs in the end
with the sign of ultra-subtle sounds too as its
object” (Vism-mhṭ 266).
52. “As a meditation subject for a beginner” is said
with reference to the serenity (i.e. jhāna)
meditation subject; but the insight meditation
subject applies to the other tetrads too” (Vism-
mhṭ 266).
53. “’Buffeted by wind’: if he gives much attention to
the wind that has gone inside, that place seems to
him as if it were buffeted by the wind, as if filled
with fat” (Vism-mhṭ 268). No further explanation
is given.

796
54. “’Following (anugamana)’ is occurring along with
(anu anu pavattana), going after (anugacchana), by
means of mindfulness through making the
breaths the object as they occur, Hence he said,
’And that is not by following after the beginning,
middle and end.’ ’The navel is the beginning’
because of their first arising there. For the notion
of a beginning (ādi cintā) is here in the sense of
first arising, not in the sense of just arising [once
only]. For they actually go on arising throughout
[the whole length] from the navel to the nose-tip;
and wherever they arise, there in that same place
they dissolve, because there is no going
(movement) of dhammas. The ordinary term
’motion’ (gatisamaññā) refers to successive arisings
in adjacent locations (desantaruppatti) according to
conditions. ’The heart is the middle’: near the
heart, just above it is the middle. ’The nose tip is
the end’: the place where the nostrils are is the
end; that is the limit of the application of the
ordinary term ’in-breaths and out-breaths,’ for it
is accordingly that they are called ’consciousness-
originated,’ there being no production externally
of what is consciousness-originated” (Vism-mhṭ
268).
55. Paṭis I 170–72; last line Dhp 172; whole verse Th
548.

797
56. Reading āgata-gata-vasena with Vism-mhṭ 271.
57. The point made here is that if the breaths
themselves get temporarily too faint to be
observed, he should carry on by observing the tip
of the nose where they normally touch until they
become apparent again. He brings the meditation
back to mind for the moment, “as the place
(desato)” where they were last noticed, instead of
“as breaths,” which have temporarily vanished.
58. Those born in the world of unconscious beings in
the fine-material Brahmā world (D I 28).
59. “’The sign’ is the learning sign and the
counterpart sign, for both are stated here together.
Herein, the three similes beginning with cotton
are properly the learning sign, the rest are both.
’Some’ are certain teachers. The similes beginning
with the ’cluster of gems’ are properly the
counterpart sign” (Vism-mhṭ 273).
60. “’Because of difference in perception’: because of
the difference in the manner of perceiving that
occurred before the arising of the sign” (Vism-
mhṭ 273).
61. Vibhāvayaṃ can mean “to do away with” or “to
explain.” Either is applicable here according to
Vism-mhṭ 274.

798
62. For the Wheel-turning Monarch (cakkavattin) see
DN 26 and MN 129.
63. “’With the object’: under the heading of the object.
The happiness included in the jhāna that has that
object is experienced ’because of the experiencing
of the object.’ What is meant? Just as, when a man
who is looking for a snake discovers (experiences)
its abode, the snake is, as it were, already
discovered (experienced) and caught, owing to
the ease with which he will then be able to catch it
with charms and spells, so too, when the object,
which is the abode of the happiness, is
experienced (discovered), then the happiness
itself is experienced (discovered) too, owing to the
ease with which it will be apprehended in its
specific and general characteristics. ’By his
penetration of its characteristics’: by penetration
of the specific and general characteristics of
happiness. For when the specific and general
characteristics of anything are experienced then
that thing is experienced according to reality”
(Vism-mhṭ 276).
64. “’Momentary unification of the mind’:
concentration lasting only for a moment. For that
too, when it occurs uninterruptedly on its object
in a single mode and is not overcome by
opposition, fixes the mind immovably, as if in

799
 absorption” (Vism-mhṭ 278).
65. “’Delivering’: secluding, separating, by means of
deliverance consisting in suppression;
abandoning the hindrances, is the meaning. ’At
the actual time of insight’: at the time of
contemplation of dissolution. For dissolution is
the furthest extreme of impermanence. So the
meditator who is contemplating dissolution by its
means sees under the heading of consciousness
the whole field of formations as impermanent, not
as permanent; and because of the suffering
inherent in what is impermanent, and because of
the absence of self in what is painful, he sees that
same whole field of formations as painful, not as
pleasant, and as not-self, not as self. But since
what is impermanent, painful, and not-self is not
something to delight in, and what is not
something to delight in is not something to be
greedy for, consequently he becomes
dispassionate towards that whole field of
formations when it is seen in the light of
dissolution as impermanent, painful, not-self, he
does not delight in it, and his greed for it fades
away, does not dye him. Now, as he thus becomes
dispassionate and his greed fades away, it is
firstly by means of mundane knowledge only that
he causes greed to cease and does not arouse it.

800
The meaning is that he does not bring about its
arising. Or alternatively, his greed having thus
faded away, he causes by means of his own
knowledge the cessation of the unseen field of
formations just as that of the seen, he does not
arouse it; the meaning is that he brings about only
its cessation, he does not bring about its arising.
Having entered on this way, he relinquishes, he
does not grasp. What is meant? It is that this
contemplation of impermanence, etc., is called
relinquishment as giving up and relinquishment
as entering into because it gives up defilements
along with aggregate-producing kamma-
formations and because, by seeing the flaws in
what is formed and by inclining towards the
opposite of what is formed, namely Nibbāna, it
enters into that Nibbāna. Consequently the
meditator who has that contemplation gives up
defilements and enters into Nibbāna in the way
stated. Herein, the contemplation of what is
impermanent as only impermanent is
’contemplation of impermanence’; this is a name
for insight that occurs by taking formations of the
three [mundane] planes [and leaving aside the
supramundane] as impermanent. ’From the
perception of permanence’: from the wrong
perception that occurs perceiving formed things

801
 as permanent, eternal; also the various views
should be regarded as included under the
heading of perception. Likewise with the
perception of pleasure and so on. ’By means of the
contemplation of dispassion’: by means of the
contemplation that occurs in the mode of
dispassion for formations. ’From delight’: from
craving accompanied by happiness. ’By means of
the contemplation of fading away’: by means of
the contemplation that occurs similarly in the
mode of fading away; hence ’delivering from
greed’ is said. ’By means of the contemplation of
cessation’: by means of the successive seeing of
formations’ cessation. Or contemplating cessation
is contemplation such that formations cease only
and do not arise with future renewal. For this is
knowledge of desire for deliverance grown
strong. Hence he said, ’delivering from arousing.’
Contemplation that occurs in the mode of
relinquishing is ’contemplation of
relinquishment.’ ’From grasping’: from taking as
permanent, etc.; or the meaning can also here be
regarded as ’from grasping rebirth-linking.’
(Vism-mhṭ 279) See Chapters XX and XXI.
66. “What is called ’permanent’ is what is lasting,
eternal, like Nibbāna. What is called
’impermanent’ is what is not permanent, and is

802
 possessed of rise and fall. He said ’The five
aggregates are “the impermanent,’” signifying
that they are formed dhammas as to meaning.
Why? ’Because their essence is rise and fall and
change’: the meaning is that their individual
essences have rise and fall and change. Herein,
formed dhammas’ arising owing to cause and
condition, their coming to be after non-existence,
their acquisition of an individual self (attalābha), is
’rise.’ Their momentary cessation when arisen is
’fall.’
67. “’Destruction’ is the vanishing of formations; it is
the act of those formations’ fading away, their
disintegration, that is ’fading away.’ Destruction
itself as fading away is ’fading away as
destruction’; this is momentary cessation.
Formations fade away absolutely here when this
has been reached, thus it is ’absolute fading
away;’ this is Nibbāna” (Vism-mhṭ 280).
68. “The act of relinquishing as the act of giving up
by means of substituting for what should be
abandoned its opposite quality or by cutting it off,
is ’relinquishment as giving up.’ Likewise the act
of relinquishing of self that takes place in non-
formation of kamma, which is the relinquishing of
all substrata (circumstances) of becoming, being
the entering into that [Nibbāna] either by

803
inclination towards it [in insight] or by having it
as object [in the path] is ’relinquishment as
entering into.’ ’Through substitution of opposite
qualities’: here contemplation of impermanence,
firstly, gives up perception of permanence by
abandoning through substitution of the opposite
[e.g. substituting perception of impermanence for
that of permanence in the case of all formed
things]. And the giving up in this way is in the
form of inducing non-occurrence. For all kamma-
formations that are rooted in defilements due to
apprehending (formations) as permanent, and the
kamma-resultant aggregates rooted in both which
might arise in the future, are abandoned by
causing their non-occurrence. Likewise in the case
of perception of pain, and so on. ’Through seeing
the wretchedness of what is formed’: through
seeing the fault of impermanence, etc., in the
formed three-plane field of formations. It is ’the
opposite of the formed’ owing to its permanence,
and so on. When defilements are given up by the
path, then kamma-formations are called ’given
up’ through producing (āpādana) in them the
nature of not causing result, and aggregates
rooted in them are called ’given up’ through their
being rendered fit for non-arising. So the path
gives up all these, is what is meant” (Vism-mhṭ

804
 281). The word pakkhandana (rendered by
“entering into”) is used to define the act of faith,
and can also be rendered by “launching out into”
or by “leap.”
69. “In such passages as ’Dhammas that are concepts’
(Dhs p. 1, §1308) even a non-entity (abhāva) is thus
called a ’dhamma’ since it is borne (dhārīyati) and
affirmed (avadhārīyati) by knowledge. That kind
of dhamma is excluded by his saying, ’Dhammas
[means] individual essences.’ The act of becoming
(bhavana), which constitutes existing-ness
(vijjamānatā) in the ultimate sense, is essence
(bhāva); it is with essence (saha bhāvena), thus it is
an individual essence (sabhāva); the meaning is
that it is possible (labbhamānarūpa) in the true
sense, in the ultimate sense. For these are called
’dhammas (bearers)’ because they bear (dhāraṇa)
their own individual essences (sabhāva), and they
are called ’individual essences’ in the sense
already explained” (Vism-mhṭ 282; cf. Ch. VII, n.
1).
In the Piṭakas the word sabhāva seems to
appear only once (Paṭis II 178). It next appears in
the Netti (p.79), the Milindapañhā (pp. 90, 164, 212,
360). It is extensively used for exegetical purposes
in the Visuddhimagga and main commentaries and
likewise in the subcommentaries. As has just been

805
shown, it is narrower than dhamma (see also Ch.
XXIII. n. 18). It often roughly corresponds to
dhātu (element—see e.g. Dhs-a 263) and to
lakkhaṇa (characteristic—see below), but less
nearly to the vaguer and (in Pali) untechnical
pakati (nature), or to rasa (function—see I.21). The
Atthasālinī observes: “It is the individual essence,
or the generality, of such and such dhammas that
is called their characteristic” (Dhs-a 63); on which
the Mūla Ṭīkā comments: “The individual essence
consisting in, say, hardness as that of earth, or
touching as that of contact, is not common to all
dhammas. The generality is the individual essence
common to all consisting in impermanence, etc.;
also in this context (i.e. Dhs §1) the characteristic
of being profitable may be regarded as general
because it is the individual essence common to all
that is profitable; or alternatively it is their
individual essence because it is not common to the
unprofitable and indeterminate [kinds of
consciousness]” (Dhs-a 63). The individual essence
of any formed dhamma is manifested in the three
instants of its existence (atthitā, vijjamānatā),
namely, arising, presence (= aging) and
dissolution. It comes from nowhere and goes
nowhere (XV.15) and is borne by the mind.
Dhammas without individual essence

806
(asabhāvadhamma) include the attainment of
cessation (see Ch. XXIII, n. 18) and some
concepts. Space and time belong to the last-
mentioned. Of space (ākāsa) the Majjhima Nikāya
Ṭīkā says: “Space, which is quite devoid of
individual essence, is called empty” (commenting
on MN 106), while of time (kāla) the Mūla Ṭīkā
says: “Though time is determined by the kind of
consciousness [e.g. as specified in the first
paragraph of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī] and is non-
existent (avijjamāna) as to individual essence, yet
as the non-entity (abhāva) before and after the
moment in which those [conascent and co-
present] dhammas occur, it is called the ’container
(adhikaraṇa)’; it is perceived (symbolized) only as
the state of a receptacle (ādhāra-bhāva) (Dhs-a 62).
Of Nibbāna (for which see XVI.46ff.), which has
its own individual essence, the Mūla Ṭīkā says
“Nibbāna is not like other dhammas; because of
its extreme profundity it cannot be made an object
of consciousness (ālambituṃ) by one who has not
realized it. That is why it has to be realized by
change-of-lineage. It has profundity surpassing
any individual essence belonging to the three
periods of time” (Vibh-a 38).
Sabhāva has not the extreme vagueness of its
parent bhāva, which can mean anything between

807
“essence” (see e.g. Dhs-a 61) and “-ness” (e.g.
natthibhāva = non-existingness—X.35). This may
be remembered when sabhāva is defined as above
thus: “It is with essence (sahabhāvena), thus it is
individual essence (sabhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 282), and
when it is defined again thus: “A dhamma’s own
essence or its existing essence (sako vā bhāvo
samāno vā bhāvo) is its individual essence
(sabhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 433). Sabhāva can also be the
basis of a wrong view, if regarded as the sole
efficient cause or condition of any formed thing
(Ch. XVI, n.23). The Sanskrit equivalent, svabhāva,
had a great vogue and checkered history in
philosophical discussions on the Indian mainland.
This (unlike the word, dhamma, which has
many “referents”) is an instance in which it is of
first importance to stick to one rendering. The
word is a purely exegetical one; consequently
vagueness is undesirable. “Individual essence”
has been chosen principally on etymological
grounds, and the word “essence” (an admittedly
slippery customer) must be understood from the
contexts in which it is used and not prejudged.
Strictly it refers here to the triple moment of
arising etc., of formed dhammas that can have
such “existence” in their own right and be
experienced as such; and it refers to the

808
 realizability of Nibbāna. We are here in the
somewhat magical territory of ontology, a subject
that is at present undergoing one of its periodical
upheavals in Europe, this time in the hands of the
existentialists. Consequently it is important to
approach the subject with an open mind.
70. “’Made’ is generated. ’Not so made’ is not made
by any conditions at all.” (Vism-mhṭ 281)
71. “That dhamma possessing individual essence and
having the characteristic of being not formed is to
be treated basically as ’fading away,’ since it is
there that the dhamma of defilement fades away”
(Vism-mhṭ 282).
72. “When they are being abandoned by the noble
path, which occurs by making Nibbāna its object,
it is said that they are abandoned by reaching that
[Nibbāna] which is why he said, ’Because on
coming to it,’ and so on. Herein, ’vanity of conceit
(māna-mada)’ is conceit (māna) that occurs as
conceiving (maññanā) ’I am superior’ (Vibh 353).
’Vanity of manhood’ is vanity about being of the
male sex. The words ’such as’ refer to vanity of
birth, and so on (Vibh 345)” (Vism-mhṭ 282).
73. Modern etymology derives the word Nibbāna
(Skr. nirvāṇa) from the negative prefix nir plus the
root vā (to blow). The original literal meaning was

809
 probably “extinction” of a fire by ceasing to blow
on it with bellows (a smith’s fire for example). It
seems to have been extended to extinction of fire
by any means, for example, the going out of a
lamp’s flame (nibbāyati—M III 245). By analogy it
was extended to the extinction of the five-
aggregate process on the Arahant’s death (see It
38). Nibbāna is not the “extinction of a self or of a
living lasting being,” such a mistaken opinion
being the annihilation view (see e.g. M I 140, S III
109).
74. Some texts add leṇa (another word for shelter).
Still others are given in the Saṃyutta text.

810
 Chapter IX
The Divine Abidings
(Brahmavihāra-niddesa)

[(1) Loving-Kindness]

1. [295] The four divine abidings were mentioned next

to the recollections as meditation subjects (III.105).
They are loving-kindness, compassion, gladness and
equanimity. A meditator, who wants to develop firstly
loving-kindness among these, if he is a beginner,
should sever the impediments and learn the
meditation subject. Then, when he has done the work
connected with the meal and got rid of any dizziness
due to it, he should seat himself comfortably on a
well-prepared seat in a secluded place. To start with,
he should review the danger in hate and the
advantage in patience.
2. Why? Because hate has to be abandoned and
patience attained in the development of this
meditation subject, and he cannot abandon unseen
dangers and attain unknown advantages.
Now, the danger in hate should be seen in
accordance with such suttas as this: “Friends, when a

811
man hates, is a prey to hate and his mind is obsessed
by hate, he kills living things, and …” (A I 216). And
the advantage in patience should be understood
according to such suttas as these:
“No higher rule, the Buddhas say, than patience,
And no Nibbāna higher than forbearance” (D II
49; Dhp 184);
“Patience in force, in strong array:
’Tis him I call a brahman” (Dhp 399);
“No greater thing exists than patience” (S I 222).
3. Thereupon he should embark upon the
development of loving-kindness for the purpose of
secluding the mind from hate seen as a danger and
introducing it to patience known as an advantage.
But when he begins, he must know that some
persons are of the wrong sort at the very beginning
and that loving-kindness should be developed
towards certain kinds of persons and not towards
certain other kinds at first. [296]
4. For loving-kindness should not be developed at
first towards the following four kinds of persons: an
antipathetic person, a very dearly loved friend, a
neutral person, and a hostile person. Also it should
not be developed specifically (see §49) towards the
opposite sex, or towards a dead person.

812
5. What is the reason why it should not be developed
at first towards an antipathetic person and the others?
To put an antipathetic person in a dear one’s place is
fatiguing. To put a very dearly loved friend in a
neutral person’s place is fatiguing; and if the slightest
mischance befalls the friend, he feels like weeping. To
put a neutral person in a respected one’s or a dear
one’s place is fatiguing. Anger springs up in him if he
recollects a hostile person. That is why it should not be
developed at first towards an antipathetic person and
the rest.
6. Then, if he develops it specifically towards the
opposite sex, lust inspired by that person springs up
in him. An elder supported by a family was asked, it
seems, by a friend’s son, “Venerable sir, towards
whom should loving-kindness be developed?” The
elder told him, “Towards a person one loves.” He
loved his own wife. Through developing loving-
kindness towards her he was fighting against the wall
all the night.[1] That is why it should not be developed
specifically towards the opposite sex.
7. But if he develops it towards a dead person, he
reaches neither absorption nor access. A young
bhikkhu, it seems, had started developing loving-
kindness inspired by his teacher. His loving-kindness
made no headway at all. He went to a senior elder and
told him, “Venerable sir, I am quite familiar with

813
attaining jhāna through loving-kindness, and yet I
cannot attain it. What is the matter?” The elder said,
“Seek the sign, friend, [the object of your meditation].”
He did so. Finding that his teacher had died, he
proceeded with developing loving-kindness inspired
by another and attained absorption. That is why it
should not be developed towards one who is dead.
8. First of all it should be developed only towards
oneself, doing it repeatedly thus: “May I be happy and
free from suffering” or “May I keep myself free from
enmity, affliction and anxiety and live happily.”
9. If that is so, does it not conflict with what is said in
the texts? For there is no mention of any development
of it towards oneself in what is said in the Vibhaṅga:
“And how does a bhikkhu dwell pervading one
direction with his heart filled with loving-kindness?
Just as he would feel loving-kindness on seeing a
dearly loved person, so he pervades all beings with
loving-kindness” (Vibh 272); and in what is said in the
Paṭisambhidā: “In what five ways is the mind-
deliverance of loving-kindness [practiced] with
unspecified pervasion? May all beings be free from
enmity, affliction and anxiety and live happily. May
all breathing things [297] … all who are born … all
persons … all those who have a personality be free
from enmity, affliction and anxiety and live happily”
(Paṭis II 130); and in what is said in the Mettā Sutta:

814
“In joy and safety may all beings be joyful at heart”
(Sn 145). [Does it not conflict with those texts?]
10. It does not conflict. Why not? Because that refers
to absorption. But this [initial development towards
oneself] refers to [making oneself] an example. For
even if he developed loving-kindness for a hundred or
a thousand years in this way, “I am happy” and so on,
absorption would never arise. But if he develops it in
this way: “I am happy. Just as I want to be happy and
dread pain, as I want to live and not to die, so do other
beings, too,” making himself the example, then desire
for other beings’ welfare and happiness arises in him.
And this method is indicated by the Blessed One’s
saying:
I visited all quarters with my mind
Nor found I any dearer than myself;
Self is likewise to every other dear;
Who loves himself will never harm another (S I
75; Ud 47).
11. So he should first, as example, pervade himself
with loving-kindness. Next after that, in order to
proceed easily, he can recollect such gifts,[2] kind
words, etc., as inspire love and endearment, such
virtue, learning, etc., as inspire respect and reverence
met with in a teacher or his equivalent or a preceptor
or his equivalent, developing loving-kindness towards

815
him in the way beginning, “May this good man be
happy and free from suffering.” With such a person,
of course, he attains absorption.
12. But if this bhikkhu does not rest content with just
that much and wants to break down the barriers, he
should next, after that, develop loving-kindness
towards a very dearly loved friend, then towards a
neutral person as a very dearly loved friend, then
towards a hostile person as neutral. And while he
does so, he should make his mind malleable and
wieldy in each instance before passing on to the next.
13. But if he has no enemy, or he is of the type of a
great man who does not perceive another as an enemy
even when the other does him harm, he should not
interest himself as follows: “Now that my
consciousness of loving-kindness has become wieldy
towards a neutral person, I shall apply it to a hostile
one.” [298] Rather it was about one who actually has
an enemy that it was said above that he should
develop loving-kindness towards a hostile person as
neutral.
[Getting Rid of Resentment]

14. If resentment arises in him when he applies his

mind to a hostile person because he remembers
wrongs done by that person, he should get rid of the

816
resentment by entering repeatedly into loving-
kindness [jhāna] towards any of the first-mentioned
persons and then, after he has emerged each time,
directing loving-kindness towards that person.
15. But if it does not die out in spite of his efforts,
then:
Let him reflect upon the saw
With other figures of such kind,
And strive, and strive repeatedly,
To leave resentment far behind.
He should admonish himself in this way: “Now,
you who get angry, has not the Blessed One said this:
’Bhikkhus, even if bandits brutally severed limb from
limb with a two-handled saw, he who entertained hate
in his heart on that account would not be one who
carried out my teaching?’” (M I 129). And this:
”To repay angry men in kind
Is worse than to be angry first;
Repay not angry men in kind
And win a battle hard to win.
The weal of both he does promote,
His own and then the other’s too,
Who shall another’s anger know
And mindfully maintain his peace” (S I 162).
And this: “Bhikkhus, there are seven things

817
gratifying and helpful to an enemy that happen to one
who is angry, whether woman or man. What seven?
Here, bhikkhus, an enemy wishes thus for his enemy,
’Let him be ugly!’ Why is that? An enemy does not
delight in an enemy’s beauty. Now, this angry person
is a prey to anger, ruled by anger; though well bathed,
well anointed, with hair and beard trimmed and
clothed in white, yet he is ugly, being a prey to anger.
This is the first thing gratifying and helpful to an
enemy that befalls one who is angry, whether woman
or man. Furthermore, an enemy wishes thus for his
enemy, ’Let him lie in pain!’ … ’Let him have no
fortune!’ … ’Let him not be wealthy!’ … ’Let him not
be famous!’ … ’Let him have no friends!’ [299] … ’Let
him not on the breakup of the body, after death,
reappear in a happy destiny in the heavenly world!’[3]
Why is that? An enemy does not delight in an enemy’s
going to a happy destiny. Now, this angry person is a
prey to anger, ruled by anger; he misconducts himself
in body, speech and mind. Misconducting himself
thus in body, speech and mind, on the breakup of the
body, after death, he reappears in a state of loss, in an
unhappy destiny, in perdition, in hell, being a prey to
anger” (A IV 94).? And this: “As a log from a pyre,
burnt at both ends and fouled in the middle, serves
neither for timber in the village nor for timber in the
forest, so is such a person as this I say” (A II 95, It 90)?

818
“If you are angry now, you will be one who does not
carry out the Blessed One’s teaching; by repaying an
angry man in kind you will be worse than the angry
man and not win the battle hard to win; you will
yourself do to yourself the things that help your
enemy; and you will be like a pyre log.” (Source
untraced)
16. If his resentment subsides when he strives and
makes effort in this way, it is good. If not, then he
should remove irritation by remembering some
controlled and purified state in that person, which
inspires confidence when remembered.
17. For one person may be controlled in his bodily
behaviour with his control in doing an extensive
course of duty known to all, though his verbal and
mental behaviour are not controlled. Then the latter
should be ignored and the control in his bodily
behaviour remembered.
18. Another may be controlled in his verbal
behaviour, and his control known to all—he may
naturally be clever at welcoming kindly, easy to talk
with, congenial, open-countenanced, deferential in
speech, and he may expound the Dhamma with a
sweet voice and give explanations of Dhamma with
well-rounded phrases and details—though his bodily
and mental behaviour are not controlled. Then the

819
latter should be ignored and the control in his verbal
behaviour remembered.
19. Another may be controlled in his mental
behaviour, and his control in worshiping at shrines,
etc., evident to all. For when one who is uncontrolled
in mind pays homage at a shrine or at an
Enlightenment Tree or to elders, he does not do it
carefully, [300] and he sits in the Dhamma-preaching
pavilion with mind astray or nodding, while one
whose mind is controlled pays homage carefully and
deliberately, listens to the Dhamma attentively,
remembering it, and evincing the confidence in his
mind through his body or his speech. So another may
be only controlled in his mental behaviour, though his
bodily and verbal behaviour are not controlled. Then
the latter should be ignored and the control in his
mental behaviour remembered.
20. But there may be another in whom not even one of
these three things is controlled. Then compassion for
that person should be aroused thus: “Though he is
going about in the human world now, nevertheless
after a certain number of days he will find himself in
[one of] the eight great hells or the sixteen prominent
hells.[4]” For irritation subsides too through
compassion. In yet another all three may be controlled.
Then he can remember any of the three in that person,
whichever he likes; for the development of loving-

820
kindness towards such a person is easy.
21. And in order to make the meaning of this clear the
following sutta from the Book of Fives should be cited
in full: “Bhikkhus, there are five ways of dispelling
annoyance whereby annoyance arisen in a bhikkhu
can be entirely dispelled” (A III 186–90).
22. But if irritation still arises in him in spite of his
efforts, then he should admonish himself thus:
Suppose an enemy has hurt
You now in what is his domain,
Why try yourself as well to hurt
Your mind?That is not his domain.
In tears you left your family.
They had been kind and helpful too.
So why not leave your enemy,
The anger that brings harm to you?
This anger that you entertain
Is gnawing at the very roots
Of all the virtues that you guard—
Who is there such a fool as you?
Another does ignoble deeds,
So you are angry—How is this?
Do you then want to copy too
The sort of acts that he commits?
Suppose another, to annoy,

821
 Provokes you with some odious act,
Why suffer anger to spring up,
And do as he would have you do?
If you get angry, then maybe
You make him suffer, maybe not;
Though with the hurt that anger brings
You certainly are punished now.
If anger-blinded enemies
Set out to tread the path of woe,
Do you by getting angry too
Intend to follow heel to toe?
If hurt is done you by a foe
Because of anger on your part,
Then put your anger down, for why
Should you be harassed groundlessly? [301]
Since states last but a moment’s time
Those aggregates, by which was done
The odious act, have ceased, so now
What is it you are angry with?
Whom shall he hurt, who seeks to hurt
Another, in the other’s absence?
Your presence is the cause of hurt;
Why are you angry, then, with him?
23. But if resentment does not subside when he
admonishes himself thus, then he should review the

822
fact that he himself and the other are owners of their
deeds (kamma).
Herein, he should first review this in himself thus:
“Now, what is the point of your getting angry with
him? Will not this kamma of yours that has anger as
its source lead to your own harm? For you are the
owner of your deeds, heir of your deeds, having deeds
as your parent, deeds as your kin, deeds as your
refuge; you will become the heir of whatever deeds
you do (see A III 186). And this is not the kind of deed
to bring you to full enlightenment, to undeclared
enlightenment or to the disciple’s grade, or to any
such position as the status of Brahmā or Sakka, or the
throne of a Wheel-turning Monarch or a regional king,
etc.; but rather this is the kind of deed to lead to your
fall from the Dispensation, even to the status of the
eaters of scraps, etc., and to the manifold suffering in
the hells, and so on. By doing this you are like a man
who wants to hit another and picks up a burning
ember or excrement in his hand and so first burns
himself or makes himself stink.”
24. Having reviewed ownership of deeds in himself in
this way, he should review it in the other also: “And
what is the point of his getting angry with you? Will it
not lead to his own harm? For that venerable one is
owner of his deeds, heir of his deeds … he will
become the heir of whatever deeds he does. And this

823
is not the kind of deed to bring him to full
enlightenment, to undeclared enlightenment or to the
disciple’s grade, or to any such position as the status
of Brahmā or Sakka, or to the throne of a Wheel-
turning Monarch or a regional king, etc.; but rather
this is the kind of deed to lead to his fall from the
Dispensation, even to the status of the eaters of scraps,
etc., and to the manifold suffering in the hells, and so
on. By doing this he is like a man who wants to throw
dust at another against the wind and only covers
himself with it.” For this is said by the Blessed One:
“When a fool hates a man that has no hate,
Is purified and free from every blemish, [302]
Such evil he will find comes back on him,
As does fine dust thrown up against the wind”
(Dhp 125).
25. But if it still does not subside in him when he
reviews ownership of deeds in this way, then he
should review the special qualities of the Master’s
former conduct.
26. Here is the way of reviewing it: “Now you who
have gone forth, is it not a fact that when your Master
was a Bodhisatta before discovering full
enlightenment, while he was still engaged in fulfilling
the perfections during the four incalculable ages and a
hundred thousand aeons, he did not allow hate to

824
corrupt his mind even when his enemies tried to
murder him on various occasions?
27. “For example, in the Sīlavant Birth Story (J-a I 261)
when his friends rose to prevent his kingdom of three
hundred leagues being seized by an enemy king who
had been incited by a wicked minister in whose mind
his own queen had sown hate for him, he did not
allow them to lift a weapon. Again when he was
buried, along with a thousand companions, up to the
neck in a hole dug in the earth in a charnel ground, he
had no thought of hate. And when, after saving his life
by a heroic effort helped by jackals scraping away soil
when they had come to devour the corpses, he went
with the aid of a spirit to his own bedroom and saw
his enemy lying on his own bed, he was not angry but
treated him as a friend, undertaking a mutual pledge,
and he then exclaimed:
“The brave aspire, the wise will not lose heart;
I see myself as I had wished to be” (J-a I 267).
28. “And in the Khantivādin Birth Story he was asked
by the stupid king of Kāsi (Benares), ’What do you
preach, monk?’ and he replied, ’I am a preacher of
patience’; and when the king had him flogged with
scourges of thorns and had his hands and feet cut off,
he felt not the slightest anger (see J-a III 39).
29. “It is perhaps not so wonderful that an adult who

825
had actually gone forth into homelessness should have
acted in that way; but also as an infant he did so. For
in the Cūḷa-Dhammapāla Birth Story his hands and
feet were ordered to be lopped off like four bamboo
shoots by his father, King Mahāpatāpa, and his
mother lamented over him thus:
“Oh, Dhammapāla’s arms are severed
That had been bathed in sandalwood;
He was the heir to all the earth:
O king, my breath is choking me!” (J-a III 181).
[303]
“Then his father, still not satisfied, commanded that
his head be cut off as well. But even then he had not
the least trace of hate, since he had firmly resolved
thus: ’Now is the time to restrain your mind; now,
good Dhammapāla, be impartial towards these four
persons, that is to say, towards your father who is
having your head cut off, the man who is beheading
you, your lamenting mother, and yourself.’
30. “And it is perhaps not so wonderful that one who
had become a human being should have acted in that
way; but also as an animal he did so. For while the
Bodhisatta was the elephant called Chaddanta he was
pierced in the navel by a poisoned shaft. But even then
he allowed no hate towards the hunter who had
wounded him to corrupt his mind, according as it is

826
said:
The elephant, when struck by the stout shaft,
Addressed the hunter with no hate in mind:
What is your aim? What is the reason why
You kill me thus? What can your purpose be? (J-a
V 51).
“And when the elephant had spoken thus and was
told, ’Sir, I have been sent by the king of Kāsi’s queen
to get your tusks,’ in order to fulfil her wish he cut off
his own tusks whose gorgeous radiance glittered with
the flashes of the six-coloured rays and gave them to
him.
31. “And when he was the Great Monkey, the man
whom he had pulled out of a rocky chasm thought:
’Now, this is food for human kind
Like other forest animals,
So why then should a hungry man
Not kill the ape to eat? [I ask.]
I’ll travel independently
Taking his meat as a provision;
Thus I shall cross the waste, and that
Will furnish my viaticum’ (J-a V 71).
Then he took up a stone and dashed it on his head.
But the monkey looked at him with eyes full of tears
and said:

827
 ’Oh, act not so, good sir, or else
The fate you reap will long deter
All others from such deeds as this
That you would do to me today’ (J-a V 71).
And with no hate in his mind and regardless of his
own pain he saw to it that the man reached his
journey’s end in safety.
32. “And while he was the royal nāga (serpent)
Bhūridatta, [304] when he had undertaken the
Uposatha precepts and was lying on the top of a
termite-mound, though he was [caught and] sprinkled
with medicinal charms resembling the fire that ushers
in the end of an aeon, and was put into a box and
treated as a plaything throughout the whole of
Jambudīpa, yet he had no trace of hate for that
brahman, according as it is said:
’While being put into the coffer
And being crushed down with his hand,
I had no hate for Ālambāna
Lest I should break my precept vow’ (Cp 85).
33. “And when he was the royal nāga Campeyya he
let no hate spring up in his mind while he was being
cruelly treated by a snake charmer, according as it is
said:
“While I was living in the Law
Observing the Uposatha

828
 A snake charmer took me away
To play with at the royal gate.
Whatever hue he might conceive,
Blue and yellow, and red as well,
So in accordance with his thought
I would become what he had wished;
I would turn dry land into water,
And water into land likewise.
Now, had I given way to wrath
I could have seared him into ash,
Had I relaxed mind-mastery
I should have let my virtue lapse;
And one who lets his virtue lapse
Cannot attain the highest goal” (Cp 85).
34. “And when he was the royal nāga Saṅkhapāla,
while he was being carried along on a carrying pole by
the sixteen village boys after they had wounded him
in eight places with sharp spears and inserted thorn
creepers into the wounds’ orifices, and while, after
threading a strong rope through his nose, they were
causing him great agony by dragging him along
bumping his body on the surface of the ground,
though he was capable of turning those village boys to
cinders with a mere glance, yet he did not even show
the least trace of hate on opening his eyes, according
as it is said:

829
 ’On the fourteenth and the fifteenth too, Āḷāra,
I regularly kept the Holy Day,
Until there came those sixteen village boys
Bearing a rope and a stout spear as well.
The hunters cleft my nose, and through the slit
They passed a rope and dragged me off like that.
But though I felt such poignant agony,
I let no hate disturb my Holy Day” (J-a V 172).
[305]
35. “And he performed not only these wonders but
also many others too such as those told in the
Mātuposaka Birth Story (J-a IV 90). Now, it is in the
highest degree improper and unbecoming to you to
arouse thoughts of resentment, since you are
emulating as your Master that Blessed One who
reached omniscience and who has in the special
quality of patience no equal in the world with its
deities.”
36. But if, as he reviews the special qualities of the
Master’s former conduct, the resentment still does not
subside in him, since he has long been used to the
slavery of defilement, then he should review the suttas
that deal with the beginninglessness [of the round of
rebirths]. Here is what is said: “Bhikkhus, it is not easy
to find a being who has not formerly been your
mother … your father … your brother … your sister …

830
your son … your daughter” (S II 189–90).
Consequently he should think about that person thus:
“This person, it seems, as my mother in the past
carried me in her womb for ten months and removed
from me without disgust, as if it were yellow
sandalwood, my urine, excrement, spittle, snot, etc.,
and played with me in her lap, and nourished me,
carrying me about on her hip. And this person as my
father went by goat paths and paths set on piles,[5]
etc., to pursue the trade of merchant, and he risked his
life for me by going into battle in double array, by
sailing on the great ocean in ships and doing other
difficult things, and he nourished me by bringing back
wealth by one means or another thinking to feed his
children. And as my brother, sister, son, daughter, this
person gave me such and such help. So it is
unbecoming for me to harbour hate for him in my
mind.”
37. But if he is still unable to quench that thought in
this way, then he should review the advantages of
loving-kindness thus: “Now, you who have gone forth
into homelessness, has it not been said by the Blessed
One as follows: ’Bhikkhus, when the mind-deliverance
of loving-kindness is cultivated, developed, much
practiced, made the vehicle, made the foundation,
established, consolidated, and properly undertaken,
eleven blessings can be expected. What are the eleven?

831
A man sleeps in comfort, wakes in comfort, and
dreams no evil dreams, he is dear to human beings, he
is dear to non-human beings, deities guard him, fire
and poison and weapons do not affect him, his mind is
easily concentrated, the expression of his face is
serene, he dies unconfused, if he penetrates no higher
he will be reborn in the Brahmā-world’ (A V 342).
[306] If you do not stop this thought, you will be
denied these advantages.”
38. But if he is still unable to stop it in this way, he
should try resolution into elements. How? “Now, you
who have gone forth into homelessness, when you are
angry with him, what is it you are angry with? Is it
head hairs you are angry with? Or body hairs? Or
nails? … Or is it urine you are angry with? Or
alternatively, is it the earth element in the head hairs,
etc., you are angry with? Or the water element? Or the
fire element? Or is it the air element you are angry
with? Or among the five aggregates or the twelve
bases or the eighteen elements with respect to which
this venerable one is called by such and such a name,
which then, is it the materiality aggregate you are
angry with? Or the feeling aggregate, the perception
aggregate, the formations aggregate, the consciousness
aggregate you are angry with? Or is it the eye base
you are angry with? Or the visible-object base you are
angry with? … Or the mind base you are angry with?

832
Or the mental-object base you are angry with? Or is it
the eye element you are angry with? Or the visible-
object element? Or the eye-consciousness element? …
Or the mind element? Or the mental-object element?
Or the mind-consciousness element you are angry
with?” For when he tries the resolution into elements,
his anger finds no foothold, like a mustard seed on the
point of an awl or a painting on the air.
39. But if he cannot effect the resolution into elements,
he should try the giving of a gift. It can either be given
by himself to the other or accepted by himself from the
other. But if the other’s livelihood is not purified and
his requisites are not proper to be used, it should be
given by oneself. And in the one who does this the
annoyance with that person entirely subsides. And in
the other even anger that has been dogging him from
a past birth subsides at the moment, as happened to
the senior elder who received a bowl given to him at
the Cittalapabbata Monastery by an almsfood-eater
elder who had been three times made to move from
his lodging by him, and who presented it with these
words: “Venerable sir, this bowl worth eight ducats
was given me by my mother who is a lay devotee, and
it is rightly obtained; let the good lay devotee acquire
merit.” So efficacious is this act of giving. And this is
said:
A gift for taming the untamed,

833
 A gift for every kind of good;
Through giving gifts they do unbend
And condescend to kindly speech. [307]
[The Breaking Down of the Barriers—The
Sign]

40. When his resentment towards that hostile person

has been thus allayed, then he can turn his mind with
loving-kindness towards that person too, just as
towards the one who is dear, the very dear friend, and
the neutral person. Then he should break down the
barriers by practicing loving-kindness over and over
again, accomplishing mental impartiality towards the
four persons, that is to say, himself, the dear person,
the neutral person and the hostile person.
41. The characteristic of it is this. Suppose this person
is sitting in a place with a dear, a neutral, and a hostile
person, himself being the fourth; then bandits come to
him and say, “Venerable sir, give us a bhikkhu,” and
on being asked why, they answer, “So that we may
kill him and use the blood of his throat as an offering;”
then if that bhikkhu thinks, “Let them take this one, or
this one,” he has not broken down the barriers. And
also if he thinks, “Let them take me but not these
three,” he has not broken down the barriers either.
Why? Because he seeks the harm of him whom he

834
wishes to be taken and seeks the welfare of the other
only. But it is when he does not see a single one
among the four people to be given to the bandits and
he directs his mind impartially towards himself and
towards those three people that he has broken down
the barriers. Hence the Ancients said:
42. When he discriminates between
The four, that is himself, the dear,
The neutral, and the hostile one,
Then “skilled” is not the name he gets,
Nor “having amity at will,”
But only “kindly towards beings.”
Now, when a bhikkhu’s barriers
Have all the four been broken down,
He treats with equal amity
The whole world with its deities;
Far more distinguished than the first
Is he who knows no barriers.
43. Thus the sign and access are obtained by this
bhikkhu simultaneously with the breaking down of
the barriers. But when breaking down of the barriers
has been effected, he reaches absorption in the way
described under the earth kasiṇa without trouble by
cultivating, developing, and repeatedly practicing that
same sign.
At this point he has attained the first jhāna, which

835
abandons five factors, possesses five factors, is good in
three ways, is endowed with ten characteristics, and is
accompanied by loving-kindness. And when that has
been obtained, then by cultivating, developing, and
repeatedly practicing that same sign, he successively
reaches the second and third jhānas in the fourfold
system, and the second, third and fourth in the
fivefold system. [308]
[Texts and Commentary]

44. Now, it is by means of one of these jhānas

beginning with the first that he “Dwells pervading
(intent upon) one direction with his heart endued with
loving-kindness, likewise the second direction,
likewise the third direction, likewise the fourth
direction, and so above, below, and around;
everywhere and equally he dwells pervading the
entire world with his heart endued with loving-
kindness, abundant, exalted, measureless, free from
enmity, and free from affliction” (Vibh 272; D I 250).
For this versatility comes about only in one whose
consciousness has reached absorption in the first jhāna
and the rest.
45. And here endued with loving-kindness means
possessing loving-kindness. With his heart (cetasā): with
his mind (cittena). One direction: this refers to anyone

836
direction in which a being is first discerned and means
pervasion of the beings included in that one direction.
Pervading: touching, making his object. He dwells
(viharati): he causes the occurrence of an abiding
(vihāra—dwelling or continuation) in postures that is
devoted to the divine abidings (see IV.103). Likewise
the second: just as he dwells pervading anyone
direction among those beginning with the eastern one,
so he does with the next one, and the third and the
fourth, is the meaning.
46. So above: in that same way in the upper direction is
what is meant. Below, around: so too the lower
direction and the direction all round. Herein, below is
underneath, and around is in the intermediate
directions. So he sends his heart full of loving-
kindness back and forth in all directions like a horse in
a circus ground. Up to this point specified pervasion
with loving-kindness is shown in the discernment of
each direction separately.
47. Everywhere, etc., is said for the purpose of showing
unspecified pervasion. Herein, everywhere means in all
places. Equally (sabbattatāya): to all classed as inferior,
medium, superior, friendly, hostile, neutral, etc., just
as to oneself (attatā); equality with oneself (atta-samatā)
without making the distinction, “This is another
being,” is what is meant. Or alternatively, equally
(sabbattatāya) is with the whole state of the mind; not

837
reserving even a little, is what is meant. [309] Entire
(sabbāvant): possessing all beings (sabbasattavant);
associated with all beings, is the meaning. World is the
world of beings.
48. Endued with loving-kindness is said again here in
order to introduce the synonyms beginning with
abundant. Or alternatively, endued with loving-kindness
is repeated because the word likewise or the word so is
not repeated here as it was in the case of the
[preceding] specified pervasion. Or alternatively, it is
said as a way of concluding. And abundant should be
regarded here as abundance in pervading. But it is
exalted in plane [from the sensual-sphere plane to the
fine-material-sphere plane], measureless through
familiarity and through having measureless beings as
its object, free from enmity through abandonment of ill
will and hostility, and free from affliction through
abandonment of grief; without suffering, is what is
meant. This is the meaning of the versatility described
in the way beginning, “With his heart endued with
loving-kindness.”
49. And just as this versatility is successful only in one
whose mind has reached absorption, so too that
described in the Paṭisambhidā should be understood
to be successful only in one whose mind has reached
absorption, that is to say: “The mind-deliverance of
loving-kindness is [practiced] with unspecified

838
pervasion in five ways. The mind-deliverance of
loving-kindness is [practiced] with specified pervasion
in seven ways. The mind-deliverance of loving-
kindness is [practiced] with directional pervasion in
ten ways” (Paṭis II 130).
50. And herein, the mind-deliverance of loving-
kindness is [practiced] with unspecified pervasion in
these five ways: “May all beings be free from enmity,
affliction and anxiety, and live happily. May all
breathing things … all creatures … all persons … all
those who have a personality be free from enmity,
affliction and anxiety, and live happily” (Paṭis II 130).
51. The mind-deliverance of loving-kindness is
[practiced] with specified pervasion in these seven
ways: “May all women be free from enmity, affliction
and anxiety and live happily. May all men … all Noble
Ones … all not Noble Ones … all deities … all human
beings … all in states of loss be free from enmity,
affliction and anxiety, and live happily” (Paṭis II 131).
52. The mind-deliverance of loving-kindness is
[practiced] with directional pervasion in these ten
ways: “May all beings in the eastern direction be free
from enmity, affliction and anxiety, and live happily.
May all beings in the western direction … northern
direction … southern direction [310] … eastern
intermediate direction … western intermediate

839
direction … northern intermediate direction …
southern intermediate direction … downward
direction … upward direction be free from enmity,
affliction and anxiety, and live happily. May all
breathing things in the eastern direction … May all
creatures in the eastern direction … May all persons in
the eastern direction … May all who have a
personality in the eastern direction … [etc.] … in the
upward direction be free from enmity, affliction and
anxiety, and live happily. May all women in the
eastern direction … May all men in the eastern
direction … May all Noble Ones in the eastern
direction … May all not Noble Ones in the eastern
direction … May all deities in the eastern direction …
May all human beings in the eastern direction … May
all those in states of loss in the eastern direction …
[etc.] … be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety,
and live happily” (Paṭis II 131).
53. Herein, all signifies inclusion without exception.
Beings (satta): they are held (satta), gripped (visatta) by
desire and greed for the aggregates beginning with
materiality, thus they are beings (satta). For this is said
by the Blessed One: “Any desire for matter, Rādha,
any greed for it, any delight in it, any craving for it,
has held (satta) it, has gripped (visatta) it, that is why ’a
being’ (satta) is said” (S III 190). But in ordinary speech
this term of common usage is applied also to those

840
who are without greed, just as the term of common
usage “palm fan” (tālavaṇṭa) is used for different sorts
of fans [in general] even if made of split bamboo.
However, [in the world] etymologists (akkhara-cintaka)
who do not consider meaning have it that it is a mere
name, while those who do consider meaning have it
that a “being” (satta) is so called with reference to the
“bright principle” (satta).[6]
54. Breathing things (pāṇa): so called because of their
state of breathing (pāṇanatā); the meaning is, because
their existence depends on in-breaths and out-breaths.
Creatures (bhūta): so called because of being (bhūtatta =
becomeness); the meaning is, because of their being
fully become (sambhūtatta), because of their being
generated (abhinibbattatta). Persons (puggala): “puṃ” is
what hell is called; they fall (galanti) into that, is the
meaning. Personality (attabhāva) is what the physical
body is called; or it is just the pentad of aggregates,
since it is actually only a concept derived from that
pentad of aggregates[7] [What is referred to is]
included (pariyāpanna) in that personality, thus it “has
a personality” (attabhāva-pariyāpanna). “Included in” is
delimited by; “gone into” is the meaning.
55. And all the remaining [terms] should be
understood as synonyms for “all beings” used in
accordance with ordinary speech as in the case of the

841
term “beings.” Of course, [311] there are other
synonyms too for all “beings,” such as all “folks,” all
“souls,” etc.; still it is for clarity’s sake that “The mind-
deliverance of loving-kindness is [practiced] with
unspecified pervasion in five ways” is said and that
only these five are mentioned.
56. Those who would have it that there is not only a
mere verbal difference between “beings,” “breathing
things,” etc., but also an actual difference in meaning,
are contradicted by the mention of unspecified
pervasion. So instead of taking the meaning in that
way, the unspecified pervasion with loving-kindness
is done in any one of these five ways.
And here, may all beings be free from enmity is one
absorption; free from affliction is one absorption—free
from affliction (abyābajjha) is free from afflictedness
(byābādha-rahita);[8] free from anxiety is one absorption
—free from anxiety is free from suffering; may they live
happily is one absorption. Consequently he should do
his pervading with loving-kindness according to
whichever of these phrases is clear to him. So with the
four kinds of absorption in each of the five ways, there
are twenty kinds of absorption in unspecified
pervasion.
57. In specified pervasion, with the four kinds of
absorption in each of the seven ways, there are

842
twenty-eight kinds of absorption. And here “woman”
and “man” are stated according to sex; “Noble Ones”
and “not Noble Ones” according to Noble Ones and
ordinary people; “deities” and “human beings” and
“those in states of loss” according to the kind of
rebirth.
58. In directional pervasion, with twenty kinds of
absorption in each of the directions beginning with
“all beings in the eastern direction,” there are two
hundred kinds of absorption; and with twenty-eight
kinds in each of the directions beginning with “all
women in the eastern direction” there are two
hundred and eighty kinds; so these make four
hundred and eighty kinds of absorption.
Consequently all the kinds of absorption mentioned in
the Paṭisambhidā amount to five hundred and twenty-
eight.
59. So when this meditator develops the mind-
deliverance of loving-kindness through any one of
these kinds of absorption, he obtains the eleven
advantages described in the way beginning, “A man
sleeps in comfort” (§37).
60. Herein, sleeps in comfort means that instead of
sleeping uncomfortably, turning over and snoring as
other people do, he sleeps comfortably, he falls asleep
as though entering upon an attainment.

843
61. He wakes in comfort: instead of waking
uncomfortably, groaning and yawning and turning
over as others do, he wakes comfortably without
contortions, like a lotus opening. [312]
62. He dreams no evil dreams: when he sees dreams, he
sees only auspicious ones, as though he were
worshipping a shrine, as though he were making an
offering, as though he were hearing the Dhamma. But
he does not see evil dreams as others do, as though
being surrounded by bandits, as though being
threatened by wild beasts, as though falling into
chasms (see XIV, n. 45).
63. He is dear to human beings: he is as dear to and
beloved by human beings as a necklace worn to hang
on the chest, as a wreath adorning the head.
64. He is dear to non-human beings: he is just as dear to
non-human beings as he is to human beings, as in the
Elder Visākha’s case. He was a landowner, it seems, at
Pāṭaliputta (Patna). While he was living there he heard
this: “The Island of Tambapaṇṇi (Sri Lanka),
apparently, is adorned with a diadem of shrines and
gleams with the yellow cloth, and there a man can sit
or lie wherever he likes; there the climate is
favourable, the abodes are favourable, the people are
favourable, the Dhamma to be heard is favourable,
and all these favourable things are easily obtained

844
there.”
65. He made over his fortune to his wife and children
and left his home with only a single ducat (kahāpaṇa)
sewn into the hem of his garment. He stopped for one
month on the sea coast in expectation of a ship, and
meanwhile by his skill in trading he made a thousand
during the month by buying goods here and selling
them there in lawful enterprise.
66. Eventually he came to the Great Monastery
[(Mahāvihāra) at Anurādhapura], and there he asked
for the going forth into homelessness. When he was
being conducted to the chapter house (sīmā) for the
going-forth ceremony, the purse containing the
thousand pieces dropped out from under his belt.
When asked “What is that?” he replied, “It is a
thousand ducats, venerable sirs.” They told him, “Lay
follower, it is not possible to distribute them after the
going forth. Distribute them now.” Then he said, “Let
none who have come to the scene of Visākha’s going
forth depart empty-handed,” and opening [the purse]
he strewed them over the chapter house yard, after
which he received the going forth and the full
admission.
67. When he had acquired five years’ seniority and
had become familiar with the two Codes (Pātimokkha;
see III.31) he celebrated the Pavāraṇā at the end of the

845
Rains, took a meditation subject that suited him, and
set out to wander, living for four months in each
monastery and doing the duties on a basis of equality
with the residents. While he was wandering in this
way:
The elder halted in a wood
To scan the tenor of his way;
He thundered forth this roundelay
Proclaiming that he found it good:
So from your full-admission day
Till in this place you paused and stood
No stumbling mars your bhikkhuhood;
Be thankful for such grace, I say. [313]
68. On his way to Cittalapabbata he came to a road
fork and stood wondering which turn to take. Then a
deity living in a rock held out a hand pointing out the
road to him.
69. He came to the Cittalapabbata Monastery. After he
had stayed there for four months he lay down
thinking, “In the morning I depart.” Then a deity
living in a maṇila tree at the end of the walk sat down
on a step of the stair and burst into tears. The elder
asked, “Who is that?”—“It is I, Maṇiliyā, venerable
sir.”—“What are you weeping for?”—“Because you
are going away.”—“What good does my living here to
you?”—“Venerable sir, as long as you live here non-

846
human beings treat each other kindly. Now, when you
are gone, they will start quarrels and loose talk.”[9]
The elder said, “If my living here makes you live at
peace, that is good,” and so he stayed there another
four months. Then he again thought of leaving, but the
deity wept as before. And so the elder lived on there,
and it was there that he attained Nibbāna.
This is how a bhikkhu who abides in loving-
kindness is dear to non-human beings.
70. Deities guard him: deities guard him as a mother
and father guard their child.
71. Fire, poison and weapons do not affect him: they do
not affect, do not enter into, the body of one who
abides in loving-kindness, like the fire in the case of
the lay woman devotee Uttarā (see XII.34 and Dhp-a
III 310), like the poison in the case of the Saṃyutta
reciter the Elder Cūḷa-Siva, like the knife in the case of
the novice Saṅkicca (see Dhp-a II 249); they do not
disturb the body, is what is meant.
72. And they tell the story of the cow here too. A cow
was giving milk to her calf, it seems. A hunter,
thinking “I shall shoot her,” flourished a long-handled
spear in his hand and flung it. It struck her body and
bounced off like a palm leaf—and that was owing
neither to access nor to absorption, but simply to the
strength of her consciousness of love for her calf. So

847
mightily powerful is loving-kindness.
73. His mind is easily concentrated: the mind of one who
abides in loving-kindness is quickly concentrated,
there is no sluggishness about it. [314]
74. The expression of his face is serene: his face has a
serene expression, like a palmyra fruit loosed from its
stem.
75. He dies unconfused: there is no dying deluded for
one who abides in loving-kindness. He passes away
undeluded as if falling asleep.
76. If he penetrates no higher: if he is unable to reach
higher than the attainment of loving-kindness and
attain Arahantship, then when he falls from this life,
he reappears in the Brahmā-world as one who wakes
up from sleep.
This is the detailed explanation of the development
of loving-kindness.

[(2) Compassion]

77. One who wants to develop compassion should

begin his task by reviewing the danger in lack of
compassion and the advantage in compassion.
And when he begins it, he should not direct it at

848
first towards the dear, etc., persons; for one who is
dear simply retains the position of one who is dear, a
very dear companion retains the position of a very
dear companion, one who is neutral retains the
position of one who is neutral, one who is antipathetic
retains the position of one who is antipathetic, and one
who is hostile retains the position of one who is
hostile. One of the opposite sex and one who is dead
are also not the field for it.
78. In the Vibhaṅga it is said: “And how does a
bhikkhu dwell pervading one direction with his heart
endued with compassion? Just as he would feel
compassion on seeing an unlucky, unfortunate person,
so he pervades all beings with compassion” (Vibh
273). Therefore first of all, on seeing a wretched man,
unlucky, unfortunate, in every way a fit object for
compassion, unsightly, reduced to utter misery, with
hands and feet cut off, sitting in the shelter for the
helpless with a pot placed before him, with a mass of
maggots oozing from his arms and legs, and moaning,
compassion should be felt for him in this way: “This
being has indeed been reduced to misery; if only he
could be freed from this suffering!”
But if he does not encounter such a person, then he
can arouse compassion for an evil-doing person, even
though he is happy, by comparing him to one about to
be executed. How?

849
79. Suppose a robber has been caught with stolen
goods, and in accordance with the king’s command to
execute him, the king’s men bind him and lead him off
to the place of execution, giving him a hundred blows
in sets of four. Then people give him things to chew
and eat and also garlands and perfumes, unguents
and betel leaves. Although [315] he goes along eating
and enjoying these things as though he were happy
and well off, still no one fancies that he is really happy
and well off. On the contrary people feel compassion
for him, thinking, “This poor wretch is now about to
die; every step he takes brings him nearer to the
presence of death.” So too a bhikkhu whose
meditation subject is compassion should arouse
compassion for an [evil-doing] person even if he is
happy: “Though this poor wretch is now happy,
cheerful, enjoying his wealth, still for want of even one
good deed done now in any one of the three doors [of
body, speech and mind] he can come to experience
untold suffering in the states of loss.”
80. Having aroused compassion for that person in that
way, he should next arouse compassion for a dear
person, next for a neutral person, and next for a hostile
person, successively in the same way.
81. But if resentment towards the hostile person arises
in the way already described, he should make it
subside in the way described under loving-kindness

850
(§§14–39).
And here too when someone has done profitable
deeds and the meditator sees or hears that he has been
overtaken by one of the kinds of ruin beginning with
ruin of health, relatives, property, etc., he deserves the
meditator’s compassion; and so he does too in any
case, even with no such ruin, thus “In reality he is
unhappy,” because he is not exempt from the
suffering of the round [of becoming]. And in the way
already described the meditator should break down
the barriers between the four kinds of people, that is to
say, himself, the dear person, the neutral person and
the hostile person. Then cultivating that sign,
developing it and repeatedly practicing it, he should
increase the absorption by the triple and quadruple
jhāna in the way already stated under loving-
kindness.
82. But the order given in the Aṅguttara Commentary
is that a hostile person should first be made the object
of compassion, and when the mind has been made
malleable with respect to him, next the unlucky
person, next the dear person, and next oneself. That
does not agree with the text, “an unlucky, unfortunate
person” (§78).Therefore he should begin the
development, break down the barriers, and increase
absorption only in the way stated here.

851
83. After that, the versatility consisting in the
unspecified pervasion in five ways, the specified
pervasion in seven ways, and the directional
pervasion in ten ways, and the advantages described
as “He sleeps in comfort,” etc., should be understood
in the same way as given under loving-kindness.
This is the detailed explanation of the development
of compassion. [316]

[(3) Gladness]

84. One who begins the development of gladness[10]

should not start with the dear person and the rest; for
a dear person is not the proximate cause of gladness
merely in virtue of dearness, how much less the
neutral and the hostile person. One of the opposite sex
and one who is dead are also not the field for it.
85. However, the very dear companion can be the
proximate cause for it—one who in the commentaries
is called a “boon companion,” for he is constantly
glad: he laughs first and speaks afterwards. So he
should be the first to be pervaded with gladness. Or
on seeing or hearing about a dear person being happy,
cheerful and glad, gladness can be aroused thus: “This
being is indeed glad. How good, how excellent!” For

852
this is what is referred to in the Vibhaṅga: “And how
does a bhikkhu dwell pervading one direction with
his heart endued with gladness? Just as he would be
glad on seeing a dear and beloved person, so he
pervades all beings with gladness” (Vibh 274).
86. But if his boon companion or the dear person was
happy in the past but is now unlucky and unfortunate,
then gladness can still be aroused by remembering his
past happiness and apprehending the glad aspect in
this way: “In the past he had great wealth, a great
following and he was always glad.” Or gladness can
be aroused by apprehending the future glad aspect in
him in this way: “In the future he will again enjoy
similar success and will go about in gold palanquins,
on the backs of elephants or on horseback, and so on.”
Having thus aroused gladness with respect to a dear
person, he can then direct it successively towards a
neutral one, and after that towards a hostile one.
87. But if resentment towards the hostile one arises in
him in the way already described, he should make it
subside in the same way as described under loving-
kindness (§§14–39).
He should break down the barriers by means of
mental impartiality towards the four, that is, towards
these three and himself. And by cultivating that sign,
developing and repeatedly practicing it, he should

853
increase the absorption to triple and quadruple jhāna
in the way already stated under loving-kindness.
Next, the versatility consisting in unspecified
pervasion in five ways, specified pervasion in seven
ways, and directional pervasion in ten ways, and also
the advantages described as “He sleeps in comfort,”
etc., should be understood in the same way as stated
under loving-kindness.
This is the detailed explanation of the development
of gladness.
[317]

[(4) Equanimity]

88. One who wants to develop equanimity must have

already obtained the triple or quadruple jhāna in
loving-kindness, and so on. He should emerge from
the third jhāna [in the fourfold reckoning], after he has
made it familiar, and he should see danger in the
former [three divine abidings] because they are linked
with attention given to beings’ enjoyment in the way
beginning “May they be happy,” because resentment
and approval are near, and because their association
with joy is gross. And he should also see the
advantage in equanimity because it is peaceful. Then

854
he should arouse equanimity (upekkhā) by looking on
with equanimity (ajjhupekkhitvā) at a person who is
normally neutral; after that at a dear person, and the
rest. For this is said: “And how does a bhikkhu dwell
pervading one direction with his heart endued with
equanimity? Just as he would feel equanimity on
seeing a person who was neither beloved nor unloved,
so he pervades all beings with equanimity” (Vibh 275).
89. Therefore he should arouse equanimity towards
the neutral person in the way already stated. Then,
through the neutral one, he should break down the
barriers in each case between the three people, that is,
the dear person, then the boon companion, and then
the hostile one, and lastly himself. And he should
cultivate that sign, develop and repeatedly practice it.
90. As he does so the fourth jhāna arises in him in the
way described under the earth kasiṇa.
But how then? Does this arise in one in whom the
third jhāna has already arisen on the basis of the earth
kasiṇa, etc.? It does not. Why not? Because of the
dissimilarity of the object. It arises only in one in
whom the third jhāna has arisen on the basis of loving-
kindness, etc., because the object is similar.
But after that the versatility and the obtaining of
advantages should be understood in the same way as
described under loving-kindness.

855
 This is the detailed explanation of the development
of equanimity.
[General]

91. Now, having thus known these divine

abidings
Told by the Divine One (brahmā) supremely
[wise],
There is this general explanation too
Concerning them that he should recognize.
[Meanings]

92. Now, as to the meaning firstly of loving-kindness,

compassion, gladness and equanimity: it fattens
(mejjati), thus it is loving-kindness (mettā); it is solvent
(siniyhati) is the meaning. Also: it comes about with
respect to a friend (mitta), [318] or it is behaviour
towards a friend, thus it is loving-kindness (mettā).
When there is suffering in others it causes (karoti)
good people’s hearts to be moved (kampana), thus it is
compassion (karuṇā). Or alternatively, it combats
(kiṇāti)[11] others’ suffering, attacks and demolishes it,
thus it is compassion. Or alternatively, it is scattered
(kiriyati) upon those who suffer, it is extended to them
by pervasion, thus it is compassion (karuṇā).

856
 Those endowed with it are glad (modanti), or itself is
glad (modati), or it is the mere act of being glad
(modana), thus it is gladness (muditā).
It looks on at (upekkhati), abandoning such
interestedness as thinking “May they be free from
enmity” and having recourse to neutrality, thus it is
equanimity (upekkhā).
[Characteristic, Etc.]

93. As to the characteristic, etc., loving-kindness is

characterized here as promoting the aspect of welfare.
Its function is to prefer welfare. It is manifested as the
removal of annoyance. Its proximate cause is seeing
loveableness in beings. It succeeds when it makes ill
will subside, and it fails when it produces (selfish)
affection.
94. Compassion is characterized as promoting the
aspect of allaying suffering. Its function resides in not
bearing others’ suffering. It is manifested as non-
cruelty. Its proximate cause is to see helplessness in
those overwhelmed by suffering. It succeeds when it
makes cruelty subside and it fails when it produces
sorrow.
95. Gladness is characterized as gladdening (produced
by others’ success).[12] Its function resides in being

857
unenvious. It is manifested as the elimination of
aversion (boredom). Its proximate cause is seeing
beings, success. It succeeds when it makes aversion
(boredom) subside, and it fails when it produces
merriment.
96. Equanimity is characterized as promoting the
aspect of neutrality towards beings. Its function is to
see equality in beings. It is manifested as the quieting
of resentment and approval. Its proximate cause is
seeing ownership of deeds (kamma) thus: “Beings are
owners of their deeds. Whose[13] [if not theirs] is the
choice by which they will become happy, or will get
free from suffering, or will not fall away from the
success they have reached?” It succeeds when it makes
resentment and approval subside, and it fails when it
produces the equanimity of unknowing, which is that
[worldly-minded indifference of ignorance] based on
the house life.
[Purpose]

97. The general purpose of these four divine abidings

is the bliss of insight and an excellent [form of future]
existence. That peculiar to each is respectively the
warding off of ill will, and so on. For here loving-
kindness has the purpose of warding off ill will, while
the others have the respective purposes of warding off

858
cruelty, aversion (boredom), and greed or resentment.
And this is said too: “For this is the escape from ill
will, friends, that is to say, the mind-deliverance of
loving-kindness … For this is the escape from cruelty,
friends, that is to say, the mind-deliverance of
compassion … For this is the escape from boredom,
friends, that is to say, the mind-deliverance of
gladness … For this is the escape from greed, friends,
that is to say, the mind-deliverance of equanimity” (D
III 248).
[The Near and Far Enemies]

98. And here each one has two enemies, one near and
one far.
The divine abiding of loving-kindness [319] has greed
as its near enemy,[14] since both share in seeing
virtues. Greed behaves like a foe who keeps close by a
man, and it easily finds an opportunity. So loving-
kindness should be well protected from it. And ill will,
which is dissimilar to the similar greed, is its far
enemy like a foe ensconced in a rock wilderness. So
loving-kindness must be practiced free from fear of
that; for it is not possible to practice loving-kindness
and feel anger simultaneously (see D III 247–48).
99. Compassion has grief based on the home life as its
near enemy, since both share in seeing failure. Such

859
grief has been described in the way beginning, “When
a man either regards as a privation failure to obtain
visible objects cognizable by the eye that are sought
after, desired, agreeable, gratifying and associated
with worldliness, or when he recalls those formerly
obtained that are past, ceased and changed, then grief
arises in him. Such grief as this is called grief based on
the home life” (M III 218). And cruelty, which is
dissimilar to the similar grief, is its far enemy. So
compassion must be practiced free from fear of that;
for it is not possible to practice compassion and be
cruel to breathing things simultaneously.
100. Gladness has joy based on the home life as its near
enemy, since both share in seeing success. Such joy has
been described in the way beginning, “When a man
either regards as gain the obtaining of visible objects
cognizable by the eye that are sought … and
associated with worldliness, or recalls those formerly
obtained that are past, ceased, and changed, then joy
arises in him. Such joy as this is called joy based on the
home life” (M III 217). And aversion (boredom), which
is dissimilar to the similar joy, is its far enemy. So
gladness should be practiced free from fear of that; for
it is not possible to practice gladness and be
discontented with remote abodes and things
connected with the higher profitableness
simultaneously.

860
101. Equanimity has the equanimity of unknowing
based on the home life as its near enemy, since both
share in ignoring faults and virtues. Such unknowing
has been described in the way beginning, “On seeing a
visible object with the eye equanimity arises in the
foolish infatuated ordinary man, in the untaught
ordinary man who has not conquered his limitations,
who has not conquered future [kamma] result, who is
unperceiving of danger. Such equanimity as this does
not surmount the visible object. Such equanimity as
this is called equanimity based on the home life” (M
III 219). And greed and resentment, which are
dissimilar to the similar unknowing, are its far
enemies. Therefore equanimity must be practiced free
from fear of that; [320] for it is not possible to look on
with equanimity and be inflamed with greed or be
resentful[15] simultaneously.
[The Beginning, Middle and End, Etc.]

102. Now, zeal consisting in desire to act is the

beginning of all these things. Suppression of the
hindrances, etc., is the middle. Absorption is the end.
Their object is a single living being or many living
beings, as a mental object consisting in a concept.
[The Order in Extension]

861
103. The extension of the object takes place either in
access or in absorption. Here is the order of it. Just as a
skilled ploughman first delimits an area and then does
his ploughing, so first a single dwelling should be
delimited and loving-kindness developed towards all
beings there in the way beginning, “In this dwelling
may all beings be free from enmity.” When his mind
has become malleable and wieldy with respect to that,
he can then delimit two dwellings. Next he can
successively delimit three, four, five, six, seven, eight,
nine, ten, one street, half the village, the whole village,
the district, the kingdom, one direction, and so on up
to one world-sphere, or even beyond that, and
develop loving-kindness towards the beings in such
areas. Likewise with compassion and so on. This is the
order in extending here.
[The Outcome]

104. Just as the immaterial states are the outcome of

the kasiṇas, and the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception is the outcome of
concentration, and fruition attainment is the outcome
of insight, and the attainment of cessation is the
outcome of serenity coupled with insight, so the
divine abiding of equanimity is the outcome of the
first three divine abidings. For just as the gable rafters
cannot be placed in the air without having first set up

862
the scaffolding and built the framework of beams, so it
is not possible to develop the fourth (jhāna in the
fourth divine abiding) without having already
developed the third jhāna in the earlier (three divine
abidings).
[Four Questions]

105. And here it may be asked: But why are loving-

kindness, compassion, gladness, and equanimity,
called divine abidings? And why are they only four?
And what is their order? And why are they called
measureless states in the Abhidhamma?
106. It may be replied: The divineness of the abiding
(brahmavihāratā) should be understood here in the
sense of best and in the sense of immaculate. For these
abidings are the best in being the right attitude
towards beings. And just as Brahmā gods abide with
immaculate minds, so the meditators who associate
themselves with these abidings abide on an equal
footing with Brahmā gods. So they are called divine
abidings in the sense of best and in the sense of
immaculate. [321]
107. Here are the answers to the questions beginning
with “Why are they only four?”:
Their number four is due to paths to purity

863
 And other sets of four; their order to their aim
As welfare and the rest. Their scope is found to be
Immeasurable, so “measureless states” their
name.
108. For among these, loving-kindness is the way to
purity for one who has much ill will, compassion is
that for one who has much cruelty, gladness is that for
one who has much aversion (boredom), and
equanimity is that for one who has much greed. Also
attention given to beings is only fourfold, that is to
say, as bringing welfare, as removing suffering, as
being glad at their success, and as unconcern, [that is
to say, impartial neutrality]. And one abiding in the
measureless states should practice loving-kindness
and the rest like a mother with four sons, namely, a
child, an invalid, one in the flush of youth, and one
busy with his own affairs; for she wants the child to
grow up, wants the invalid to get well, wants the one
in the flush of youth to enjoy for long the benefits of
youth, and is not at all bothered about the one who is
busy with his own affairs. That is why the measureless
states are only four as “due to paths to purity and
other sets of four.”
109. One who wants to develop these four should
practice them towards beings first as the promotion of
the aspect of welfare—and loving-kindness has the
promotion of the aspect of welfare as its characteristic;

864
and next, on seeing or hearing or judging[16] that
beings whose welfare has been thus wished for are at
the mercy of suffering, they should be practiced as the
promotion of the aspect of the removal of suffering—
and compassion has the promotion of the aspect of the
removal of suffering as its characteristic; and then, on
seeing the success of those whose welfare has been
wished for and the removal of whose suffering has
been wished for, they should be practiced as being
glad—and gladness has the act of gladdening as its
characteristic; but after that there is nothing to be done
and so they should be practiced as the neutral aspect,
in other words, the state of an onlooker—and
equanimity has the promotion of the aspect of
neutrality as its characteristic; therefore, since their
respective aims are the aspect of welfare, etc., their
order should be understood to correspond, with
loving-kindness stated first, then compassion,
gladness and equanimity.
110. All of them, however, occur with a measureless
scope, for their scope is measureless beings; and
instead of assuming a measure such as “Loving-
kindness, etc., should be developed only towards a
single being, or in an area of such an extent,” they
occur with universal pervasion.
That is why it was said: [322]

865
 Their number four is due to paths to purity
And other sets of four; their order to their aim
As welfare and the rest. Their scope is found to be
Immeasurable, so “measureless states” their
name.
[As Producing Three Jhānas and Four
Jhānas]

111. Though they have a single characteristic in

having a measureless scope, yet the first three are only
of triple and quadruple jhāna [respectively in the
fourfold and fivefold reckonings]. Why? Because they
are not dissociated from joy. But why are their aims
not dissociated from joy? Because they are the escape
from ill will, etc., which are originated by grief. But the
last one belongs only to the remaining single jhāna.
Why? Because it is associated with equanimous
feeling. For the divine abiding of equanimity that
occurs in the aspect of neutrality towards beings does
not exist apart from equanimous [that is to say,
neither-painful-nor-pleasant] feeling.
112. However, someone might say this: “It has been
said by the Blessed One in the Book of Eights,
speaking of the measureless states in general: ’Next,
bhikkhu, you should develop the concentration with
applied thought and sustained thought, and you

866
should develop it without applied thought and with
sustained thought only, and you should develop it
without applied thought and without sustained
thought, and you should develop it with happiness,
and you should develop it without happiness, and
you should develop it accompanied by gratification,
and you should develop it accompanied by
equanimity’ (A IV 300). Consequently all four
measureless states have quadruple and quintuple
jhāna.”
113. He should be told: “Do not put it like that. For if
that were so, then contemplation of the body, etc.,
would also have quadruple and quintuple jhāna. But
there is not even the first jhāna in the contemplation of
feeling or in the other two.[17] So do not misrepresent
the Blessed One by adherence to the letter. The
Enlightened One’s word is profound and should be
taken as it is intended, giving due weight to the
teachers.”
114. And the intention here is this: The Blessed One, it
seems, was asked to teach the Dhamma thus:
“Venerable sir, it would be good if the Blessed One
would teach me the Dhamma in brief, so that, having
heard the Blessed One’s Dhamma, I may dwell alone,
withdrawn, diligent, ardent and self-exerted” (A IV
299). But the Blessed One had no confidence yet in that
bhikkhu, since although he had already heard the

867
Dhamma he had nevertheless gone on living there
instead of going to do the ascetic’s duties, [and the
Blessed One expressed his lack of confidence] thus:
“So too, some misguided men merely question me,
and when the Dhamma is expounded [to them], they
still fancy that they need not follow me” (A IV 299).
However, the bhikkhu had the potentiality for the
attainment of Arahantship, and so he advised him
again, [323] saying: “Therefore, bhikkhu, you should
train thus: ’My mind shall be steadied, quite steadied
internally, and arisen evil unprofitable things shall not
obsess my mind and remain.’ You should train thus”
(A IV 299). But what is stated in that advice is basic
concentration consisting in mere unification of
mind[18] internally in the sense of in oneself (see Ch.
XIV, n. 75).
115. After that he told him about its development by
means of loving-kindness in order to show that he
should not rest content with just that much but should
intensify his basic concentration in this way: “As soon
as your mind has become steadied, quite steadied
internally, bhikkhu, and arisen evil unprofitable things
do not obsess your mind and remain, then you should
train thus: ’The mind-deliverance of loving-kindness
will be developed by me, frequently practiced, made
the vehicle, made the foundation, established,
consolidated, and properly undertaken.’ You should

868
train thus, bhikkhu” (A IV 299–300), after which he
said further: “As soon as this concentration has been
thus developed by you, bhikkhu,[19] and frequently
practiced, then you should develop this concentration
with applied thought and sustained thought … and
you should develop it accompanied by equanimity”
(A IV 300).
116. The meaning is this: “Bhikkhu, when this basic
concentration has been developed by you by means of
loving-kindness, then, instead of resting content with
just that much, you should make this basic
concentration reach quadruple and quintuple jhāna in
other objects by [further] developing it in the way
beginning ’With applied thought.’”
117. And having spoken thus, he further said: “As
soon as this concentration has been thus developed by
you, bhikkhu, and frequently practiced, then you
should train thus: ’The mind-deliverance of
compassion will be developed by me …’ (A IV 300),
etc., pointing out that “you should effect its [further]
development by means of quadruple and quintuple
jhāna in other objects, this [further] development
being preceded by the remaining divine abidings of
compassion and the rest.”
118. Having thus shown how its [further]
development by means of quadruple and quintuple

869
jhāna is preceded by loving-kindness, etc., and having
told him, “As soon as this concentration has been
developed by you, bhikkhu, and frequently practiced,
then you should train thus: ’I shall dwell
contemplating the body as a body,’” etc., he concluded
the discourse with Arahantship as its culmination
thus: “As soon as this concentration has been
developed by you, bhikkhu, completely developed,
then wherever you go you will go in comfort,
wherever you stand you will stand in comfort,
wherever [324] you sit you will sit in comfort,
wherever you make your couch you will do so in
comfort” (A IV 301). From that it must be understood
that the [three] beginning with loving-kindness have
only triple-quadruple jhāna, and that equanimity has
only the single remaining jhāna. And they are
expounded in the same way in the Abhidhamma as
well.
[The Highest Limit of Each]

119. And while they are twofold by way of the triple-

quadruple jhāna and the single remaining jhāna, still
they should be understood to be distinguishable in
each case by a different efficacy consisting in having
“beauty as the highest,” etc. For they are so described
in the Haliddavasana Sutta, according as it is said:
“Bhikkhus, the mind-deliverance of loving-kindness

870
has beauty as the highest, I say … The mind-
deliverance of compassion has the base consisting of
boundless space as the highest, I say … The mind-
deliverance of gladness has the base consisting of
boundless consciousness as the highest I say … The
mind-deliverance of equanimity has the base
consisting of nothingness as the highest, I say” (S V
119–21).[20]
120. But why are they described in this way? Because
each is the respective basic support for each. For
beings are unrepulsive to one who abides in loving-
kindness. Being familiar with the unrepulsive aspect,
when he applies his mind to unrepulsive pure colours
such as blue-black, his mind enters into them without
difficulty. So loving-kindness is the basic support for
the liberation by the beautiful (see M II 12; M-a III
256), but not for what is beyond that. That is why it is
called “having beauty as the highest.”
121. One who abides in compassion has come to
know thoroughly the danger in materiality, since
compassion is aroused in him when he sees the
suffering of beings that has as its material sign (cause)
beating with sticks, and so on. So, well knowing the
danger in materiality, when he removes whichever
kasiṇa [concept he was contemplating], whether that
of the earth kasiṇa or another, and applies his mind to
the space [that remains (see X.6)], which is the escape

871
from materiality, then his mind enters into that [space]
without difficulty. So compassion is the basic support
for the sphere of boundless space, but not for what is
beyond that. That is why it is called “having the base
consisting of boundless space as the highest.”
122. When he abides in gladness, his mind becomes
familiar with apprehending consciousness, since
gladness is aroused in him when he sees beings’
consciousness arisen in the form of rejoicing over
some reason for joy. Then when he surmounts the
sphere of boundless space that he had already attained
in due course and applies his mind to the
consciousness that had as its object the sign of space,
[325] his mind enters into it without difficulty. So
gladness is the basic support for the base consisting of
boundless consciousness, but not for what is beyond
that. That is why it is called “having the sphere of
boundless consciousness as the highest.”
123. When he abides in equanimity, his mind becomes
skilled[21] in apprehending what is (in the ultimate
sense) non-existent, because his mind has been
diverted from apprehension of (what is existent in) the
ultimate sense, namely, pleasure, (release from) pain,
etc., owing to having no further concern such as “May
beings be happy” or “May they be released from pain”
or “May they not lose the success they have obtained.”
Now his mind has become used to being diverted

872
from apprehension of [what is existent in] the ultimate
sense, and his mind has become skilled in
apprehending what is non-existent in the ultimate
sense, (that is to say, living beings, which are a
concept), and so when he surmounts the base
consisting of boundless consciousness attained in due
course and applies his mind to the absence, which is
non-existent as to individual essence, of
consciousness, which is a reality (is become—see M I
260) in the ultimate sense, then his mind enters into
that (nothingness, that non-existence) without
difficulty (see X.32). So equanimity is the basic support
for the base consisting of nothingness, but not for
what is beyond that. That is why it is called “having
the base consisting of nothingness as the highest.”
124. When he has understood thus that the special
efficacy of each resides respectively in “having beauty
as the highest,” etc., he should besides understand
how they bring to perfection all the good states
beginning with giving. For the Great Beings’ minds
retain their balance by giving preference to beings’
welfare, by dislike of beings’ suffering, by desire for
the various successes achieved by beings to last, and
by impartiality towards all beings. And to all beings
they give gifts, which are a source a pleasure, without
discriminating thus: “It must be given to this one; it
must not be given to this one.” And in order to avoid

873
doing harm to beings they undertake the precepts of
virtue. They practice renunciation for the purpose of
perfecting their virtue. They cleanse their
understanding for the purpose of non-confusion about
what is good and bad for beings. They constantly
arouse energy, having beings’ welfare and happiness at
heart. When they have acquired heroic fortitude
through supreme energy, they become patient with
beings’ many kinds of faults. They do not deceive when
promising “We shall give you this; we shall do this for
you.” They are unshakably resolute upon beings’
welfare and happiness. Through unshakable loving-
kindness they place them first [before themselves].
Through equanimity they expect no reward. Having
thus fulfilled the [ten] perfections, these [divine
abidings] then perfect all the good states classed as the
ten powers, the four kinds of fearlessness, the six
kinds of knowledge not shared [by disciples], and the
eighteen states of the Enlightened One.[22] This is how
they bring to perfection all the good states beginning
with giving.

The ninth chapter called “The

Description of the Divine Abidings” in
the Treatise on the Development of
Concentration in the Path of Purification

874
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

875
Notes for Chapter IX

1. “’Fighting against the wall’: having undertaken

the precepts of virtue and sat down on a seat in
his room with the door locked, he was developing
loving-kindness. Blinded by lust arisen under
cover of the loving-kindness, he wanted to go to
his wife, and without noticing the door he beat on
the wall in his desire to get out even by breaking
the wall down” (Vism-mhṭ 286).
2. Reading dāna-piyavacanādīni with Ce (see four
saṅgahavatthūni—A II 32).
3. The Aṅguttara text has “Let him … reappear in a
state of loss” and so on.
4. “The eight great hells beginning with that of
Sañjīva (see J-a V 266, 270). At each of the four
doors of the Great Unmitigated (Avīci) Hell there
are the four beginning with the Ember (Kukuḷa)
Hell (M III 185), which make up the sixteen
prominent hells” (Vism-mhṭ 291).
5. Saṅku-patha—“set on piles”: Vism-mhṭ (p. 294)
says: “Saṅku laggāpetvā te ālambhitvā gamanamaggo
saṅkupatho.” This disagrees with PED for this ref.
6. Satta—“the bright principle”: Skr. sattva; one of
the three principles in the Sāṅkhya system, the

876
 other two being rajas (Pali: rajo) or turbulence and
tamas (Pali: tamo) or darkness. Not in PED.
7. “Here when the aggregates are not fully
understood, there is naming (abhidhāna) of them
and of the consciousness of them as self (attā), that
is to say, the physical body or alternatively the
five aggregates. ’Derived from’: apprehending,
gripping, making a support. ’Since it is actually a
mere concept’: because of presence (sabbhāvato) as
a mere concept in what is called a being, though
in the highest sense the ’being’ is non-existent”
(Vism-mhṭ 298). See also Ch. VIII, note 11.
8. Harvard text reads byāpādarahita, which would be
renderable as “free from ill will.” Vism-mhṭ (p.
299) supports a reading byābādha, which seems
better.
9. For duṭṭhulla see Ch. IV, note 36. Here the
meaning is more likely to be “bad” or “lewd”
than “inert.”
10. Muditā—“gladness” as one of the divine abidings
is always in the sense of gladness at others’
success. Sometimes rendered as “altruistic joy”
and “sympathetic gladness.”
11. Kiṇāti—“it combats”: Skr. kṛnāti—to injure or kill.
PED gives this ref. under ordinary meaning “to
buy,” which is wrong.

877
12. So Vism-mhṭ 309.
13. All texts read kassa (whose), which is confirmed in
the quotation translated in note 20. It is tempting,
in view of the context, to read kammassa
(kamma’s), but there is no authority for it. The
statement would then be an assertion instead of a
question.
14. “Greed is the near enemy of loving-kindness since
it is able to corrupt owing to its similarity, like an
enemy masquerading as a friend” (Vism-mhṭ
309).
15. Paṭihaññati—“to be resentful”: not in PED; the
verb has been needed to correspond to
“resentment” (paṭigha), as the verb, “to be
inflamed with greed” (rajjati) corresponds with
“greed” (rāga).
16. Sambhāvetvā—“judging”: not in this sense in PED.
Vism-mhṭ (p. 313) explains by parikappetvā
(conjecturing).
17. For which kinds of body contemplation give
which kinds of concentration see 8.43 and M-a I
247.
18. “’Mere unification of the mind’: the kind of
concentrating (samādhāna) that is undeveloped
and just obtained by one in pursuit of

878
 development. That is called ’basic concentration,’
however, since it is the basic reason for the kinds
of more distinguished concentration to be
mentioned later in this connection. This ’mere
unification of the mind’ is intended as momentary
concentration as in the passage beginning, ’I
internally settled, steadied, unified and
concentrated my mind’ (M I 116). For the first
unification of the mind is recognized as
momentary concentration here as it is in the first
of the two successive descriptions: ’Tireless
energy was aroused in me … my mind was
concentrated and unified’ followed by ’Quite
secluded from sense desires …’” (M I 21) (Vism-
mhṭ 314).
19. “’Thus developed’: just as a fire started with wood
and banked up with cowdung, dust, etc.,
although it arrives at the state of a ’cowdung fire,’
etc., (cf. M I 259) is nevertheless called after the
original fire that was started with the wood, so
too it is the basic concentration that is spoken of
here, taking it as banked up with loving-kindness,
and so on. ’In other objects’ means in such objects
as the earth kasiṇa” (Vism-mhṭ 315).
20. “The beautiful” (subha) is the third of the eight
liberations (vimokkha—see M II 12; M-a III 255).

879
21. Reading in both cases “avijjamāna-gahaṇa-dakkhaṃ
cittaṃ,” not “-dukkhaṃ.” “’Because it has no more
concern (ābhoga)’: because it has no further act of
being concerned (ābhujana) by hoping (āsiṃsanā)
for their pleasure, etc., thus ’May they be happy.’
The development of loving-kindness, etc.,
occurring as it does in the form of hope for
beings’ pleasure, etc., makes them its object by
directing [the mind] to apprehension of [what is
existent in] the ultimate sense [i.e. pleasure, etc.].
But development of equanimity, instead of
occurring like that, makes beings its object by
simply looking on. But does not the divine
abiding of equanimity itself too make beings its
object by directing the mind to apprehension of
[what is existent in] the ultimate sense, because of
the words, ’Beings are owners of their deeds.
Whose [if not theirs] is the choice by which they
will become happy …?’ (§96)—Certainly that is
so. But that is in the prior stage of development of
equanimity. When it has reached its culmination,
it makes beings its object by simply looking on. So
its occurrence is specially occupied with what is
non-existent in the ultimate sense [i.e. beings,
which are a concept]. And so skill in
apprehending the non-existent should be
understood as avoidance of bewilderment due to

880
 misrepresentation in apprehension of beings,
which avoidance of bewilderment has reached
absorption” (Vism-mhṭ).
22. For the “ten powers” and “four kinds of
fearlessness” see MN 12. For the “six kinds of
knowledge not shared by disciples” see Paṭis I
121f. For the “eighteen states of the Enlightened
One” see Cp-a.

881
 Chapter X
The Immaterial States
(Āruppa-niddesa)

[(1) The Base Consisting of Boundless

Space]

1. [326] Now, as to the four immaterial states

mentioned next to the divine abidings (III.105), one
who wants firstly to develop the base consisting of
boundless space sees in gross physical matter danger
through the wielding of sticks, etc., because of the
words: “‘It is in virtue of matter that wielding of
sticks, wielding of knives, quarrels, brawls and
disputes takes place; but that does not exist at all in
the immaterial state,’ and in this expectation he enters
upon the way to dispassion for only material things,
for the fading and cessation of only those” (M I 410);
and he sees danger in it too through the thousand
afflictions beginning with eye disease. So, in order to
surmount that, he enters upon the fourth jhāna in any
one of the nine kasiṇas beginning with the earth
kasiṇa and omitting the limited-space kasiṇa.
2. Now, although he has already surmounted gross
physical matter by means of the fourth jhāna of the

882
fine-material sphere, nevertheless he still wants also to
surmount the kasiṇa materiality since it is the
counterpart of the former. How does he do this?
3. Suppose a timid man is pursued by a snake in a
forest and flees from it as fast as he can, then if he sees
in the place he has fled to a palm leaf with a streak
painted on it or a creeper or a rope or a crack in the
ground, he is fearful, anxious and will not even look at
it. Suppose again a man is living in the same village as
a hostile man who ill-uses him and on being
threatened by him with a flogging and the burning
down of his house, he goes away to live in another
village, then if he meets another man there of similar
appearance, voice and manner, he is fearful, anxious
and will not even look at him.
4. Here is the application of the similes. The time
when the bhikkhu has the gross physical matter as his
object is like the time when the men were respectively
threatened by the snake and by the enemy. [327] The
time when the bhikkhu surmounts the gross physical
matter by means of the fourth jhāna of the fine-
material sphere is like the first man’s fleeing as fast as
he can and the other man’s going away to another
village. The bhikkhu’s observing that even the matter
of the kasiṇa is the counterpart of that gross physical
matter and his wanting to surmount that also is like
the first man’s seeing in the place he had šfled to the

883
palm leaf with a streak painted on it, etc., and the
other man’s seeing the man who resembled the enemy
in the village he had left, and their unwillingness to
look owing to fear and anxiety.
And here the similes of the dog attacked by a boar
and that of the pisāca goblin and the timid man[1]
should be understood too.
5. So when he has thus become disgusted with
(dispassionate towards) the kasiṇa materiality, the
object of the fourth jhāna, and wants to get away from
it, he achieves mastery in the five ways. Then on
emerging from the now familiar fourth jhāna of the
fine-material sphere, he sees the danger in that jhāna
in this way: “This makes its object the materiality with
which I have become disgusted,” and “It has joy as its
near enemy,” and “It is grosser than the peaceful
liberations.” There is, however, no [comparative]
grossness of factors here [as in the case of the four
fine-material jhānas]; for the immaterial states have
the same two factors as this fine-material [jhāna].
6. When he has seen the danger in that [fine-material
fourth jhāna] jhāna in this way and has ended his
attachment to it, he gives his attention to the base
consisting of boundless space as peaceful. Then, when
he has spread out the kasiṇa to the limit of the world-
sphere, or as far as he likes, he removes the kasiṇa

884
[materiality] by giving his attention to the space
touched by it, [regarding that] as “space” or
“boundless space.”
7. When he is removing it, he neither folds it up like a
mat nor withdraws it like a cake from a tin. It is
simply that he does not advert to it or give attention to
it or review it; it is when he neither adverts to it nor
gives attention to it nor reviews it, but gives his
attention exclusively to the space touched by it,
[regarding that] as “space, space,” that he is said to
“remove the kasiṇa.”
8. And when the kasiṇa is being removed, it does not
roll up or roll away. It is simply that it is called
“removed” on account of his non-attention to it, his
attention being given to “space, space.” This is
conceptualized as the mere space left by the removal
of the kasiṇa [materiality]. Whether it is called “space
left by the removal of the kasiṇa” or “space touched
by the kasiṇa” or “space secluded from the kasiṇa,” it
is all the same.
9. He adverts again and again to the sign of the space
left by the removal of the kasiṇa [328] as “space,
space,” and strikes at it with thought and applied
thought. As he adverts to it again and again and
strikes at it with thought and applied thought, the
hindrances are suppressed, mindfulness is established

885
and his mind becomes concentrated in access. He
cultivates that sign again and again, develops and
repeatedly practices it.
10. As he again and again adverts to it and gives
attention to it in this way, consciousness belonging to
the base consisting of boundless space arises in
absorption with the space [as its object], as the
consciousness belonging to the fine-material sphere
did in the case of the earth kasiṇa, and so on. And here
too in the prior stage there are either three or four
sensual-sphere impulsions associated with
equanimous feeling, while the fourth or the fifth is of
the immaterial sphere. The rest is the same as in the
case of the earth kasiṇa (IV.74).
11. There is, however, this difference. When the
immaterial-sphere conscious-ness has arisen in this
way, the bhikkhu, who has been formerly looking at
the kasiṇa disk with the jhāna eye finds himself
looking at only space after that sign has been abruptly
removed by the attention given in the preliminary
work thus “space, space.” He is like a man who has
plugged an opening in a [covered] vehicle, a sack or a
pot[2] with a piece of blue rag or with a piece of rag of
some such colour as yellow, red or white and is
looking at that, and then when the rag is removed by
the force of the wind or by some other agency, he
finds himself looking at space.

886
 [Text and Commentary]

12. And at this point it is said: “With the complete

surmounting (samatikkamā) of perceptions of matter,
with the disappearance of perceptions of resistance,
with non-attention to perceptions of variety, [aware
of] ‘unbounded space,’ he enters upon and dwells in
the base consisting of boundless space” (Vibh 245).
13. Herein, complete is in all aspects or of all
[perceptions]; without exception, is the meaning. Of
perceptions of matter: both (a) of the fine-material jhānas
mentioned [here] under the heading of “perception,”
and (b) of those things that are their object. For (a) the
jhāna of the fine-material sphere is called “matter” in
such passages as “Possessed of visible matter he sees
instances of matter” (D II 70; M II 12), and (b) it is its
object too [that is called “matter”] in such passages as
“He sees instances of visible matter externally … fair
and ugly” (D II 110; M II 13).[3] Consequently, here the
words “perception of matter” (rūpa-saññā—lit.
“matter-perceptions”), in the sense of “perceptions
about matter,” are used (a) for fine-material jhāna
stated thus under the headings of “perceptions.”
[Also] (b) it has the label (saññā) “matter” (rūpa), thus
it (the jhāna’s object) is “labelled matter” (rūpa-saññā);
what is meant is that “matter” is its name. So it should

887
be understood that this is also a term for (b) what is
classed as the earth kasiṇa, etc., which is the object of
that [jhāna].[4] [329]
14. With the surmounting: with the fading away and
with the cessation. What is meant? With the fading
away and with the cessation, both because of the
fading away and because of the cessation, either in all
aspects or without exception, of these perceptions of
matter, reckoned as jhāna, which number fifteen with
the [five each of the] profitable, resultant and
functional,[5] and also of these things labelled matter,
reckoned as objects [of those perceptions], which
number nine with the earth kasiṇa, etc., (§1) he enters
upon and dwells in the base consisting of boundless
space. For he cannot enter upon and dwell in that
without completely surmounting perceptions of
matter.
15. Herein, there is no surmounting of these
perceptions in one whose greed for the object [of those
perceptions] has not faded away; and when the
perceptions have been surmounted, their objects have
been surmounted as well. That is why in the Vibhaṅga
only the surmounting of the perceptions and not that
of the objects is mentioned as follows: “Herein, what
are perceptions of matter? They are the perception,
perceiving, perceivedness, in one who has attained a

888
fine-material-sphere attainment or in one who has
been reborn there or in one who is abiding in bliss
there in this present life. These are what are called
perceptions of matter. These perceptions of matter are
passed, surpassed, surmounted. Hence, ‘With the
complete surmounting of perceptions of matter’ is
said” (Vibh 261). But this commentary should be
understood to deal also with the surmounting of the
object because these attainments have to be reached by
surmounting the object; they are not to be reached by
retaining the same object as in the first and subsequent
jhānas.
16. With the disappearance of perceptions of resistance:
perceptions of resistance are perceptions arisen
through the impact of the physical base consisting of
the eye, etc., and the respective objects consisting of
visible objects etc.; and this is a term for perception of
visible objects (rūpa) and so on, according as it is said:
“Here, what are perceptions of resistance? Perceptions
of visible objects, perceptions of sounds, perceptions
of odours, perceptions of flavours, perceptions of
tangible objects—these are called ‘perceptions of
resistance’” (Vibh 261); with the complete
disappearance, the abandoning, the non-arising, of
these ten kinds of perceptions of resistance, that is to
say, of the five profitable-resultant and five
unprofitable-resultant;[6] causing their non-

889
occurrence, is what is meant.
17. Of course, these are not to be found in one who
has entered upon the first jhāna, etc., either; for
consciousness at that time does not occur by way of
the five doors. Still [330] the mention of them here
should be understood as a recommendation of this
jhāna for the purpose of arousing interest in it, just as
in the case of the fourth jhāna there is mention of the
pleasure and pain already abandoned elsewhere, and
in the case of the third path there is mention of the
[false] view of personality, etc., already abandoned
earlier.
18. Or alternatively, though these are also not to be
found in one who has attained the fine-material
sphere, still their not being there is not due to their
having been abandoned; for development of the fine-
material sphere does not lead to fading of greed for
materiality, and the occurrence of those [fine-material
jhānas] is actually dependent on materiality. But this
development [of the immaterial] does lead to the
fading of greed for materiality. Therefore it is
allowable to say that they are actually abandoned
here; and not only to say it, but to maintain it
absolutely.
19. In fact it is because they have not been abandoned
already before this that it was said by the Blessed One

890
that sound is a thorn to one who has the first jhāna (A
V 135). And it is precisely because they are abandoned
here that the imperturbability (see Vibh 135) of the
immaterial attainments and their state of peaceful
liberation are mentioned (M I 33), and that Āḷāra
Kālāma neither saw the five hundred carts that passed
close by him nor heard the sound of them while he
was in an immaterial attainment (D II 130).
20. With non-attention to perceptions of variety: either to
perceptions occurring with variety as their domain or
to perceptions themselves various. For “perceptions of
variety” are so called [for two reasons]: firstly, because
the kinds of perception included along with the mind
element and mind-consciousness element in one who
has not attained—which kinds are intended here as
described in the Vibhaṅga thus: “Herein, what are
perceptions of variety? The perception, perceiving,
perceivedness, in one who has not attained and
possesses either mind element or mind-consciousness
element in one who has not attained and possesses
either mind element or mind-consciousness element:
these are called ‘perceptions of variety’” (Vibh 261)—
occur with respect to a domain that is varied in
individual essence with the variety classed as visible-
object, sound, etc.; and secondly, because the forty-
four kinds of perception—that is to say, eight kinds of
sense-sphere profitable perception, twelve kinds of

891
unprofitable perception, eleven kinds of sense-sphere
profitable resultant perception, two kinds of
unprofitable-resultant perception, and eleven kinds of
sense-sphere functional perception—themselves have
variety, have various individual essences, and are
dissimilar from each other. With the complete non-
attention to, non-adverting to, non-reaction to, non-
reviewing of, these perceptions of variety; what is
meant is that because he does not advert to them, give
them attention or review them, therefore …
21. And [two things] should be understood: firstly,
that their absence is stated here in two ways as
“surmounting” and “disappearance” because the
earlier perceptions of matter and perceptions of
resistance do not exist even in the kind of existence
produced by this jhāna on rebirth, let alone when this
jhāna is entered upon and dwelt in that existence;
[331] and secondly, in the case of perceptions of
variety, “non-attention” to them is said because
twenty-seven kinds of perception—that is to say, eight
kinds of sense-sphere profitable perception, nine kinds
of functional perception, and ten kinds of unprofitable
perception—still exist in the kind of existence
produced by this jhāna. For when he enters upon and
dwells in this jhāna there too, he does so by non-
attention to them also, but he has not attained when he
does give attention to them.

892
22. And here briefly it should be understood that the
abandoning of all fine-material-sphere states is
signified by the words with the surmounting of
perceptions of matter, and the abandoning of and non-
attention to all sense-sphere consciousness and its
concomitants is signified by the words with the
disappearance of perceptions of resistance, with non-
attention to perceptions of variety.
23. Unbounded space: here it is called “unbounded”
(ananta, lit. endless) because neither its end as its
arising nor its end as its fall are made known.[7] It is
the space left by the removal of the kasiṇa that is
called “space.” And here unboundedness
(endlessness) should be understood as [referring to]
the attention also, which is why it is said in the
Vibhaṅga: “He places, settles his consciousness in that
space, he pervades unboundedly (anantaṃ), hence
‘unbounded (ananto) space’ is said” (Vibh 262).
24. He enters upon and dwells in the base consisting of
boundless space: it has no bound (anta), and thus it is
unbounded (ananta). What is spatially unbounded
(ākāsaṃ anantaṃ) is unbounded space (ākāsānantaṃ).
Unbounded space is the same as boundless space
(ākāsānañcaṃ—lit. space-boundlessness). That
“boundless space” is a “base” (āyatana) in the sense of
habitat for the jhāna whose nature it is to be associated
with it, as the “deities’ base” is for deities, thus it is the

893
“base consisting of boundless space”
(ākāsānañcāyatana). He enters and dwells in: having
reached that base consisting of boundless space,
having caused it to be produced, he dwells (viharati)
with an abiding (vihāra) consisting in postures that are
in conformity with it.
This is the detailed explanation of the base
consisting of boundless space as a meditation subject.

[(2) The Base Consisting of Boundless

Consciousness]

25. When he wants to develop the base consisting of

boundless consciousness, he must first achieve
mastery in the five ways in the attainment of the base
consisting of boundless space. Then he should see the
danger in the base consisting of boundless space in
this way: “This attainment has fine-material jhāna as
its near enemy, and it is not as peaceful as the base
consisting of boundless consciousness.” So having
ended his attachment to that, he should give his
attention to the base consisting of boundless
consciousness as peaceful, adverting again and again
as “consciousness, consciousness” to the
consciousness that occurred pervading that space [as

894
its object]. He should give it attention, review it, and
strike at it with applied and sustained thought; [332]
but he should not give attention [simply] in this way
“boundless, boundless.”[8]
26. As he directs his mind again and again on to that
sign in this way, the hindrances are suppressed,
mindfulness is established, and his mind becomes
concentrated in access. He cultivates that sign again
and again, develops and repeatedly practices it. As he
does so, consciousness belonging to the base
consisting of boundless consciousness arises in
absorption with the [past] consciousness that
pervaded the space [as its object], just as that
belonging to the base consisting of boundless space
did with the space [as its object]. But the method of
explaining the process of absorption should be
understood in the way already described.
[Text and Commentary]

27. And at this point it is said: “By completely

surmounting (samatikkamma) the base consisting of
boundless space, [aware of] ‘unbounded
consciousness,’ he enters upon and dwells in the base
consisting of boundless consciousness” (Vibh 245).
28. Herein, completely is as already explained. By …
surmounting the base consisting of boundless space: the

895
jhāna is called the “base consisting of boundless
space” in the way already stated (§24), and its object is
so called too. For the object, too, is “boundless space”
(ākāsānañcaṃ) in the way already stated (§24), and
then, because it is the object of the first immaterial
jhāna, it is its “base” in the sense of habitat, as the
“deities’ base” is for deities, thus it is the “base
consisting of boundless space.” Likewise: it is
“boundless space,” and then, because it is the cause of
the jhāna’s being of that species, it is its “base” in the
sense of locality of the species, as Kambojā is the
“base” of horses, thus it is the “base consisting of
boundless space” in this way also. So it should be
understood that the words, “By … surmounting the
base consisting of boundless space” include both [the
jhāna and its object] together, since this base consisting
of boundless consciousness is to be entered upon and
dwelt in precisely by surmounting, by causing the
non-occurrence of, and by not giving attention to, both
the jhāna and its object.
29. Unbounded consciousness: What is meant is that he
gives his attention thus “unbounded consciousness” to
that same consciousness that occurred in pervading
[as its object the space] as “unbounded space.” Or
“unbounded” refers to the attention. For when he
gives attention without reserve to the consciousness
that had the space as its object, then the attention he

896
gives to it is “unbounded.”
30. For it is said in the Vibhaṅga: “‘Unbounded
consciousness’: he gives attention to that same space
pervaded by consciousness, he pervades boundlessly,
hence ‘unbounded consciousness’ is said” (Vibh 262).
But in that passage (taṃ yeva ākāsaṃ viññāṇena phuṭaṃ)
the instrumental case “by consciousness” must be
understood in the sense of accusative; for the teachers
of the commentary explain its meaning in that way.
What is meant by “He pervades boundlessly” is that
“he gives attention to that same consciousness which
had pervaded that space” (taṃ yeva ākāsaṃ phuṭaṃ
viññāṇaṃ).
31. He enters upon and dwells in the base consisting of
boundless consciousness: [333] it has no bound (anta, lit.
end), thus it is unbounded (ananta). What is
unbounded is boundless (ānañca lit. unboundedness),
and unbounded consciousness is called “boundless
consciousness,” that is “viññāṇañcaṃ” [in the
contracted form] instead of “viññāṇānañcaṃ” [which is
the full number of syllables]. This is an idiomatic form.
That boundless consciousness (viññāṇañca) is the base
(āyatana) in the sense of foundation for the jhāna
whose nature it is to be associated with it, as the
“deities’ base” is for deities, thus it is the “base
consisting of boundless consciousness”
(viññāṇañcāyatana). The rest is the same as before.

897
 This is the detailed explanation of the base
consisting of boundless consciousness as a meditation
subject.

[(3) The Base Consisting of

Nothingness]

32. When he wants to develop the base consisting of

nothingness, he must first achieve mastery in the five
ways in the attainment in the base consisting of
boundless consciousness. Then he should see the
danger in the base consisting of boundless
consciousness in this way: “This attainment has the
base consisting of boundless space as its near enemy,
and it is not as peaceful as the base consisting of
nothingness.” So having ended his attachment to that,
he should give his attention to the base consisting of
nothingness as peaceful. He should give attention to
the [present] non-existence, voidness, secluded aspect,
of that same [past] consciousness belonging to the
base consisting of boundless space, which became the
object of [the consciousness belonging to] the base
consisting of boundless consciousness. How does he
do this?
33. Without giving [further] attention to that

898
consciousness, he should [now] advert again and
again in this way, “there is not, there is not,” or “void,
void,” or “secluded, secluded,” and give his attention
to it, review it, and strike at it with thought and
applied thought.
34. As he directs his mind on to that sign thus, the
hindrances are suppressed, mindfulness is established,
and his mind becomes concentrated in access. He
cultivates that sign again and again, develops and
repeatedly practices it. As he does so, consciousness
belonging to the base consisting of nothingness arises
in absorption, making its object the void, secluded,
non-existent state of that same [past] exalted
consciousness that occurred in pervading the space,
just as the [consciousness belonging to the] base
consisting of boundless consciousness did the [then
past] exalted consciousness that had pervaded the
space. And here too the method of explaining the
absorption should be understood in the way already
described.
35. But there is this difference. Suppose a man sees a
community of bhikkhus gathered together in a
meeting hall or some such place and then goes
elsewhere; then after the bhikkhus have risen at the
conclusion of the business for which they had met and
have departed, the man comes back, and as he stands
in the doorway looking at that place again, he sees it

899
only as void, he sees it only as secluded, he does not
think, “So many bhikkhus have died, so many have
left the district,” but rather [334] he sees only the non-
existence thus, “This is void, secluded”—so too,
having formerly dwelt seeing with the jhāna eye
belonging to the base consisting of boundless
consciousness the [earlier] consciousness that had
occurred making the space its object, [now] when that
consciousness has disappeared owing to his giving
attention to the preliminary work in the way
beginning, “There is not, there is not,” he dwells
seeing only its non-existence, in other words, its
departedness when this consciousness has arisen in
absorption.
[Text and Commentary]

36. And at this point it is said: “By completely

surmounting the base consisting of boundless
consciousness, [aware that] ‘There is nothing,’ he
enters upon and dwells in the base consisting of
nothingness” (Vibh 245).
37. Herein, completely is as already explained. By …
surmounting the base consisting of boundless
consciousness: here too the jhāna is called the “base
consisting of boundless consciousness” in the way
already stated, and its object is so-called too. For the

900
object too is “boundless consciousness” (viññāṇañcaṃ)
in the way already stated, and then, because it is the
object of the second immaterial jhāna, it is its “base” in
the sense of habitat, as the “deities’ base” is for deities,
thus it is the “base consisting of boundless
consciousness.” Likewise it is “boundless
consciousness,” and then because it is the cause of the
jhāna’s being of that species, it is its “base” in the
sense of locality of the species, as Kambojā is the
“base” of horses, thus it is the “base consisting of
boundless consciousness” in this way also. So it
should be understood that the words, “By …
surmounting the base consisting of boundless
consciousness” include both [the jhāna and its object]
together, since this base consisting of nothingness is to
be entered upon and dwelt in precisely by
surmounting, by causing the non-occurrence of, by not
giving attention to, both jhāna and its object.
38. There is nothing (natthi kiñci): what is meant is that
he gives his attention thus, “there is not, there is not,”
or “void, void,” or “secluded, secluded.” It is said in
the Vibhaṅga: “‘There is nothing’: he makes that same
consciousness non-existent, makes it absent, makes it
disappear, sees that ‘there is nothing’, hence ‘there is
nothing’ is said” (Vibh 262), which is expressed in a
way that resembles comprehension [by insight] of
liability to destruction, nevertheless the meaning

901
should be understood in the way described above. For
the words “He makes that same consciousness non-
existent, makes it absent, makes it disappear” are said
of one who does not advert to it or gives attention to it
or review it, and only gives attention to its non-
existence, its voidness, its secludedness; they are not
meant in the other way (Cf. XXI.17).
39. He enters upon and dwells in the base consisting of
nothingness: it has no owning (kiñcana),[9] this it is non-
owning (akiñcana); what is meant is that it has not even
the mere act of its dissolution remaining. The state
(essence) of non-owning is nothingness (ākiñcañña).
This is a term for the disappearance of the
consciousness belonging to the base consisting of
boundless space. [335] That nothingness is the “base”
in the sense of foundation for that jhāna, as the
“deities’ base” is for deities, thus it is the “base
consisting of nothingness.” The rest is as before.
This is the detailed explanation of the base
consisting of nothingness as a meditation subject.

[(4) The Base Consisting of Neither

Perception nor Non-Perception]

40. When, however, he wants to develop the base

902
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception,
he must first achieve mastery in the five ways in the
attainment of the base consisting of nothingness. Then
he should see the danger in the base consisting of
nothingness and the advantage in what is superior to
it in this way: “This attainment has the base consisting
of boundless consciousness as its near enemy, and it is
not as peaceful as the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception,” or in this way:
“Perception is a boil, perception is a dart … this is
peaceful, this is sublime, that is to say, neither
perception nor non-perception” (M II 231). So having
ended his attachment to the base consisting of
nothingness, he should give attention to the base
consisting of neither perception non non-perception as
peaceful. He should advert again and again to that
attainment of the base consisting of nothingness that
has occurred making non-existence its object,
adverting to it as “peaceful, peaceful,” and he should
give his attention to it, review it and strike at it with
thought and applied thought.
41. As he directs his mind again and again on to that
sign in this way, the hindrances are suppressed,
mindfulness is established, and his mind becomes
concentrated in access. He cultivates that sign again
and again, develops and repeatedly practices it. As he
does so, consciousness belonging to the base

903
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception
arises in absorption making its object the four [mental]
aggregates that constitute the attainment of the base
consisting of nothingness, just as the [consciousness
belonging to the] base consisting of nothingness did
the disappearance of the [previous] consciousness.
And here too the method of explaining the absorption
should be understood in the way already described.
[Text and Commentary]

42. And at this point it is said: “By completely

surmounting the base consisting of nothingness he
enters upon and dwells in the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception” (Vibh 245).
43. Herein, completely is already explained. By …
surmounting the base consisting of nothingness: here too
the jhāna is called the “base consisting of nothingness”
in the way already stated, and its object is so called
too. For the object too is “nothingness” (ākiñcaññaṃ) in
the way already stated, and then because it is the
object of the third immaterial jhāna, it is its “base” in
the sense of habitat, as the “deities’ base” is for deities,
thus it is the “base consisting of nothingness.”
Likewise: it is “nothingness,” and then, because it is
the cause of the jhāna’s being of that species, it is its
“base” in the sense of locality of the species, as

904
Kambojā is the “base” of horses, thus it is the “base
consisting of nothingness” in this way also. [336] So it
should be understood that the words, “By …
surmounting the base consisting of nothingness”
include both [the jhāna and its object] together, since
the base consisting of neither perception nor non-
perception is to be entered upon and dwelt in
precisely by surmounting, by causing the non-
occurrence of, by not giving attention to, both the
jhāna and its object.
44. Base consisting of neither perception nor non-
perception: then there is he who so practices that there
is in him the perception on account of the presence of
which this [attainment] is called the “the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception,”
and in the Vibhaṅga, in order to point out that
[person], firstly one specified as “neither percipient
nor non-percipient,” it is said, “gives attention to that
same base consisting of nothingness as peaceful, he
develops the attainment with residual formations,
hence ‘neither percipient nor non-percipient’ is said”
(Vibh 263).
45. Herein, he gives attention … as peaceful, means that
he gives attention to it as “peaceful” because of the
peacefulness of the object thus: “How peaceful this
attainment is; for it can make even non-existence its
object and still subsist!”

905
 If he brings it to mind as “peaceful” then how does
there come to be surmounting? Because there is no
actual desire to attain it. For although he gives
attention to it as “peaceful,” yet there is no concern in
him or reaction or attention such as “I shall advert to
this” or “I shall attain this” or “I shall resolve upon
[the duration of] this.” Why not? Because the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception is
more peaceful and better than the base consisting of
nothingness.
46. Suppose a king is proceeding along a city street
with the great pomp of royalty,[10] splendidly
mounted on the back of an elephant, and he sees
craftsmen wearing one cloth tightly as a loin-cloth and
another tied round their heads, working at the various
crafts such as ivory carving, etc., their limbs covered
with ivory dust, etc.; now while he is pleased with
their skill, thinking, “How skilled these craft-masters
are, and what crafts they practice!” he does not,
however, think, “Oh that I might abandon royalty and
become a craftsman like that!” Why not? Because of
the great benefits in the majesty of kings; he leaves the
craftsmen behind and proceeds on his way. So too,
though this [meditator] gives attention to that
attainment as “peaceful,” yet there is no concern in
him or reaction or attention such as “I shall advert to
this attainment” or “I shall attain this” or “I shall

906
resolve upon [the duration of] it” or “I shall emerge
from it” or “I shall review it.”
47. As he gives attention to it as “peaceful” in the way
already described, [337] he reaches the ultra-subtle
absorbed perception in virtue of which he is called
“neither percipient nor non-percipient,” and it is said
of him that “He develops the attainment with residual
formations.”
The attainment with residual formations is the fourth
immaterial attainment whose formations have reached
a state of extreme subtlety.
48. Now, in order to show the meaning of the kind of
perception that has been reached, on account of which
[this jhāna] is called the “base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception,” it is said: “‘Base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception’:
states of consciousness or its concomitants in one who
has attained the base consisting of neither perception
nor non-perception or in one who has been reborn
there or in one who is abiding in bliss there in this
present life” (Vibh 263). Of these, what is intended
here is the states of consciousness and its concomitants
in one who has attained.
49. The word meaning here is this: that jhāna with its
associated states neither has perception nor has no
perception because of the absence of gross perception

907
and the presence of subtle perception, thus it is
“neither perception nor non-perception” (n’ eva-saññā-
nāsaññaṃ). It is “neither perception nor non-
perception” and it is a “base” (āyatana) because it is
included in the mind-base (manāyatana) and the
mental-object base (dhammāyatana), thus it is the “base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception”
(nevasaññānāsaññāyatana).
50. Or alternatively: the perception here is neither
perception, since it is incapable of performing the
decisive function of perception, nor yet non-
perception, since it is present in a subtle state as a
residual formation, thus it is “neither perception nor
non-perception.” It is “neither perception nor non-
perception” and it is a “base” in the sense of a
foundation for the other states, thus it is the “base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception.”
And here it is not only perception that is like this,
but feeling as well is neither-feeling-nor-non-feeling,
consciousness is neither-consciousness-nor-non-
consciousness, and contact is neither-contact-nor-non-
contact, and the same description applies to the rest of
the associated states; but it should be understood that
this presentation is given in terms of perception.
51. And the meaning should be illustrated by the
similes beginning with the smearing of oil on the

908
bowl. A novice smeared a bowl with oil, it seems, and
laid it aside. When it was time to drink gruel, an elder
told him to bring the bowl. He said, “Venerable sir,
there is oil in the bowl.” But then when he was told,
“Bring the oil, novice, I shall fill the oil tube,” he
replied, “There is no oil, venerable sir.” Herein, just as
“There is oil” is in the sense of incompatibility with
the gruel because it has been poured into [the bowl]
and just as “There is no oil” is in the sense of filling the
oil tube, etc., so too this perception is “neither
perception” since it is incapable of performing the
decisive function of perception and it is “nor non-
perception” because it is present in a subtle form as a
residual formation. [338]
52. But in this context what is perception’s function? It
is the perceiving of the object, and it is the production
of dispassion if [that attainment and its object are]
made the objective field of insight. But it is not able to
make the function of perceiving decisive, as the heat
element in tepid[11] water is not able to make the
function of burning decisive; and it is not able to
produce dispassion by treatment of its objective field
with insight in the way that perception is in the case of
the other attainments.
53. There is in fact no bhikkhu capable of reaching
dispassion by comprehension of aggregates connected
with the base consisting of neither perception nor non-

909
perception unless he has already done his interpreting
with other aggregates (see XX.2f. and XXI.23). And
furthermore, when the venerable Sāriputta, or
someone very wise and naturally gifted with insight
as he was, is able to do so, even he has to do it by
means of comprehension of groups (XX.2) in this way,
“So it seems, these states, not having been, come to be;
having come to be, they vanish” (M III 28), and not by
means of [actual direct] insight into states one by one
as they arise. Such is the subtlety that this attainment
reaches.
54. And this meaning should be illustrated by the
simile of the water on the road, as it was by the simile
of the oil-smearing on the bowl. A novice was walking
in front of an elder, it seems, who had set out on a
journey. He saw a little water and said, “There is
water, venerable sir, remove your sandals.” Then the
elder said, “If there is water, bring me the bathing
cloth and let us bathe,” but the novice said, “There is
none, venerable sir.” Herein, just as “There is water” is
in the sense of mere wetting of the sandals, and “There
is none” is in the sense of bathing, so too, this
perception is “neither perception” since it is incapable
of performing the decisive function of perception, and
it is “nor non-perception” because it is present in a
subtle form as a residual formation.
55. And this meaning should be illustrated not only

910
by these similes but by other appropriate ones as well.
Enters upon and dwells in is already explained.
This is the detailed explanation of the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception as
a meditation subject.

[General]

56. Thus has the Peerless Helper told

The fourfold immaterial state;
To know these general matters too
Will not be inappropriate.
57. For these immaterial states:
While reckoned by the surmounting of
The object they are four, the wise
Do not admit surmounting of
Factors that one can recognize.
58. Of these [four], the first is due to surmounting
signs of materiality, the second is due to surmounting
space, the third is due to surmounting the
consciousness that occurred with that space as its
object, and the fourth is due to surmounting the
disappearance of the consciousness that occurred with
that space as its object. So they should be understood

911
as four in number with the surmounting of the object
in each case. [339] But the wise do not admit any
surmounting of [jhāna] factors; for there is no
surmounting of factors in them as there is in the case
of the fine-material-sphere attainments. Each one has
just the two factors, namely equanimity and
unification of mind.
59. That being so:
They progress in refinement; each
Is finer than the one before.
Two figures help to make them known;
The cloth lengths, and each palace floor.
60. Suppose there were a four-storied palace: on its
first floor the five objects of sense pleasure were
provided in a very fine form as divine dancing,
singing and music, and perfumes, scents, garlands,
food, couches, clothing, etc., and on the second they
were finer than that, and on the third finer still, and on
the fourth they were finest of all; yet they are still only
palace floors, and there is no difference between them
in the matter of their state (essence) as palace floors; it
is with the progressive refinement of the five objects of
sense pleasure that each one is finer than the one
below;—again suppose there were lengths of cloth of
quadruple, triple, double and single thickness, and
[made] of thick, thin, thinner, and very thin thread

912
spun by one woman, all the same measure in width
and breadth; now although these lengths of cloth are
four in number, yet they measure the same in width
and breadth, there is no difference in their
measurement; but in softness to the touch, fineness,
and costliness each is finer than the one before;—so
too, although there are only the two factors in all four
[immaterial states], that is to say, equanimity and
unification of mind, still each one should be
understood as finer than the one before with the
progressive refinement of factors due to successful
development.
61. And for the fact that each one of them is finer than
the last [there is this figure:]
One hangs upon a tent that stands
On filth; on him another leans.
Outside a third not leaning stands,
Against the last another leans.
Between the four men and these states
The correspondence then is shown,
And so how each to each relates
Can by a man of wit be known.
62. This is how the meaning should be construed.
There was a tent in a dirty place, it seems. Then a man
arrived, and being disgusted with the dirt, he rested
himself on the tent with his hands and remained as if

913
hung or hanging on to it. Then another man came and
leant upon the man hanging on to the tent. Then
another man came and thought, “The one who is
hanging on to the tent and the one who is leaning
upon him are both badly off, and if the tent falls they
will certainly fall. I think I shall stand outside.” [340]
So instead of leaning upon the one leaning upon the
first, he remained outside. Then another arrived, and
taking account of the insecurity of the one hanging on
to the tent and the one leaning upon him, and
fancying that the one standing outside was well
placed, he stood leaning upon him.
63. Herein, this is how it should be regarded. The
space from which the kasiṇa has been removed is like
the tent in the dirty place. The [consciousness of the]
base consisting of boundless space, which makes
space its object owing to disgust with the sign of the
fine-material, is like the man who hangs on to the tent
owing to disgust with the dirt. The [consciousness of
the] base consisting of boundless consciousness, the
occurrence of which is contingent upon [the
consciousness of] the base consisting of boundless
space whose object is space, is like the man who leans
upon the man who hangs on to the tent. The
[consciousness of the] base consisting of nothingness,
which instead of making [the consciousness of the]
base consisting of boundless space its object has the

914
non-existence of that as its object, is like the man who,
after considering the insecurity of those two, does not
lean upon the one hanging on to the tent, but stands
outside. The [consciousness of the] base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception, the occurrence
of which is contingent upon [the consciousness of] the
base consisting of nothingness, which stands in a place
outside, in other words, in the non-existence of [the
past] consciousness, is like the man who stands
leaning upon the last-named, having considered the
insecurity of the one hanging on to the tent and the
one leaning upon him, and fancying that the one
standing outside is well placed.
64. And while occurring in this way:
It takes this for its object since
There is no other one as good,
As men depend upon a king,
Whose fault they see, for livelihood.
65. For although this [consciousness of the] base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception
has seen the flaw in the base consisting of nothingness
in this way, “This attainment has the base consisting
of boundless consciousness as its near enemy,”
notwithstanding that fact it takes it as its object in the
absence of any other. Like what? As men for the sake
of livelihood depend on kings whose faults they see.
For just as, for the sake of livelihood and because they

915
cannot get a livelihood elsewhere, people put up with
some king, ruler of all quarters, who is unrestrained,
and harsh in bodily, verbal, and mental behaviour,
though they see his faults thus, “He is harshly
behaved,” so too the [consciousness of the] base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception
takes that base consisting of nothingness as its object
in spite of seeing its faults in this way, and it does so
since it cannot find another [better] object.
66. As one who mounts a lofty stair
Leans on its railings for a prop,
As one who climbs an airy peak
Leans on the mountain’s very top,
As one who stands on a crag’s edge
Leans for support on his own knees—
Each jhāna rests on that below;
For so it is with each of these.

The tenth chapter called “The

Description of the Immaterial States” in
the treatise on the Development of
Concentration in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

916
917
Notes for Chapter X

1. “A dog, it seems, was attacked in the forest by a

boar and fled. When it was dusk he saw in the
distance a cauldron for boiling rice, and
perceiving it as a boar, he fled in fear and terror.
Again, a man who was afraid of pisāca goblins
saw a decapitated palm stump at night in a place
that was unfamiliar to him, and perceiving it as a
pisāca goblin, he fell down in his fear, horror and
confusion” (Vism-mhṭ 320).
2. PED, this ref. reads yānapuṭosā for yānapatoḷi,
taking it as one compound (see under yāna and
mutoḷī, but this does not fit the context happily.
Vism-mhṭ (p. 321) has:
“‘Yānappatoḷikumbhimukhādīnan’ ti oguṇṭhana-
sivikādi-yānaṃ mukhaṃ = yāna-mukhaṃ; patoḷiyā
kuddakadvārassa mukhaṃ = patoḷi-mukhaṃ; kumbhi-
mukhan ti paccekaṃ mukha-saddo sambandhitabbo.”
This necessitates taking yāna separately.
3. These two quotations refer respectively to the first
of the eight liberations and the first of the eight
bases of mastery (See M-a III 255ff.).
4. This explanation depends on a play on the word
saññā as the [subjective] perception and as the

918
 [objective] sign, signal or label perceived.
5. See XIV.129, description of perception aggregate,
which is classified in the same way as the
consciousness aggregate. Those referred to here
are the fifteen fine-material kinds, corresponding
to nos. (9–l3), (57–61) and (81–85) in Table III.
6. See XIV.96f. nos. (34–38) and (50–54) in Table III.
7. “A [formed] dhamma with an individual essence
is delimited by rise and fall because it is produced
after having not been, and because after having
been it vanishes. But space is called boundless
since it has neither rise nor fall because it is a
dhamma without individual essence” (Vism-mhṭ
323).
8. “He should not give attention to it only as
‘Boundless, boundless;’ instead of developing it
thus, he should give attention to it as ‘Boundless
consciousness, boundless consciousness’ or as
‘Consciousness, consciousness’” (Vism-mhṭ 324).
9. There is a play on the words natthi kiñci (“there is
nothing”) and akiñcana (“non-owning”). At M I
298 there occurs the expression “Rāgo kho āvuso
kiñcano (greed, friend, is an owning),” which is
used in connection with this attainment. The
commentary (M-a II 354) says “Rāgo uppajjitvā
puggalaṃ kiñcati, maddati, palibujjhati, tasmā kiñcano

919
 ti vutto (greed having arisen owns, presses,
impedes, a person, that is why it is called an
owning)” (Cf. M-a I 27; also XXI.53 and note 19).
Vism-mhṭ (p. 327) here says “Kiñcanan ti kiñci pi.”
The word kiñcati is not in PED.
10. Mahacca (see D I 49 and D-a I 148); the form is not
given in PED; probably a form of mahatiya.
11. Sukhodaka—“tepid water”: see Monier Williams’
Sanskrit Dictionary; this meaning of sukha not
given in PED.

920
 Chapter XI Concentration—
Conclusion: Nutriment and the
Elements
(Samādhi-niddesa)

[Perception of Repulsiveness in
Nutriment]

1. [341] Now comes the description of the

development of the perception of repulsiveness in
nutriment, which was listed as the “one perception”[1]
next to the immaterial states (III.105).
Herein, it nourishes (āharati, lit. “brings on”), thus it
is nutriment (āhāra, lit. “bringing on”). That is of four
kinds as: physical nutriment, nutriment consisting of
contact, nutriment consisting of mental volition, and
nutriment consisting of consciousness.[2]
2. But what is it here that nourishes (brings on) what?
Physical nutriment (kabaliṅkārāhāra) nourishes (brings
on) the materiality of the octad that has nutritive
essence as eighth:[3] contact as nutriment nourishes
(brings on) the three kinds of feeling; mental volition
as nutriment nourishes (brings on) rebirth-linking in

921
the three kinds of becoming; consciousness as
nutriment nourishes (brings on) mentality-materiality
at the moment of rebirth-linking.
3. Now, when there is physical nutriment there is
attachment, which brings peril; when there is
nutriment as contact there is approaching, which
brings peril; when there is nutriment as mental
volition there is rebirth-linking, which brings peril.[4]
And to show how they bring fear thus, physical
nutriment should be illustrated by the simile of the
child’s flesh (S II 98), contact as nutriment by the
simile of the hideless cow (S II 99), mental volition as
nutriment by the simile of the pit of live coals (S II 99),
and consciousness as nutriment by the simile of the
hundred spears (S II 100).
4. But of these four kinds of nutriment it is only
physical nutriment, classed as what is eaten, drunk,
chewed, and tasted, that is intended here as
“nutriment” in this sense. The perception arisen as the
apprehension of the repulsive aspect in that nutriment
is, “perception of repulsiveness in nutriment.”
5. One who wants to develop that perception of
repulsiveness in nutriment should learn the
meditation subject and see that he has no uncertainty
about even a single word of what he has learnt. Then
he should go into solitary retreat and [342] review

922
repulsiveness in ten aspects in the physical nutriment
classified as what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted,
that is to say, as to going, seeking, using, secretion,
receptacle, what is uncooked (undigested), what is
cooked (digested), fruit, outflow, and smearing.
6. 1. Herein, as to going: even when a man has gone
forth in so mighty a dispensation, still after he has
perhaps spent all night reciting the Enlightened One’s
word or doing the ascetic’ s work, after he has risen
early to do the duties connected with the shrine
terrace and the Enlightenment-tree terrace, to set out
the water for drinking and washing, to sweep the
grounds and to see to the needs of the body, after he
has sat down on his seat and given attention to his
meditation subject twenty or thirty times[5] and got up
again, then he must take his bowl and [outer] robe, he
must leave behind the ascetics’ woods that are not
crowded with people, offer the bliss of seclusion,
possess shade and water, and are clean, cool,
delightful places, he must disregard the Noble Ones’
delight in seclusion, and he must set out for the village
in order to get nutriment, as a jackal for the charnel
ground.
7. And as he goes thus, from the time when he steps
down from his bed or chair he has to tread on a
carpet[6] covered with the dust of his feet, geckos’

923
droppings, and so on. Next he has to see the doorstep,
[7] which is more repulsive than the inside of the room
since it is often fouled with the droppings of rats, bats,
[8] and so on. Next the lower terrace, which is more
repulsive than the terrace above since it is all smeared
with the droppings of owls, pigeons,[9] and so on.
Next the grounds,[10] which are more repulsive than
the lower floor since they are defiled by old grass and
leaves blown about by the wind, by sick novices’
urine, excrement, spittle and snot, and in the rainy
season by water, mud, and so on. And he has to see
the road to the monastery, which is more repulsive
than the grounds.
8. In due course, after standing in the debating
lodge[11] when he has finished paying homage at the
Enlightenment Tree and the shrine, he sets out
thinking, “Instead of looking at the shrine that is like a
cluster of pearls, and the Enlightenment Tree that is as
lovely as a bouquet of peacock’s tail feathers, and the
abode that is as fair as a god’s palace, I must now turn
my back on such a charming place and go abroad for
the sake of food;” and on the way to the village, the
view of a road of stumps and thorns and an uneven
road broken up by the force of water awaits him.
9. Next, after he has put on his waist cloth as one who
hides an abscess, and tied his waist band as one who

924
ties a bandage on a wound, and robed himself in his
upper robes as one who hides a skeleton, and taken
out his bowl as one who takes out a pan for medicine,
[343] when he reaches the vicinity of the village gate,
perhaps the sight of an elephant’s carcass, a horse’s
carcass, a buffalo’s carcass, a human carcass, a snake’s
carcass, or a dog’s carcass awaits him, and not only
that, but he has to suffer his nose to be assailed by the
smell of them.
Next, as he stands in the village gateway, he must
scan the village streets in order to avoid danger from
savage elephants, horses, and so on.
10. So this repulsive [experience] beginning with the
carpet that has to be trodden on and ending with the
various kinds of carcasses that have to be seen and
smelled, [has to be undergone] for the sake of
nutriment: “Oh, nutriment is indeed a repulsive
thing!”
This is how repulsiveness should be reviewed as to
going.
11. 2. How as to seeking? When he has endured the
repulsiveness of going in this way, and has gone into
the village, and is clothed in his cloak of patches, he
has to wander in the village streets from house to
house like a beggar with a dish in his hand. And in the
rainy season wherever he treads his feet sink into

925
water and mire up to the flesh of the calves.[12] He has
to hold the bowl in one hand and his robe up with the
other. In the hot season he has to go about with his
body covered with the dirt, grass, and dust blown
about by the wind. On reaching such and such a house
door he has to see and even to tread in gutters and
cesspools covered with blue-bottles and seething with
all the species of worms, all mixed up with fish
washings, meat washings, rice washings, spittle, snot,
dogs’ and pigs’ excrement, and what not, from which
flies come up and settle on his outer cloak of patches
and on his bowl and on his head.
12. And when he enters a house, some give and some
do not. And when they give, some give yesterday’s
cooked rice and stale cakes and rancid jelly, sauce and
so on.[13] Some, not giving, say, “Please pass on,
venerable sir,” others keep silent as if they did not see
him. Some avert their faces. Others treat him with
harsh words such as: “Go away, you bald-head.”
When he has wandered for alms in the village in this
way like a beggar, he has to depart from it.
13. So this [experience] beginning with the entry into
the village and ending with the departure from it,
which is repulsive owing to the water, mud, etc., that
has to be trodden in and seen and endured, [has to be
undergone] for the sake of nutriment: “Oh, nutriment

926
is indeed a repulsive thing!”
This is how repulsiveness should be reviewed as to
seeking. [344]
14. 3. How as to using? After he has sought the
nutriment in this way and is sitting at ease in a
comfortable place outside the village, then so long as
he has not dipped his hand into it he would be able to
invite a respected bhikkhu or a decent person, if he
saw one, [to share it]; but as soon as he has dipped his
hand into it out of desire to eat he would be ashamed
to say, “Take some.” And when he has dipped his
hand in and is squeezing it up, the sweat trickling
down his five fingers wets any dry crisp food there
may be and makes it sodden.
15. And when its good appearance has been spoilt by
his squeezing it up, and it has been made into a ball
and put into his mouth, then the lower teeth function
as a mortar, the upper teeth as a pestle, and the tongue
as a hand. It gets pounded there with the pestle of the
teeth like a dog’s dinner in a dog’s trough, while he
turns it over and over with his tongue; then the thin
spittle at the tip of the tongue smears it, and the thick
spittle behind the middle of the tongue smears it, and
the filth from the teeth in the parts where a tooth-stick
cannot reach smears it.
16. When thus mashed up and besmeared, this

927
peculiar compound now destitute of the [original]
colour and smell is reduced to a condition as utterly
nauseating as a dog’s vomit in a dog’s trough. Yet,
notwithstanding that it is like this, it can still be
swallowed because it is no longer in range of the eye’s
focus.
This is how repulsiveness should be reviewed as to
using.
17. 4. How as to secretion? Buddhas and
Paccekabuddhas and Wheel-turning Monarchs have
only one of the four secretions consisting of bile,
phlegm, pus and blood, but those with weak merit
have all four. So when [the food] has arrived at the
stage of being eaten and it enters inside, then in one
whose secretion of bile is in excess it becomes as
utterly nauseating as if smeared with thick madhuka
oil; in one whose secretion of phlegm in excess it is as
if smeared with the juice of nāgabalā leaves;[14] in one
whose secretion of pus is in excess it is as if smeared
with rancid buttermilk; and in one whose secretion of
blood is in excess it is as utterly nauseating as if
smeared with dye. This is how repulsiveness should
be reviewed as to secretion.
18. 5. How as to receptacle? When it has gone inside
the belly and is smeared with one of these secretions,
then the receptacle it goes into is no gold dish or

928
crystal or silver dish and so on. On the contrary, if it is
swallowed by one ten years old, it finds itself in a
place like a cesspit unwashed for ten years. [345] If it is
swallowed by one twenty years old, thirty, forty, fifty,
sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety years old, if it is
swallowed by one a hundred years old, it finds itself
in a place like a cesspit unwashed for a hundred years.
This is how repulsiveness should be reviewed as to
receptacle.
19. 6. How as to what is uncooked (undigested)? After
this nutriment has arrived at such a place for its
receptacle, then for as long as it remains uncooked it
stays in that same place just described, which is
shrouded in absolute darkness, pervaded by draughts,
[15] tainted by various smells of ordure and utterly
fetid and loathsome. And just as when a cloud out of
season has rained during a drought and bits of grass
and leaves and rushes and the carcasses of snakes,
dogs and human beings that have collected in a pit at
the gate of an outcaste village remain there warmed
by the sun’s heat until the pit becomes covered with
froth and bubbles, so too, what has been swallowed
that day and yesterday and the day before remains
there together, and being smothered by the layer of
phlegm and covered with froth and bubbles produced
by digestion through being fermented by the heat of
the bodily fires, it becomes quite loathsome. This is

929
how repulsiveness should be reviewed as to what is
uncooked.
20. 7. How as to what is cooked? When it has been
completely cooked there by the bodily fires, it does not
turn into gold, silver, etc., as the ores[16] of gold, silver,
etc., do [through smelting]. Instead, giving off froth
and bubbles, it turns into excrement and fills the
receptacle for digested food, like brown clay squeezed
with a smoothing trowel and packed into a tube, and
it turns into urine and fills the bladder. This is how
repulsiveness should be reviewed as to what is
cooked.
21. 8. How as to fruit? When it has been rightly
cooked, it produces the various kinds of ordure
consisting of head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth, and
the rest. When wrongly cooked it produces the
hundred diseases beginning with itch, ring-worm,
smallpox, leprosy, plague, consumption, coughs, flux,
and so on. Such is its fruit. This is how repulsiveness
should be reviewed as to fruit.
22. 9. How as to outflow? On being swallowed, it
enters by one door, after which it flows out by several
doors in the way beginning, “Eye-dirt from the eye,
ear-dirt from the ear” (Sn 197). And on being
swallowed it is swallowed even in the company of
large gatherings. But on flowing out, now converted

930
into excrement, urine, etc., it is excreted only in
solitude. [346] On the first day one is delighted to eat
it, elated and full of happiness and joy. On the second
day one stops one’s nose to void it, with a wry face,
disgusted and dismayed. And on the first day one
swallows it lustfully, greedily, gluttonously,
infatuatedly. But on the second day, after a single
night has passed, one excretes it with distaste,
ashamed, humiliated and disgusted. Hence the
Ancients said:
23. The food and drink so greatly prized—
The crisp to chew, the soft to suck—
Go in all by a single door,
But by nine doors come oozing out.
The food and drink so greatly prized—
The crisp to chew, the soft to suck—
Men like to eat in company,
But to excrete in secrecy.
The food and drink so greatly prized—
The crisp to chew, the soft to suck—
These a man eats with high delight,
And then excretes with dumb disgust.
The food and drink so greatly prized—
The crisp to chew, the soft to suck—
A single night will be enough
To bring them to putridity.

931
 This is how repulsiveness should be reviewed as to
outflow.
24. 10. How as to smearing? At the time of using it he
smears his hands, lips, tongue and palate, and they
become repulsive by being smeared with it. And even
when washed, they have to be washed again and
again in order to remove the smell. And, just as, when
rice is being boiled, the husks, the red powder
covering the grain, etc., rise up and smear the mouth,
rim and lid of the cauldron, so too, when eaten it rises
up during its cooking and simmering by the bodily
fire that pervades the whole body, it turns into tartar,
which smears the teeth, and it turns into spittle,
phlegm, etc., which respectively smear the tongue,
palate, etc.; and it turns into eye-dirt, ear-dirt, snot,
urine, excrement, etc., which respectively smear the
eyes, ears, nose and nether passages. And when these
doors are smeared by it, they never become either
clean or pleasing even though washed every day. And
after one has washed a certain one of these, the hand
has to be washed again.[17] And after one has washed
a certain one of these, the repulsiveness does not
depart from it even after two or three washings with
cow dung and clay and scented powder. This is how
repulsiveness should be reviewed as to smearing.
25. As he reviews repulsiveness in this way in ten
aspects and strikes at it with thought and applied

932
thought, physical nutriment [347] becomes evident to
him in its repulsive aspect. He cultivates that sign[18]
again and again, develops and repeatedly practices it.
As he does so, the hindrances are suppressed, and his
mind is concentrated in access concentration, but
without reaching absorption because of the profundity
of physical nutriment as a state with an individual
essence. But perception is evident here in the
apprehension of the repulsive aspect, which is why
this meditation subject goes by the name of
“perception of repulsiveness in nutriment.”
26. When a bhikkhu devotes himself to this perception
of repulsiveness in nutriment, his mind retreats,
retracts and recoils from craving for flavours. He
nourishes himself with nutriment without vanity and
only for the purpose of crossing over suffering, as one
who seeks to cross over the desert eats his own dead
child’s flesh (S II 98). Then his greed for the five cords
of sense desire comes to be fully understood without
difficulty by means of the full understanding of the
physical nutriment. He fully understands the
materiality aggregate by means of the full-
understanding of the five cords of sense desire.
Development of mindfulness occupied with the body
comes to perfection in him through the repulsiveness
of “what is uncooked” and the rest. He has entered
upon a way that is in conformity with the perception

933
of foulness. And by keeping to this way, even if he
does not experience the deathless goal in this life, he is
at least bound for a happy destiny.
This is the detailed explanation of the development
of the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment.

[Defining of The Elements: Word

Definitions]

27. Now comes the description of the development of

the definition of the four elements, which was listed as
the “one defining” next to the perception of
repulsiveness in nutriment (III.105).
Herein, “defining” (vavatthāna) is determining by
characterizing individual essences.[19] [The
compound] catudhātuvavatthāna (“four-element
defining”) is [resolvable into] catunnaṃ dhātūnaṃ
vavatthānaṃ (“defining of the four elements”).
“Attention given to elements,” “the meditation subject
consisting of elements” and “defining of the four
elements” all mean the same thing.
This is given in two ways: in brief and in detail. It is
given in brief in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (D II 294),
and in detail in the Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta (M I

934
185), the Rāhulovāda Sutta (M I 421), and the
Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta (M III 240).

[Texts and Commentary in Brief]

28. It is given in brief in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta,

for one of quick understanding whose meditation
subject is elements, as follows: “Bhikkhus, just as
though a skilled butcher or butcher’s apprentice had
killed a cow and were seated at the crossroads [348]
with it cut up into pieces, so too, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu
reviews this body however placed, however disposed,
as consisting of elements: In this body there are the
earth element, the water element, the fire element, and
the air element” [20] (D II 294).
29. The meaning is this: just as though a clever butcher,
or his apprentice who worked for his keep, had killed a
cow and divided it up and were seated at the crossroads,
reckoned as the intersection of the main roads going in
the four directions, having laid it out part by part, so
too a bhikkhu reviews the body, however placed because it
is in some one of the four postures and however
disposed because it is so placed, thus: In this body there
are the earth element, the water element, the fire element,
and the air element.

935
30. What is meant? Just as the butcher, while feeding
the cow, bringing it to the shambles, keeping it tied up
after bringing it there, slaughtering it, and seeing it
slaughtered and dead, does not lose the perception
“cow” so long as he has not carved it up and divided
it into parts; but when he has divided it up and is
sitting there, he loses the perception “cow” and the
perception “meat” occurs; he does not think “I am
selling cow” or “They are carrying cow away,” but
rather he thinks “I am selling meat” or “They are
carrying meat away”; so too this bhikkhu, while still a
foolish ordinary person—both formerly as a layman
and as one gone forth into homelessness—does not
lose the perception “living being” or “man” or
“person” so long as he does not, by resolution of the
compact into elements, review this body, however
placed, however disposed, as consisting of elements.
But when he does review it as consisting of elements,
he loses the perception “living being” and his mind
establishes itself upon elements. That is why the
Blessed One said: “Bhikkhus, just as though a skilled
butcher … were seated at the crossroads … so too,
bhikkhus, a bhikkhu … air element.”

[In Detail]

936
31. In the Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta it is given in
detail for one of not over-quick understanding whose
meditation subject is elements—and as here so also in
the Rāhulovāda and Dhātuvibhaṅga Suttas—as
follows:
“And what is the internal earth element, friends?
Whatever there is internally in oneself that is hard,
harsh,[21] and clung to (acquired through kamma),
that is to say, head hairs, body hairs, teeth, nails, skin,
flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidney, heart,
liver, midriff, spleen, lungs, bowels, entrails, gorge,
dung, or whatever else there is internally in oneself
that is hard, harsh, and clung to—this is called the
internal earth element” (M I 185). [349]
And: “What is the internal water element, friends?
Whatever there is internally in oneself that is water,
watery, and clung to, that is to say, bile, phlegm, pus,
blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the
joints, and urine, or whatever else there is internally in
oneself that is water, watery, and clung to—this is
called the internal water element” (M I 187).
And: “What is the internal fire element, friends?
Whatever there is internally in oneself that is fire,
fiery, and clung to, that is to say, that whereby one is
warmed, ages, and burns up, and whereby what is
eaten, drunk, chewed and tasted gets completely

937
digested, or whatever else there is internally in oneself
that is fire, fiery, and clung to—this is called the
internal fire element” (M I 188).
And: “What is the internal air element, friends?
Whatever there is internally in oneself that is air, airy,
and clung to, that is to say, up-going winds, down-
going winds, winds in the belly, winds in the bowels,
winds that course through all the limbs, in-breath and
out-breath, or whatever else there is internally in
oneself that is air, airy, and clung to—this is called the
internal air element” (M I 188).
32. Here is the commentary on the words that are not
clear. Internally in oneself (ajjhattaṃ paccattaṃ): both
these words are terms for what is one’s own (niyaka),
since what is one’s own is what is produced in one’s
own self (attani jātaṃ); the meaning is, included in
one’s continuity (sasantati-pariyāpanna). This is called
“internal” (ajjhanaṃ = adhi + attā, lit. “belonging-to-
self”) because it occurs in self (attani—locative case)
just as in the world, speech among women (itthīsu—
loc. case) is called “[speech] belonging-to-women”
(adhitthi). And it is called, “in oneself” (paccattaṃ)
because it occurs owing to self (attānaṃ paṭicca).[22]
33. Hard: rigid. Harsh: rough. Herein, the first is a word
for the characteristic, while the second is a word for
the mode; for the earth element is characterized as

938
hard, but its mode is rough, which is why it is called
“harsh.” Clung to: taken firmly [by kamma]; the
meaning is, firmly taken, seized, adhered to, as “I,”
“mine” (see §89f.).
34. That is to say: the word seyyathidaṃ (“that is to say”)
is a particle; its meaning is, “What is that?” Next,
showing what that is, “head hairs, body hairs,” etc., is
said. And here the brain must be added since it has to
be understood that the earth element needs to be
described in twenty modes. Or whatever else: the earth
element included in the remaining three portions.
35. [350] It flows (appoti), flows on (pappoti), to such
and such a place as a state of streaming, thus it is
water (āpo). The watery (āpo-gata) is what is gone (gata)
among such various kinds of water (āpo) as the
kamma-originated, and so on. What is that? It is what
has the water element’s characteristic of cohesion.
36. Fire (tejo) [is definable] as heating (tejana). The fiery
(tejo-gata) is what is gone (gata), in the way already
described, among the kinds of fire (tejo). What is that?
It is what has the characteristic of heat. Whereby: by
means of which the fire element, when excited, this
body is warmed, becomes heated by the state of one-
day fever,[23] and so on. Ages: whereby this body
grows old, reaches the decline of the faculties, loss of
strength, wrinkles, grayness, and so on. Burns up:

939
whereby, when excited, it causes this body to burn,
and the person cries out, “I am burning, I am
burning!” and longs for ghee a hundred times washed
and for gosīsa sandalwood ointment, etc., and for the
breeze of a fan. And whereby what is eaten, drunk, chewed
and tasted gets completely digested: whereby the boiled
rice, etc., that is eaten, or the beverage, etc., that is
drunk, or the hard food consisting of flour biscuits,
etc., that is chewed, the mango fruit, honey, molasses,
etc., that is tasted, gets completely cooked; gets its
juice, etc., extracted, is the meaning. And here the first
three kinds of fire element [that is to say, “is warmed,”
“ages,” and “burns up”] are of fourfold origination
(XX.27ff.), while the last is only kamma-originated.
37. Air (vāyo) [is definable] as blowing (vāyana). The
airy (vāyo-gata) is what is gone (gata), in the way
already described, among the kinds of air. What is
that? It is what has the characteristic of distension.[24]
Upgoing winds: winds (forces) mounting upwards that
cause the occurrence of vomiting, belching, and so on.
Down-going winds: winds (forces) descending
downwards that expel excrement and urine. Winds in
the belly: winds (forces) outside the bowels. Winds in
the bowels: winds (forces) inside the bowels. Winds that
course through all the limbs: winds (forces) that produce
flexing, extending, etc., and are distributed over the
limbs and the whole body by means of the network of

940
veins (nerves). In-breath: wind in the nostrils entering
in. Out-breath: wind in the nostrils issuing out. And
here the first five are of fourfold origination. In-breath
and out-breath are consciousness-originated. [351]
In each instance the phrase or whatever else comprises
respectively the water element, the fire element, or the
air element included in the other three portions.
38. So the four elements have been detailed in forty-
two aspects, that is to say, the earth element in twenty
aspects, the water element in twelve, the fire element
in four, and the air element in six.
This, firstly, is the commentary on the texts here.

[Method of Development in Brief]

39. As regards the method of development here,

however, to discern the elements in detail in this way,
“The head hairs are the earth element, the body hairs
are the earth element,” appears redundant to a
bhikkhu of quick understanding, though the
meditation subject becomes clear to him if he gives his
attention to it in this way: “What has the characteristic
of stiffenedness is the earth element, what has the
characteristic of cohesion is the water element, what
has the characteristic of ripening (maturing) is the fire

941
element, what has the characteristic of distending
(supporting) is the air element.” But when one of not
over-quick understanding gives his attention to it in
this way, it appears obscure and unevident, and it
only becomes plain to him if he gives his attention to it
in the first-mentioned way. Why?
40. Suppose two bhikkhus are reciting a text with
many elided repetitions, then the bhikkhu with the
quicker understanding fills out the elided repetitions
once or twice, after which he goes on doing the recital
with only the two end parts of the elisions. Here the
one of less quick understanding says, “What is he
reciting? Why, he does not even give one time to move
one’s lips! If the recitation is done like this, when shall
we ever get familiar with the text?” and so he does his
recitation filling out each elision as it comes. Then the
other says, “What is he reciting? Why, he never lets
one get to the end of it! If the recitation is done like
this; when shall we ever get to the end of it?” So too,
the detailed discerning of the elements by head hairs,
etc., appears redundant to one of quick
understanding, though the meditation subject
becomes clear to him if he gives his attention to it in
brief in this way, “What has the characteristic of
stiffenedness is the earth element,” and so on. But
when the other gives his attention to it in this way, it
appears obscure and unevident, and it only becomes

942
plain to him if he gives his attention in detail by head
hairs and so on.
41. So firstly, one of quick understanding who wants
to develop this meditation subject should go into
solitary retreat. Then he should advert to his own
entire material body and discern the elements in brief
in this way: “In this body what is stiffenedness or
harshness is the earth element, what is cohesion or
fluidity[25] [352] is the water element, what is
maturing (ripening) or heat is the fire element, what is
distension or movement is the air element.” And he
should advert and give attention to it and review it
again and again as “earth element, water element,”
that is to say, as mere elements, not a living being, and
soulless.
42. As he makes effort in this way it is not long before
concentration arises in him, which is reinforced by
understanding that illuminates the classification of the
elements, and which is only access and does not reach
absorption because it has states with individual
essences as its object.
43. Or alternatively, there are these four [bodily] parts
mentioned by the General of the Dhamma [the Elder
Sāriputta] for the purpose of showing the absence of
any living being in the four great primary elements
thus: “When a space is enclosed with bones and

943
sinews and flesh and skin, there comes to be the term
‘material form’ (rūpa)” (M I 190). And he should
resolve each of these [as a separate entity], separating
them out by the hand of knowledge, and then discern
them in the way already stated thus: “In these what is
stiffenedness or harshness is the earth element.” And
he should again and again advert to them, give
attention to them and review them as mere elements,
not a living being, not a soul.
44. As he makes effort in this way, it is not long before
concentration arises in him, which is reinforced by
understanding that illuminates the classification of the
elements, and which is only access and does not reach
absorption because it has states with individual
essences as its object.
This is the method of development when the
definition of the elements is given in brief.

[Method of Development in Detail]

45. The method given in detail should be understood

in this way. A meditator of not over-quick
understanding who wants to develop this meditation
subject should learn the elements in detail in the forty-
two aspects from a teacher, and he should live in an

944
abode of the kind already described. Then, when he
has done all the duties, he should go into solitary
retreat and develop the meditation subject in four
ways thus: (1) with constituents in brief, (2) with
constituents by analysis, (3) with characteristics in
brief, and (4) with characteristics by analysis.
[(1) With Constituents in Brief]

46. Herein, how does he develop it with constituents in

brief? Here a bhikkhu does his defining in this way,
“In twenty of the parts what has the stiffened mode is
the earth element,” and he does his defining thus, “In
twelve parts the liquid called water with the mode of
cohesion is the water element,” [353] and he does his
defining thus, “In four parts what matures (what has
the mode of ripening) is the fire element,” and he does
his defining thus, “In six parts what has the mode of
distending is the air element.” As he defines them in
this way they become evident to him. As he again and
again adverts to them and gives his attention to them,
concentration arises as access only.
[(2) With Constituents by Analysis]

47. However, if his meditation subject is not successful

while he develops it in this way, then he should
develop it with constituents by analysis. How? Firstly,

945
the bhikkhu should carry out all the directions given
for the thirty-two-fold aspect in the description of
mindfulness occupied with the body as a meditation
subject (VIII.48–78), namely, the sevenfold skill in
learning and the tenfold skill in giving attention, and
he should start with the verbal recitation, in direct and
reverse order, of the skin pentad and so on, without
omitting any of it. The only difference is this: there,
after giving attention to the head hairs, etc., as to
colour, shape, direction, location, and delimitation, the
mind had to be fixed by means of repulsiveness
(VIII.83), but here it is done by means of elements.
Therefore at the end of each part after giving attention
to head hairs, etc., each in the five ways beginning
with colour (VIII.83), attention should be given as
follows.
48. These things called head hairs grow on the inner
skin that envelops the skull. Herein, just as when
kuṇṭha grasses grow on the top of an anthill, the top of
the termite-mound does not know, “Kuṇṭha grasses
are growing on me,” nor do the kuṇṭha grasses know,
“We are growing on the top of a termite-mound,” so
too, the inner skin that covers the skull does not know,
“Head hairs grow on me,” nor do the head hairs
know, “We grow on inner skin that envelops a skull.”
These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what are called head hairs are a

946
particular component of this body, without thought,
[morally] indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid
(stiffened) earth element.
49. Body hairs grow on the inner skin that envelops the
body. Herein, just as, when dabba grasses grow on the
square in an empty village, the square in the empty
village does not know, “Dabba grasses grow on me,”
nor do the dabba grasses know, “We grow on the
square in an empty village,” so too, the inner skin that
envelops the body does not know, “Body hairs grow
on me,” nor do the body hairs know, “We grow on
inner skin that envelops a body.” These things are
devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what are
called body hairs are a particular component of this
body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
50. Nails grow on the tips of the fingers and toes.
Herein, just as, when children play a game by piercing
madhuka-fruit kernels with sticks, the sticks [354] do
not know, “Madhuka-fruit kernels are put on us,” nor
do the madhuka-fruit kernels know, “We are put on
sticks,” so too, the fingers and toes do not know,
“Nails grow on our tips,” nor do the nails know, “We
grow on the tips of fingers and toes.” These things are
devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what are
called nails are a particular component of this body,
without thought, indeterminate, void, not a living

947
being, rigid earth element.
51. Teeth grow in the jaw bones. Herein, just as, when
posts are placed by builders in stone sockets and
fastened with some kind of cement,[26] the sockets do
not know, “Posts are placed in us,” nor do the posts
know, “We are placed in sockets,” so too, the jaw
bones do not know, “Teeth grow in us,” nor do the
teeth know, “We grow in jaw bones’.” These things
are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what
are called teeth are a particular component of this
body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
52. Skin is to be found covering the whole body.
Herein, just as, when a big lute is covered with damp
ox-hide, the lute does not know, “I am covered with
damp ox-hide,” nor does the damp ox-hide know, “A
lute is covered by me,” so too, the body does not
know, “I am covered by skin,” nor does the skin
know, “A body is covered by me.” These things are
devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what is
called skin is a particular component of this body,
without thought, indeterminate, void, not a living
being, rigid earth element.
53. Flesh is to be found plastered over the framework
of bones. Herein, just as, when a wall is plastered with
thick clay, the wall does not know, “I am plastered

948
with thick clay,” nor does the thick clay know, “A wall
is plastered with me,” so too, the framework of bones
does not know, “I am plastered with flesh consisting
of nine hundred pieces of flesh,” nor does the flesh
know, “A framework of bones is plastered with me.”
These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called flesh is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
54. Sinews are to be found in the interior of the body
binding the bones together. Herein, just as, when
withies and sticks are bound together with creepers,
the withies and sticks do not know [355] “We are
bound together with creepers,” nor do the creepers
know, “Withies and sticks are bound together by us,”
so too, the bones do not know, “We are bound by
sinews,” nor do the sinews know, “Bones are bound
together by us.” These things are devoid of mutual
concern and reviewing. So what are called sinews are a
particular component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
55. As to the bones, the heel bone is to be found
holding up the ankle bone, the ankle bone holding up
the shin bone, the shin bone the thigh bone, the thigh
bone the hip bone, the hip bone the backbone, the

949
backbone the neck bone, and the neck bone is to be
found holding up the cranium bone. The cranium
bone rests on the neck bone, the neck bone on the
backbone, the backbone on the hip bone, the hip bone
on the thigh bone, the thigh bone on the shin bone, the
shin bone on the ankle bone, the ankle bone on the
heel bone.
56. Herein, just as, when bricks, timber or [blocks of
dried] cow dung are built up, those below do not
know, “We each stand holding up those above us,”
nor do those above know, “We each rest on those
below us,” so too, the heel bone does not know, “I
stand holding up the ankle bone,” nor does the ankle
bone know, “I stand holding up the shin bone,” nor
does the shin bone know, “I stand holding up the
thigh bone,” nor does the thigh bone know, “I stand
holding up the hip bone,” nor does the hip bone
know, “I stand holding up the backbone,” nor does
the backbone know, “I stand holding up the neck
bone,” nor does the neck bone know, “I stand holding
up the cranium bone,” nor does the cranium bone
know, “I rest on the neck bone,” nor does the neck
bone know, “I rest on the backbone,” nor does the
backbone know, “I rest on the hip bone,” nor does the
hip bone know, “I rest on the thigh bone,” nor does
the thigh bone know, “I rest on the shin bone,” nor
does the shin bone know, “I rest on the ankle bone,”

950
nor does the ankle bone know, “I rest on the heel
bone.” These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what are called bones [356] are a
particular component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
57. Bone marrow is to be found inside the various
bones. Herein, just as, when boiled bamboo sprouts,
etc., are put inside bamboo joints, etc., the bamboo
joints, etc., do not know, “Bamboo sprouts, etc., are
put in us,” nor do the bamboo sprouts, etc., know,
“We are inside bamboo joints, etc.,” so too, the bones
do not know, “Marrow is inside us,” nor does the
bone marrow know, “I am inside bones.” These things
are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what
is called bone marrow is a particular component of this
body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
58. Kidney is to be found on each side of the heart
flesh, being fastened by the stout sinew that starts out
with a single root from the base of the neck and
divides into two after going a short way. Herein, just
as, when a pair of mango fruits are bound together by
their stalk, the stalk does not know, “A pair of mango
fruits is bound together by me,” nor do the pair of
mango fruits know, “We are bound together by a
stalk,” so too, the stout sinew does not know,

951
“Kidneys are bound together by me,” nor does the
kidney know, “I am bound together by a stout sinew.”
These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called kidney is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
59. Heart is to be found in the inside of the body near
the middle of the frame of the ribs. Herein, just as,
when a piece of meat is placed near the framework of
an old cart, the inside of the framework of the old cart
does not know, “A piece of meat is placed near the
middle of me,” nor does the piece of meat know, “I am
near the middle of the inside of the framework of an
old cart,” so too, the inside of the framework of the
ribs does not know, “A heart is near the middle of
me,” nor does the heart know, “I am near the middle
of the inside of a framework of ribs.” These things are
devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what is
called heart is a particular component of this body,
without thought, indeterminate, void, not a living
being, rigid earth element.
60. Liver is to be found inside the body, near the right
side between the two breasts. Herein, just as, when a
twin lump of meat is stuck on the side of a cooking
pot, the side of the cooking pot does not know, “A
twin lump of meat is stuck on me,” nor does the twin

952
lump of meat know, [357] “I am stuck on the side of a
cooking pot,” so too, the right side between the breasts
does not know, “Liver is near me,” nor does the liver
know, “I am near a right side between two breasts.”
These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called liver is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
61. As to the midriff, the concealed midriff is to be
found surrounding the heart and kidney, while the
unconcealed midriff is to be found covering the flesh
under the skin in the whole body. Herein, just as,
when meat is wrapped in a rag, the meat does not
know, “I am wrapped in a rag,” nor does the rag
know, “Meat is wrapped in me,” so too, the heart and
kidney, and the flesh in the whole body, do not know,
“I am concealed by midriff,” nor does the midriff
know, “Heart and kidney, and flesh in a whole body,
are concealed by me.” These things are devoid of
mutual concern and reviewing. So what is called
midriff is a particular component of this body, without
thought, indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid
earth element.
62. Spleen is to be found near the upper side of the
belly lining on the left side of the heart. Herein, just as,
when a lump of cow dung is near the upper side of a

953
barn, the upper side of the barn does not know, “A
lump of cow dung is near me,” nor does the lump of
cow dung know, “I am near the upper side of a barn,”
so too, the upper side of the belly lining does not
know, “Spleen is near me,” nor does the spleen know,
“I am near the upper side of a belly lining.” These
things are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing.
So what is called spleen is a particular component of
this body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
63. Lungs are to be found inside the body between the
two breasts, hanging over the heart and liver and
concealing them. Herein, just as when a bird’s nest is
hanging inside an old barn, the inside of the old barn
does not know, “A bird’s nest is hanging in me,” nor
does the bird’s nest know, “I am hanging inside an old
barn,” so too, [358] the inside of the body does not
know, “Lungs are hanging in me,” nor do the lungs
know, “We are hanging inside such a body.” These
things are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing.
So what is called lungs is a particular component of
this body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
64. Bowel is to be found inside the body extending
from the base of the neck to the excrement passage.
Herein, just as, when the carcass of a large beheaded
rat snake[27] is coiled up and put into a trough of

954
blood, the red trough does not know, “A rat snake’s
carcass has been put in me,” nor does the rat snake’s
carcass know, “I am in a red trough,” so too, the inside
of the body does not know, “A bowel is in me,” nor
does the bowel know, “I am in a body.” These things
are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what
is called the bowel is a particular component of this
body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
65. Entrails are to be found in the interspaces between
the twenty-one coils of the bowel, binding them
together. Herein, just as, when ropes are found sewing
together a rope ring for wiping the feet, the rope ring
for wiping the feet does not know, “Ropes are to be
found sewing me together,” nor do the ropes know,
“We are to be found sewing together a rope ring,” so
too, the bowel does not know, “Entrails are to be
found binding me together,” nor do the entrails know,
“We are to be found binding a bowel together.” These
things are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing.
So what is called entrails is a particular component of
this body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, rigid earth element.
66. Gorge is what is eaten, drunk, chewed and tasted
that lies in the stomach. Herein, just as, when a dog’s
vomit lies in a dog’s bowl, the dog’s bowl does not
know, “Dog’s vomit is lying in me,” nor does the

955
dog’s vomit know, “I am lying in a dog’s bowl,” so
too, the stomach does not know, “Gorge is lying in
me,” nor does the gorge know, “I am lying in a
stomach.” These things are devoid of mutual concern
and reviewing. So what is called gorge is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
67. Dung is to be found at the end of the bowel, which
resembles a bamboo joint eight fingerbreadths long
and is called the “receptacle for digested food.” [359]
Herein, just as, when soft brown clay is impacted in a
bamboo joint, the bamboo joint does not know,
“Brown clay is in me,” nor does brown clay know, “I
am in a bamboo joint,” so too, the receptacle for
digested food does not know, “Dung is in me,” nor
does the dung know, “I am in a receptacle for digested
food.” These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called dung is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, rigid earth
element.
68. Brain is to be found in the interior of the skull.
Herein, just as, when a lump of dough is put inside an
old gourd rind, the gourd rind does not know, “A
lump of dough is in me,” nor does the lump of dough
know, “I am inside a gourd rind,” so too, the inside of

956
the skull does not know, “Brain is in me,” nor does the
brain know, “I am inside a skull.” These things are
devoid of mutual concern and reviewing. So what is
called brain is a particular component of this body,
without thought, indeterminate, void, not a living
being, rigid earth element.
69. As to bile, the free bile, which is bound up with the
life faculty, is to be found soaking the whole body,
while the local bile is to be found in the bile container
(gall-bladder). Herein, just as, when oil has soaked a
cake, the cake does not know, “Oil soaks me,” nor
does the oil know, “I soak a cake,” so too, the body
does not know, “Free bile soaks me,” nor does the free
bile know, “I soak a body.” And just as, when a
kosāṭakī (loofah) creeper bladder is filled with rain
water, the kosāṭakī creeper bladder does not know,
“Rain water is in me,” nor does the rain water know,
“I am in a kosāṭakī creeper bladder,” so too, the bile
bladder does not know, “Local bile is in me,” nor does
the local bile know, “I am in a bile bladder.” These
things are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing.
So what is called bile is a particular component of this
body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, liquid water element in the mode of
cohesion.
70. Phlegm is to be found on the surface of the stomach
and measures a bowlful. Herein, just as, when a

957
cesspool has a surface of froth, the cesspool does not
know, “A surface of froth is on me,” nor does the
surface of froth [360] know, “I am on a cesspool,” so
too, the surface of the stomach does not know,
“Phlegm is on me” nor does the phlegm know, “I am
on the surface of a stomach.” These things are devoid
of mutual concern and reviewing. So what is called
phlegm is a particular component of this body, without
thought, indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid
water element in the mode of cohesion.
71. Pus has no fixed location. It is to be found
wherever the blood stagnates and goes bad in a part of
the body damaged by wounds caused by splinters and
thorns, and by burns due to fire, or where boils,
carbuncles, etc., appear. Herein, just as, when a tree
oozes gum through being hit by, say, an axe, the parts
of the tree that have been hit do not know, “Gum is in
us,” nor does the gum know, “I am in a part of a tree
that has been hit,” so too, the parts of the body
wounded by splinters, thorns, etc., do not know, “Pus
is in us,” nor does the pus know, “I am in such
places.” These things are devoid of mutual concern
and reviewing. So what is called pus is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
72. As to blood, the mobile blood is to be found, like the

958
bile, soaking the whole body. The stored blood, is to
be found filling the lower part of the liver’s site to the
extent of a bowlful, wetting the kidney, heart, liver
and lungs. Herein, the definition of the mobile blood is
similar to that of the free bile. But as to the other, just
as, when rain water seeps through an old pot and wets
clods and stumps below, the clods and stumps do not
know, “We are being wetted with water,” nor does the
water know, “I am wetting clods and stumps,” so too,
the lower part of the liver’s site, or the kidneys, etc.,
respectively do not know, “Blood is in me,” or “We
are being wetted,” nor does the blood know, “I fill the
lower part of a liver’s site, am wetting a kidney, and so
on.” These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called blood is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
73. Sweat is to be found filling the openings of the
pores of the head hairs and body hairs when there is
heat due to fires, etc., and it trickles out of them.
Herein, just as, when [361] bunches of lily bud stems
and lotus stalks are pulled up out of water, the
openings in the bunches of lilies, etc., do not know,
“Water trickles from us,” nor does the water trickling
from the openings in the bunches of lilies, etc., know,
“I am trickling from openings in bunches of lilies,

959
etc.,” so too, the openings of the pores of the head
hairs and body hairs do not know, “Sweat trickles
from us,” nor does the sweat know, “I trickle from
openings of pores of head hairs and body hairs.”
These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called sweat is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
74. Fat is the thick unguent to be found pervading the
whole body of one who is stout, and on the shank
flesh, etc., of one who is lean. Herein, just as, when a
heap of meat is covered by a yellow rag, the heap of
meat does not know, “A yellow rag is next to me,” nor
does the yellow rag know, “I am next to a heap of
meat,” so too, the flesh to be found on the whole body,
or on the shanks, etc., does not know, “Fat is next to
me,” nor does the fat know,”I am next to flesh on a
whole body, or on the shanks, and so on.” These
things are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing.
So what is called fat is a particular component of this
body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, thick-liquid water element in the mode of
cohesion.
75. Tears, when produced, are to be found filling the
eye sockets or trickling out of them. Herein, just as,
when the sockets of young palm kernels are filled with

960
water, the sockets of the young palm kernels do not
know, “Water is in us,” nor does the water in the
sockets of the young palm kernels know, “I am in
sockets of young palm kernels,” so too, the eye sockets
do not know, “Tears are in us,” nor do the tears know,
“We are in eye sockets.” These things are devoid of
mutual concern and reviewing. So what is called tears
is a particular component of this body, without
thought, indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid
water element in the mode of cohesion.
76. Grease is the melted unguent to be found on the
palms and backs of the hands, on the soles and backs
of the feet, on the nose and forehead and on the points
of the shoulders, when heated by fire, and so on.
Herein, just as, when rice gruel has oil put on it, the
rice gruel does not know, “Oil is spread over me,” nor
does the oil know, “I am spread over rice gruel,” so
too, the place consisting of the palm of the hand, etc.,
[362] does not know, “Grease is spread over me,” nor
does the grease know, “I am spread over places
consisting of the palm of the hand, and so on.” These
things are devoid of mutual concern and reviewing.
So what is called grease is a particular component of
this body, without thought, indeterminate, void, not a
living being, liquid water element in the mode of
cohesion.
77. Spittle is to be found on the surface of the tongue

961
after it has descended from the cheeks on both sides,
when there is a condition for the arising of spittle.
Herein, just as, when a hollow in a river bank is
constantly oozing with water, the surface of the
hollow does not know, “Water lies on me,” nor does
the water know, “I lie on the surface of a hollow,” so
too, the surface of the tongue does not know, “Spittle
that has descended from cheeks on both sides is on
me,” nor does the spittle know, “I have descended
from cheeks on both sides and am on the surface of a
tongue.” These things are devoid of mutual concern
and reviewing. So what is called spittle is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
78. Snot, when produced, is to be found filling the
nostrils or trickling out of them. Herein, just as, when
a bag[28] is loaded with rotting curd, the bag does not
know, “Rotting curd is in me,” nor does the rotting
curd know, “I am in a bag,” so too, the nostrils do not
know, “Snot is in us,” nor does the snot know, “I am
in nostrils.” These things are devoid of mutual
concern and reviewing. So what is called snot is a
particular component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
79. Oil of the joints is to be found in the hundred and

962
eighty joints serving the function of lubricating the
joints of the bones. Herein, just as, when an axle is
lubricated with oil, the axle does not know, “Oil
lubricates me,” nor does the oil know, “I lubricate an
axle,” so too, the hundred and eighty joints do not
know, “Oil of the joints lubricates us,” nor does the oil
of the joints know, “I lubricate a hundred and eighty
joints.” These things are devoid of mutual concern and
reviewing. So what is called oil of the joints is a
particular component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
80. Urine is to be found inside the bladder. Herein, just
as, when a porous pot is put upside down in a
cesspool, the porous pot does not know, “Cesspool
filtrate is in me,” nor does the cesspool filtrate know,
“I am in a porous pot,” so too, the bladder does not
know, [363] “Urine is in me,” nor does the urine know,
“I am in a bladder.” These things are devoid of mutual
concern and reviewing. So what is called urine is a
particular component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being, liquid water
element in the mode of cohesion.
81. When he has given his attention in this way to the
body hairs, etc., he should then give his attention to
the [four] fire components thus: That whereby one is
warmed—this is a particular component of this body,

963
without thought, indeterminate, void, not a living
being; it is fire element in the mode of maturing
(ripening).
That whereby one ages …
That whereby one burns up …
That whereby what is eaten, drunk, chewed and tasted
becomes completely digested—this is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being; it is fire
element in the mode of maturing (ripening).
82. After that, having discovered the up-going winds
(forces) as upgoing, the down-going winds (forces) as
down-going, the winds (forces) in the belly as in the
belly, the winds (forces) in the bowels as in the bowels,
the winds (forces) that course through all the limbs as
coursing through all the limbs, and in-breath and out-
breath as in-breath and out-breath, he should give his
attention to these [six] air components in this way:
What is called up-going winds (forces) is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being; it is air element
in the mode of distending.
What is called down-going winds (forces) …
What is called winds (forces) in the belly …
What is called winds (forces) in the bowels …

964
 What is called winds (forces) that course through all
the limbs …
What is called in-breath and out-breath is a particular
component of this body, without thought,
indeterminate, void, not a living being; it is air element
in the mode of distending.
83. As he gives his attention in this way the elements
become evident to him. As he adverts and gives
attention to them again and again access concentration
arises in him in the way already described.
[(3) With Characteristics in Brief]

84. But if his meditation subject is still not successful

when he gives his attention to it in this way, then he
should develop it with characteristics in brief. How? In
the twenty components the characteristic of
stiffenedness should be defined as the earth element,
and the characteristic of cohesion, which is there too,
as the water element, and the characteristic of
maturing (ripening), which is there too, as the fire
element, and the characteristic of distension, which is
there too, as the air element. In the twelve components
the characteristic of cohesion should be defined as the
water element, the characteristic of maturing
(ripening), which is there too, as the fire element, the
characteristic of distension, which is there too, as the

965
air element, and the characteristic of stiffenedness,
which is there too, as the earth element. In the four
components the characteristic of maturing (ripening)
should be defined as the fire element, the
characteristic of distension unresolvable (inseparable)
from it as the air element, [364] the characteristic of
stiffenedness as the earth element, and the
characteristic of cohesion as the water element. In the
six components the characteristic of distension should
be defined as the air element, the characteristic of
stiffenedness there too as the earth element, the
characteristic of cohesion as the water element, and
the characteristic of maturing (ripening) as the fire
element.
As he defines them in this way the elements become
evident to him. As he adverts to them and gives
attention to them again and again access concentration
arises in him in the way already stated.
[(4) With Characteristics by Analysis]

85. However, if he still does not succeed with his

meditation subject when he gives his attention to it in
this way, then he should develop it with characteristics
by analysis. How? After discerning head hairs, etc., in
the way already described, the characteristic of
stiffenedness in head hairs should be defined as the

966
earth element, the characteristic of cohesion there too
as the water element, the characteristic of maturing
(ripening) as the fire element, and the characteristic of
distension as the air element. The four elements
should be defined in this way in the case of each
component.
As he defines them in this way the elements become
evident to him. As he adverts and gives attention to
them again and again access concentration arises in
him in the way already described.

[Additional Ways of Giving Attention]

86. In addition, attention should be given to the

elements in the following ways: (1) as to word
meaning, (2) by groups, (3) by particles, (4) by
characteristic, etc., (5) as to how originated, (6) as to
variety and unity, (7) as to resolution (separability)
and non-resolution (inseparability), (8) as to the
similar and the dissimilar, (9) as to distinction between
internal and external, (10) as to inclusion, (11) as to
condition, (12) as to lack of conscious reaction, (13) as
to analysis of conditions.
87. 1. Herein, one who gives his attention to them as to
word meaning should do so separately and generally

967
thus: [separately] it is earth (pathavī) because it is
spread out (patthaṭa); it flows (appoti) or it glides
(āpiyati) or it satisfies (appāyati), thus it is water (āpo); it
heats (tejati), thus it is fire (tejo); it blows (vāyati), thus
it is air (vāyo). But without differentiation they are
elements (dhātu) because of bearing (dhāraṇa) their
own characteristics, because of grasping (ādāna)
suffering, and because of sorting out (ādhāna) suffering
(see XV.19).[29] This is how they should be given
attention as to word meaning.
88. 2. By groups: there is the earth element described
under the twenty aspects (modes) beginning with
head hairs, body hairs, and also the water element
described under the twelve (modes) aspects beginning
with bile, phlegm, etc. Now, as to these:
Colour, odour, taste, and nutritive
Essence, and the four elements—
From combination of these eight
There comes the common usage head hairs;
And separately from these eight[30]
There is no common usage head hairs.

Consequently, head hairs are only a mere group of

eight states. Likewise, body hairs, [365] and the rest. A
component here that is kamma-originated is a group
of ten states, [that is to say, the former eight] together

968
with the life faculty and sex. But it is on account of
respective prominence [of stiffenedness or cohesion]
that it comes to be styled “earth element” or “water
element.” This is how they should be given attention
to “by groups.”
89. 3. By particles: in this body the earth element taken
as reduced to fine dust and powdered to the size of
the smallest atom[31] might amount to an average doṇa
measure full; and that is held together[32] by the water
element measuring half as much. Being maintained[33]
by the fire element, and distended by the air element,
it does not get scattered or dissipated. Instead of
getting scattered or dissipated, it arrives at the
alternative states of the female and male sex, etc., and
manifests smallness, bigness, length, shortness,
toughness, rigidity, and so on.
90. The liquid water element that is the mode of
cohesion, being founded on earth, maintained by fire,
and distended by air, does not trickle or run away.[34]
Instead of trickling or running away it provides
continued refreshments.[35]
91. And here the fire element that cooks what is eaten,
drunk, etc., and is the mode of warming and has the
characteristic of heat, being established on earth, held
together by water, and distended by air, maintains this
body and ensures its proper appearance. And this

969
body, being maintained by it, shows no putrefaction.
92. The air element that courses through all the limbs
and has the characteristic of moving and distending,
being founded upon earth, held together by water,
and maintained by fire, distends this body. And this
body, being distended by the latter kind of air, does
not collapse, but stands erect, and being propelled[36]
by the other [motile] air, it shows intimation and it
flexes and extends and it wriggles the hands and feet,
doing so in the postures comprising of walking,
standing, sitting and lying down. So this mechanism
of elements carries on like a magic trick, deceiving
foolish people with the male and female sex and so on.
This is how they should be given attention by
particles.
93. 4. As to characteristic, etc.: he should advert to the
four elements in this way: “The earth element—what
are its characteristic, function, manifestation?”
[defining them in this way]: The earth element has the
characteristic of hardness. Its function is to act as a
foundation. It is manifested as receiving. The water
element has the characteristic of trickling. Its function
is to intensify. It is manifested as holding together. The
fire element has the characteristic of heat. Its function
is to mature (maintain). It is manifested as a continued
supply of softness. The air element has the

970
characteristic of distending. Its function is to cause
motion. It is manifested as conveying.[37] This is how
they should be given attention to by characteristic, and
so on. [366]
94. 5. As to how originated: among the forty-two
components beginning with head hairs shown in the
detailed treatment of the earth element, etc., the four
consisting of gorge, dung, pus, and urine are
temperature-originated only; the four consisting of
tears, sweat, spittle, and snot are temperature-
originated and consciousness-originated only. The fire
that cooks what is eaten, etc., is kamma-originated
only; in-breath and out-breath are consciousness-
originated only; all the rest are of fourfold origination.
This is how they should be given attention as to how
originated.
95. 6. As to variety and unity: there is variety in the
specific characteristics, etc., of all the elements; for the
characteristic, function, and manifestation of the earth
element is one, and those of the water element, etc.,
are different. But there is unity in them as materiality,
great primary, element, state (dhamma),
impermanence, etc., notwithstanding the fact that they
are various according to [specific] characteristic, etc.,
and according to origination by kamma and so on.
96. All these elements are “instances of materiality”

971
(rūpāni) because they do not exceed the characteristic
of “being molested” (ruppana). They are “great
primaries” (mahābhūta) by reason of “great
manifestation,” and so on. “By reason of ‘great
manifestation,’ and so on” means that these elements
are called “great primaries” for the following reasons,
namely: (a) manifestation of greatness; (b) likeness to
great creatures; (c) great maintenance; (d) great
alteration; and (e) because they are great and because
they are entities.
97. Herein, (a) manifestation of greatness: they are
manifested as great both in a continuity that is not
clung to (acquired through kamma) and in a
continuity that is clung to. For their manifestation of
greatness in a continuity that is not clung to is given in
the description of the recollection of the Buddha in the
way beginning:
Two times a hundred thousand [leagues]
And then four nahutas as well:
This earth, this “bearer of all wealth,”
Has that much thickness, as they tell (VII.41).

And they are manifested on a great scale also in a

continuity that is clung to, for instance, in the bodies
of fishes, turtles, deities, Dānava demons, and so on.
For this is said: “Bhikkhus, there are individual
creatures of a hundred leagues in the great ocean” (A

972
IV 207), and so on.
98. (b) Likeness to great creatures: just as a magician
turns water that is not crystal into crystal, and turns a
clod that is not gold into gold, and shows them, and
being himself neither a spirit nor a bird, shows himself
as a spirit or a bird, so too, being themselves not blue-
black, they turn themselves into blue-black derived
materiality, being themselves not yellow … not red …
not white, [367] they turn themselves into white
derived materiality and show that. In this way they
are “great primaries” (mahābhūta) in being like the
great creatures (mahābhūta) of a magician.[38]
99. And just as, whomsoever the great creatures such
as the spirits (yakkha) grasp hold of (possess), they
have no standing place either inside him or outside
him and yet they have no standing independently of
him, so too, these elements are not found to stand
either inside or outside each other yet they have no
standing independently of one another. Thus they are
also great primaries (mahābhūta) in being equal to the
great creatures (mahābhūta) such as the spirits because
they have no thinkable standing place [relative to each
other].
100. And just as the great creatures known as female
spirits (yakkhinī) conceal their own fearfulness with a
pleasing colour, shape and gesture to deceive beings,

973
so too, these elements conceal each their own
characteristic and function classed as hardness, etc., by
means of a pleasing skin colour of women’s and men’s
bodies, etc., and pleasing shapes of limbs and pleasing
gestures of fingers, toes and eyebrows, and they
deceive simple people by concealing their own
functions and characteristics beginning with hardness
and do not allow their individual essences to be seen.
Thus they are great primaries (mahābhūta) in being
equal to the great creatures (mahābhūta), the female
spirits, since they are deceivers.
101. (c) Great maintenance: this is because they have to
be sustained by the great requisites. For these
elements are great primaries (mahābhūta) since they
have become (bhūta), have occurred, by means of the
food, clothing, etc., which are great (mahant) [in
importance] because they have to be found every day.
Or alternatively, they are great primaries (mahābhūta)
since they are primaries whose maintenance is great.
102. (d) Great alteration: the unclung-to and the clung-
to are the [basis of] great alterations. Herein, the great
alteration of the unclung-to evidences itself in the
emergence of an aeon (see XIII.34), and that of the
clung-to in the disturbance of the elements [in the
body]. For accordingly:
The conflagration’s flame bursts up

974
Out of the ground and races higher
And higher, right to the Brahmā heaven,
When the world is burnt up by fire.
A whole world system measuring
One hundred thousand millions wide
Subsides, as with its furious waters
The flood dissolves the world beside.
One hundred thousand million leagues,
A whole world system’s broad extent
Is rent and scattered, when the world
Succumbs to the air element.
The bite of wooden-mouths can make
The body stiff; to all intent,
When roused is its earth element,
It might be gripped by such a snake.
The bite of rotten-mouths can make
The body rot; to all intent,
When roused its water element,
It might be gripped by such a snake. [368]
The bite of fiery-mouths can make
The body burn; to all intent,
When roused is its fire element,
It might be gripped by such a snake.
The bite of dagger-mouths can make
The body burst; to all intent,

975
 When roused is its air element,
It might be gripped by such a snake.

So they are great primaries (mahābhūta) because they

have become (bhūta) [the basis of] great (mahant)
alteration.
103. (e) Because they are great and because they are entities:
“great” (mahant) because they need great effort to
discern them, and “entities” (bhūta = become) because
they are existent; thus they are great primaries
(mahābhūta) because they are great (mahā) and because
they are entities (bhūta).
This is how all these elements are “great primaries”
by reason of “great manifestation,” and so on.
104. Again, they are elements (dhātu) because of
bearing (dhāraṇa) their own characteristics, because of
grasping (ādāna) suffering, and because of sorting out
(ādhāna) suffering (see XV.19), and because none of
them are exempt from the characteristic of being
elements.
They are states (dhamma) owing to bearing (dhāraṇa)
their own characteristics and owing to their so bearing
(dhāraṇa) for the length of the moment appropriate to
them.[39] They are impermanent in the sense of
[liability to] destruction; they are painful in the sense
of [causing] terror; they are not self in the sense of

976
having no core [of permanence, and so on]. Thus there
is unity of all since all are materiality, great primaries,
elements, states, impermanent, and so on.
This is how they should be given attention “as to
variety and unity.”
105. 7. As to resolution (separability) and non-resolution
(inseparability): they are positionally unresolvable
(inseparable) since they always arise together in every
single minimal material group consisting of the bare
octad and the others; but they are resolvable
(separable) by characteristic. This is how they should
be given attention “as to resolution (separability) and
non-resolution (inseparability).”
106. 8. As to the similar and dissimilar: and although
they are unresolved (inseparable) in this way, yet the
first two similar in heaviness, and so are the last two
in lightness; but [for this reason] the first two are
dissimilar to the last two and the last two to the first
two. This is how they should be given attention “as to
the similar and dissimilar.”
107. 9. As to distinction between internal and external: the
internal elements are the [material] support for the
physical bases of consciousness, for the kinds of
intimation, and for the material faculties. They are
associated with postures, and they are of fourfold
origination. The external elements are of the opposite

977
kind. This is how they should be given attention “as to
distinction between internal and external.”
108. 10. As to inclusion: kamma-originated earth
element is included together with the other kamma-
originated elements because there is no difference in
their origination. Likewise the consciousness-
originated is included together with other
consciousness-originated elements. This is how they
should be given attention “as to inclusion.”
109. 11. As to condition: the earth element, which is
held together by water, maintained by fire and
distended by air, is a condition for the other three
great primaries by acting as their foundation. The
water element, which is founded on earth, maintained
by fire and distended by air, is a condition for the
other three great primaries by acting as their cohesion.
The fire element, which is founded on earth, held
together by water [369] and distended by air, is a
condition for the other three great primaries by acting
as their maintaining. The air element, which is
founded on earth, held together by water, and
maintained by fire, is a condition for the other three
great primaries by acting as their distension. This is
how they should be given attention “as to condition.”
110. 12. As to lack of conscious reaction: here too the
earth element does not know, “I am the earth element”

978
or “I am a condition by acting as a foundation for
three great primaries.” And the other three do not
know, “The earth element is a condition for us by
acting as a foundation for three great primaries.” And
the other three do not know, “The earth element is a
condition for us by acting as our foundation.” And
similarly in each instance. This is how they should be
given attention “as to lack of conscious reaction.”
111. 13. As to analysis of conditions: there are four
conditions for the elements, that is to say, kamma,
consciousness, nutriment, and temperature.
Herein, kamma only is the condition for the kamma-
originated [elements]; consciousness (citta), etc. [i.e.
nutriment and temperature] are not. Consciousness,
etc., only are the conditions for the consciousness-
originated [elements]; the others are not. Kamma is the
producing condition[40] for the kamma-originated
elements; for the rest it is indirectly the decisive-
supportive condition.[41] Consciousness is the
producing condition for the consciousness-originated
elements; for the rest it is the post-nascence condition,
presence condition and non-disappearance condition.
Nutriment is the producing condition for the
nutriment-originated elements; for the rest it is the
nutriment condition, presence condition and non-
disappearance condition. Temperature is the productive

979
condition for the temperature-originated elements; for
the rest it is the presence condition and non-
disappearance condition.
Herein, the kamma-originated great primary is the
condition for the kamma-originated great primaries,
and also for the consciousness-originated [great
primaries]. Likewise are the consciousness-originated
[great primary] and the nutriment originated [great
primary]. The temperature-originated great primary is
the condition for the temperature-originated great
primaries, and also for the kamma-originated [great
primaries], and so on (cf. XX.27f.).
112. Herein, the kamma-originated earth element is a
condition for the other kamma-originated elements
both as conascence, mutuality, support, presence, and
non-disappearance conditions and as foundation, but
not as producing condition. It is a condition for the
other [three] great primaries in a triple continuity (see
XX.22) as support, presence and non-disappearance
conditions, but not as foundation or producing
condition. And here the water element is a condition
for the remaining three elements both as conascence,
etc., conditions and as cohesion, but not as producing
condition. And for the others in a triple continuity it is
a condition as support, presence, and non-
disappearance conditions too, but not as cohesion or
producing condition. And the fire element here is a

980
condition for the other three elements both as
conascence, etc., conditions and as maintaining but not
as producing condition. And for the others in a triple
continuity it is a condition as support, presence, and
non-disappearance conditions too, but not as
maintaining or producing condition. And the air
element here is a condition for the other three
elements [370] both as conascence, etc., conditions and
as distension, but not as producing condition. And for
the others in a triple continuity it is a condition as
support, presence, and non-disappearance conditions
too, but not as distension or producing condition.
The same method applies in the case of the
consciousness-originated, the nutriment-originated,
and the temperature-originated earth element, and the
rest.
113. And when these elements have been made to
occur through the influence of the conascence, etc.,
conditions:
With three in four ways to one due,
And likewise with one due to three;
With two in six ways due to two—
Thus their occurrence comes to be.

114. Taking each one, beginning with earth, there are

three others whose occurrence is due to that one, thus

981
with three due to one their occurrence takes place in
four ways. Likewise each one, beginning with earth,
occurs in dependence on the other three, thus with one
due to three their occurrence takes place in four ways.
But with the last two dependent on the first two, with
the first two dependent on the last two, with the
second and fourth dependent on the first and third,
with the first and third dependent on the second and
fourth, with the second and third dependent on the
first and fourth, and with the first and fourth
dependent on the second and third, they occur in six
ways with two elements due to two.
115. At the time of moving forward and moving
backward (M I 57), the earth element among these is a
condition for pressing. That, seconded by the water
element, is a condition for establishing on a
foundation. But the water element seconded by the
earth element is a condition for lowering down. The
fire element seconded by the air element is a condition
for lifting up. The air element seconded by the fire
element is a condition for shifting forwards and
shifting sideways (see XX.62f. and M-a I 160).
This is how they should be given attention “as to
analysis of conditions.”
116. As he gives his attention to them “as to word
meaning,” etc., in this way, the elements become

982
evident to him under each heading. As he again and
again adverts and gives attention to them access
concentration arises in the way already described.
And this concentration too is called “definition of the
four elements” because it arises in one who defines the
four elements owing to the influence of his
knowledge.
117. This bhikkhu who is devoted to the defining of
the four elements immerses himself in voidness and
eliminates the perception of living beings. Since he
does not entertain false notions about wild beasts,
spirits, ogres, etc., because he has abolished the
perception of living beings, he conquers fear and
dread and conquers delight and aversion (boredom);
he is not exhilarated or depressed[42] by agreeable and
disagreeable things; and as one of great
understanding, he either ends in the deathless or he is
bound for a happy destiny.
Defining the four elements
Is ever the wise man’s resort;
The noble meditator lion[43]
Will make this mighty theme his sport.

This is the description of the development of the

defining of the four elements. [371]

983
 [Development of Concentration—
Conclusion]

118. This completes in all its aspects the commentary

on the meaning of the clause, “How should it be
developed?” in the set of questions beginning with
“What is concentration?” which was formulated in
order to show the method of development of
concentration in detail (see III.1).
119. This concentration as intended here is twofold,
that is to say, access concentration and absorption
concentration. Herein, the unification [of mind] in the
case of ten meditation subjects and in the
consciousness preceding absorption [in the case of the
remaining meditation subjects][44] is access
concentration. The unification of mind in the case of
the remaining meditation subjects is absorption
concentration. And so it is developed in two forms
with the development of these meditation subjects.
Hence it was said above: “This completes in all its
aspects the commentary on the meaning of the clause,
‘How should it be developed?’”

[The Benefits of Developing

Concentration]

984
120. The question, (viii) what are the benefits of the
development of concentration? was also asked, however
(III.1). Herein, the benefits of the development of
concentration are fivefold, as a blissful abiding here
and now, and so on. For the development of
absorption concentration provides the benefit of a
blissful abiding here and now for the Arahants with
cankers destroyed who develop concentration,
thinking, “We shall attain and dwell with unified
mind for a whole day.” Hence the Blessed One said:
“But, Cunda, it is not these that are called effacement
in the Noble Ones’ discipline; these are called blissful
abidings in the Noble Ones’ discipline” (M I 40).
121. When ordinary people and trainers develop it,
thinking, “After emerging, we shall exercise insight
with concentrated consciousness,” the development of
absorption concentration provides them with the
benefit of insight by serving as the proximate cause for
insight, and so too does access concentration as a
method of arriving at wide open [conditions] in
crowded [circumstances].[45] Hence the Blessed One
said: “Bhikkhus, develop concentration; a bhikkhu
who is concentrated understands correctly” (S III 13).
122. But when they have already produced the eight
attainments and then, aspiring to the kinds of direct-
knowledge described in the way beginning, “Having
been one, he becomes many” (XII.2), they produce

985
them by entering upon jhāna as the basis for direct-
knowledge and emerging from it, then the
development of absorption concentration provides for
them the benefit of the kinds of direct-knowledge,
since it becomes the proximate cause for the kinds of
direct-knowledge whenever there is an occasion.
Hence the Blessed One said: “He attains the ability to
be a witness, through realization by direct-knowledge,
of any state realizable by direct-knowledge to which
his mind inclines, whenever there is an occasion” (M
III 96; A I 254). [372]
123. When ordinary people have not lost their jhāna,
and they aspire to rebirth in the Brahmā-world thus,
“Let us be reborn in the Brahmā-world,” or even
though they do not make the actual aspiration, then
the development of absorption concentration provides
them with the benefits of an improved form of
existence since it ensures that for them. Hence the
Blessed One said: “Where do they reappear after
developing the first jhāna limitedly? They reappear in
the company of the deities of Brahmā’s Retinue” (Vibh
424), and so on. And even the development of access
concentration ensures an improved form of existence
in the happy destinies of the sensual sphere.
124. But when Noble Ones who have already
produced the eight attainments develop concentration,
thinking, “We shall enter upon the attainment of

986
cessation, and by being without consciousness for
seven days we shall abide in bliss here and now by
reaching the cessation that is Nibbāna,” then the
development of absorption concentration provides for
them the benefit of cessation. Hence it is said:
“Understanding as mastery owing to … sixteen kinds
of behaviour of knowledge, and to nine kinds of
behaviour of concentration, is knowledge of the
attainment of cessation” (Paṭis I 97; see Ch. XXIII,
§18f.).
125. That is how this benefit of the development of
concentration is fivefold as a blissful abiding here and
now, and so on.
So wise men fail not in devotion
To the pursuit of concentration:
It cleans defiling stains’ pollution,[46]
And brings rewards past calculation.

126. And at this point in the Path of Purification, which

is taught under the headings of virtue, concentration
and understanding in the stanza, “When a wise man,
established well in virtue …,” concentration has been
fully explained.

The eleventh chapter concluding “The

987
Description of Concentration” in the Path
of Purification composed for the purpose
of gladdening good people.

988
Notes for Chapter XI

1. “The word ‘perception’ (saññā) is used for the

dhamma with the characteristic of perceiving
(sañjānana), as in the case of ‘perception of visible
objects,’ ‘perception of sound,’ etc.; and it is used
for insight, as in the case of ‘perception of
impermanence,’ ‘perception of suffering,’ etc.; and
it is used for serenity, as in the passage,
‘Perception of the bloated and perception of
visible objects, have these one meaning or
different meanings, Sopāka?’ (Source untraced. Cf.
III.111), and so on. Here, however, it should be
understood as the preliminary work for serenity;
for it is the apprehending of the repulsive aspect
in nutriment, or the access jhāna produced by
means of that, that is intended here by,
‘perception of repulsiveness in nutriment’”(Vism-
mhṭ 334–35).
2. A more detailed exposition of nutriment is given
at M-a I 107ff. “‘It nourishes’ (āharati)”: the
meaning is that it leads up, fetches, produces, its
own fruit through its state as a condition for the
fruit’s arising or presence, which state is called
“nutriment condition.” It is made into a mouthful
(kabalaṃ karīyati), thus it is physical (kabaliṅkāra).

989
 In this way it gets its designation from the
concrete object; but as to characteristic, it should
be understood to have the characteristic of
nutritive essence (ojā). It is physical and it is
nutriment in the sense stated, thus it is physical
nutriment; so with the rest. It touches (phusati),
thus it is contact (phassa); for although this is an
immaterial state, it occurs also as the aspect of
touching on an object (ārammaṇa—lit. “what is to
be leaned on”), which is why it is said to have the
characteristic of touching. It wills (cetayati), thus it
is volition (cetanā); the meaning is that it arranges
(collects) itself together with associated states
upon the object. Mental volition is volition
occupied with the mind. It cognizes (vijānāti) by
conjecturing about rebirth (see XVII.303), thus it is
consciousness (viññāṇa = cognition) (Vism-mhṭ
335).
3. For the “octad with nutritive essence as eighth”
(ojaṭṭhamaka), see XVIII.5ff. and XX.27ff.
4. Vism-mhṭ (p. 355) explains attachment here as
craving which is “perilous because it brings
harm” (see e.g. D II 58–59), or in other words,
“greed for the five aggregates (lust after five-
aggregate experience).” It cites the following:
“Bhikkhus, when there is physical nutriment,
there is greed (lust), there is delighting, there is

990
craving; consciousness being planted therein
grows. Wherever consciousness being planted
grows, there is the combination of mind-and-
matter. Wherever there is the combination of
mind-and-matter, there is ramification of
formations. Wherever there is ramification of
formations, there is production of further
becoming in the future. Wherever there is
production of further becoming in the future,
there is future birth, aging and death. Wherever
there is future birth, aging and death, bhikkhus,
the end is sorrow, I say, with woe and despair” (S
II 101; cf. S II 66). Approaching is explained as
“meeting, coinciding, with unabandoned
perversions [of perception] due to an object [being
perceived as permanent, etc., when it is not].”
That is, “perilous since it is not free from the three
kinds of suffering.” The quotation given is:
“Bhikkhus, due to contact of the kind to be felt as
pleasant, pleasant feeling arises. With that feeling
as condition there is craving, … thus there is the
arising of this whole mass of suffering” (cf. S IV
215). Reappearance is “rebirth in some kind of
becoming or other. Being flung into a new
becoming is perilous because there is no
immunity from the risks rooted in reappearance.”
The following is quoted: “Not knowing,

991
 bhikkhus, a man forms the formation of merit,
and his [rebirth] consciousness accords with the
merit [tie performed]; he forms the formation of
demerit; … he forms the formation of the
imperturbable …” (S II 82). Rebirth-linking is the
actual linking with the next becoming, which “is
perilous since it is not immune from the suffering
due to the signs of [the impending] rebirth-
linking.” The quotation given is: “Bhikkhus, when
there is consciousness as nutriment there is greed
(lust), there is delighting …” (S II 102—complete
as above).
5. “‘Twenty or thirty times’: here some say that the
definition of the number of times is according to
what is present-by-continuity (see XIV.188). But
others say that it is by way of “warming up the
seat” (see M-a I 255); for development that has not
reached suppression of hindrances does not
remove the bodily discomfort in the act of sitting,
because of the lack of pervading happiness. So
there is inconstancy of posture too. Then ‘twenty
or thirty’ is taken as the number already observed
by the time of setting out on the alms round. Or
alternatively, from ‘going’ up to ‘smearing’ is one
turn; then it is after giving attention to the
meditation subject by twenty or thirty turns in
this way” (Vism-mhṭ 339).

992
6. Paccattharaṇa—“carpet”: the word normally
means a coverlet, but here, according to Vism-
mhṭ, (p. 339) it is, “a spread (attharaṇa) consisting
of a rug (cilimika) to be spread on the ground for
protecting the skin.”
7. For pamukha—“ doorstep,” perhaps an open
upper floor gallery here, see XIII.6.
8. Jatukā—“bat” = khuddaka-vaggulī (Vism-mhṭ 339):
not in PED; see XIII.97.
9. Pārāvata—“ pigeon”: only spelling pārāpata given
in PED.
10. For this meaning of pariveṇa see Ch. IV, note 37.
11. Vitakka-māḷaka—“debating lodge”: Vism-mhṭ (p.
339) says: “‘Kattha nu kho ajja bhikkhāya caritabban’
ti ādinā vitakkamāḷake” (“in a lodge for thinking in
the way beginning ‘Where must I go for alms
today?’”).
12. Piṇḍika-maṃsa—“flesh of the calves” =
jaṅghapiṇḍikaṃamsapadesa. (Vism-mhṭ 340) Cf.
VIII.97; also A-a 417. Not in this sense in PED.
13. Kummāsa—“jelly”: usually rendered “junket,” but
the Vinaya commentaries give it as made of corn
(yava).
14. Nāgabalā—a kind of plant; not in PED.

993
15. Pavana—“draught”: not in this sense in PED; see
XVI.37.
16. Dhātu—“ore”: not in this sense in PED. See also
XV.20.
17. “‘A certain one’ is said with reference to the anal
orifice. But those who are scrupulously clean by
nature wash their hands again after washing the
mouth, and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 342).
18. “‘That sign’: that object as the sign for
development, which sign is called physical
nutriment and has appeared in the repulsive
aspect to one who gives his attention to it
repeatedly in the ways already described. And
there, while development occurs through the
repulsive aspect, it is only the dhammas on
account of which there comes to be the concept of
physical nutriment that are repulsive, not the
concept. But it is because the occurrence of
development is contingent only upon dhammas
with an individual essence, and because the
profundity is due to that actual individual essence
of dhammas that have individual essences, that
the jhāna cannot reach absorption in it through
apprehension of the repulsive aspect. For it is
owing to profundity that the first pair of truths is
hard to see” (Vism-mhṭ 342–43).

994
19. “‘By characterizing individual essences’: by making
certain (upadhāraṇa) of the specific characteristics
of hardness, and so on. For this meditation subject
does not consist in the observing of a mere
concept, as in the case of the earth kasiṇa as a
meditation subject, neither does it consist in the
observing of the colour blue, etc., as in the case of
the blue kasiṇa as a meditation subject, nor in the
observing of the general characteristics of
impermanence, etc., in formations, as in the case
of insight as a meditation subject; but rather it
consists in the observing of the individual
essences of earth, and so on. That is why ‘by
characterizing individual essences’ is said, which
means, ‘by making certain of the specific
characteristics of hardness, and so on”(Vism-mhṭ
344).
20. “Herein, as regards ‘earth element,’ etc., the
meaning of element is the meaning of individual
essence, the meaning of individual essence is the
meaning of voidness, the meaning of voidness is
the meaning of not-a-living-being. So it is just
earth in the sense of individual essence, voidness
and not-a-living-being that is the element; hence it
is earth element; so too in the case of the water
element, and the rest. The earth element is the
element that is the foothold for the conascent

995
 material states. Likewise the water element is the
element of their cohesion; the fire element is the
element of their ripening; and the air element is
the element of their conveyance and distension”
(Vism-mhṭ 345).
To avoid confusion, it might be mentioned
here that in “physical” earth, fire, water, and air,
it would be held that all four elements are present
in each equally, but that in “physical” earth the
earth element is dominant in efficacy as the mode
of hardness; and correspondingly with water and
the rest. See e.g. XIV.45.
21. Kharigata—“harsh”: not in PED, but see khara.
22. “What occurs in attendance (adhikicca) upon self
(attā) by its pertaining to the state that may be
taken as self because it is included in one’s own
continuity as internal (ajjhatta)” (Vism-mhṭ 347).
23. Jara—“fever”: not in PED; see A V 100; Nidd I 17.
24. Vitthambhana—“distension”: the word most
usually employed to describe the air element. It is
often rendered by “supporting,” a word
earmarked here for nissaya. The twofold function
of the air element is (a) to uphold (sandhārana) by
distending (vitthambhana) and preventing collapse
(§92), and (b) to move (samudīraṇa), or more
strictly, cause the appearance of motion (calana,

996
 see n. 37). In XIV.61 it is said to cause thambhana,
rendered by “stiffening”; but there is the
description of the earth element as thaddha (e.g.
§39; pp. of thambhati, from which the noun
thambhana comes), rendered by “stiffenedness.” It
may also be noted that the word sandhāraṇa
(upholding) is used to describe both the earth
element (XIV.47) and the air element (XIV.61).
25. Drava-bhāva—“fluidity”: not in PED.
26. Silesa—”cement”: not in this meaning in PED; M-a
I 37 saṃsilesa.
27. Dhammani—“rat snake”: not in this sense in PED;
see A-a 459.
28. Sippikā—“bag” (?): not in this sense in PED.
29. “‘Because of bearing their own characteristics’: these
are not like the Primordial Essence (pakati—Skr.
prakṛti) and the self (attā) imagined by the
theorists which are non-existent as to individual
essence. On the contrary, these do bear their own
characteristics, which is why they are elements”
(Vism-mhṭ 359). Capitals have been used here and
elsewhere though Indian alphabets do not justify
it. Appāyati—“to satisfy” is not in PED; see Vibh-a
9.
30. “‘From resolution of these eight’: the eight dhammas

997
 beginning with colour when resolved by means of
understanding, are apprehendable (upalabbhanti)
in the ultimate sense through mutual negation
(aññam-añña-vyatirekena); but head hairs are not
apprehendable in the ultimate sense through
negation of colour and so on. Consequently, the
term of common usage ‘head hairs’ is applied to
these dhammas in their co-arisen state; but if they
are each taken separately, ‘There is no common-
usage head hairs.’ The meaning is that it is a mere
conventional term. ‘Only a mere group of eight
states’ is said, taking the colour, etc., which are
real (bhūta—lit. ‘become’), as a unity by means of
the concept (paññatti) ‘a head hair,’ not only
because they are merely the eight states” (Vism-
mhṭ 360).
31. Paramaṇu—“the smallest atom”; see Vibh-a 343.
According to Vibh-a, the size of a paramaṇu works
out at 1/581,147,136th part of an aṅgula
(fingerbreadth or inch). Vism-mhṭ remarks (p.
361): “Therefore … a paramaṇu as a particle of
space is not the province of the physical eye, it is
the province of the divine eye.”
32. Saṅgahita—“held together”: not quite in this sense
in PED. “Held (gahita) by conjoining through
cohesion and prevented from being scattered”
(Vism-mhṭ 361).

998
33. “Kept guarded (anurakkhita) so that it may not
lapse into a wet and slippery state through the
water element, which has trickling as its essence”
(Vism-mhṭ 361).
34. Parissavati—“to run away”: not in PED;—vissarati
(Vism-mhṭ 361).
35. “This is said with reference to the water element
as a juice that helps growth” (Vism-mhṭ 361).
36. Samabbhāhata—“propelled”: see Ch. IV, note 38.
37. Abhinīhāra—“conveying”: not in this sense in
PED. “‘Conveying’ is acting as cause for the
successive arising at adjacent locations
(desantaruppatti) of the conglomeration of
elements (bhūta-saṅghāta)” (Vism-mhṭ 363).
Elsewhere Vism-mhṭ (p. 359) says of the air
element: “‘It blows’ (§87): it is stirred; the meaning
is that the conglomeration of elements is made to
move (go) by its action as cause for successive
arising at adjacent locations (points),” and
“Propelling (samabbhāhana) is the act of causing
the successive arising at adjacent locations of
material groups (rūpa-kalāpa)” (p. 362).
38. “A great primary (mahābhūta) is a great wonder
(mahanto abbhuto) because it shows various unreal
things (abhūta), various wonders (abbhuta), and
various marvels (acchariya). Or alternatively: there

999
are great wonders (abbhuta) here, thus there are
magicians. And spirits, etc., are huge (mahant)
creatures (bhūta) owing to being born from them,
thus they are great primaries. Or alternatively:
this term ‘great primary’ can be regarded as a
generic term for all of them. But earth, etc., are
great primaries because they deceive, and
because, like the huge creatures, their standing
place cannot be pointed to. The deception lies in
causing the apparent individual essences of blue-
black, etc., and it lies in causing the appearance of
what has the aspect of woman and man, and so
on. Likewise their undemonstrability, since they
are not found inside or outside each other though
they rely upon each other for support. For if these
elements were found inside each other, they
would not each perform their particular
functions, owing to mutual frustration. And if
they were found outside each other, they would
be already resolved (separate), and that being so,
any description of them as unresolved
(inseparable) would be meaningless. So although
their standing place is undemonstrable, still each
one assists the other by its particular function—
the functions of establishing, etc., whereby each
becomes a condition for the others as conascence
condition and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 363).

1000
39. This alludes to the length of duration of a moment
of matter’s existence, which is described as
seventeen times as long as that of consciousness
(see Vibh-a 25f.).
40. “The term ‘producing condition’ refers to causing
origination, though as a condition it is actually
kamma condition. For this is said: ‘Profitable and
unprofitable volition is a condition, as kamma
condition, for resultant aggregates and for
materiality due to kamma performed’ (Paṭṭh I 5)”
(Vism-mhṭ 368).
41. “‘For the rest’: for consciousness-originated, and so
on. It is the indirectly decisive-support condition
because in the Paṭṭhāna the decisive-support
condition has only been given for immaterial
dhammas, so there is, directly, no decisive-
support condition [in kamma] for material
dhammas. However, because of the words, ‘With
a person as decisive support’ (M I 107) and ‘With
a grove as decisive support’ (M I 106) in the
Suttas, the decisive-support condition can be
indirectly understood according to the Suttas in
the sense of ‘absence without’” (Vism-mhṭ 368).
42. Ugghāta—“exhilarated” and nigghāta
—“depressed”: neither word is in PED; Vism-mhṭ
glosses with ubbilāvitatta and dīnabhāvappatti

1001
 respectively.
43. Reading yogivarasīhassa kīlitaṃ. Cf.
Nettippakaraṇa “Sīha-kīlana.”
44. The sense demands reading with Vism-mhṭ
appanāpubba-bhāgacittesu as a single compound.
45. This is an allusion to M I 179, etc. “The process of
existence in the round of rebirths, which is a very
cramped place, is crowded by the defilements of
craving and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 371).
46. Sūdana—“cleaning”: not in PED. See title of
Majjhima Nikāya Commentary. Another reading
here is sodhana

1002
 Chapter XII
The Supernormal Powers
(Iddhividha-niddesa)

[The Benefits of Concentration

(Continued)]

1. [373] It was said above with reference to the

mundane kinds of direct-knowledge that this
development of concentration “provides … the benefit
of the kinds of direct-knowledge” (XI.122). Now, in
order to perfect those kinds of direct-knowledge the
task must be undertaken by a meditator who has
reached the fourth jhāna in the earth kasiṇa, and so on.
And in doing this, not only will this development of
concentration have provided benefits in this way, it
will also have become more advanced; and when he
thus possesses concentration so developed as to have
both provided benefits and become more advanced,
he will then more easily perfect the development of
understanding. So meanwhile we shall deal with the
explanation of the kinds of direct-knowledge now.
2. In order to show the benefits of developing
concentration to clansmen whose concentration has
reached the fourth jhāna, and in order to teach

1003
progressively refined Dhamma, five kinds of
mundane direct-knowledge have been described by
the Blessed One. They are: (1) the kinds of
supernormal power, described in the way beginning,
“When his concentrated mind is thus purified, bright,
unblemished, rid of defilement, and has become
malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability,[1] he directs, he inclines, his mind to
the kinds of supernormal power. He wields the
various kinds of supernormal power. Having been
one, he becomes many …” (D I 77); (2) the knowledge
of the divine ear element; (3) the knowledge of
penetration of minds; (4) the knowledge of recollection
of past lives; and (5) the knowledge of the passing
away and reappearance of beings.
[(1) The Kinds of Supernormal Power]

If a meditator wants to begin performing the

transformation by supernormal power described as,
“Having been one, he becomes many,” etc., he must
achieve the eight attainments in each of the eight
kasiṇas ending with the white kasiṇa. He must also
have complete control of his mind in the following
fourteen ways: [374] (i) in the order of the kasiṇa, (ii)
in the reverse order of the kasiṇa, (iii) in the order and
reverse order of the kasiṇa, (iv) in the order of the

1004
jhāna, (v) in the reverse order of the jhāna (vi) in the
order and reverse order of the jhāna, (vii) skipping
jhāna, (viii) skipping kasiṇa, (ix) skipping jhāna and
kasiṇa, (x) transposition of factors, (xi) transposition of
object, (xii) transposition of factors and object, (xiii)
definition of factors, and (xiv) definition of object.
3. But what is “in the order of the kasiṇa” here? What
is “definition of object”?
(i) Here a bhikkhu attains jhāna in the earth kasiṇa,
after that in the water kasiṇa, and so progressing
through the eight kasiṇas, doing so even a hundred
times, even a thousand times, in each one. This is
called in the order of the kasiṇas. (ii) Attaining them in
like manner in reverse order, starting with the white
kasiṇa, is called in the reverse order of the kasiṇas. (iii)
Attaining them again and again in forward and
reverse order, from the earth kasiṇa up to the white
kasiṇa and from the white kasiṇa back to the earth
kasiṇa, is called in the order and reverse order of the
kasiṇas.
4. (iv) Attaining again and again from the first jhāna
up to the base consisting of neither perception nor
non-perception is called in the order of the jhānas. (v)
Attaining again and again from the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception back to the first
jhāna is called in the reverse order of the jhānas. (vi)

1005
Attaining in forward and reverse order, from the first
jhāna up to the base consisting of neither perception
nor non-perception and from the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception back to the first
jhāna, is called in the order and reverse order of the jhānas.
5. (vii) He skips alternate jhānas without skipping the
kasiṇas in the following way: having first attained the
first jhāna in the earth kasiṇa, he attains the third
jhāna in that same kasiṇa, and after that, having
removed [the kasiṇa (X.6), he attains] the base
consisting of boundless space, after that the base
consisting of nothingness. This is called skipping jhānas.
And that based on the water kasiṇa, etc., should be
construed similarly. (viii) When he skips alternate
kasiṇas without skipping jhānas in the following way:
having attained the first jhāna in the earth kasiṇa, he
again attains that same jhāna in the fire kasiṇa and
then in the blue kasiṇa and then in the red kasiṇa, this
is called skipping kasiṇas. (ix) When he skips both
jhānas and kasiṇas in the following way: having
attained the first jhāna in the earth kasiṇa, he next
attains the third in the fire kasiṇa, next the base
consisting of boundless space after removing the blue
kasiṇa, next the base consisting of nothingness
[arrived at] from the red kasiṇa, this is called skipping
jhānas and kasiṇas.
6. (x) Attaining the first jhāna in the earth kasiṇa [375]

1006
and then attaining the others in that same kasiṇa is
called transposition of factors. (xi) Attaining the first
jhāna in the earth kasiṇa and then that same jhāna in
the water kasiṇa … in the white kasiṇa is called
transposition of object. (xii) Transposition of object and
factors together takes place in the following way: he
attains the first jhāna in the earth kasiṇa, the second
jhāna in the water kasiṇa, the third in the fire kasiṇa,
the fourth in the air kasiṇa, the base consisting of
boundless space by removing the blue kasiṇa, the base
consisting of boundless consciousness [arrived at]
from the yellow kasiṇa, the base consisting of
nothingness from the red kasiṇa, and the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception
from the white kasiṇa. This is called transposition of
factors and object.
7. (xiii) The defining of only the jhāna factors by
defining the first jhāna as five-factored, the second as
three-factored, the third as two-factored, and likewise
the fourth, the base consisting of boundless space, …
and the base consisting of neither perception nor non-
perception, is called definition of factors. (xiv) Likewise,
the defining of only the object as “This is the earth
kasiṇa,” “This is the water kasiṇa” … “This is the
white kasiṇa,” is called definition of object. Some would
also have “defining of factors and object”; but since
that is not given in the commentaries it is certainly not

1007
a heading in the development.
8. It is not possible for a meditator to begin to
accomplish transformation by supernormal powers
unless he has previously completed his development
by controlling his mind in these fourteen ways. Now,
the kasiṇa preliminary work is difficult for a beginner
and only one in a hundred or a thousand can do it.
The arousing of the sign is difficult for one who has
done the preliminary work and only one in a hundred
or a thousand can do it. To extend the sign when it has
arisen and to reach absorption is difficult and only one
in a hundred or a thousand can do it. To tame one’s
mind in the fourteen ways after reaching absorption is
difficult and only one in a hundred or a thousand can
do it. The transformation by supernormal power after
training one’s mind in the fourteen ways is difficult
and only one in a hundred or a thousand can do it.
Rapid response after attaining transformation is
difficult and only one in a hundred or a thousand can
do it.
9. Like the Elder Rakkhita who, eight years after his
full admission to the Order, was in the midst of thirty
thousand bhikkhus possessing supernormal powers
who had come to attend upon the sickness of the Elder
Mahā-Rohaṇa-Gutta at Therambatthala. [376] His feat
is mentioned under the earth kasiṇa (IV.135). Seeing
his feat, an elder said, “Friends, if Rakkhita had not

1008
been there, we should have been put to shame. [It
could have been said], ‘They were unable to protect
the royal nāga.’ So we ourselves ought to go about
[with our abilities perfected], just as it is proper (for
soldiers) to go about with weapons cleaned of stains.”
The thirty thousand bhikkhus heeded the elder’s
advice and achieved rapid response.
10. And helping another after acquiring rapidity in
responding is difficult and only one in a hundred or a
thousand can do it. Like the elder who gave protection
against the rain of embers by creating earth in the sky,
when the rain of embers was produced by Māra at the
Giribhaṇḍavahana offering. [2]
11. It is only in Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, chief
disciples, etc., who have vast previous endeavour
behind them, that this transformation by supernormal
power and other such special qualities as the
discriminations are brought to success simply with the
attainment of Arahantship and without the
progressive course of development of the kind just
described.
12. So just as when a goldsmith wants to make some
kind of ornament, he does so only after making the
gold malleable and wieldy by smelting it, etc., and just
as when a potter wants to make some kind of vessel,
he does so only after making the clay well kneaded

1009
and malleable, a beginner too must likewise prepare
for the kinds of supernormal powers by controlling his
mind in these fourteen ways; and he must do so also
by making his mind malleable and wieldy both by
attaining under the headings of zeal, consciousness,
energy, and inquiry,[3] and by mastery in adverting,
and so on. But one who already has the required
condition for it owing to practice in previous lives
needs only prepare himself by acquiring mastery in
the fourth jhāna in the kasiṇas.
13. Now, the Blessed One showed how the
preparation should be done in saying, “When his
concentrated mind,” and so on. Here is the
explanation, which follows the text (see §2). Herein, he
is a meditator who has attained the fourth jhāna. Thus
signifies the order in which the fourth jhāna comes;
having obtained the fourth jhāna in this order
beginning with attaining the first jhāna, is what is
meant. Concentrated: concentrated by means of the
fourth jhāna. Mind: fine-material-sphere
consciousness.
14. But as to the words “purified,” etc., it is purified by
means of the state of mindfulness purified by
equanimity. [377] It is bright precisely because it is
purified; it is limpid (see A I 10), is what is meant. It is
unblemished since the blemishes consisting of greed,
etc., are eliminated by the removal of their conditions

1010
consisting of bliss, and the rest. It is rid of defilement
precisely because it is unblemished; for it is by the
blemish that the consciousness becomes defiled. It has
become malleable because it is well developed; it suffers
mastery, is what is meant, for consciousness that
suffers mastery is called “malleable.” It is wieldy
(kammanīya) precisely because it is malleable; it suffers
being worked (kammakkhama), is fit to be worked
(kammayogga), is what is meant.
15. For a malleable consciousness is wieldy, like well-
smelted gold; and it is both of these because it is well
developed, according as it is said: “Bhikkhus, I do not
see anyone thing that, when developed and cultivated,
becomes so malleable and wieldy as does the mind”
(A I 9).
16. It is steady because it is steadied in this
purifiedness, and the rest. It is attained to
imperturbability (āneñjappatta) precisely because it is
steady; it is motionless, without perturbation
(niriñjana), is what is meant. Or alternatively, it is
steady because steady in its own masterability
through malleability and wieldiness, and it is attained
to imperturbability because it is reinforced by faith, and
so on.
17. For consciousness reinforced by faith is not
perturbed by faithlessness; when reinforced by

1011
energy, it is not perturbed by idleness; when
reinforced by mindfulness, it is not perturbed by
negligence; when reinforced by concentration, it is not
perturbed by agitation; when reinforced by
understanding, it is not perturbed by ignorance; and
when illuminated, it is not perturbed by the darkness
of defilement. So when it is reinforced by these six
states, it is attained to imperturbability.
18. Consciousness possessing these eight factors in this
way is susceptible of being directed to the realization
by direct-knowledge of states realizable by direct-
knowledge.
19. Another method: It is concentrated by means of
fourth-jhāna concentration. It is purified by separation
from the hindrances. It is bright owing to the
surmounting of applied thought and the rest. It is
unblemished owing to absence of evil wishes based on
the obtainment of jhāna.[4] It is rid of defilement owing
to the disappearance of the defilements of the mind
consisting in covetousness, etc.; and both of these
should be understood according to the Anaṅgaṇa
Sutta (MN 5) and the Vattha Sutta (MN 7). It is become
malleable by masterability. It is wieldy by reaching the
state of a road to power (§50). It is steady and attained to
imperturbability by reaching the refinement of
completed development; the meaning is that
according as it has attained imperturbability so it is

1012
steady. And the consciousness possessing these eight
factors in this way [378] is susceptible of being
directed to the realization by direct-knowledge of
states realizable by direct-knowledge, since it is the
basis, the proximate cause, for them.
20. He directs, he inclines, his mind to the kinds of
supernormal powers (iddhi-vidha—lit. “kinds of
success”): here “success” (iddhi) is the success of
succeeding (ijjhana); in the sense of production, in the
sense of obtainment, is what is meant. For what is
produced and obtained is called “successful,”
according as it is said, “When a mortal desires, if his
desire is fulfilled” (samijjhati) (Sn 766), and likewise:
“Renunciation succeeds (ijjhati), thus it is a success
(iddhi) … It metamorphoses (paṭiharati) [lust], thus it is
a metamorphosis (pāṭihāriya)[5] … The Arahant path
succeeds, thus it is a success … It metamorphoses [all
defilements], thus it is a metamorphosis” (Paṭis II 229).
21. Another method: success is in the sense of
succeeding. That is a term for the effectiveness of the
means; for effectiveness of the means succeeds with
the production of the result intended, according as it is
said: “This householder Citta is virtuous and
magnanimous. If he should aspire, ‘Let me in the
future become a Wheel-turning Monarch,’ being
virtuous, he will succeed in his aspiration, because it is
purified” (S IV 303).

1013
22. Another method: beings succeed by its means, thus
it is success. They succeed, thus they are successful;
they are enriched, promoted, is what is meant.
That [success (power)] is of ten kinds, according as
it is said, “Kinds of success: ten kinds of success,” after
which it is said further, “What ten kinds of success?
Success by resolve, success as transformation, success
as the mind-made [body], success by intervention of
knowledge, success by intervention of concentration,
Noble Ones’ success, success born of kamma result,
success of the meritorious, success through the
sciences, success in the sense of succeeding due to
right exertion applied here or there” (Paṭis II 205).
23. (i) Herein, the success shown in the exposition [of
the above summary] thus, “Normally one, he adverts
to [himself as] many or a hundred or a thousand or a
hundred thousand; having adverted, he resolves with
knowledge, “Let me be many” (Paṭis II 207), is called
success by resolve because it is produced by resolving.
24. (ii) That given as follows, “Having abandoned his
normal form, he shows [himself in] the form of a boy
or the form of a serpent … or he shows a manifold
military array” (Paṭis II 210), is called success as
transformation because of the abandoning and
alteration of the normal form. [379]
25. (iii) That given in this way, “Here a bhikkhu

1014
creates out of this body another body possessing
visible form, mind-made” (Paṭis II 210), is called
success as the mind-made (body) because it occurs as the
production of another, mind-made, body inside the
body.
26. (iv) A distinction brought about by the influence of
knowledge either before the arising of the knowledge
or after it or at that moment is called success by
intervention of knowledge; for this is said: “The meaning
(purpose) as abandoning perception of permanence
succeeds through contemplation of impermanence,
thus it is success by intervention of knowledge … The
meaning (purpose) as abandoning all defilements
succeeds through the Arahant path, thus it is success
by intervention of knowledge. There was success by
intervention of knowledge in the venerable Bakkula.
There was success by intervention of knowledge in the
venerable Saṅkicca. There was success by intervention
of knowledge in the venerable Bhūtapāla” (Paṭis II
211).
27. Herein, when the venerable Bakkula as an infant
was being bathed in the river on an auspicious day, he
fell into the stream through the negligence of his
nurse. A fish swallowed him and eventually came to
the bathing place at Benares. There it was caught by a
fisherman and sold to a rich man’s wife. The fish
interested her, and thinking to cook it herself, she slit

1015
it open. When she did so, she saw the child like a
golden image in the fish’s stomach. She was
overjoyed, thinking, “At last I have got a son.” So the
venerable Bakkula’s safe survival in a fish’s stomach
in his last existence is called “success by intervention
of knowledge” because it was brought about by the
influence of the Arahant-path knowledge due to be
obtained by [him in] that life. But the story should be
told in detail (see M-a IV 190).
28. The Elder Saṅkicca’s mother died while he was still
in her womb. At the time of her cremation she was
pierced by stakes and placed on a pyre. The infant
received a wound on the corner of his eye from the
point of a stake and made a sound. Then, thinking that
the child must be alive, they took down the body and
opened its belly. They gave the child to the
grandmother. Under her care he grew up, and
eventually he went forth and reached Arahantship
together with the discriminations. So the venerable
Saṅkicca’s safe survival on the pyre is called, “success
by intervention of knowledge” in the way just stated
(see Dhp-a II 240).
29. The boy Bhūtapāla’s father was a poor man in
Rājagaha. [380] He went into the forest with a cart to
get a load of wood. It was evening when he returned
to the city gate. Then his oxen slipped the yoke and
escaped into the city. He seated the child beside the

1016
cart and went into the city after the oxen. Before he
could come out again, the gate was closed. The child’s
safe survival through the three watches of the night
outside the city in a place infested by wild beasts and
spirits is called, “success by intervention of
knowledge” in the way just stated. But the story
should be told in detail.
30. (v) A distinction brought about by the influence of
serenity either before the concentration or after it or at
that moment is called success by intervention of
concentration for this is said: “The meaning (purpose)
as abandoning the hindrances succeeds by means of
the first jhāna, thus it is success by intervention of
concentration … The meaning (purpose) as
abandoning the base consisting of nothingness
succeeds by means of the attainment of the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception,
thus it is success by intervention of concentration.
There was success by intervention of concentration in
the venerable Sāriputta … in the venerable Sañjīva …
in the venerable Khāṇu-Kondañña … in the laywoman
devotee Uttarā … in the lay-woman devotee
Sāmāvatī” (Paṭis II 211–12).
31. Herein, while the venerable Sāriputta was living
with the Elder Mahā Moggallāna at Kapotakandarā he
was sitting in the open on a moonlit night with his
hair newly cut. Then a wicked spirit, though warned

1017
by his companion, gave him a blow on the head, the
noise of which was like a thunder clap. At the time the
blow was given the elder was absorbed in an
attainment; consequently he suffered no harm from
the blow. This was success by intervention of
concentration in that venerable one. The story is given
in the Udāna too (Ud 39).
32. While the Elder Sañjīva was in the attainment of
cessation, cowherds, etc., who noticed him thought he
was dead. They brought grass and sticks and cow-
dung and set fire to them. Not even a corner of the
elder’s robe was burnt. This was success by
intervention of concentration in him because it was
brought about by the influence of the serenity
occurring in his successive attainment [of each of the
eight jhānas preceding cessation]. But the story is
given in the Suttas too (M I 333).
33. The Elder Khāṇu Kondañña was naturally gifted in
attainments. He was sitting absorbed in attainment
one night in a certain forest. [381] Five hundred
robbers came by with stolen booty. Thinking that no
one was following them and needing rest, they put the
booty down. Believing the elder was a tree stump
(khāṇuka), they piled all the booty on him. The elder
emerged at the predetermined time just as they were
about to depart after resting, at the very time in fact
when the one who had put his booty down first was

1018
picking it up. When they saw the elder move, they
cried out in fear. The elder said, “Do not be afraid, lay
followers; I am a bhikkhu.” They came and paid
homage. Such was their confidence in the elder that
they went forth into homelessness, and they
eventually reached Arahantship together with the
discriminations. The absence here of harm to the elder,
covered as he was by five hundred bundles of goods,
was success by intervention of concentration (see Dhp-
a II 254).
34. The laywoman devotee Uttarā was the daughter of
a rich man called Puṇṇaka. A harlot called Sirimā who
was envious of her, poured a basin of hot oil over her
head. At that moment Uttarā had attained [jhāna in],
loving-kindness. The oil ran off her like water on a
lotus leaf. This was success by intervention of
concentration in her. But the story should be given in
detail (see Dhp-a III 310; A-a I 451).
35. King Udena’s chief queen was called Sāmāvatī.
The brahman Māgaṇḍiya, who aspired to elevate his
own daughter to the position of chief queen, put a
poisonous snake into Sāmāvatī’s lute. Then he told the
king, “Sāmāvatī wants to kill you, sire. She is carrying
a poisonous snake about in her lute.” When the king
found it, he was furious. Intending to kill her, he took
his bow and aimed a poisoned arrow. Sāmāvatī with
her retinue pervaded the king with loving-kindness.

1019
The king stood trembling, unable either to shoot the
arrow or to put it away. Then the queen said to him,
“What is it, sire, are you tired?”—“Yes, I am
tired.”—“Then put down the bow.” The arrow fell at
the king’s feet. Then the queen advised him, “Sire, one
should not hate one who has no hate.” So the king’s
not daring to release the arrow was success by
intervention of concentration in the laywoman
Sāmāvatī (see Dhp-a I 216; A-a I 443).
36. (vi) That which consists in dwelling perceiving the
unrepulsive in the repulsive, etc., is called Noble Ones’
success, according as it is said: “What is Noble Ones’
success? Here, if a bhikkhu should wish, “May I dwell
perceiving the unrepulsive in the repulsive,” he dwells
perceiving the unrepulsive in that … he dwells in
equanimity towards that, mindful and fully aware”
(Paṭis II 212). [382] This is called “Noble Ones’
success” because it is only produced in Noble Ones
who have reached mind mastery.
37. For if a bhikkhu with cankers destroyed possesses
this kind of success, then when in the case of a
disagreeable object he is practicing pervasion with
loving-kindness or giving attention to it as elements,
he dwells perceiving the unrepulsive; or when in the
case of an agreeable object he is practicing pervasion
with foulness or giving attention to it as impermanent,
he dwells perceiving the repulsive. Likewise, when in

1020
the case of the repulsive and unrepulsive he is
practicing that same pervasion with loving-kindness
or giving attention to it as elements, he dwells
perceiving the unrepulsive; and when in the case of
the unrepulsive and repulsive he is practicing that
same pervasion with foulness or giving attention to it
as impermanent, he dwells perceiving the repulsive.
But when he is exercising the six-factored equanimity
in the following way, “On seeing a visible object with
the eye, he is neither glad nor …” (Paṭis II 213), etc.,
then rejecting both the repulsive and the unrepulsive,
he dwells in equanimity, mindful and fully aware.
38. For the meaning of this is expounded in the
Paṭisambhidā in the way beginning: “How does he
dwell perceiving the unrepulsive in the repulsive? In
the case of a disagreeable object he pervades it with
loving-kindness or he treats it as elements” (Paṭis II
212). Thus it is called, “Noble Ones’ success” because
it is only produced in Noble Ones who have reached
mind mastery.
39. (vii) That consisting in travelling through the air in
the case of winged birds, etc., is called success born of
kamma result, according as it is said: “What is success
born of kamma result? That in all winged birds, in all
deities, in some human beings, in some inhabitants of
states of loss, is success born of kamma result” (Paṭis II
213). For here it is the capacity in all winged birds to

1021
travel through the air without jhāna or insight that is
success born of kamma result; and likewise that in all
deities, and some human beings, at the beginning of
the aeon, and likewise that in some inhabitants of
states of loss such as the female spirit Piyaṅkara’s
mother (see S-a II 509), Uttara’s mother (Pv 140),
Phussamittā, Dhammaguttā, and so on.
40. (viii) That consisting in travelling through the air,
etc., in the case of Wheel-turning Monarchs, etc., is
called success of the meritorious, according as it is said:
“What is success of the meritorious? The Wheel-
turning Monarch travels through the air with his
fourfold army, even with his grooms and shepherds.
The householder Jotika had the success of the
meritorious. The householder Jaṭilaka had the success
of the meritorious. [383] The householder Ghosita had
the success of the meritorious. The householder
Meṇḍaka had the success of the meritorious. That of
the five very meritorious is success of the meritorious”
(Paṭis II 213). In brief, however, it is the distinction that
consists in succeeding when the accumulated merit
comes to ripen that is success of the meritorious.
41. A crystal palace and sixty-four wishing trees cleft
the earth and sprang into existence for the
householder Jotika. That was success of the
meritorious in his case (Dhp-a IV 207). A golden rock
of eighty cubits [high] was made for Jaṭilaka (Dhp-a IV

1022
216). Ghosita’s safe survival when attempts were
made in seven places to kill him was success of the
meritorious (Dhp-a I 174). The appearance to
Meṇḍaka (= Ram) of rams (meṇḍaka) made of the
seven gems in a place the size of one sītā [6] was
success of the meritorious in Meṇḍaka (Dhp-a III 364).
42. The “five very meritorious” are the rich man
Meṇḍaka, his wife Candapadumasiri, his son the rich
man Dhanañjaya, his daughter-in-law Sumanadevī,
and his slave Puṇṇa. When the rich man [Meṇḍaka]
washed his head and looked up at the sky, twelve
thousand five hundred measures were filled for him
with red rice from the sky. When his wife took a nāḷi
measure of cooked rice, the food was not used up
though she served the whole of Jambudīpa with it.
When his son took a purse containing a thousand
[ducats (kahāpaṇa)], the ducats were not exhausted
even though he made gifts to all the inhabitants of
Jambudīpa. When his daughter-in-law took a pint
(tumba) measure of paddy, the grain was not used up
even when she shared it out among all the inhabitants
of Jambudīpa. When the slave ploughed with a single
ploughshare, there were fourteen furrows, seven on
each side (see Vin I 240; Dhp-a I 384). This was success
of the meritorious in them.
43. (ix) That beginning with travelling through the air
in the case of masters of the sciences is success through

1023
the sciences, according as it is said: “What is success
through the sciences? Masters of the sciences, having
pronounced their scientific spells, travel through the
air, and they show an elephant in space, in the sky …
and they show a manifold military array” (Paṭis II
213).
44. (x) But the succeeding of such and such work
through such and such right exertion is success in the
sense of succeeding due to right exertion applied here or
there, according as it is said: “The meaning (purpose)
of abandoning lust succeeds through renunciation,
thus it is success in the sense of succeeding due to
right exertion applied here or there … The meaning
(purpose) of abandoning all defilements succeeds
through the Arahant path, thus it is success in the
sense of succeeding due to right exertion applied here
or there” (Paṭis II 213). [384] And the text here is
similar to the previous text in the illustration of right
exertion, in other words, the way. But in the
Commentary it is given as follows: “Any work
belonging to a trade such as making a cart assemblage,
etc., any medical work, the learning of the Three
Vedas, the learning of the Three Piṭakas, even any
work connected with ploughing, sowing, etc.—the
distinction produced by doing such work is success in
the sense of succeeding due to right exertion applied
here or there.”

1024
45. So, among these ten kinds of success, only (i)
success by resolve is actually mentioned in the clause
“kinds of supernormal power (success),” but (ii)
success as transformation and (iii) success as the
mind-made [body] are needed in this sense as well.
46. (i) To the kinds of supernormal power (see §20): to the
components of supernormal power, or to the
departments of supernormal power. He directs, he
inclines, his mind: when that bhikkhu’s consciousness
has become the basis for direct-knowledge in the way
already described, he directs the preliminary-work
consciousness with the purpose of attaining the kinds
of supernormal power, he sends it in the direction of
the kinds of supernormal power, leading it away from
the kasiṇa as its object. Inclines: makes it tend and lean
towards the supernormal power to be attained.
47. He: the bhikkhu who has done the directing of his
mind in this way. The various: varied, of different sorts.
Kinds of supernormal power: departments of
supernormal power. Wields: paccanubhoti = paccanu-
bhavati (alternative form); the meaning is that he
makes contact with, realizes, reaches.
48. Now, in order to show that variousness, it is said:
“Having been one, [he becomes many; having been
many, he becomes one. He appears and vanishes. He
goes unhindered through walls, through enclosures,

1025
through mountains, as though in open space. He dives
in and out of the earth as though in water. He goes on
unbroken water as though on earth. Seated cross-
legged he travels in space like a winged bird. With his
hand he touches and strokes the moon and sun so
mighty and powerful. He wields bodily mastery even
as far as the Brahmā-world]” (D I 77).
Herein, having been one: having been normally one
before giving effect to the supernormal power. He
becomes many: wanting to walk with many or wanting
to do a recital or wanting to ask questions with many,
he becomes a hundred or a thousand. But how does he
do this? He accomplishes, (1) the four planes, (2) the
four bases (roads), (3) the eight steps, and (4) the
sixteen roots of supernormal power, and then he (5)
resolves with knowledge.
49. 1. Herein, the four planes should be understood as
the four jhānas; for this has been said by the General of
the Dhamma [the Elder Sāriputta]: “What are the four
planes of supernormal power? They are the first jhāna
as the plane born of seclusion, the second jhāna as the
plane of happiness and bliss, the third jhāna as the
plane of equanimity and bliss, the fourth jhāna as the
plane of neither pain nor pleasure. These four planes
of supernormal power lead to the attaining of
supernormal power, to the obtaining of supernormal
power, to the transformation due to supernormal

1026
power, to the majesty[7] of supernormal power, to the
mastery of supernormal power, to fearlessness in
supernormal power” (Paṭis II 205). And he reaches
supernormal power by becoming light, malleable and
wieldy in the body after steeping himself in blissful
perception and light perception due to the pervasion
of happiness and pervasion of bliss, [385] which is
why the first three jhānas should be understood as the
accessory plane since they lead to the obtaining of
supernormal power in this manner. But the fourth is
the natural plane for obtaining supernormal power.
50. 2. The four bases (roads) should be understood as the
four bases of success (iddhi-pāda—roads to power); for
this is said: “What are the four bases (pāda—roads) for
success (iddhi—power)? Here a bhikkhu develops the
basis for success (road to power) that possesses both
concentration due to zeal and the will to strive
(endeavour); he develops the basis for success (road to
power) that possesses both concentration due to
energy and the will to strive; he develops the basis for
success (road to power) that possesses both
concentration due to [natural purity of] consciousness
and the will to strive; he develops the basis for success
(road to power) that possesses both concentration due
to inquiry and the will to strive. These four bases
(roads) for success (power) lead to the obtaining of
supernormal power (success) … to the fearlessness

1027
due to supernormal power (success)” (Paṭis II 205).
51. And here the concentration that has zeal as its
cause, or has zeal outstanding, is concentration due to
zeal; this is a term for concentration obtained by giving
precedence to zeal consisting in the desire to act. Will
(formation) as endeavour is will to strive; this is a term
for the energy of right endeavour accomplishing its
fourfold function (see §53). Possesses: is furnished with
concentration due to zeal and with the [four] instances
of the will to strive.
52. Road to power (basis for success): the meaning is, the
total of consciousness and its remaining concomitants
[except the concentration and the will], which are, in
the sense of resolve, the road to (basis for) the
concentration due to zeal and will to strive associated
with the direct-knowledge consciousness, which latter
are themselves termed “power (success)” either by
treatment as “production” (§20) or in the sense of
“succeeding” (§21) or by treatment in this way,
“beings succeed by its means, thus they are successful;
they are enriched, promoted” (§22). For this is said:
“Basis for success (road to power): it is the feeling
aggregate, [perception aggregate, formations
aggregate, and] consciousness aggregate, in one so
become” (Vibh 217).
53. Or alternatively: it is arrived at (pajjate) by means

1028
of that, thus that is a road (pāda—basis); it is reached,
is the meaning. Iddhi-pāda = iddhiyā pāda (resolution of
compound): this is a term for zeal, etc., according as it
is said: “Bhikkhus, if a bhikkhu obtains concentration,
obtains unification of mind supported by zeal, this is
called concentration due to zeal. He [awakens zeal] for
the non-arising of unarisen evil, unprofitable states,
[strives, puts forth energy, strains his mind and]
struggles. [He awakens zeal for the abandoning of
arisen evil, unprofitable states … He awakens zeal for
the arousing of unarisen profitable states … He
awakens zeal for the maintenance, non-disappearance,
increase, growth, development and perfection of
arisen profitable states, strives, puts forth energy,
strains his mind and struggles]. These are called
instances of the will to strive. So this zeal and this
concentration due to zeal and these [four] instances of
will to strive are called the road to power (basis for
success) that possesses concentration due to zeal and
the will to strive” (S V 268). And the meaning should
be understood in this way in the case of the other
roads to power (bases for success).[8]
54. 3. The eight steps should be understood as the eight
beginning with zeal; for this is said: “What are the
eight steps? If a bhikkhu obtains concentration,
obtains unification of mind supported by zeal, then
the zeal is not the concentration; the concentration is

1029
not the zeal. [386] The zeal is one, the concentration is
another. If a bhikkhu … supported by energy …
supported by [natural purity of] consciousness …
supported by inquiry … then the inquiry is not the
concentration; the concentration is not the inquiry. The
inquiry is one, the concentration is another. These
eight steps to power lead to the obtaining of
supernormal power (success) … to fearlessness due to
supernormal power (success)” (Paṭis II 205). For here it
is the zeal consisting in the desire to arouse
supernormal power (success), which zeal is joined
with concentration, that leads to the obtaining of the
supernormal power. Similarly in the case of energy,
and so on. That should be understood as the reason
why they are called the “eight steps.”
55. 4. The sixteen roots: the mind’s unperturbedness[9]
should be understood in sixteen modes, for this is
said: “What are the sixteen roots of success (power)?
Undejected consciousness is not perturbed by
indolence, thus it is unperturbed. Unelated
consciousness is not perturbed by agitation, thus it is
unperturbed. Unattracted consciousness is not
perturbed by greed, thus it is unperturbed. Unrepelled
consciousness is not perturbed by ill will, thus it is
unperturbed. Independent consciousness is not
perturbed by [false] view, thus it is unperturbed.
Untrammelled consciousness is not perturbed by

1030
greed accompanied by zeal, thus it is unperturbed.
Liberated consciousness is not perturbed by greed for
sense desires, thus it is unperturbed. Unassociated
consciousness is not perturbed by defilement, thus it is
unperturbed. Consciousness rid of barriers is not
perturbed by the barrier of defilement, thus it is
unperturbed. Unified consciousness is not perturbed
by the defilement of variety, thus it is unperturbed.
Consciousness reinforced by faith is not perturbed by
faithlessness, thus it is unperturbed. Consciousness
reinforced by energy is not perturbed by indolence,
thus it is unperturbed. Consciousness reinforced by
mindfulness is not perturbed by negligence, thus it is
unperturbed. Consciousness reinforced by
concentration is not perturbed by agitation, thus it is
unperturbed. Consciousness reinforced by
understanding is not perturbed by ignorance, thus it is
unperturbed. Illuminated consciousness is not
perturbed by the darkness of ignorance, thus it is
unperturbed. These sixteen roots of success (power)
lead to the obtaining of supernormal power (success)
… to fearlessness due to supernormal power
(success)” (Paṭis II 206).
56. Of course, this meaning is already established by
the words, “When his concentrated mind,” etc., too,
but it is stated again for the purpose of showing that
the first jhāna, etc., are the three planes, bases (roads),

1031
steps, and roots, of success (to supernormal powers).
And the first-mentioned method is the one given in
the Suttas, but this is how it is given in the
Paṭisambhidā. So it is stated again for the purpose of
avoiding confusion in each of the two instances.
57. 5. He resolves with knowledge (§48): when he has
accomplished these things consisting of the planes,
bases (roads), steps, and roots, of success (to
supernormal power), [387] then he attains jhāna as the
basis for direct-knowledge and emerges from it. Then
if he wants to become a hundred, he does the
preliminary work thus, “Let me become a hundred, let
me become a hundred,” after which he again attains
jhāna as basis for direct-knowledge, emerges, and
resolves. He becomes a hundred simultaneously with
the resolving consciousness. The same method applies
in the case of a thousand, and so on. If he does not
succeed in this way, he should do the preliminary
work again, and attain, emerge, and resolve a second
time. For it is said in the Saṃyutta Commentary that it
is allowable to attain once, or twice.
58. Herein, the basic-jhāna consciousness has the sign
as its object; but the preliminary-work consciousnesses
have the hundred as their object or the thousand as
their object. And these latter are objects as
appearances, not as concepts. The resolving
consciousness has likewise the hundred as its object or

1032
the thousand as its object. That arises once only, next
to change-of-lineage [consciousness], as in the case of
absorption consciousness already described (IV.78),
and it is fine-material-sphere consciousness belonging
to the fourth jhāna.
59. Now, it is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “Normally
one, he adverts to [himself as] many or a hundred or a
thousand or a hundred thousand; having adverted, he
resolves with knowledge, ‘Let me be many.’ He
becomes many, like the venerable Cūḷa-Panthaka”
(Paṭis II 207). Here he adverts is said with respect only
to the preliminary work. Having adverted, he resolves
with knowledge is said with respect to the knowledge of
the direct-knowledge. Consequently, he adverts to
many. After that he attains with the last one of the
preliminary-work consciousnesses. After emerging
from the attainment, he again adverts thus, “Let me be
many,” after which he resolves by means of the single
[consciousness] belonging to the knowledge of direct-
knowledge, which has arisen next to the three, or four,
preparatory consciousnesses that have occurred, and
which has the name “resolve” owing to its making the
decision. This is how the meaning should be
understood here.
60. Like the venerable Cūḷa-Panthaka is said in order to
point to a bodily witness of this multiple state; but that
must be illustrated by the story. There were two

1033
brothers, it seems, who were called, “Panthaka
(Roadling)” because they were born on a road. The
senior of the two was called Mahā-Panthaka. He went
forth into homelessness and reached Arahantship
together with the discriminations. When he had
become an Arahant, he made Cūḷa-Panthaka go forth
too, and he set him this stanza: [388]
As a scented kokanada lotus
Opens in the morning with its perfume,
See the One with Radiant Limbs who glitters[10]
Like the sun’s orb blazing in the heavens (A III
239; S I 81).

Four months went by, but he could not get it by

heart. Then the elder said, “You are useless in this
dispensation,” and he expelled him from the
monastery.
61. At that time the elder had charge of the allocation
of meal [invitations]. Jīvaka approached the elder,
saying, “Take alms at our house, venerable sir,
together with the Blessed One and five hundred
bhikkhus.” The elder consented, saying, “I accept for
all but Cūḷa-Panthaka.” Cūḷa-Panthaka stood weeping
at the gate. The Blessed One saw him with the divine
eye, and he went to him. “Why are you weeping?” he
asked, and he was told what had happened.

1034
62. The Blessed One said, “No one in my dispensation
is called useless for being unable to do a recitation. Do
not grieve, bhikkhu.” Taking him by the arm, he led
him into the monastery. He created a piece of cloth by
supernormal power and gave it to him, saying, “Now,
bhikkhu, keep rubbing this and recite over and over
again: ‘Removal of dirt, removal of dirt.’” While doing
as he had been told, the cloth became black in colour.
What he came to perceive was this: “The cloth is clean;
there is nothing wrong there. It is this selfhood that is
wrong.” He brought his knowledge to bear on the five
aggregates, and by increasing insight he reached the
neighbourhood of conformity [knowledge] and
change-of-lineage [knowledge].
63. Then the Blessed One uttered these illuminative
stanzas:
Now greed it is, not dust, that we call “dirt,”
And “dirt” is just a term in use for greed;
This greed the wise reject, and they abide
Keeping the Law of him that has no greed.
Now, hate it is, not dust, that we call “dirt,”
… … …
Delusion too, it is not dust, that we call “dirt,”
And “dirt” is just a term used for delusion;
Delusion the wise reject, and they abide
Keeping the Dhamma of him without delusion
(Nidd I 505). [389]

1035
 When the stanzas were finished, the venerable Cūḷa-
Panthaka had at his command the nine supramundane
states attended by the four discriminations and six
kinds of direct-knowledge.
64. On the following day the Master went to Jīvaka’s
house together with the Community of Bhikkhus.
Then when the gruel was being given out at the end of
the water-offering ceremony,[11] he covered his bowl.
Jīvaka asked, “What is it, venerable sir?”—“There is a
bhikkhu at the monastery.” He sent a man, telling
him, “Go, and return quickly with the lord.”
65. When the Blessed One had left the monastery:
Now, having multiplied himself
Up to a thousand, Panthaka
Sat in the pleasant mango wood
until the time should be announced (Th 563).

66. When the man went and saw the monastery all
glowing with yellow, he returned and said,
“Venerable sir, the monastery is crowded with
bhikkhus. I do not know which of them the lord is.”
Then the Blessed One said, “Go and catch hold of the
hem of the robe of the first one you see, tell him, ‘The
Master calls you’ and bring him here.” He went and
caught hold of the elder’s robe. At once all the
creations vanished. The elder dismissed him, saying,

1036
“You may go,” and when he had finished attending to
his bodily needs such as mouth washing, he arrived
first and sat down on the seat prepared.
It was with reference to this that it was said, “like
the venerable Cūḷa-Panthaka.”
67. The many who were created there were just like
the possessor of the supernormal power because they
were created without particular specification. Then
whatever the possessor of the supernormal powers
does, whether he stands, sits, etc., or speaks, keeps
silent, etc., they do the same. But if he wants to make
them different in appearance, some in the first phase
of life, some in the middle phase, and some in the last
phase, and similarly some long-haired, some half-
shaved, some shaved, some grey-haired, some with
lightly dyed robes, some with heavily dyed robes, or
expounding phrases, explaining Dhamma, intoning,
asking questions, answering questions, cooking dye,
sewing and washing robes, etc., or if he wants to make
still others of different kinds, he should emerge from
the basic jhāna, do the preliminary work in the way
beginning ‘Let there be so many bhikkhus in the first
phase of life’, etc.; then he should once more attain
and emerge, and then resolve. They become of the
kinds desired simultaneously with the resolving
consciousness.[12]

1037
68. The same method of explanation applies to the
clause having been many, he becomes one: but there is this
difference. After this bhikkhu thus created a manifold
state, then he again thinks, “As one only I will walk
about, do a recital, [390] ask a question,” or out of
fewness of wishes he thinks, “This is a monastery with
few bhikkhus. If someone comes, he will wonder,
‘Where have all these bhikkhus who are all alike come
from? Surely it will be one of the elder’s feats?’ and so
he might get to know about me.” Meanwhile, wishing,
“Let me be one only,” he should attain the basic jhāna
and emerge. Then, after doing the preliminary work
thus, “Let me be one,” he should again attain and
emerge and then resolve thus, ‘Let me be one’. He
becomes one simultaneously with the resolving
consciousness. But instead of doing this, he can
automatically become one again with the lapse of the
predetermined time.
69. He appears and vanishes: the meaning here is that he
causes appearance, causes vanishing. For it is said in
the Paṭisambhidā with reference to this: “‘He appears’:
he is not veiled by something, he is not hidden, he is
revealed, he is evident. ‘Vanishes’: he is veiled by
something, he is hidden, he is shut away, he is
enclosed” (Paṭis II 207).[13]
Now, this possessor of supernormal power who
wants to make an appearance, makes darkness into

1038
light, or he makes revealed what is hidden, or he
makes what has not come into the visual field come
into the visual field.
70. How? If he wants to make himself or another
visible even though hidden or at a distance, he
emerges from the basic jhāna and adverts thus, “Let
this that is dark become light” or “Let this that is
hidden be revealed” or “Let this that has not come into
the visual field come into the visual field.” Then he
does the preliminary work and resolves in the way
already described. It becomes as resolved
simultaneously with the resolve. Others then see even
when at a distance; and he himself sees too, if he
wants to see.
71. But by whom was this miracle formerly
performed? By the Blessed One. For when the Blessed
One had been invited by Cūḷa-Subhaddā and was
traversing the seven-league journey between Sāvatthī
and Sāketa with five hundred palanquins[14] created
by Vissakamma (see Dhp-a III 470), he resolved in
suchwise that citizens of Sāketa saw the inhabitants of
Sāvatthī and citizens of Sāvatthī saw the inhabitants of
Sāketa. And when he had alighted in the centre of the
city, he split the earth in two and showed Avīci, and
he parted the sky in two and showed the Brahmā-
world.

1039
72. And this meaning should also be explained by
means of the Descent of the Gods (devorohaṇa). When
the Blessed One, it seems, had performed the Twin
Miracle[15] and had liberated eighty-four thousand
beings from bonds, he wondered, “Where did the past
Enlightened Ones go to when they had finished the
Twin Miracle?” He saw that they had gone to the
heaven of the Thirty-three. [391] Then he stood with
one foot on the surface of the earth, and placed the
second on Mount Yugandhara. Then again he lifted
his first foot and set it on the summit of Mount Sineru.
He took up the residence for the Rains there on the
Red Marble Terrace, and he began his exposition of
the Abhidhamma, starting from the beginning, to the
deities of ten thousand world-spheres. At the time for
wandering for alms he created an artificial Buddha to
teach the Dhamma.
73. Meanwhile the Blessed One himself would chew a
tooth-stick of nāgalatā wood and wash his mouth in
Lake Anotatta. Then, after collecting alms food among
the Uttarakurus, he would eat it on the shores of that
lake. [Each day] the Elder Sāriputta went there and
paid homage to the Blessed One, who told him,
“Today I taught this much Dhamma,” and he gave
him the method. In this way he gave an uninterrupted
exposition of the Abhidhamma for three months.
Eighty million deities penetrated the Dhamma on

1040
hearing it.
74. At the time of the Twin Miracle an assembly
gathered that was twelve leagues across. Then, saying,
“We will disperse when we have seen the Blessed
One,” they made an encampment and waited there.
Anāthapiṇḍika the Lesser[16] supplied all their needs.
People asked the Elder Anuruddha to find out where
the Blessed One was. The elder extended light, and
with the divine eye he saw where the Blessed One had
taken up residence for the Rains. As soon as he saw
this, he announced it.
75. They asked the venerable Mahā Moggallāna to pay
homage to the Blessed One. In the midst of the
assembly the elder dived into the earth. Then cleaving
Mount Sineru, he emerged at the Perfect One’s feet,
and he paid homage at the Blessed One’s feet. This is
what he told the Blessed One: “Venerable sir, the
inhabitants of Jambudīpa pay homage at the Blessed
One’s feet, and they say, ‘We will disperse when we
have seen the Blessed One.’” The Blessed One said,
“But, Moggallāna, where is your elder brother, the
General of the Dhamma?”—“At the city of Saṅkassa,
venerable sir.”—“Moggallāna, those who wish to see
me should come tomorrow to the city of Saṅkassa.
Tomorrow being the Uposatha day of the full moon, I
shall descend to the city of Saṅkassa for the
Mahāpavāraṇā ceremony.”

1041
76. Saying, “Good, venerable sir,” the elder paid
homage to Him of the Ten Powers, and descending by
the way he came, he reached the human
neighbourhood. And at the time of his going and
coming he resolved that people should see it. This,
firstly, is the miracle of becoming apparent that the
Elder Mahā Moggallāna performed here. Having
arrived thus, he related what had happened, and he
said, “Come forth after the morning meal and pay no
heed to distance” [thus promising that they would be
able to see in spite of the distance].
77. The Blessed One informed Sakka, Ruler of Gods,
“Tomorrow, O King, I am going to the human world.”
The Ruler of Gods [392] commanded Vissakamma,
“Good friend, the Blessed One wishes to go to the
human world tomorrow. Build three flights of stairs,
one of gold, one of silver and one of crystal.” He did
so.
78. On the following day the Blessed One stood on the
summit of Sineru and surveyed the eastward world
element. Many thousands of world-spheres were
visible to him as clearly as a single plain. And as the
eastward world element, so too he saw the westward,
the northward and the southward world elements all
clearly visible. And he saw right down to Avīci, and
up to the Realm of the Highest Gods. That day, it
seems, was called the day of the Revelation of Worlds

1042
(loka-vivaraṇa). Human beings saw deities, and deities
saw human beings. And in doing so the human beings
did not have to look up or the deities down. They all
saw each other face to face.
79. The Blessed One descended by the middle flight of
stairs made of crystal; the deities of the six sense-
sphere heavens by that on the left side made of gold;
and the deities of the Pure Abodes, and the Great
Brahmā, by that on the right side made of silver. The
Ruler of Gods held the bowl and robe. The Great
Brahmā held a three-league-wide white parasol.
Suyāma held a yak-tail fan. Five-crest (Pañcasikha), the
son of the gandhabba, descended doing honour to the
Blessed One with his bael-wood lute measuring three
quarters of a league. On that day there was no living
being present who saw the Blessed One but yearned
for enlightenment. This is the miracle of becoming
apparent that the Blessed One performed here.
80. Furthermore, in Tambapaṇṇi Island (Sri Lanka),
while the Elder Dhammadinna, resident of Taḷaṅgara,
was sitting on the shrine terrace in the Great
Monastery of Tissa (Tissamahāvihāra) expounding the
Apaṇṇaka Sutta, “Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu
possesses three things he enters upon the untarnished
way” (A I 113), he turned his fan face downwards and
an opening right down to Avīci appeared. Then he
turned it face upwards and an opening right up to the

1043
Brahmā-world appeared. Having thus aroused fear of
hell and longing for the bliss of heaven, the elder
taught the Dhamma. Some became stream-enterers,
some once-returners, some non-returners, some
Arahants.
81. But one who wants to cause a vanishing makes
light into darkness, or he hides what is unbidden, or
he makes what has come into the visual field come no
more into the visual field. How? If he wants to make
himself or another invisible even though unconcealed
or nearby, he emerges from the basic jhāna and
adverts thus, “Let this light become darkness” or [393]
“Let this that is unhidden be hidden” or “Let this that
has come into the visual field not come into the visual
field.” Then he does the preliminary work and
resolves in the way already described. It becomes as
he has resolved simultaneously with the resolution.
Others do not see even when they are nearby. He too
does not see, if he does not want to see.
82. But by whom was this miracle formerly
performed? By the Blessed One. For the Blessed One
so acted that when the clansman Yasa was sitting
beside him, his father did not see him (Vin I 16).
Likewise, after travelling two thousand leagues to
meet [King] Mahā Kappina and establishing him in
the fruition of non-return and his thousand ministers
in the fruition of stream-entry, he so acted that Queen

1044
Anojā, who had followed the king with a thousand
women attendants and was sitting nearby, did not see
the king and his retinue. And when he was asked,
“Have you seen the king, venerable sir?,” he asked,
But which is better for you, to seek the king or to seek
[your] self?” (cf. Vin I 23). She replied, “[My] self,
venerable sir.” Then he likewise taught her the
Dhamma as she sat there, so that, together with the
thousand women attendants, she became established
in the fruition of stream-entry, while the ministers
reached the fruition of non-return, and the king that of
Arahantship (see A-a I 322; Dhp-a II 124).
83. Furthermore, this was performed by the Elder
Mahinda, who so acted on the day of his arrival in
Tambapaṇṇi Island that the king did not see the others
who had come with him (see Mahāvaṃsa I 103).
84. Furthermore, all miracles of making evident are
called an appearance, and all miracles of making
unevident are called a vanishing. Herein, in the
miracle of making evident, both the supernormal
power and the possessor of the supernormal power
are displayed. That can be illustrated with the Twin
Miracle; for in that both are displayed thus: “Here the
Perfect One performs the Twin Miracle, which is not
shared by disciples. He produces a mass of fire from
the upper part of his body and a shower of water from
the lower part of his body …” (Paṭis I 125). In the case

1045
of the miracle of making unevident, only the
supernormal power is displayed, not the possessor of
the supernormal power. That can be illustrated by
means of the Mahaka Sutta (S IV 200), and the
Brahmanimantanika Sutta (M I 330). For there it was
only the supernormal power of the venerable Mahaka
and of the Blessed One respectively that was
displayed, not the possessors of the supernormal
power, according as it is said:
85. “When he had sat down at one side, the
householder Citta said to the venerable Mahaka,
‘Venerable sir, it would be good if the lord would
show me a miracle of supernormal power belonging
to the higher than human state.’—‘Then, householder,
spread your upper robe out on the terrace [394] and
scatter[17] a bundle of hay on it.’—‘Yes, venerable sir,’
the householder replied to the venerable Mahaka, and
he spread out his upper robe on the terrace and
scattered a bundle of hay on it. Then the venerable
Mahaka went into his dwelling and fastened the latch,
after which he performed a feat of supernormal power
such that flames came out from the keyhole and from
the gaps in the fastenings and burned the hay without
burning the upper robe” (S IV 290).
86. Also according as it is said: “Then, bhikkhus, I
performed a feat of supernormal power such that
Brahmā and Brahmā’s retinue, and those attached to

1046
Brahmā’s retinue might hear my voice and yet not see
me, and having vanished in this way, I spoke this
stanza:
I saw the fear in [all kinds of] becoming,
Including becoming that seeks non-becoming;
And no becoming do I recommend;
I cling to no delight therein at all (M I 330).

87. He goes unhindered through walls, through enclosures,

through mountains, as though in open space: here through
walls is beyond walls; the yonder side of a wall, is
what is meant. So with the rest. And wall is a term for
the wall of a house; enclosure is a wall surrounding a
house, monastery (park), village, etc.; mountain is a
mountain of soil or a mountain of stone. Unhindered:
not sticking. As though in open space: just as if he were
in open space.
88. One who wants to go in this way should attain the
space-kasiṇa [jhāna] and emerge, and then do the
preliminary work by adverting to the wall or the
enclosure or some such mountain as Sineru or the
World-sphere Mountains, and he should resolve, “Let
there be space.” It becomes space only; it becomes
hollow for him if he wants to go down or up; it
becomes cleft for him if he wants to penetrate it. He
goes through it unhindered.

1047
89. But here the Elder Tipiṭaka Cūḷa-Abhaya said:
“Friends, what is the use of attaining the space-kasiṇa
[jhāna]? Does one who wants to create elephants,
horses, etc., attain an elephant-kasiṇa jhāna or horse-
kasiṇa jhāna, and so on? Surely the only standard is
mastery in the eight attainments, and after the
preliminary work has been done on any kasiṇa, it then
becomes whatever he wishes.” The bhikkhus said,
“Venerable sir, only the space kasiṇa has been given in
the text, so it should certainly be mentioned.”
90. Here is the text: “He is normally an obtainer of the
space-kasiṇa attainment. He adverts: “Through the
wall, through the enclosure, through the mountain.”
[395] Having adverted, he resolves with knowledge:
“Let there be space.” There is space. He goes
unhindered through the wall, through the enclosure,
through the mountain. Just as men normally not
possessed of supernormal power go unhindered
where there is no obstruction or enclosure, so too this
possessor of supernormal power, by his attaining
mental mastery, goes unhindered through the wall,
through the enclosure, through the mountain, as
though in open space” (Paṭis II 208).
91. What if a mountain or a tree is raised in this
bhikkhu’s way while he is travelling along after
resolving; should he attain and resolve again?—There
is no harm in that. For attaining and resolving again is

1048
like taking the dependence (see Vin I 58; II 274) in the
preceptor’s presence. And because this bhikkhu has
resolved, “Let there be space,” there will be only space
there, and because of the power of his first resolve it is
impossible that another mountain or tree can have
sprung up meanwhile made by temperature.
However, if it has been created by another possessor
of supernormal power and created first, it prevails; the
former must go above or below it.
92. He dives in and out of the ground (pathaviyā pi
ummujjanimmujjaṃ): here it is rising up that is called
“diving out” (ummujja) and it is sinking down that is
called “diving in” (nimmujja). Ummujjanimmujjaṃ =
ummujjañ ca nimmujjañ ca (resolution of compound).
One who wants to do this should attain the water-
kasiṇa [jhāna] and emerge. Then he should do the
preliminary work, determining thus, “Let the earth in
such an area be water,” and he should resolve in the
way already described. Simultaneously with the
resolve, that much extent of earth according as
determined becomes water only. It is there he does the
diving in and out.
93. Here is the text: “He is normally an obtainer of the
water-kasiṇa attainment. He adverts to earth. Having
adverted, he resolves with knowledge: “Let there be
water.” There is water. He does the diving in and out

1049
of the earth. Just as men normally not possessed of
supernormal power do diving in and out of water, so
this possessor of supernormal power, by his attaining
mental mastery, does the diving in and out of the
earth as though in water” (Paṭis II 208).
94. And he does not only dive in and out, but
whatever else he wants, such as bathing, drinking,
mouth washing, washing of chattels, and so on. And
not only water, but there is whatever else (liquid that)
he wants, such as ghee, oil, honey, molasses, and so
on. When he does the preliminary work, after
adverting thus, “Let there be so much of this and this”
and resolves, [396] it becomes as he resolved. If he
takes them and fills dishes with them, the ghee is only
ghee, the oil, etc., only oil, etc., the water only water. If
he wants to be wetted by it, he is wetted, if he does not
want to be wetted by it, he is not wetted. And it is only
for him that that earth becomes water, not for anyone
else. People go on it on foot and in vehicles, etc., and
they do their ploughing, etc., there. But if he wishes,
“Let it be water for them too,” it becomes water for
them too. When the time determined has elapsed, all
the extent determined, except for water originally
present in water pots, ponds, etc., becomes earth
again.
95. On unbroken water: here water that one sinks into
when trodden on is called “broken,” the opposite is

1050
called “unbroken.” But one who wants to go in this
way should attain the earth-kasiṇa [jhāna] and
emerge. Then he should do the preliminary work,
determining thus, “Let the water in such an area
become earth,” and he should resolve in the way
already described. Simultaneously with the resolve,
the water in that place becomes earth. He goes on that.
96. Here is the text: “He is normally an obtainer of the
earth-kasiṇa attainment. He adverts to water. Having
adverted, he resolves with knowledge: ‘Let there be
earth.’ There is earth. He goes on unbroken water. Just
as men normally not possessed of supernormal power
go on unbroken earth, so this possessor of
supernormal power, by his attaining of mental
mastery, goes on unbroken water as if on earth” (Paṭis
II 208).
97. And he not only goes, but he adopts whatever
posture he wishes. And not only earth, but whatever
else [solid that] he wants such as gems, gold, rocks,
trees, etc. he adverts to that and resolves, and it
becomes as he resolves. And that water becomes earth
only for him; it is water for anyone else. And fishes
and turtles and water birds go about there as they like.
But if he wishes to make it earth for other people, he
does so too. When the time determined has elapsed, it
becomes water again.

1051
98. Seated cross-legged he travels: he goes seated cross-
legged. Like a winged bird: like a bird furnished with
wings. One who wants to do this should attain the
earth kasiṇa and emerge. [397] Then if he wants to go
cross-legged, he should do the preliminary work and
determine an area the size of a seat for sitting cross-
legged on, and he should resolve in the way already
described. If he wants to go lying down, he determines
an area the size of a bed. If he wants to go on foot, he
determines a suitable area the size of a path, and he
resolves in the way already described: “Let it be
earth.” Simultaneously with the resolve it becomes
earth.
99. Here is the text: “‘Seated cross-legged he travels in
space like a winged bird’: he is normally an obtainer of
the earth-kasiṇa attainment. He adverts to space.
Having adverted, he resolves with knowledge: ‘Let
there be earth.’ There is earth. He travels (walks),
stands, sits, and lies down in space, in the sky. Just as
men normally not possessed of supernormal power
travel (walk), stand, sit, and lie down on earth, so this
possessor of supernormal power, by his attaining of
mental mastery, travels (walks), stands, sits, and lies
down in space, in the sky” (Paṭis II 208).
100. And a bhikkhu who wants to travel in space
should be an obtainer of the divine eye. Why? On the
way there may be mountains, trees, etc., that are

1052
temperature-originated, or jealous nāgas, supaṇṇas,
etc., may create them. He will need to be able to see
these. But what should be done on seeing them? He
should attain the basic jhāna and emerge, and then he
should do the preliminary work thus, “Let there be
space,” and resolve.
101. But the Elder [Tipiṭaka Cūḷa-Abhaya] said:
“Friends, what is the use of attaining the attainment?
Is not his mind concentrated? Hence any area that he
has resolved thus, ‘Let it be space’ is space.” Though
he spoke thus, nevertheless the matter should be
treated as described under the miracle of going
unhindered through walls. Moreover, he should be an
obtainer of the divine eye for the purpose of
descending in a secluded place, for if he descends in a
public place, in a bathing place, or at a village gate, he
is exposed to the multitude. So, seeing with the divine
eye, he should avoid a place where there is no open
space and descend in an open space.
102. With his hand he touches and strokes the moon and
sun so mighty and powerful: here the “might” of the
moon and sun should be understood to consist in the
fact that they travel at an altitude of forty-two
thousand leagues, and their “power” to consist in their
simultaneous illuminating of three [of the four]
continents. [398] Or they are “mighty” because they
travel overhead and give light as they do, and they are

1053
“powerful” because of that same might. He touches: he
seizes, or he touches in one place. Strokes: he strokes
all over, as if it were the surface of a looking-glass.
103. This supernormal power is successful simply
through the jhāna that is made the basis for direct-
knowledge; there is no special kasiṇa attainment here.
For this is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “‘With his hand
… so mighty and powerful’: here this possessor of
supernormal power who has attained mind mastery
… adverts to the moon and sun. Having adverted, he
resolves with knowledge: ‘Let it be within hand’s
reach.’ It is within hand’s reach. Sitting or lying down,
with his hand he touches, makes contact with, strokes
the moon and sun. Just as men normally not possessed
of supernormal power touch, make contact with,
stroke, some material object within hand’s reach, so
this possessor of supernormal power, by his attaining
of mental mastery, sitting or lying down, with his
hands touches, makes contact with, strokes the moon
and sun” (Paṭis II 298).
104. If he wants to go and touch them, he goes and
touches them. But if he wants to touch them here
sitting or lying down, he resolves: “Let them be within
hand’s reach. Then he either touches them as they
stand within hand’s reach when they have come by
the power of the resolve like palmyra fruits loosened
from their stalk, or he does so by enlarging his hand.

1054
But when he enlarges his hand, does he enlarge what
is clung to or what is not clung to? He enlarges what is
not clung to supported by what is clung to.
105. Here the Elder Tipiṭaka Cūḷa-Nāga said: “But,
friends, why does what is clung to not become small
and big too? When a bhikkhu comes out through a
keyhole, does not what is clung to become small? And
when he makes his body big, does it not then become
big, as in the case of the Elder Mahā Moggallāna?”
106. At one time, it seems, when the householder
Anāthapiṇḍika had heard the Blessed One preaching
the Dhamma, he invited him thus, Venerable sir, take
alms at our house together with five hundred
bhikkhus,” and then he departed. The Blessed One
consented. When the rest of that day and part of the
night had passed, he surveyed the ten-thousandfold
world element in the early morning. Then the royal
nāga (serpent) called Nandopananda came within the
range of his knowledge.
107. The Blessed One considered him thus: “This royal
nāga has come into the range of my knowledge. Has
he the potentiality for development?” Then he saw
that he had wrong view and no confidence in the
Three Jewels. [399] He considered thus, “Who is there
that can cure him of his wrong view?” He saw that the
Elder Mahā Moggallāna could. Then when the night

1055
had turned to dawn, after he had seen to the needs of
the body, he addressed the venerable Ānanda:
“Ānanda, tell five hundred bhikkhus that the Perfect
One is going on a visit to the gods.”
108. It was on that day that they had got a banqueting
place ready for Nandopananda. He was sitting on a
divine couch with a divine white parasol held aloft,
surrounded by the three kinds of dancers[18] and a
retinue of nāgas, and surveying the various kinds of
food and drink served up in divine vessels. Then the
Blessed One so acted that the royal nāga saw him as
he proceeded directly above his canopy in the
direction of the divine world of the Thirty-three,
accompanied by the five hundred bhikkhus.
109. Then this evil view arose in Nandopananda the
royal nāga: “There go these bald-headed monks in and
out of the realm of the Thirty-three directly over my
realm. I will not have them scattering the dirt off their
feet on our heads.” He got up, and he went to the foot
of Sineru. Changing his form, he surrounded it seven
times with his coils. Then he spread his hood over the
realm of the Thirty-three and made everything there
invisible.
110. The venerable Raṭṭhapāla said to the Blessed One:
“Venerable sir, standing in this place formerly I used
to see Sineru and the ramparts of Sineru,[19] and the

1056
Thirty-three, and the Vejayanta Palace, and the flag
over the Vejayanta Palace. Venerable sir, what is the
cause, what is the reason, why I now see neither
Sineru nor … the flag over the Vejayanta
Palace?”—“This royal nāga called Nandopananda is
angry with us, Raṭṭhapāla. He has surrounded Sineru
seven times with his coils, and he stands there
covering us with his raised hood, making it dark.”—“I
will tame him, venerable sir.” But the Blessed One
would not allow it. Then the venerable Bhaddiya and
the venerable Rāhula and all the bhikkhus in turn
offered to do so, but the Blessed One would not allow
it.
111. Last of all the venerable Mahā Moggallāna said, “I
will tame him, venerable sir.” The Blessed One
allowed it, saying, “Tame him, Moggallāna.” The elder
abandoned that form and assumed the form of a huge
royal nāga, and he surrounded Nandopananda
fourteen times with his coils and raised his hood
above the other’s hood, and he squeezed him against
Sineru. The royal nāga produced smoke. [400] The
elder said, “There is smoke not only in your body but
also in mine,” and he produced smoke. The royal
nāga’s smoke did not distress the elder, but the elder’s
smoke distressed the royal nāga. Then the royal nāga
produced flames. The elder said, “There is fire not
only in your body but also in mine,” and he produced

1057
flames. The royal nāga’s fire did not distress the elder,
but the elder’s fire distressed the royal nāga.
112. The royal nāga thought, “He has squeezed me
against Sineru, and he has produced both smoke and
flames.” Then he asked, “Sir, who are you?”—“I am
Moggallāna, Nanda.”—“Venerable sir, resume your
proper bhikkhu’s state.” The elder abandoned that
form, and he went into his right ear and came out
from his left ear; then he went into his left ear and
came out from his right ear. Likewise he went into his
right nostril and came out from his left nostril; then he
went into his left nostril and came out from his right
nostril. Then the royal nāga opened his mouth. The
elder went inside it, and he walked up and down, east
and west, inside his belly.
113. The Blessed One said, “Moggallāna, Moggallāna,
beware; this is a mighty nāga.” The elder said,
“Venerable sir, the four roads to power have been
developed by me, repeatedly practiced, made the
vehicle, made the basis, established, consolidated, and
properly undertaken. I can tame not only
Nandopananda, venerable sir, but a hundred, a
thousand, a hundred thousand royal nāgas like
Nandopananda.”
114. The royal nāga thought, “When he went in the
first place I did not see him. But now when he comes

1058
out I shall catch him between my fangs and chew him
up.” Then he said, “Venerable sir, come out. Do not
keep troubling me by walking up and down inside my
belly.” The elder came out and stood outside. The
royal nāga recognized him, and blew a blast from his
nose. The elder attained the fourth jhāna, and the blast
failed to move even a single hair on his body. The
other bhikkhus would, it seems, have been able to
perform all the miracles up to now, but at this point
they could not have attained with so rapid a response,
which is why the Blessed One would not allow them
to tame the royal nāga.
115. The royal nāga thought, “I have been unable to
move even a single hair on this monk’s body with the
blast from my nose. He is a mighty monk.” The elder
abandoned that form, and having assumed the form of
a supaṇṇa, he pursued the royal nāga demonstrating
the supaṇṇa’s blast. [401] The royal nāga abandoned
that form, and having assumed the form of a young
brahman, he said, “Venerable sir, I go for refuge to
you,” and he paid homage at the elder’s feet. The elder
said, “The Master has come, Nanda; come, let us go to
him.” So having tamed the royal nāga and deprived
him of his poison, he went with him to the Blessed
One’s presence.
116. The royal nāga paid homage to the Blessed One
and said, “Venerable sir, I go for refuge to you.” The

1059
Blessed One said, “May you be happy, royal nāga.”
Then he went, followed by the Community of
Bhikkhus, to Anāthapiṇḍika’s house. Anāthapiṇḍika
said, “Venerable sir, why have you come so
late?”—“There was a battle between Moggallāna and
Nando-pananda.”—“Who won, venerable sir? Who
was defeated?”—“Moggallāna won; Nanda was
defeated.” Anāthapiṇḍika said, “Venerable sir, let the
Blessed One consent to my providing meals for seven
days in a single series, and to my honouring the elder
for seven days.” Then for seven days he accorded
great honour to the five hundred bhikkhus with the
Enlightened One at their head.
117. So it was with reference to this enlarged form
created during this taming of Nandopananda that it
was said: “When he makes his body big, does it not
then become big, as in the case of the Elder Mahā
Moggallāna?” (§105). Although this was said, the
bhikkhus observed, “He enlarges only what is not
clung to supported by what is clung to.” And only this
is correct here.[20]
118. And when he has done this, he not only touches
the moon and sun, but if he wishes, he makes a
footstool [of them] and puts his feet on it, he makes a
chair [of them] and sits on it, he makes a bed [of them]
and lies on it, he makes a leaning-plank [of them] and
leans on it. And as one does, so do others. For even

1060
when several hundred thousand bhikkhus do this and
each one succeeds, still the motions of the moon and
sun and their radiance remain the same. For just as
when a thousand saucers are full of water and moon
disks are seen in all the saucers, still the moon’s
motion is normal and so is its radiance. And this
miracle resembles that.
119. Even as far as the Brahmā-world: having made even
the Brahmā-world the limit. He wields bodily mastery:
herein, he wields self-mastery in the Brahmā-world by
means of the body. The meaning of this should be
understood according to the text.
Here is the text: “‘He wields bodily mastery even as
far as the Brahmā-world’: if this possessor of
supernormal power, having reached mental mastery,
wants to go to the Brahmā-world, though far, he
resolves upon nearness, ‘Let it be near.’ [402] It is near.
Though near, he resolves upon farness, ‘Let it be far.’
It is far. Though many, he resolves upon few, ‘Let
there be few.’ There are few. Though few, he resolves
upon many, ‘Let there be many.’ There are many.
With the divine eye he sees the [fine-material] visible
form of that Brahmā. With the divine ear element he
hears the voice of that Brahmā. With the knowledge of
penetration of minds he understands that Brahmā’s
mind. If this possessor of supernormal power, having
reached mental mastery, wants to go to the Brahmā-

1061
world with a visible body, he converts his mind to
accord with his body, he resolves his mind to accord
with his body. Having converted his mind to accord
with his body, resolved his mind to accord with his
body, he arrives at blissful (easy) perception and light
(quick) perception, and he goes to the Brahmā-world
with a visible body. If this possessor of supernormal
power, having reached mental mastery, wants to go to
the Brahmā-world with an invisible body, he converts
his body to accord with his mind, he resolves his body
to accord with his mind. Having converted his body to
accord with his mind, resolved his body to accord
with his mind, he arrives at blissful (easy) perception
and light (quick) perception, and he goes to the
Brahmā-world with an invisible body. He creates a
[fine-material] visible form before that Brahmā, mind-
made with all its limbs, lacking no faculty. If that
possessor of supernormal power walks up and down,
the creation walks up and down there too. If that
possessor of supernormal power stands … sits … lies
down, the creation lies down there too. If that
possessor of supernormal power produces smoke …
produces flames … preaches Dhamma … asks a
question … being asked a question, answers, the
creation, being asked a question, answers there too. If
that possessor of supernormal power stands with that
Brahmā, converses, enters into communication with

1062
that Brahmā, the creation stands with that Brahmā
there too, converses, enters into communication with
that Brahmā there too. Whatever that possessor of
supernormal power does, the creation does the same
thing’” (Paṭis II 209).
120. Herein, though far, he resolves upon nearness: having
emerged from the basic jhāna, he adverts to a far-off
world of the gods or to the Brahmā-world thus, “Let it
be near.” Having adverted and done the preliminary
work, he attains again, and then resolves with
knowledge: “Let it be near.” It becomes near. The
same method of explanation applies to the other
clauses too.
121. Herein, who has taken what was far and made it
near? The Blessed One. For when the Blessed One was
going to the divine world after the Twin Miracle, he
made Yugandhara and Sineru near, and from the
earth’s surface he set one foot [403] on Yugandhara,
and then he set the other on the summit of Sineru.
122. Who else has done it? The Elder Mahā
Moggallāna. For when the elder was leaving Sāvatthī
after completing his meal, he abridged the twelve-
league crowd and the thirty-league road to the city of
Saṅkassa, and he arrived at the same moment.
123. Furthermore, the Elder Cūḷa Samudda did it as
well in Tambapaṇṇi Island. During a time of scarcity,

1063
it seems, seven hundred bhikkhus came to the elder
one morning. The elder thought, “Where can a large
community of bhikkhus wander for alms?” He saw
nowhere at all in Tambapaṇṇi Island, but he saw that
it would be possible on the other shore at Pāṭaliputta
(Patna). He got the bhikkhus to take their bowls and
[outer] robes, and he said, “Come friends, let us go
wandering for alms.” Then he abridged the earth and
went to Pāṭaliputta. The bhikkhus asked, “What is the
city, venerable sir?”—“It is Pāṭaliputta,
friends.”—“Pāṭaliputta is far away, venerable
sir.”—“Friends, experienced elders make what is far
near.”—“Where is the ocean (mahā-samudda),
venerable sir?”—“Friends, did you not cross a blue
stream on the way as you came?”—“Yes, venerable
sir, but the ocean is vast.”—“Friends, experienced
elders also make what is vast small.”
124. And the Elder Tissadatta did likewise, when he
had put on his upper robes after bathing in the
evening, and the thought of paying homage at the
Great Enlightenment Tree arose in him.
125. Who has taken what was near and made it far?
The Blessed One. For although Aṅgulimāla was near
to the Blessed One, yet he made him far (see M II 99).
126. Who has made much little? The Elder Mahā
Kassapa. One feast day at Rājagaha, it seems, there

1064
were five hundred girls on their way to enjoy the
festival, and they had taken moon cakes with them.
They saw the Blessed One but gave him nothing. On
their way back, however, they saw the elder.
Thinking, “He is our elder,” they each took a cake and
approached the elder. The elder took out his bowl and
made a single bowlful of them all. The Blessed One
had sat down first to await the elder. The elder
brought them and gave them to the Blessed One.
127. In the story of the rich man Illīsa, however, (J-a I
348; Dhp-a I 372) the Elder Mahā Moggallāna made
little much. And in the story of Kākavaḷiya the Blessed
One did so. The Elder Mahā Kassapa, it seems, after
spending seven days in attainment, stood at the house
door of a man in poor circumstances called Kākavaḷiya
in order to show favour to the poor. [404] His wife saw
the elder, and she poured into his bowl the unsalted
sour gruel that she had cooked for her husband. The
elder took it and placed it in the Blessed One’s hand.
The Blessed One resolved to make it enough for the
Greater Community of Bhikkhus. What was brought
in a single bowl became enough for all. And on the
seventh day Kākavaḷiya became a rich man.
128. And not only in the case of making little much,
but whatever the possessor of supernormal power
wishes, whether to make the sweet unsweet, etc., it is
successful for him. For so it was that when the Elder

1065
Mahā Anula saw many bhikkhus sitting on the banks
of the Gaṅgā River [in Sri Lanka] eating plain rice,
which was all that they had got after doing their alms
round, he resolved, “Let the Gaṅgā River water be
cream of ghee,” and he gave a sign to the novices.
They fetched it in their vessels and gave it to the
Community of Bhikkhus. All of them ate their meal
with sweet cream of ghee.
129. With the divine eye: remaining here and extending
light, he sees the visible form of that Brahmā. And
remaining here he also hears the sound of his speech
and he understands his mind.
130. He converts his mind according to his body: he
converts the mind to accord with the material body;
taking the consciousness of the basic jhāna, he mounts
it upon the body, he makes its going slow to coincide
with that of the body; for the body’s mode of going is
slow.
131. He arrives at blissful perception and light perception:
he arrives at, enters, makes contact with, reaches, the
perception of bliss and perception of lightness that are
conascent with the consciousness whose object is the
basic jhāna. And it is perception associated with
equanimity that is called “perception of bliss”; for
equanimity is called “bliss” since it is peaceful. And
that same perception should be understood to be

1066
called “perception of lightness” too because it is
liberated from hindrances and from the things that
oppose it beginning with applied thought. But when
he arrives at that state, his physical body too becomes
as light as a tuft of cotton. He goes to the Brahmā-
world thus with a visible body as light as a tuft of
cotton wafted by the wind.
132. As he goes thus, if he wishes, he creates a path in
space by means of the earth kasiṇa and goes on foot. If
he wishes, he resolves by means of the air kasiṇa that
there shall be air, and he goes by air like a tuft of
cotton. Moreover, the desire to go is the measure here.
When there is the desire to go, one who has made his
mental resolve in this way goes visibly, carried by the
force of the resolution like an arrow shot by an archer.
[405]
133. He converts his body to accord with his mind: he takes
the body and mounts it on the mind. He makes its
going swift to coincide with that of the mind; for the
mind’s mode of going is swift.
He arrives at blissful perception and light perception: he
arrives at perception of bliss and perception of
lightness that are conascent with the supernormal-
power consciousness whose object is the material
body. The rest should be understood in the way
already described. But here there is only the going of

1067
consciousness.[21]
134. When it was asked, “As he goes with an invisible
body thus, does he go at the moment of the resolution-
consciousness’s arising or at the moment of its
presence or at the moment of its dissolution?”, an
elder replied, “He goes in all three moments.”—“But
does he go himself, or does he send a creation?”—“He
does as he pleases. But here it is only the going himself
that has been given [in the text].”
135. Mind-made: mind-made because created by the
mind in resolution. Lacking no faculty: this refers to the
shape of the eye, ear, etc.; but there is no sensitivity in
a created visible form.[22] If the possessor of supernormal
power walks up and down, the creation walks up and down
there too, etc., all refers to what a disciple creates; but
what the Blessed One creates does whatever the
Blessed One does, and it also does other things
according to the Blessed One’s pleasure.
136. When this possessor of supernormal power, while
remaining here sees a visible object with the divine
eye, hears a sound with the divine ear element, knows
consciousness with the penetration of minds, he does
not wield bodily power in doing that. And when,
while remaining here, he stands with that Brahmā,
converses, enters into communication with that
Brahmā, he does not wield bodily power in doing that.

1068
And when he makes his resolve described in the way
beginning “though far, he resolves upon nearness,” he
does not wield bodily power in doing that. And when
he goes to the Brahmā-world with a visible or an
invisible body, he does not wield bodily power in
doing that. But when he enters upon the process
described in the way beginning, “He creates a visible
form before that Brahmā, mind-made,” then he wields
bodily power in doing that. The rest, however, is said
here for the purpose of showing the stage prior to the
wielding of the bodily power. This, firstly, is (i)
success by resolve (§45).
137. The difference between (i) success as
transformation and (ii) success as the mind-made
[body], is as follows (see §22, 24, 25, 45).
(i) One, firstly, who performs a transformation [406]
should resolve upon whatever he chooses from among
the things beginning with the appearance of a boy,
described as follows: “He abandons his normal
appearance and shows the appearance of a boy or the
appearance of a nāga (serpent), or the appearance of a
supaṇṇa (winged demon), or the appearance of an
asura (demon), or the appearance of the Ruler [of
Gods] (Indra), or the appearance of some [other
sensual-sphere] deity, or the appearance of a Brahmā,
or the appearance of the sea, or the appearance of a
rock, or the appearance of a lion, or the appearance of

1069
a tiger, or the appearance of a leopard, or he shows an
elephant, or he shows a horse, or he shows a chariot,
or he shows a foot soldier, or he shows a manifold
military array” (Paṭis II 210).
138. And when he resolves he should emerge from the
fourth jhāna that is the basis for direct-knowledge and
has one of the things beginning with the earth kasiṇa
as its object, and he should advert to his own
appearance as a boy. After adverting and finishing the
preliminary work, he should attain again and emerge,
and he should resolve thus: “Let me be a boy of such
and such a type.” Simultaneously with the resolve
consciousness he becomes the boy, just as Devadatta
did (Vin I 185; Dhp-a I 139). This is the method in all
instances. But he shows an elephant, etc., is said here
with respect to showing an elephant, etc., externally.
Herein, instead of resolving, “Let me be an elephant,”
he resolves, “Let there be an elephant.” The same
method applies in the case of the horse and the rest.
7
This is success as transformation.
139. (ii) One who wants to make the mind-made
[body] should emerge from the basic jhāna and first
advert to the body in the way already described, and
then he should resolve, “Let it be hollow.” It becomes
hollow. Then he adverts to another body inside it, and

1070
having done the preliminary work in the way already
described, he resolves, “Let there be another body
inside it.” Then he draws it out like a reed from its
sheath, like a sword from its scabbard, like a snake
from its slough. Hence it is said: “Here a bhikkhu
creates from this body another body possessing visible
form, mind-made, with all its limbs, lacking no
faculty. Just as though a man pulled out a reed from
its sheath and thought thus: ‘This is the sheath; this is
the reed; the sheath is one, the reed is another, it was
from the sheath that the reed was pulled out’” (Paṭis II
210), and so on. And here, just as the reed, etc., are
similar to the sheath, etc., so too the mind-made
visible form is similar to the possessor of supernormal
power, and this simile is given in order to show that.
This is success as the mind-made [body].

The twelfth chapter called

“The Description of the Supernormal
Powers”
in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1071
Notes for Chapter XII

1. Āneñja—“imperturbability”: a term normally

used for the four immaterial states, together with
the fourth jhāna. See also §16f., and MN 106.
2. Giribhaṇḍavahanapūjā: Vism-mhṭ (p. 375) says:
“Giribhaṇḍa-vahanapūjā nāma Cetiyagiriṃ ādiṃ
katvā sakaladīpe samudde ca yāva yojanā mahatī
dīpapūjā (‘it is a name for a great island-offering
starting with the Cetiyagiri (Mihintale) and
extending over the whole island and up to a
league into the sea ’).” Mentioned in A-a to AN
1:1; M-a II 398; and Mahāvaṃsa XXXIV.81.
3. These are the four headings of the roads to power
(see §50).
4. I.e. one wants it to be known that he can practice
jhāna.
5. “It counter-strikes (paṭiharati), thus it is a counter-
stroke (pāṭihāriya—metamorphosis = miracle).
What strikes out (harati), removes, what is counter
to it (paṭipakkha) is therefore called counter-
striking (paṭihāriya), since what is counter-striking
strikes out anything counter (paṭipakkha) to itself.
Paṭihāriya (counter-striking) is the same as
pāṭihāriya (counter-stroke = metamorphosis =

1072
 miracle)” (Vism-mhṭ 379).
6. Sītā: not in this sense in PED. Vism-mhṭ (p. 383)
says, “It is the path traversed by a ploughshare in
ploughing that is called a sītā.” Another reading is
karīsa (an area of land).
7. Visavitā—“majesty”: not in PED; cf. passavati.
Vism-mhṭ (p. 385) glosses with iddhiyā
vividhānisaṃsa-pasavanāya. Cf. Dhs-a 109; Dhs-ṭ (p.
84) glosses thus visavitāyā ti arahatāya.
8. Further explanatory details are given in the
commentary to the Iddhipāda Vibhaṅga.
9. Aneja (or aneñja)—“unperturbed”: form not in
PED.
10. Aṅgīrasa—“the One with Radiant Limbs”: one of
the epithets for the Buddha. Not in PED; see A III
239.
11. Dedication of what is to be given accompanied by
pouring water over the hand.
12. “‘They become of the kinds desired’: they become
whatever the kinds that were desired: for they
come to possess as many varieties in appearance,
etc., as it was wished they should have. But
although they become manifold in this way by
being made the object in different modes of
appearance, nevertheless it is only a single

1073
 resolution consciousness that occurs. This is its
power. For it is like the single volition that
produces a personality possessed of many
different facets (see Ch. XIV, n. 14). And there it is
the aspiration to become that is a condition for the
differentiation in the kamma; and kamma-result
is imponderable. And here too it is the
preliminary-work consciousness that should be
taken as a condition for the difference. And the
field of supernormal power is imponderable too.”
(Vism-mhṭ 390)
13. Certain grammatical problems arise about the
case of the words āvibhāvaṃ, etc., both in the sutta
passage and (more so) in the Paṭisambhidā
passage; they are examined by Vism-mhṭ (p. 390)
but are not renderable into English.
14. Kūṭāgāra—“palanquin”: not in this sense in PED.
See story at M-a V 90, where it is told how 500 of
these were made by Sakka’s architect
Vissakamma for the Buddha to journey through
the air in. The same word is also commonly used
in the Commentaries for the portable structure
(catafalque) in which a bier is carried to the pyre.
This, built often in the form of a house, is still
used now in Sri Lanka and called ransivi-ge. See
A-a commentary to AN 3:42, and to AN 1:38; also
Dhp-a III 470. Not in this sense in PED.

1074
15. The only book in the Tipiṭaka to mention the
Twin Miracle is the Paṭisambhidāmagga (Paṭis I
53).
16. Anāthapiṇḍika’s younger brother (Vism-mhṭ 391).
17. Okāseti—“to scatter”: PED, this ref., gives “to
show,” which does not fit the context. Vism-mhṭ
glosses with pakirati.
18. Vism-mhṭ (p.394): “Vadhūkumārikaññā-vatthāhi
tividhāhi nāṭakitthīhi.”
19. “‘The ramparts of Sineru’: the girdle of Sineru.
There are, it seems, four ramparts that encircle
Sineru, measuring 5,000 leagues in breadth and
width. They were built to protect the realm of the
Thirty-three against nāgas, garudas, kumbhaṇḍas
and yakkhas. They enclose half of Sineru, it
seems” (Vism-mhṭ 394).
20. “Only this is correct because instances of clung-to
(kammically acquired) materiality do not arise
owing to consciousness or to temperature. Or
alternatively, ‘clung-to’ is intended as all matter
that is bound up with faculties (i.e. ‘sentient’), too.
And so to take it as enlargement of that is likewise
not correct. Consequently, enlargement should be
understood only in the way stated. Though the
clung-to and the unclung-to occur, as it were,
mixed up in a single continuity, they are

1075
 nevertheless not mixed up in meaning. Herein,
just as when a pint measure (āḷhaka) of milk is
poured into a number of pints of water, though
the milk becomes completely mixed up with the
water, and is present appreciably in all, it is
nevertheless not the milk that has increased there,
but only the water. And so too, although the
clung-to and unclung-to occur mixed up together,
it is nevertheless not the clung-to that is enlarged.
It should be taken that it is the consciousness-born
matter that is enlarged by the influence of the
supernormal power, and the temperature-born is
enlarged pari passu” (Vism-mhṭ 395).
21. “‘There is only the going of consciousness’: there is
only a going that is the same as that of the mind.
But how does the body, whose going [being that
of matter] is slow, come to have the same going as
the mind, which quickly passes? Its going is not
the same in all respects; for in the case of
converting the mind to conform with the body,
the mind does not come to have the same going as
the body in all respects. For it is not that the mind
then occurs with the moment of a material state,
which passes slowly, instead of passing with its
own kind of moment, which is what establishes
its individual essence. But rather the mind is
called ‘converted to accord with the going of the

1076
body’ as long as it goes on occurring in a
continuity that conforms with the body until the
desired place is arrived at. This is because its
passing occurs parallel with that of the body,
whose going is slow, owing to the resolution, ‘Let
the mind be like this body.’ And likewise, it is
while the body keeps occurring in suchwise that
its arrival at the desired place comes about in only
a few quick passes of the mind instead of passing
slowly, as in those who have not developed the
roads to power—and this mode of occurrence is
due to the possession of the perception of
lightness, to say nothing of the resolve, ‘Let this
body be like this mind’—that the body is called
‘converted to accord with the going of the mind,’
not because it arrives at the desired place in a
single consciousness moment. And when taken
thus the simile, ‘Just as a strong man might
stretch out his bent arm, or bend his outstretched
arm’ (Vin I 5) can be taken literally. And this must
be accepted in this way without reserve,
otherwise there is conflict with the Suttas, the
Abhidhamma and the Commentary, as well as
contradiction of natural law (dhammatā).
‘Bhikkhus, I see no other one thing that is so
quickly transformed as the mind’ (A I 10)—here it
is material states that are referred to by the word

1077
 ‘other’ because they do not pass quickly. And in
the Abhidhamma only matter is called
prenascence condition and only consciousness
postnascence condition. And wherever states
(dhamma) arise, there they dissolve. There is no
transmigration to an adjacent location (desantara-
saṅkamana), nor does the individual essence
become other. For it is not possible to effect any
alteration of the characteristics of dhammas by
force of the roads to power. But it is possible to
effect alteration of the mode in which they are
present (bhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 397).
22. “This should be regarded as implying that there is
no sex or life faculty in it either.” (Vism-mhṭ 398).

1078
 Chapter XIII
Other Direct-knowledges
(Abhiññā-niddesa)

[(2) The Divine Ear Element]

1. [407] It is now the turn for the description of the

divine ear element. Herein, and also in the case of the
remaining three kinds of direct-knowledge, the
meaning of the passage beginning, “When his
concentrated mind …” (D I 79) should be understood
in the way already stated (XII.13f.); and in each case
we shall only comment on what is different. [The text
is as follows: “He directs, he inclines, his mind to the
divine ear element. With the divine ear element, which
is purified and surpasses the human, he hears both
kinds of sounds, the divine and the human, those that
are far as well as near”(D I 79).]
2. Herein, with the divine ear element: it is divine here
because of its similarity to the divine; for deities have
as the divine ear element the sensitivity that is
produced by kamma consisting in good conduct and
is unimpeded by bile, phlegm, blood, etc., and capable
of receiving an object even though far off because it is
liberated from imperfections. And this ear element

1079
consisting in knowledge, which is produced by the
power of this bhikkhu’s energy in development, is
similar to that, so it is “divine” because it is similar to
the divine. Furthermore, it is “divine” because it is
obtained by means of divine abiding and because it
has divine abiding as its support. And it is an “ear
element” (sota-dhātu) in the sense of hearing (savana)
and in the sense of being a soulless [element]. Also it is
an “ear element” because it is like the ear element in
its performance of an ear element’s function. With that
divine ear element … he hears …
Which is purified: which is quite pure through having
no imperfection. And surpasses the human: which in the
hearing of sounds surpasses, stands beyond, the
human ear element by surpassing the human
environment.
3. He hears both kinds of sounds: he hears the two kinds
of sounds. What two? The divine and the human: the
sounds of deities and of human beings, is what is
meant. This should be understood as partially
inclusive. Those that are far as well as near: what is
meant is that he hears sounds that are far off, even in
another world-sphere, and those that are near, even
the sounds of the creatures living in his own body.
This should be understood as completely inclusive.
4. But how is this [divine ear element] aroused? The

1080
bhikkhu [408] should attain jhāna as basis for direct-
knowledge and emerge. Then, with the consciousness
belonging to the preliminary-work concentration,[1] he
should advert first to the gross sounds in the distance
normally within range of hearing: the sound in the
forest of lions, etc., or in the monastery the sound of a
gong, the sound of a drum, the sound of a conch, the
sound of recitation by novices and young bhikkhus
reciting with full vigour, the sound of their ordinary
talk such as “What, venerable sir?”, “What, friend?”,
etc., the sound of birds, the sound of wind, the sound
of footsteps, the fizzing sound of boiling water, the
sound of palm leaves drying in the sun, the sound of
ants, and so on. Beginning in this way with quite gross
sounds, he should successively advert to more and
more subtle sounds. He should give attention to the
sound sign of the sounds in the eastern direction, in
the western direction, in the northern direction, in the
southern direction, in the upper direction, in the lower
direction, in the eastern intermediate direction, in the
western intermediate direction, in the northern
intermediate direction, and in the southern
intermediate direction. He should give attention to the
sound sign of gross and of subtle sounds.[2]
5. These sounds are evident even to his normal
consciousness; but they are especially evident to his
preliminary-work-concentration consciousness. [3] As

1081
he gives his attention to the sound sign in this way,
[thinking] “Now the divine ear element will arise,”
mind-door adverting arises making one of these
sounds its object. When that has ceased, then either
four or five impulsions impel, the first three, or four,
of which are of the sense sphere and are called
preliminary-work, access, conformity, and change-of-
lineage, while the fourth, or the fifth, is fine-material-
sphere absorption consciousness belonging to the
fourth jhāna.
6. Herein, it is knowledge arisen together with the
absorption consciousness that is called the divine ear
element. After that [absorption has been reached, the
divine ear element] becomes merged in that ear [of
knowledge].[4] When consolidating it, he should
extend it by delimiting a single finger-breadth thus, “I
will hear sounds within this area,” then two finger-
breadths, four finger-breadths, eight finger-breadths, a
span, a ratana (= 24 finger-breadths), the interior of the
room, the veranda, the building, the surrounding
walk, the park belonging to the community, the alms-
resort village, the district, and so on up to the [limit of
the] world-sphere, or even more. This is how he
should extend it by delimited stages.
7. One who has reached direct-knowledge in this way
hears also by means of direct-knowledge without re-
entering the basic jhāna any sound that has come

1082
within the space touched by the basic jhāna’s object.
And in hearing in this way, even if there is an uproar
with sounds of conches, drums, cymbals, etc., right up
to the Brahmā-world [409] he can, if he wants to, still
define each one thus, “This is the sound of conches,
this is the sound of drums.”
The explanation of the divine ear element is ended.

[(3) Penetration of Minds]

8. As to the explanation of knowledge of penetration

of minds, [the text is as follows: “He directs, he
inclines, his mind to the knowledge of penetration of
minds. He penetrates with his mind the minds of
other beings, of other persons, and understands them
thus: he understands [the manner of] consciousness
affected by greed as affected by greed, and
understands [the manner of] consciousness unaffected
by greed as unaffected by greed; he understands
consciousness affected by hate as affected by hate, and
consciousness unaffected by hate as unaffected by
hate; he understands consciousness affected by
delusion as affected by delusion, and consciousness
unaffected by delusion as unaffected by delusion; he
understands cramped consciousness as cramped, and

1083
distracted consciousness as distracted; he understands
exalted consciousness as exalted, and unexalted
consciousness as unexalted; he understands surpassed
consciousness as surpassed and unsurpassed
consciousness as unsurpassed; he understands
concentrated consciousness as concentrated and
unconcentrated consciousness as unconcentrated; he
understands the liberated [manner of] consciousness
as liberated, and the unliberated [manner of]
consciousness as unliberated” (D I 79). Here, it goes all
round (pariyāti), thus it is penetration (pariya); the
meaning is that it delimits (paricchindati). The
penetration of the heart (cetaso pariyaṃ) is “penetration
of minds” (cetopariya). It is penetration of hearts and
that is knowledge, thus it is knowledge of penetration
of minds (cetopariyañāṇa). [He directs his
consciousness] to that, is what is meant.
Of other beings: of the rest of beings, himself
excluded. Of other persons: this has the same meaning
as the last, the wording being varied to suit those
susceptible of teaching [in another way], and for the
sake of elegance of exposition. With his mind the minds:
with his [manner of] consciousness the [manner of]
consciousness of other beings. Having penetrated
(paricca): having delimited all round. He understands:
he understands them to be of various sorts beginning
with that affected by greed.

1084
9. But how is this knowledge to be aroused? That is
successfully done through the divine eye, which
constitutes its preliminary work. Therefore the
bhikkhu should extend light, and he should seek out
(pariyesitabba) another’s [manner of] consciousness by
keeping under observation with the divine eye the
colour of the blood present with the matter of the
physical heart as its support.[5] For when [a manner
of] consciousness accompanied by joy is present, the
blood is red like a banyan-fig fruit; when [a manner
of] consciousness accompanied by grief is present, it is
blackish like a rose-apple fruit; when [a manner of]
consciousness accompanied by serenity is present, it is
clear like sesame oil. So he should seek out another’s
[manner of] consciousness by keeping under
observation the colour of the blood in the physical
heart thus, “This matter is originated by the joy
faculty; this is originated by the grief faculty; this is
originated by the equanimity faculty,” and so
consolidate his knowledge of penetration of hearts.
10. It is when it has been consolidated in this way that
he can gradually get to understand not only all
manner of sense-sphere consciousness but those of
fine-material and immaterial consciousness as well by
tracing one [manner of] consciousness from another
without any more seeing the physical heart’s matter.
For this is said in the Commentary: “When he wants

1085
to know another’s [manner of] consciousness in the
immaterial modes, whose physical-heart matter can he
observe? Whose material alteration [originated] by the
faculties can he look at? No one’s. The province of a
possessor of supernormal power is [simply] this,
namely, wherever the [manner of] consciousness he
adverts to is, there he knows it according to these
sixteen classes.” But this explanation [by means of the
physical heart] is for one who has not [yet] done any
interpreting.[6]
11. As regards [the manner of] consciousness affected by
greed, etc., the eight [manners of] consciousness
accompanied by greed (see Table III, nos. (22)–(29))
[410] should be understood as [the manner of]
consciousness affected by greed. The remaining
profitable and indeterminate [manners of]
consciousness in the four planes are unaffected by greed.
The four, namely, the two consciousnesses
accompanied by grief (nos. (30) and (31)), and the two
consciousnesses [accompanied respectively by]
uncertainty (32) and agitation (33) are not included in
this dyad, though some elders include them too. It is
the two consciousnesses accompanied by grief that are
called consciousness affected by hate. And all profitable
and indeterminate consciousnesses in the four planes
are unaffected by hate. The remaining ten kinds of
unprofitable consciousnesses (nos. (22)–(29) and (32)

1086
and (33)) are not included in this dyad, though some
elders include them too. Affected by delusion …
unaffected by delusion: here only the two, namely, that
accompanied by uncertainty and that accompanied by
agitation, are affected by delusion alone [without
being accompanied by the other two unprofitable
roots]. But [all] the twelve kinds of unprofitable
consciousnesses (nos. (22)–(33)) can also be
understood as [the manner of] consciousness affected
by delusion since delusion is present in all kinds of
unprofitable consciousnesses. The rest are unaffected by
delusion.
12. Cramped is that attended by stiffness and torpor.
Distracted is that attended by agitation. Exalted is that
of the fine-material and immaterial spheres. Unexalted
is the rest. Surpassed is all that in the three [mundane]
planes. Unsurpassed is the supramundane. Concentrated
is that attained to access and that attained to
absorption. Unconcentrated is that not attained to
either. Liberated is that attained to any [of the five
kinds of] deliverance, that is to say, deliverance by
substitution of opposites [through insight], by
suppression [through concentration], by cutting off
[by means of the path], by tranquillization [by means
of fruition], and by renunciation [as Nibbāna] (see
Paṭis I 26 under “abandoning”). Unliberated is that
which has not attained to any of the five kinds of

1087
liberation.
So the bhikkhu who has acquired the knowledge of
penetration of hearts understands all these [manners
of consciousness, namely, the manner of]
consciousness affected by greed as affected by greed
… [the unliberated manner of] consciousness as
unliberated.

[(4) Recollection of Past Lives]

13. As to the explanation of knowledge of recollection

of past lives, [the text is as follows:] He directs, he
inclines, his mind to the knowledge of recollection of
past lives. He recollects his manifold past lives, that is
to say, one birth, two births, three births, four births,
five births, ten births, twenty births, thirty births, forty
births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand births,
a hundred thousand births, many eons of world
contraction, many eons of world expansion: many
eons of world contraction and expansion: “There I was
so named, of such a race, with such an appearance,
such was my food, such my experience of pleasure
and pain, such the end of my life span; and passing
away from there, I reappeared elsewhere; and there
too I was so named, of such a race, with such an

1088
appearance, such was my food, such my experience of
pleasure and pain, such the end of my life span; and
passing away from there, I reappeared here.” Thus
with its aspects and particulars he recollects his
manifold past lives” (D I 81). [Herein,] to the knowledge
of recollection of past lives [means] for knowledge
concerning recollection of past lives. Past lives is
aggregates lived in the past in former births. “Lived”
[in that case means] lived out, undergone, arisen and
ceased in one’s own [subjective] continuity. Or
alternatively, [past lives] is mental objects lived [in the
past in one’s former births]; and “lived” in that case
means lived by living in one’s [objective] resort, which
has been cognized and delimited by one’s own
consciousness, or cognized by another’s
consciousness, too. In the case of recollection of those
[past Enlightened Ones] who have broken the cycle,
and so on,[7] these last are only accessible to
Enlightened Ones. Recollection of past lives: the
mindfulness (memory) by means of which he
recollects the past lives is the recollection of past lives.
Knowledge is the knowledge associated with that
mindfulness. [411] To the knowledge of recollection of past
lives: for the purpose of the knowledge of the
recollection of past lives in this way; for the attaining,
for the reaching, of that knowledge, is what is meant.
14. Manifold: of many kinds: or that has occurred in

1089
many ways. Given in detail, is the meaning.[8] Past
lives is the continuity lived here and there, taking the
immediately previous existence as the beginning [and
working backwards]. He recollects: he recalls it,
following it out by the succession of aggregates, or by
death and rebirth-linking.
15. There are six kinds of people who recollect these
past lives. They are: other sectarians, ordinary
disciples, great disciples, chief disciples,
Paccekabuddhas, and Buddhas.
16. Herein, other sectarians recollect only as far back
as forty eons, but not beyond that. Why? Because their
understanding is weak for lack of delimitation of mind
and matter (see Ch. XVIII). Ordinary disciples recollect
as far back as a hundred eons and as far back as a
thousand eons because their understanding is strong.
The eighty great disciples recollect as far back as a
hundred thousand eons. The two chief disciples
recollect as far back as an incalculable age and a
hundred thousand eons. Paccekabuddhas recollect as
far back as two incalculable ages and a hundred
thousand eons. For such is the extent to which they
can convey [their minds back respectively]. But there
is no limit in the case of Buddhas.
17. Again, other sectarians only recollect the
succession of aggregates; they are unable to recollect

1090
according [only] to death and rebirth-linking, letting
go of the succession of aggregates. They are like the
blind in that they are unable to descend upon any
place they choose; they go as the blind do without
letting go of their sticks. So they recollect without
letting go of the succession of aggregates. Ordinary
disciples both recollect by means of the succession of
aggregates and trace by means of death and rebirth-
linking. Likewise, the eighty great disciples. But the
chief disciples have nothing to do with the succession
of aggregates. When they see the death of one person,
they see the rebirth-linking, and again when they see
the death of another, they see the rebirth-linking. So
they go by tracing through death and rebirth-thinking.
Likewise, Paccekabuddhas.
18. Buddhas, however, have nothing to do either with
succession of aggregates or with tracing through death
and rebirth-linking; for whatever instance they choose
in many millions of eons, or more or less, is evident to
them. So they go, and so they descend with the lion’s
descent[9] wherever they want, even skipping over
many millions of eons as though they were an elision
in a text. And just as an arrow shot by such a master of
archery expert in hair-splitting as Sarabhaṅga (see J-a
V 129) always hits the target without getting held up
among trees, creepers, etc., on its way, and so neither
gets held up nor misses, so too, since Buddhas go in

1091
this way their knowledge does not get held up in
intermediate births [412] or miss; without getting held
up or missing, it seizes any instance required.
19. Among these beings with recollection of past lives,
the sectarians’ vision of past lives seems like the light
of a glow-worm, that of ordinary disciples like the
light of a candle, that of the great disciples like the
light of a torch, that of the chief disciples like the light
of the morning star, that of Paccekabuddhas like the
light of the moon, and that of Buddhas like the
glorious autumn sun’s disk with its thousand rays.
20. Other sectarians see past lives as blind men go
[tapping] with the point of a stick. Ordinary disciples
do so as men who go on a log bridge. The great
disciples do so as men who go on a foot bridge. The
chief disciples do so as men who go on a cart bridge.
Paccekabuddhas do so as men who go on a main foot-
path. And Buddhas do so as men who go on a high
road for carts.
21. In this connection it is the disciples’ recollection of
past lives that is intended. Hence it was said above:
“’He recollects’: he recollects it following it out by the
succession of aggregates, or by death and rebirth-
linking” (§14).
22. So a bhikkhu who is a beginner and wants to
recollect in this way should go into solitary retreat on

1092
return from his alms round after his meal. Then he
should attain the four jhānas in succession and emerge
from the fourth jhāna as basis for direct-knowledge.
He should then advert to his most recent act of sitting
down [for this purpose], next, to the preparation of the
seat, to the entry into the lodging, to the putting away
of the bowl and [outer] robe, to the time of eating, to
the time of returning from the village, to the time of
wandering for alms in the village, to the time of
entering the village, to the time of setting out from the
monastery, to the time of paying homage at the shrine
terrace and the Enlightenment-tree terrace, to the time
of washing the bowl, to the time of picking up the
bowl, to the things done from the time of picking up
the bowl back to the mouth washing, to the things
done in the early morning, to the things done in the
middle watch, in the first watch. In this way he should
advert to all the things done during the whole night
and day in reverse order.
23. While this much, however, is evident even to his
normal consciousness, it is especially evident to his
preliminary-work consciousness. But if anything there
is not evident, he should again attain the basic jhāna,
emerge and advert. By so doing it becomes as evident
as when a lamp is lit. And so, in reverse order too, he
should advert to the things done on the second day
back, and on the third, fourth and fifth day, and in the

1093
ten days, and in the fortnight, and as far back as a
year.
24. When by these means he adverts to ten years,
twenty years, and so on as far back as his own rebirth-
linking in this existence, [413] he should advert to the
mentality-materiality occurring at the moment of
death in the preceding existence; for a wise bhikkhu is
able at the first attempt to remove[10] the rebirth-
linking and make the mentality-materiality at the
death moment his object.
25. But the mentality-materiality in the previous
existence has ceased without remainder and another
has arisen, and consequently that instance is, as it
were, shut away in darkness, and it is hard for one of
little understanding to see it. Still he should not give
up the task, thinking, “I am unable to remove the
rebirth-linking and make the mentality-materiality
that occurred at the death moment my object.” On the
contrary, he should again and again attain that same
basic jhāna, and each time he emerges he should
advert to that instance.
26. Just as when a strong man is felling a big tree for
the purpose of making the peak of a gable, but is
unable to fell the big tree with an axe blade blunted by
lopping the branches and foliage, still he does not give
up the task; on the contrary, he goes to a smithy and

1094
has his axe sharpened, after which he returns and
continues chopping the tree; and when the axe again
gets blunt, he does as before and continues chopping
it; and as he goes on chopping it in this way, the tree
falls at length, because each time there is no need to
chop again what has already been chopped and what
has not yet been chopped gets chopped; so too, when
he emerges from the basic jhāna, instead of adverting
to what he has already adverted to, he should advert
only to the rebirth-linking, and at length he removes
the rebirth-linking and makes the mentality-
materiality that occurred at the death moment his
object. And this meaning should also be illustrated by
means of the wood cutter and the hair-cutter as well.
27. Herein, the knowledge that occurs making its
object the period from the last sitting down for this
purpose back to the rebirth-linking is not called
knowledge of recollection of past lives; but it is called
preliminary-work-concentration knowledge; and some
call it “knowledge of the past” (atītaṃsa-ñāṇa), but that
is inappropriate to the fine-material sphere.
However, when this bhikkhu has got back beyond
the rebirth-linking, there arises in him mind-door
adverting making its object the mentality-materiality
that occurred at the death moment. And when that has
ceased, then either four or five impulsions impel
making that their object too. The first of these, called

1095
“preliminary-work,” etc., in the way already described
(§5), are of the sense sphere. The last is a fine-material
absorption consciousness of the fourth jhāna. The
knowledge that arises in him then together with that
consciousness is what is called, “knowledge of
recollection of past lives.” It is with the mindfulness
(memory) associated with that knowledge that he
“recollects his manifold past lives, that is to say, one
birth, two births, …”[414] thus with details and
particulars he recollects his manifold past lives (D I
81).
28. Herein, one birth is the continuity of aggregates
included in a single becoming starting with rebirth-
linking and ending with death. So too with two births,
and the rest.
But in the case of many eons of world contraction, etc.,
it should be understood that the aeon of world
contraction is an aeon of diminution and the aeon of
world expansion is an aeon of increase.
29. Herein, what supersedes the contraction is
included in the contraction since it is rooted in it; and
so too what supersedes the expansion is included in
the expansion. This being so, it includes what is stated
thus: “Bhikkhus, there are four incalculables of the
aeon. What four? The contraction, what supersedes
the contraction, the expansion, and what supersedes

1096
the expansion” (A II 142 abbreviated).
30. Herein, there are three kinds of contraction:
contraction due to water, contraction due to fire, and
contraction due to air (see MN 28). Also there are three
limits to the contraction; the Ābhassara (Streaming-
radiance) Brahmā-world, that of the Subhakiṇha
(Refulgent-glory), and that of the Vehapphala (Great-
fruit). When the aeon contracts owing to fire, all below
the Ābhassara [Brahmā-world] is burnt up by fire.
When it contracts owing to water, it is all dissolved by
water up to the Subhakiṇha [Brahmā-world]. When it
contracts owing to air, it is all demolished by wind up
to the Vehapphala [Brahmā-world].
31. In breadth it is always one of the Buddha-fields
that is destroyed. For the Buddha-fields are of three
kinds, that is, the field of birth, the field of authority,
and the field of scope.
Herein, the field of birth is limited by the ten
thousand world-spheres that quaked on the Perfect
One’s taking rebirth-linking, and so on. The field of
authority is limited by the hundred thousand million
world-spheres where the following safeguards
(paritta) are efficacious, that is, the Ratana Sutta (Sn
p.39), the Khandha Paritta (Vin II 109; A II 72), the
Dhajagga Paritta (S I 218), the Āṭānāṭiya Paritta (D III
194), and the Mora Paritta (J-a II 33). The field of scope

1097
is boundless, immeasurable: “As far as he wishes” (A I
228), it is said. The Perfect One knows anything
anywhere that he wishes. So one of these three
Buddha-fields, that is to say, the field of authority is
destroyed. But when that is being destroyed, the field
of birth also gets destroyed. And that happens
simultaneously; and when it is reconstituted, that
happens simultaneously (cf. M-a IV 114).
32. Now, it should be understood how its destruction
and reconstitution come about thus. On the occasion
when the aeon is destroyed by fire [415] first of all a
great cloud heralding the aeon’s destruction appears,
and there is a great downpour all over the hundred
thousand million world-spheres. People are delighted,
and they bring out all their seeds and sow them. But
when the sprouts have grown enough for an ox to
graze, then not a drop of rain falls any more even
when the asses bray. Rain is withheld from then on.
This is what the Blessed One referred to when he said:
“Bhikkhus, an occasion comes when for many years,
for many hundreds of years, for many thousands of
years, for many hundreds of thousands of years, there
is no rain” (A IV 100). Beings that live by rain die and
are reborn in the Brahmā-world, and so are the deities
that live on flowers and fruits.
33. When a long period has passed in this way, the
water gives out here and there. Then in due course the

1098
fishes and turtles die and are reborn in the Brahmā-
world, and so are the beings in hell. Some say that the
denizens of hell perish there with the appearance of
the seventh sun (§41).
Now, there is no rebirth in the Brahmā-world
without jhāna; and some of them, being obsessed with
the scarcity of food, are unable to attain jhāna, so how
are they reborn there? By means of jhāna obtained in
the [sense-sphere] divine world.
34. For then the sense-sphere deities called world-
marshal (loka-byūha) deities come to know that at the
end of a hundred thousand years there will be the
emergence of an aeon, and they travel up and down
the haunts of men, their heads bared, their hair
dishevelled, with piteous faces, mopping their tears
with their hands, clothed in dyed cloth, and wearing
their dress in great disorder. They make this
announcement: “Good sirs, good sirs, at the end of a
hundred thousand years from now there will be the
emergence of an aeon. This world will be destroyed.
Even the ocean will dry up. This great earth, and the
Sineru King of Mountains, will be consumed and
destroyed. The destruction of the earth will extend as
far as the Brahmā-world. Develop loving-kindness,
good sirs, develop compassion, gladness, equanimity,
good sirs. Care for your mothers, care for your fathers,
honour the elders of your clans.”

1099
35. When human beings and earth deities hear their
words, they mostly are filled with a sense of urgency.
They become kind to each other and make merit with
loving-kindness, etc., and so they are reborn in the
divine world. There they eat divine food, and they do
the preliminary work on the air kasiṇa and acquire
jhāna. Others, however, are reborn in a [sense-sphere]
divine world through kamma to be experienced in a
future life. For there is no being traversing the round
of rebirths who is destitute of kamma to be
experienced in a future life. They too acquire jhāna
there in the same way. [416] All are eventually reborn
in the Brahmā-world by acquiring jhāna in a [sense-
sphere] divine world in this way.
36. However, at the end of a long period after the
withholding of the rain, a second sun appears. And
this is described by the Blessed One in the way
beginning, “Bhikkhus, there is the occasion when …”
(A IV 100), and the Sattasuriya Sutta should be given
in full. Now, when that has appeared, there is no more
telling night from day; as one sun sets, the other rises.
The world is uninterruptedly scorched by the suns.
But there is no sun deity in the aeon-destruction sun
as there is in the ordinary sun.[11] Now, when the
ordinary sun is present, thunder clouds and mare’s-
tail vapours cross the skies. But when the aeon-
destruction sun is present, the sky is as blank as the

1100
disk of a looking-glass and destitute of clouds and
vapour. Beginning with the rivulet, the water in all the
rivers except the five great rivers[12] dries up.
37. After that, at the end of a long period, a third sun
appears. And when that has appeared, the great rivers
dry up too.
38. After that, at the end of a long period, a fourth sun
appears. And when that has appeared, the seven great
lakes in Himalaya, the sources of the great rivers, dry
up, that is to say: Sīhapapāta, Haṃsapātana,[13]
Kaṇṇamuṇḍaka, Rathakāra, Anotatta, Chaddanta, and
Kuṇāla.
39. After that, at the end of a long period, a fifth sun
appears, and when that has appeared, there eventually
comes to be not enough water left in the great ocean to
wet one finger joint.
40. After that, at the end of a long period, a sixth sun
appears, and when that has appeared, the whole
world-sphere becomes nothing but vapour, all its
moisture being evaporated.
And the hundred thousand million world-spheres
are the same as this one.
41. After that, at the end of a long period, a seventh
sun appears. And when that has appeared, the whole
world-sphere together with the hundred thousand

1101
million other world-spheres catches fire. Even the
summits of Sineru, a hundred leagues and more high,
crumble and vanish into space. The conflagration
mounts up and invades the realm of the Four Kings.
When it has burnt up all the golden palaces, the
jewelled palaces and the crystal palaces there, it
invades the Realm of the Thirty-three. And so it goes
right on up to the plane of the first jhāna. When it has
burnt three [lower] Brahmā-worlds, it stops there at
the Ābhassara-world. [417] As long as any formed
thing (formation) the size of an atom still exists it does
not go out; but it goes out when all formed things
have been consumed. And like the flame that burns
ghee and oil, it leaves no ash.
42. The upper space is now all one with the lower
space in a vast gloomy darkness. Then at the end of a
long period a great cloud arises, and at first it rains
gently, and then it rains with ever heavier deluges,
like lotus stems, like rods, like pestles, like palm
trunks, more and more. And so it pours down upon
all burnt areas in the hundred thousand million
world-spheres till they disappear. Then the winds
(forces) beneath and all around that water rise up and
compact it and round it, like water drops on a lotus
leaf. How do they compact the great mass of water?
By making gaps; for the wind makes gaps in it here
and there.

1102
43. Being thus compressed by the air, compacted and
reduced, it gradually subsides. As it sinks, the [lower]
Brahmā-world reappears in its place, and worlds
divine reappear in the places of the four upper divine
worlds of the sensual sphere.[14] But when it has sunk
to the former earth’s level, strong winds (forces) arise
and they stop it and hold it stationary, like the water
in a water pot when the outlet is plugged. As the fresh
water gets used up, the essential humus makes its
appearance on it. That possesses colour, smell and
taste, like the surface film on milk rice when it dries
up.
44. Then the beings that were reborn first in the
Brahmā-world of Streaming-radiance (Ābhassara) fall
from there with the exhaustion of their life span, or
when their merit is exhausted, and they reappear here.
They are self-luminous and wander in the sky. On
eating the essential humus, as is told in the Aggañña
Sutta (D III 85), they are overcome by craving, and
they busy themselves in making lumps of it to eat.
Then their self-luminosity vanishes, and it is dark.
They are frightened when they see the darkness.
45. Then in order to remove their fears and give them
courage, the sun’s disk appears full fifty leagues
across. They are delighted to see it, thinking, “We
have light,” and they say, “It has appeared in order to
allay our fears and give us courage (sūrabhāva), so let it

1103
be called ’sun’ (suriya).” So they give it the name “sun”
(suriya). Now, when the sun has given light for a day,
it sets. Then they are frightened again, thinking, “We
have lost the light we had,” and they think, “How
good if we had another light!” [418]
46. As if knowing their thought, the moon’s disk
appears, forty-nine leagues across. On seeing it they
are still more delighted, and they say, “It has
appeared, seeming as if it knew our desire (chanda), so
let it be called ’moon’ (canda).” So they give it the
name “moon” (canda).
47. After the appearance of the moon and sun in this
way, the stars appear in their constellations. After that,
night and day are made known, and in due course, the
month and half month, the season, and the year.
48. On the day the moon and sun appear, the
mountains of Sineru, of the World-sphere and of
Himalaya appear too. And they appear on the full-
moon day of the month of Phagguna (March), neither
before nor after. How? Just as, when millet is cooking
and bubbles arise, then simultaneously, some parts are
domes, some hollow, and some flat, so too, there are
mountains in the domed places, seas in the hollow
places, and continents (islands) in the flat places.
49. Then, as these beings make use of the essential
humus, gradually some become handsome and some

1104
ugly. The handsome ones despise the ugly ones.
Owing to their contempt the essential humus vanishes
and an outgrowth from the soil appears. Then that
vanishes in the same way and the badālatā creeper
appears. That too vanishes in the same way and the
rice without red powder or husk that ripens without
tilling appears, a clean sweet-smelling rice fruit.
50. Then vessels appear. These beings put the rice into
the vessels, which they put on the tops of stones. A
flame appears spontaneously and cooks it. The cooked
rice resembles jasmine flowers. It has no need of
sauces and curries, since it has whatever flavour they
want to taste.
51. As soon as they eat this gross food, urine and
excrement appear in them. Then wound orifices break
open in them to let these things out. The male sex
appears in the male, and the female sex in the female.
Then the females brood over the males, and the males
over the females for a long time. Owing to this long
period of brooding, the fever of sense desires arises.
After that they practice sexual intercourse.
52. [419] For their [overt] practice of evil they are
censured and punished by the wise, and so they build
houses for the purpose of concealing the evil. When
they live in houses, they eventually fall in with the
views of the more lazy, and they make stores of food.

1105
As soon as they do that, the rice becomes enclosed in
red powder and husks and no longer grows again of
itself in the place where it was reaped. They meet
together and bemoan the fact, “Evil has surely made
its appearance among beings; for formerly we were
mind-made …” (D III 90), and all this should be given
in full in the way described in the Aggañña Sutta.
53. After that, they set up boundaries. Then some
being takes a portion given to another. After he has
been twice rebuked, at the third time they come to
blows with fists, clods, sticks, and so on. When
stealing, censuring, lying, resorting to sticks, etc., have
appeared in this way, they meet together, thinking,
“Suppose we elect a being who would reprove those
who should be reproved, censure those who should be
censured, and banish those who should be banished,
and suppose we keep him supplied with a portion of
the rice?” (D III 92).
54. When beings had come to an agreement in this
way in this aeon, firstly this Blessed One himself, who
was then the Bodhisatta (Being due to be Enlightened),
was the handsomest, the most comely, the most
honourable, and was clever and capable of exercising
the effort of restraint. They approached him, asked
him, and elected him. Since he was recognized
(sammata) by the majority (mahā-jana) he was called
Mahā Sammata. Since he was lord of the fields (khetta)

1106
he was called khattiya (warrior noble). Since he
promoted others’ good (rañjeti) righteously and
equitably he was a king (rājā). This is how he came to
be known by these names. For the Bodhisatta himself
is the first man concerned in any wonderful
innovation in the world. So after the khattiya circle
had been established by making the Bodhisatta the
first in this way, the brahmans and the other castes
were founded in due succession.
55. Herein, the period from the time of the great cloud
heralding the aeon’s destruction up till the ceasing of
the flames constitutes one incalculable, and that is
called the “contraction.” That from the ceasing of the
flames of the aeon destruction up till the great cloud of
rehabilitation, which rains down upon the hundred
thousand million world-spheres, constitutes the
second incalculable, and that is called, “what
supersedes the contraction.” That from the time of the
great cloud of rehabilitation up till the appearance of
the moon and sun constitutes the third incalculable,
and that is called the “expansion.” That from the
appearance of the moon and sun up till [420] the
reappearance of the great cloud of the aeon
destruction is the fourth incalculable, and that is
called, “what supersedes the expansion.” These four
incalculables make up one great aeon. This, firstly, is
how the destruction by fire and reconstitution should

1107
be understood.
56. The occasion when the aeon is destroyed by water
should be treated in the way already described
beginning, “First of all a great cloud heralding the
aeon’s destruction appears …” (§32).
57. There is this difference, however. While in the
former case a second sun appeared, in this case a great
cloud of caustic waters[15] appears. At first it rains
very gently, but it goes on to rain with gradually
greater deluges, pouring down upon the hundred
thousand million world-spheres. As soon as they are
touched by the caustic waters, the earth, the
mountains, etc., melt away, and the waters are
supported all round by winds. The waters take
possession from the earth up to the plane of the
second jhāna. When they have dissolved away the
three Brahmā-worlds there, they stop at the
Subhakiṇha-world. As long as any formed thing the
size of an atom exists they do not subside; but they
suddenly subside and vanish away when all formed
things have been overwhelmed by them. All
beginning with: “The upper space is all one with the
lower space in a vast gloomy darkness …” (§42) is as
already described, except that here the world begins
its reappearance with the Ābhassara Brahmā-world.
And beings falling from the Subhakiṇha Brahmā-
world are reborn in the places beginning with the

1108
Ābhassara Brahmā-world.
58. Herein, the period from the time of the great cloud
heralding the aeon’s destruction up till the ceasing of
the aeon-destroying waters constitutes one
incalculable. That from the ceasing of the waters up till
the great cloud of rehabilitation constitutes the second
incalculable. That from the great cloud of
rehabilitation … These four incalculables make up one
great aeon. This is how the destruction by water and
reconstitution should be understood.
59. The occasion when the aeon is destroyed by air
should be treated in the way already described
beginning with the “first of all a great cloud heralding
the aeon’s destruction appears …” (§32).
60. There is this difference, however. While in the first
case there was a second sun, here a wind arises in
order to destroy the aeon. First of all it lifts up the
coarse flue, then the fine flue, then the fine sand,
coarse sand, gravel, stones, etc., [421] until it lifts up
stones as big as a catafalque,[16] and great trees
standing in uneven places. They are swept from the
earth up into the sky, and instead of falling down
again they are broken to bits there and cease to exist.
61. Then eventually wind arises from underneath the
great earth and overturns the earth, flinging it into
space. The earth splits into fragments measuring a

1109
hundred leagues, measuring two, three, four, five
hundred leagues, and they are hurled into space too,
and there they are broken to bits and cease to exist.
The world-sphere mountains and Mount Sineru are
wrenched up and cast into space, where they crash
against each other till they are broken to bits and
disappear. In this way it destroys the divine palaces
built on the earth [of Mount Sineru] and those built in
space, it destroys the six sensual-sphere divine worlds,
and it destroys the hundred thousand million world-
spheres. Then world-sphere collides with world-
sphere, Himalaya Mountain with Himalaya Mountain,
Sineru with Sineru, till they are broken to bits and
disappear.
62. The wind takes possession from the earth up to
the plane of the third jhāna. There, after destroying
three Brahmā-worlds, it stops at the Vehapphala-
world. When it has destroyed all formed things in this
way, it spends itself too. Then all happens as already
described in the way beginning, “The upper space is
all one with the lower space in a vast gloomy darkness
…” (§42). But here the world begins its reappearance
with the Subhakiṇha Brahmā-world. And beings
falling from the Vehapphala Brahmā-world are reborn
in the places beginning with the Subhakiṇha Brahmā-
world.
63. Herein, the period from the time of the great cloud

1110
heralding the aeon’s destruction up till the ceasing of
the aeon-destroying wind is one incalculable. That
from the ceasing of the wind up till the great cloud of
rehabilitation is the second incalculable … These four
incalculables make up one great aeon. This is how the
destruction by wind and reconstitution should be
understood.
64. What is the reason for the world’s destruction in
this way? The [three] roots of the unprofitable are the
reason. When any one of the roots of the unprofitable
becomes conspicuous, the world is destroyed
accordingly. When greed is more conspicuous, it is
destroyed by fire. When hate is more conspicuous, it is
destroyed by water—though some say that it is
destroyed by fire when hate is more conspicuous and
by water when greed is more conspicuous. And when
delusion is more conspicuous, it is destroyed by wind.
65. Destroyed as it is in this way, it is destroyed for
seven turns in succession by fire and the eighth turn
by water; then again seven turns by fire and the eighth
turn by water; then, when it has been seven times
destroyed by water at each eighth [422] turn, it is
again destroyed for seven turns by fire. Sixty-three
eons pass in this way. And now the air takes the
opportunity to usurp the water’s turn for destruction,
and in destroying the world it demolishes the
Subhakiṇha Brahmā-world where the life span is the

1111
full sixty-four eons.
66. Now, when a bhikkhu capable of recollecting eons
is recollecting his former lives, then of such eons as
these he recollects many eons of world contraction, many
eons of world expansion, many eons of world contraction
and expansion. How? In the way beginning, There I was
…
Herein, There I was: in that eon of contraction I was
in that kind of becoming or generation or destiny or
station of consciousness or abode of beings or order of
beings.
67. So named: [such forenames as] Tissa, say, or
Phussa. Of such a race: [such family names as] Kaccāna,
say, or Kassapa. This is said of the recollection of his
own name and race (surname) in his past existence.
But if he wants to recollect his own appearance at that
time, or whether his life was a rough or refined one, or
whether pleasure or pain was prevalent, or whether
his life span was short or long, he recollects that too.
Hence he said with such an appearance … such the end of
my life span.
68. Here, with such an appearance means fair or dark.
Such was my food: with white rice and meat dishes as
food or with windfall fruits as food. Such my experience
of pleasure and pain: with varied experience of bodily
and mental pleasure and pain classed as worldly and

1112
unworldly, and so on. Such the end of my life span: with
such a life span of a century or life span of eighty-four
thousand eons.
69. And passing away from there, I reappeared elsewhere:
having passed away from that becoming, generation,
destiny, station of consciousness, abode of beings or
order of beings, I again appeared in that other
becoming, generation, destiny, station of
consciousness, abode of beings or order of beings. And
there too I was: then again I was there in that becoming,
generation, destiny, station of consciousness, abode of
beings or order of beings. So named, etc., are as already
stated.
70. Furthermore, the words there I was refer to the
recollection of one who has cast back retrospectively
as far as he wishes, and the words and passing away
from there refer to his reviewing after turning forward
again; consequently, the words I appeared elsewhere can
be understood to be said with reference to the place of
his reappearance next before his appearance here,
which is referred to by the words I appeared here. But
the words there too I was, etc., [423] are said in order to
show the recollection of his name, race, etc., there in
the place of his reappearance next before this
appearance. And passing away from there, I reappeared
here: having passed away from that next place of
reappearance, I was reborn here in this khattiya clan

1113
or brahman clan.
71. Thus: so. With its aspects and particulars: with its
particulars consisting in name and race; with its
aspects consisting in appearance, and so on. For it is
by means of name and race that a being is
particularized as, say Tissa Kassapa; but his distinctive
personality is made known by means of appearance,
etc., as dark or fair. So the name and race are the
particulars, while the others are the aspects. He
recollects his manifold past lives: the meaning of this is
clear.
The explanation of the knowledge of recollection of
past lives is ended.

[(5) The Divine Eye—Knowledge of

Passing Away and Reappearance of
Beings]

72. As to the explanation of the knowledge of passing

away and reappearance of beings, [here is the text:
“He directs, he inclines, his mind to the knowledge of
the passing away and reappearance of beings. With
the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the
human, he sees beings passing away and reappearing,
inferior and superior, fair and ugly, happy or unhappy

1114
in their destiny; he understands beings as faring
according to their deeds: ’These worthy beings who
were ill-conducted in body, speech and mind, revilers
of Noble Ones, wrong in their views, acquirers of
kamma due to wrong view, have, on the breakup of
the body, after death, appeared in a state of loss, in an
unhappy destiny, in perdition in hell; but these
worthy beings, who are well conducted in body,
speech and mind, not revilers of Noble Ones, right in
their views, acquirers of kamma due to right view,
have, on the breakup of the body, after death,
appeared in a happy destiny, in the heavenly world.’
Thus with the divine eye, which is purified and
surpasses the human, he sees beings passing away
and reappearing, inferior and superior, fair and ugly,
happy or unhappy in their destiny; he understands
beings as faring according to their deeds” (D I 82).
Herein,] to the knowledge of the passing away and
reappearance: cutūpapātañāṇāya= cutiyā ca upapāte ca
ñāṇāya (resolution of compound); [the meaning is,] for
the kind of knowledge by means of which beings’
passing away and reappearance is known; for
knowledge of the divine eye, is what is meant. He
directs, he inclines his mind: he both directs and inclines
preliminary-work consciousness. He is the bhikkhu
who does the directing of his mind.
73. But as regards with the divine eye, etc., it is divine

1115
because of its similarity to the divine; for deities have
as divine eye the sensitivity that is produced by
kamma consisting in good conduct and is unimpeded
by bile, phlegm, blood, etc., and capable of receiving
an object even though far off because it is liberated
from imperfections. And this eye, consisting in
knowledge, which is produced by the power of this
bhikkhu’s energy in development, is similar to that, so
it is “divine” because it is similar to the divine. Also it
is “divine” because it is obtained by means of divine
abiding, and because it has divine abiding as its
support. And it is “divine” because it greatly
illuminates by discerning light. And it is “divine”
because it has a great range through seeing visible
objects that are behind walls, and so on. All that
should be understood according to the science of
grammar. It is an eye in the sense of seeing. Also it is
an eye since it is like an eye in its performance of an
eye’s function. It is purified since it is a cause of
purification of view, owing to seeing passing away
and reappearance.
74. One who sees only passing away and not
reappearance assumes the annihilation view; and one
who sees only reappearance and not passing away
assumes the view that a new being appears. But since
one who sees both outstrips that twofold [false] view,
that vision of his is therefore a cause for purification of

1116
view. And the Buddhas’ sons see both of these. Hence
it was said above: [424] “It is ’purified’ since it is a
cause of purification of view, owing to seeing passing
away and reappearance.”
75. It surpasses the human in the seeing of visible
objects by surpassing the human environment. Or it
can be understood that it surpasses the human in
surpassing the human fleshly eye. With that divine eye,
which is purified and superhuman, he sees beings, he
watches beings as men do with the fleshly eye.
76. Passing away and reappearing: he cannot see them
with the divine eye actually at the death moment of
reappearance.[17] But it is those who, being on the
verge of death, will die now that are intended as
“passing away” and those who have taken rebirth-
linking and have just reappeared that are intended by
“reappearing.” What is pointed out is that he sees
them as such passing away and reappearing.
77. Inferior: despised, disdained, looked down upon,
scorned, on account of birth, clan, wealth, etc., because
of reaping the outcome of delusion. Superior: the
opposite of that because of reaping the outcome of
non-delusion. Fair: having a desirable, agreeable,
pleasing appearance because of reaping the outcome
of non-hate. Ugly: having undesirable, disagreeable,
unpleasing appearance because of reaping the

1117
outcome of hate; unsightly, ill-favoured, is the
meaning. Happy in their destiny: gone to a happy
destiny; or rich, very wealthy, because of reaping the
outcome of non-greed. Unhappy in their destiny: gone
to an unhappy destiny; or poor with little food and
drink because of reaping the outcome of greed.
78. Faring according to their deeds: moving on in
accordance with whatever deeds (kamma) may have
been accumulated. Herein, the function of the divine
eye is described by the first expressions beginning
with “passing away.” But the function of knowledge
of faring according to deeds is described by this last
expression.
79. The order in which that knowledge arises is this.
Here a bhikkhu extends light downwards in the
direction of hell, and he sees beings in hell undergoing
great suffering. That vision is only the divine eye’s
function. He gives it attention in this way, “After
doing what deeds do these beings undergo this
suffering?” Then knowledge that has those deeds as
its object arises in him in this way, “It was after doing
this.” Likewise he extends light upwards in the
direction of the [sensual-sphere] divine world, and he
sees beings in the Nandana Grove, the Missaka Grove,
the Phārusaka Grove, etc., enjoying great good
fortune. That vision also is only the divine eye’s
function. He gives attention to it in this way, “After

1118
doing what deeds do these beings enjoy this good
fortune?” Then knowledge that has those deeds as its
object arises in him in this way, “It was after doing
this.” This is what is called knowledge of faring
according to deeds.
80. There is no special preliminary work for this. And
as in this case, so too in the case of knowledge of the
future; for these have the divine eye as their basis and
their success is dependent on that of the divine eye.
[425]
81. As to ill-conducted in body, etc., it is bad conduct
(duṭṭhu caritaṃ), or it is corrupted conduct (duṭṭhaṃ
caritaṃ) because it is rotten with defilements, thus it is
ill-conduct (duccarita). The ill-conduct comes about by
means of the body, or the ill-conduct has arisen due to
the body, thus it is ill-conduct in body; so too with the
rest. Ill-conducted is endowed with ill-conduct.
82. Revilers of Noble Ones: being desirous of harm for
Noble Ones consisting of Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas,
and disciples, and also of householders who are
stream-enterers, they revile them with the worst
accusations or with denial of their special qualities
(see Ud 44 and MN 12); they abuse and upbraid them,
is what is meant.
83. Herein, it should be understood that when they
say, “They have no asceticism, they are not ascetics,”

1119
they revile them with the worst accusation; and when
they say, “They have no jhāna or liberation or path of
fruition, etc.,” they revile them with denial of their
special qualities. And whether done knowingly or
unknowingly it is in either case reviling of Noble
Ones; it is weighty kamma resembling that of
immediate result, and it is an obstacle both to heaven
and to the path. But it is remediable.
84. The following story should be understood in order
to make this clear. An elder and a young bhikkhu, it
seems, wandered for alms in a certain village. At the
first house they got only a spoonful of hot gruel. The
elder’s stomach was paining him with wind. He
thought, “This gruel is good for me; I shall drink it
before it gets cold.” People brought a wooden stool to
the doorstep, and he sat down and drank it. The other
was disgusted and remarked, “The old man has let his
hunger get the better of him and has done what he
should be ashamed to do.” The elder wandered for
alms, and on returning to the monastery he asked the
young bhikkhu, “Have you any footing in this
Dispensation, friend?”—“Yes, venerable sir, I am a
stream-enterer.”—“Then, friend, do not try for the
higher paths; one whose cankers are destroyed has
been reviled by you.” The young bhikkhu asked for
the elder’s forgiveness and was thereby restored to his
former state.

1120
85. So one who reviles a Noble One, even if he is one
himself, should go to him; if he himself is senior, [426]
he should sit down in the squatting position and get
his forgiveness in this way, “I have said such and such
to the venerable one; may he forgive me.” If he himself
is junior, he should pay homage, and sitting in the
squatting position and holding out his hand palms
together, he should get his forgiveness in this way, “I
have said such and such to you, venerable sir; forgive
me.” If the other has gone away, he should get his
forgiveness either by going to him himself or by
sending someone such as a co-resident.
86. If he can neither go nor send, he should go to the
bhikkhus who live in that monastery, and, sitting
down in the squatting position if they are junior, or
acting in the way already described if they are senior,
he should get forgiveness by saying, “Venerable sirs, I
have said such and such to the venerable one named
so and so; may that venerable one forgive me.” And
this should also be done when he fails to get
forgiveness in his presence.
87. If it is a bhikkhu who wanders alone and it cannot
be discovered where he is living or where he has gone,
he should go to a wise bhikkhu and say, “Venerable
sir, I have said such and such to the venerable one
named so and so. When I remember it, I am
remorseful. What shall I do?” He should be told,

1121
“Think no more about it; the elder forgives you. Set
your mind at rest.” Then he should extend his hands
palms together in the direction taken by the Noble
One and say, “Forgive me.”
88. If the Noble One has attained the final Nibbāna, he
should go to the place where the bed is, on which he
attained the final Nibbāna, and should go as far as the
charnel ground to ask forgiveness. When this has been
done, there is no obstruction either to heaven or to the
path. He becomes as he was before.
89. Wrong in their views: having distorted vision.
Acquirers of kamma due to wrong view: those who have
kamma of the various kinds acquired through wrong
view, and also those who incite others to bodily
kamma, etc., rooted in wrong view. And here, though
reviling of Noble Ones has already been included by
the mention of verbal misconduct, and though wrong
view has already been included by the mention of
mental misconduct, it may be understood,
nevertheless, that the two are mentioned again in
order to emphasize their great reprehensibility.
90. Reviling Noble Ones is greatly reprehensible
because of its resemblance to kamma with immediate
result. For this is said: “Sāriputta, just as a bhikkhu
possessing virtuous conduct, concentration and
understanding could here and now attain final

1122
knowledge, so it is in this case, I say; if he does not
abandon such talk and such thoughts and renounce
such views, he will find himself in hell as surely as if
he had been carried off and put there” (M I 71).[18]
[427] And there is nothing more reprehensible than
wrong view, according as it is said: “Bhikkhus, I do
not see any one thing so reprehensible as wrong view”
(A I 33).
91. On the breakup of the body: on the giving up of the
clung-to aggregates. After death: in the taking up of
the aggregates generated next after that. Or
alternatively, on the breakup of the body is on the
interruption of the life faculty, and after death is
beyond the death consciousness.
92. A state of loss and the rest are all only synonyms
for hell. Hell is a state of loss (apāya) because it is
removed (apeta) from the reason (aya)[19] known as
merit, which is the cause of [attaining] heaven and
deliverance; or because of the absence (abhāva) of any
origin (āya) of pleasures. The destiny (gati, going), the
refuge, of suffering (dukkha) is the unhappy destiny
(duggati); or the destiny (gati) produced by kamma
that is corrupted (duṭṭha) by much hate (dosa) is an
unhappy destiny (duggati). Those who commit
wrongdoings, being separated out (vivasa) fall
(nipatanti) in here, thus it is perdition (vinipāta); or

1123
alternatively, when they are destroyed (vinassanto),
they fall (patanti) in here, all their limbs being broken
up, thus it is perdition (vinipāta). There is no reason
(aya) reckoned as satisfying here, thus it is hell (niraya).
93. Or alternatively, the animal generation is
indicated by the mention of states of loss; for the animal
generation is a state of loss because it is removed from
the happy destiny; but it is not an unhappy destiny
because it allows the existence of royal nāgas
(serpents), who are greatly honoured. The realm of
ghosts is indicated by the mention of the unhappy
destiny; for that is both a state of loss and an unhappy
destiny because it is removed from the happy destiny
and because it is the destiny of suffering; but it is not
perdition because it is not a state of perdition such as
that of the asura demons. The race of asura demons is
indicated by the mention of perdition; for that is both a
state of loss and an unhappy destiny in the way
already described, and it is called “perdition”
(deprivation) from all opportunities. Hell itself in the
various aspects of Avīci, etc., is indicated by the
mention of hell.
Have … appeared: have gone to; have been reborn
there, is the intention.
94. The bright side should be understood in the
opposite way. But there is this difference. Here the

1124
mention of the happy destiny includes the human
destiny, and only the divine destiny is included by the
mention of heavenly. Herein, a good (sundara) destiny
(gati) is a happy destiny (sugati). It is the very highest
(suṭṭhu aggo) in such things as the objective fields
comprising visible objects, etc., thus it is heavenly
(sagga). All that is a world (loka) in the sense of
crumbling and disintegrating (lujjana-palujjana). This is
the word meaning.
Thus with the divine eye, etc., is all a summing-up
phrase; the meaning here in brief is this: so with the
divine eye … he sees.
95. Now, a clansman who is a beginner and wants to
see in this way should make sure that the jhāna, which
has a kasiṇa as its object and is the basis for direct-
knowledge, is made in all ways susceptible of his
guidance. Then one of these three kasiṇas, that is to
say, the fire kasiṇa, white kasiṇa, [428] or light kasiṇa,
should be brought to the neighbourhood [of the
arising of divine-eye knowledge]. He should make this
access jhāna his resort and stop there to extend [the
kasiṇa]; the intention is that absorption should not be
aroused here; for if he does induce absorption, the
[kasiṇa] will become the support for basic jhāna, but
not for the [direct-knowledge] preliminary work. The
light kasiṇa is the best of the three. So either that, or
one of the others, should be worked up in the way

1125
stated in the Description of the Kasiṇas, and it should
be stopped at the level of access and extended there.
And the method for extending it should be
understood in the way already described there too. It
is only what is visible within the area to which the
kasiṇa has been extended that can be seen.
96. However, while he is seeing what is visible, the
turn of the preliminary work runs out. Thereupon the
light disappears. When that has disappeared, he no
longer sees what is visible (cf. M III 158). Then he
should again and again attain the basic jhāna, emerge
and pervade with light. In this way the light gradually
gets consolidated till at length it remains in whatever
sized area has been delimited by him in this way, “Let
there be light here.” Even if he sits watching all day he
can still see visible objects.
97. And here there is the simile of the man who set
out on a journey by night with a grass torch. Someone
set out on a journey by night, it seems, with a grass
torch. His torch stopped flaming. Then the even and
uneven places were no more evident to him. He
stubbed the torch on the ground and it again blazed
up. In doing so it gave more light than before. As it
went on dying out and flaring up again, eventually the
sun rose. When the sun had risen, he thought, “There
is no further need of the torch,” and he threw it away
and went on by daylight.

1126
98. Herein, the kasiṇa light at the time of the
preliminary work is like the light of the torch. His no
more seeing what is visible when the light has
disappeared owing to the turn of the preliminary
work running out while he is seeing what is visible is
like the man’s not seeing the even and uneven places
owing to the torch’s stopping flaming. His repeated
attaining is like the stubbing of the torch. His more
powerful pervasion with light by repeating the
preliminary work is like the torch’s giving more light
than before. The strong light’s remaining in as large an
area as he delimits is like the sun’s rising. His seeing
even during a whole day what is visible in the strong
light after throwing the limited light away is like the
man’s going on by day after throwing the torch away.
99. Herein, when visible objects that are not within
the focus of the bhikkhu’s fleshly eye come into the
focus of his eye of knowledge—that is to say, visible
objects that are inside his belly, belonging to the heart
basis, belonging to what is below the earth’s surface,
behind walls, mountains and enclosures, or in another
world-sphere—[429] and are as if seen with the fleshly
eye, then it should be understood that the divine eye
has arisen. And only that is capable of seeing the
visible objects here, not the preliminary-work
consciousnesses.
100. But this is an obstacle for an ordinary man. Why?

1127
Because wherever he determines, “Let there be light,”
it becomes all light, even after penetrating through
earth, sea and mountains. Then fear arises in him
when he sees the fearful forms of spirits, ogres, etc.,
that are there, owing to which his mind is distracted
and he loses his jhāna. So he needs to be careful in
seeing what is visible (see M III 158).
101. Here is the order of arising of the divine eye:
when mind-door adverting, which has made its object
that visible datum of the kind already described, has
arisen and ceased, then, making that same visible
datum the object, all should be understood in the way
already described beginning, “Either four or five
impulsions impel …” (§5) Here also the [three or four]
prior consciousnesses are of the sense sphere and have
applied and sustained thought. The last of these
consciousnesses, which accomplishes the aim, is of the
fine-material sphere belonging to the fourth jhāna.
Knowledge conascent with that is called “knowledge
of the passing away and reappearance of beings” and
“knowledge of the divine eye.”
The explanation of knowledge of passing away and
reappearance is ended.

[General]

1128
 102. The Helper, knower of five aggregates,
Had these five direct-knowledges to tell;
When they are known, there are concerning them
These general matters to be known as well.
103. Among these, the divine eye, called knowledge
of passing away and reappearance, has two accessory
kinds of knowledge, that is to say, “knowledge of the
future” and “knowledge of faring according to deeds.”
So these two along with the five beginning with the
kinds of supernormal power make seven kinds of
direct-knowledge given here.
104. Now, in order to avoid confusion about the
classification of their objects:
The Sage has told four object triads
By means of which one can infer
Just how these seven different kinds
Of direct-knowledges occur.
105. Here is the explanation. Four object triads have
been told by the Greatest of the Sages. What four? The
limited-object triad, the path-object triad, the past-
object triad, and the internal-object triad.[20]
106. (1) Herein, knowledge of supernormal power [430]
occurs with respect to seven kinds of object, that is to
say, as having a limited or exalted, a past, future or
present, and an internal or external object. How?

1129
 When he wants to go with an invisible body after
making the body dependent on the mind, and he
converts the body to accord with the mind (XII.119),
and he sets it, mounts it, on the exalted consciousness,
then taking it that the [word in the] accusative case is
the proper object,[21] it has a limited object because its
object is the material body. When he wants to go with
a visible body after making the mind dependent on
the body and he converts the mind to accord with the
body and sets it, mounts it, on the material body, then
taking it that the [word in the] accusative case is the
proper object, it has an exalted object because its object is
the exalted consciousness.
107. But that same consciousness takes what has
passed, has ceased, as its object, therefore it has a past
object. In those who resolve about the future, as in the
case of the Elder Mahā Kassapa in the Great Storing of
the Relics, and others, it has a future object. When the
Elder Mahā Kassapa was making the great relic store,
it seems, he resolved thus, “During the next two
hundred and eighteen years in the future let not these
perfumes dry up or these flowers wither or these
lamps go out,” and so it all happened. When the Elder
Assagutta saw the Community of Bhikkhus eating dry
food in the Vattaniya Lodging he resolved thus, “Let
the water pool become cream of curd every day before
the meal,” and when the water was taken before the

1130
meal it was cream of curd; but after the meal there was
only the normal water.[22]
108. At the time of going with an invisible body after
making the body dependent on the mind it has a
present object.
At the time of converting the mind to accord with
the body, or the body to accord with the mind, and at
the time of creating one’s own appearance as a boy,
etc., it has an internal object because it makes one’s own
body and mind its object. But at the time of showing
elephants, horses, etc., externally it has an external
object.
This is how, firstly, the kinds of supernormal power
should be understood to occur with respect to the
seven kinds of object.
109. (2) Knowledge of the divine ear element occurs with
respect to four kinds of object, that is to say, as having
a limited, and a present, and an internal or external
object. How?
Since it makes sound its object and since sound is
limited (see Vibh 74), it therefore has a limited object.
[23] But since it occurs only by making existing sound
its object, it has a present object. At the time of hearing
sounds in one’s own belly it has an internal object. At
the time of hearing the sounds of others it has an

1131
external object. [431] This is how the knowledge of the
divine ear element should be understood to occur with
respect to the four kinds of object.
110. (3) Knowledge of penetration of minds occurs with
respect to eight kinds of object, that is to say, as having
a limited, exalted or measureless object, path as object,
and a past, future or present object, and an external
object. How?
At the time of knowing others’ sense-sphere
consciousness it has a limited object. At the time of
knowing their fine-material-sphere or immaterial-
sphere consciousness it has an exalted object. At the time
of knowing path and fruition it has a measureless
object. And here an ordinary man does not know a
stream-enterer’s consciousness, nor does a stream-
enterer know a once-returner’s, and so up to the
Arahant’s consciousness. But an Arahant knows the
consciousness of all the others. And each higher one
knows the consciousnesses of all those below him.
This is the difference to be understood. At the time
when it has path consciousness as its object it has path
as object. But when one knows another’s consciousness
within the past seven days, or within the future seven
days, then it has a past object and has a future object
respectively.
111. How does it have a present object? “Present”

1132
(paccuppanna) is of three kinds, that is to say, present
by moment, present by continuity, and present by
extent. Herein, what has reached arising (uppāda),
presence (ṭhiti), and dissolution (bhaṅga) is present by
moment. What is included in one or two rounds of
continuity is present by continuity.
112. Herein, when someone goes to a well-lit place
after sitting in the dark, an object is not clear at first;
until it becomes clear, one or two rounds of continuity
should be understood [to pass] meanwhile. And when
he goes into an inner closet after going about in a well-
lit place, a visible object is not immediately evident at
first; until it becomes clear, one or two rounds of
continuity should be understood [to pass] meanwhile.
When he stands at a distance, although he sees the
alterations (movements) of the hands of washer-men
and the alterations (movements) of the striking of
gongs, drums, etc., yet he does not hear the sound at
first (see Ch. XIV n. 22); until he hears it, one or two
rounds of continuity should be understood [to pass]
meanwhile. This, firstly, is according to the Majjhima
reciters.
113. The Saṃyutta reciters, however, say that there
are two kinds of continuity, that is to say, material
continuity and immaterial continuity: that a material
continuity lasts as long as the [muddy] line of water
touching the bank when one treads in the water takes

1133
to clear,[24] as long as the heat of the body in one who
has walked a certain extent takes to die down, as long
as the blindness in one who has come from the
sunshine into a room does not depart, as long as
when, after someone has been giving attention to his
meditation subject in a room and then opens the
shutters by day and looks out, the dazzling in his eyes
does not die down; and that an immaterial continuity
consists in two or three rounds of impulsions. Both of
these are [according to them] called “present by
continuity.” [432]
114. What is delimited by a single becoming
(existence) is called present by extent, with reference to
which it is said in the Bhaddekaratta Sutta: “Friends,
the mind and mental objects are both what is present.
Consciousness is bound by desire and greed for what
is present. Because consciousness is bound by desire
and greed he delights in that. When he delights in
that, then he is vanquished with respect to present
states” (M III 197).
And here, “present by continuity” is used in the
Commentaries while “present by extent” is used in the
Suttas.
115. Herein, some[25] say that consciousness “present
by moment” is the object of knowledge of penetration
of minds. What reason do they give? It is that the

1134
consciousness of the possessor of supernormal power
and that of the other arise in a single moment. Their
simile is this: just as when a handful of flowers is
thrown into the air, the stalk of one flower is probably
struck by the stalk of another, and so too, when with
the thought, “I will know another’s mind,” the mind
of a multitude is adverted to as a mass, then the mind
of one is probably penetrated by the mind of the other
either at the moment of arising or at the moment of
presence or at the moment of dissolution.
116. That, however, is rejected in the Commentaries as
erroneous, because even if one went on adverting for a
hundred or a thousand years, there is never co-
presence of the two consciousnesses, that is to say, of
that with which he adverts and that [of impulsion]
with which he knows, and because the flaw of
plurality of objects follows if presence [of the same
object] to both adverting and impulsion is not insisted
on. What should be understood is that the object is
present by continuity and present by extent.
117. Herein, another’s consciousness during a time
measuring two or three cognitive series with
impulsions extending before and after the [strictly]
currently existing cognitive series with impulsions, is
all called “present by continuity.” But in the Saṃyutta
Commentary it is said that “present by extent” should
be illustrated by a round of impulsions.

1135
118. That is rightly said. Here is the illustration. The
possessor of supernormal-power who wants to know
another’s mind adverts. The adverting [consciousness]
makes [the other’s consciousness that is] present by
moment its object and ceases together with it. After
that there are four or five impulsions, of which the last
is the supernormal-power consciousness, the rest
being of the sense sphere. That same [other’s]
consciousness, which has ceased, is the object of all
these too, and so they do not have different objects
because they have an object that is “present by extent.”
And while they have a single object it is only the
supernormal-power consciousness that actually
knows another’s consciousness, not the others, just as
in the eye-door it is only eye-consciousness that
actually sees the visible datum, not the others.
119. So this has a present object in what is present by
continuity and what is present by extent. [433] Or
since what is present by continuity falls within what is
present by extent, it can therefore be understood that it
has a present object simply in what is present by
extent.
It has an external object because it has only another’s
mind as its object.
This is how knowledge of penetration of minds
should be understood to occur with respect to the

1136
eight kinds of objects.
120. (4) Knowledge of past lives occurs with respect to
eight kinds of object, that is to say, as having a limited,
exalted, or measureless object, path as object, a past
object, and an internal, external, or not-so-classifiable
object. How?
At the time of recollecting sense-sphere aggregates
it has a limited object. At the time of recollecting fine-
material-sphere or immaterial-sphere aggregates it has
an exalted object. At the time of recollecting a path
developed, or a fruition realized, in the past either by
oneself or by others, it has a measureless object. At the
time of recollecting a path developed it has a path as
object. But it invariably has a past object.
121. Herein, although knowledge of penetration of
minds and knowledge of faring according to deeds
also have a past object, still, of these two, the object of
the knowledge of penetration of minds is only
consciousness within the past seven days. It knows
neither other aggregates nor what is bound up with
aggregates [that is, name, surname, and so on]. It is
said indirectly that it has a path as object since it has
the consciousness associated with the path as its
object. Also, the object of knowledge of faring
according to deeds is simply past volition. But there is
nothing, whether past aggregates or what is bound up

1137
with aggregates, that is not the object of knowledge of
past lives; for that is on a par with omniscient
knowledge with respect to past aggregates and states
bound up with aggregates. This is the difference to be
understood here.
122. This is the method according to the
Commentaries here. But it is said in the Paṭṭhāna:
“Profitable aggregates are a condition, as object
condition, for knowledge of supernormal power, for
knowledge of penetration of minds, for knowledge of
past lives, for knowledge of faring according to deeds,
and for knowledge of the future” (Paṭṭh I 154), and
therefore four aggregates are also the objects of
knowledge of penetration of minds and of knowledge
of faring according to deeds. And there too profitable
and unprofitable [aggregates are the object] of
knowledge of faring according to deeds.
123. At the time of recollecting one’s own aggregates
it has an internal object. At the time of recollecting
another’s aggregates it has an external object. At the
time of recollecting [the concepts consisting in] name,
race (surname) in the way beginning, “In the past
there was the Blessed One Vipassin. His mother was
Bhandumatī. His father was Bhandumant” (see D II 6–
7), and [the concept consisting in] the sign of the earth,
etc., it has a not-so-classifiable object. And here the name
and race (surname, lineage) must be regarded not as

1138
the actual words but as the meaning of the words,
which is established by convention and bound up
with aggregates. For the actual words [434] are
“limited” since they are included by the sound base,
according as it is said: “The discrimination of
language has a limited object” (Vibh 304). Our
preference here is this.
This is how the knowledge of past lives should be
understood to occur with respect to the eight kinds of
object.
124. (5) Knowledge of the divine eye occurs with respect
to four kinds of object, that is to say, as having a
limited, a present, and an internal or external object.
How? Since it makes materiality its object and
materiality is limited (see Vibh 62) it therefore has a
limited object. Since it occurs only with respect to
existing materiality it has a present object. At the time of
seeing materiality inside one’s own belly, etc., it has an
internal object. At the time of seeing another’s
materiality it has an external object. This is how the
knowledge of the divine eye should be understood to
occur with respect to the four kinds of object.
125. (6) Knowledge of the future occurs with respect to
eight kinds of object, that is to say, as having a limited
or exalted or immeasurable object, a path as object, a
future object, and an internal, external, or not-so

1139
classifiable object. How? At the time of knowing this,
“This one will be reborn in the future in the sense
sphere,” it has a limited object. At the time of knowing,
“He will be reborn in the fine-material or immaterial
sphere,” it has an exalted object. At the time of knowing,
“He will develop the path, he will realize fruition,” it
has an immeasurable object. At the time of knowing, “He
will develop the path,” it has a path as object too. But it
invariably has a future object.
126. Herein, although knowledge of penetration of
minds has a future object too, nevertheless its object is
then only future consciousness that is within seven
days; for it knows neither any other aggregate nor
what is bound up with aggregates. But there is
nothing in the future, as described under the
knowledge of past lives (§121), that is not an object of
knowledge of the future.
127. At the time of knowing, “I shall be reborn there,”
it has an internal object. At the time of knowing, “So-
and-so will be reborn there,” it has an external object.
But at the time of knowing name and race (surname)
in the way beginning, “In the future the Blessed One
Metteyya will arise. His father will be the brahman
Subrahmā. His mother will be the brahmani
Brahmavatī” (see D III 76), it has a not-so-classifiable
object in the way described under knowledge of past
lives (§123).

1140
 This is how the knowledge of the future should be
understood.
128. (7) Knowledge of faring according to deeds occurs
with respect to five kinds of object, that is to say, as
having a limited or exalted, a past, and an internal or
external object. How? At the time of knowing sense-
sphere kamma (deeds) it has a limited object. [435] At
the time of knowing fine-material-sphere or
immaterial-sphere kamma it has an exalted object. Since
it knows only what is past it has a past object. At the
time of knowing one’s own kamma it has an internal
object. At the time of knowing another’s kamma it has
an external object. This is how the knowledge of faring
according to deeds should be understood to occur
with respect to the five kinds of object.
129. And when [the knowledge] described here both
as “having an internal object” and “having an external
object” knows [these objects] now internally and now
externally, it is then said that it has an internal-external
object as well.

The thirteenth chapter concluding “The

Description of Direct-knowledge” in the
Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.

1141
1142
Notes for Chapter XIII

1. “With the consciousness belonging to the

particular concentration that constitutes the
preliminary work. The meaning is: by means of
consciousness concentrated with the momentary
concentration that occurs in the form of the
preliminary work for knowledge of the divine ear
element. The occasion of access for the divine ear
element is called preliminary-work consciousness,
but that as stated refers to multiple advertings”
(Vism-mhṭ 401).
2. “The sound sign is the sound itself since it is the
cause for the arising of the knowledge. Or the
gross-subtle aspect acquired in the way stated is
the sound sign” (Vism-mhṭ 402).
3. “This is momentary-concentration consciousness,
which owing to the fact that the preliminary work
contingent upon the sound has been performed,
occurs in one who has attained the basic jhāna
and emerged for the purpose of arousing the
divine ear element” (Vism-mhṭ 402).
4. “‘Becomes merged’ is amalgamated with the
divine ear element. He is called an obtainer of
divine-ear knowledge as soon as the absorption

1143
 consciousness has arisen. The meaning is that
there is now no further need of development for
the purpose” (Vism-mhṭ 403).
5. The “matter of the heart” is not the heart-basis,
but rather it is the heart as the piece of flesh
described as resembling a lotus bud in shape
outside and like a kosātakī fruit inside (VIII.111).
For the blood mentioned here is to be found with
that as its support. But the heart-basis occurs with
this blood as its support” (Vism-mhṭ 403).
6. “Of one who has not done any interpreting
(abhinivesa) reckoned as study for direct-
knowledge” (Vism-mhṭ 407). A rather special use
of the word abhinivesa, perhaps more freely
renderable here as “practice.”
7. For the term chinna-vaṭumaka (“one who has
broken the cycle of rebirths”) as an epithet of
former Buddhas, see M III 118.
8. Saṃvaṇṇita—“given in detail”; Vism-mhṭ glosses
by vitthāritan ti attho. Not in this meaning in
PED. See prologue verses to the four Nikāyas.
9. A commentarial account of the behaviour of lions
will be found in the Manorathapurāṇī,
commentary to AN 4:33. Vism-mhṭ says: Sīh-
okkamana-vasena sīhātipatanavasena ñāṇagatiyā
gacchati (p. 408).

1144
10. Ugghaṭetvā: see X.6; the word is obviously used
here in the same sense.
11. “The ‘ordinary sun’ is the sun’s divine palace that
arose before the emergence of the aeon. But like
the other sense-sphere deities at the time of the
emergence of the aeon, the sun deity too produces
jhāna and reappears in the Brahmā-world. But the
actual sun’s disk becomes brighter and more
fiery. Others say that it disappears and another
appears in its place” (Vism-mhṭ 412).
12. The five are the Ganges, Yamunā (Jumma),
Sarabhu, Sarassatī, and Mahī (Vism-mhṭ 412).
13. Haṃsapātana is another name for Maṇḍākinī.
(Vism-mhṭ) For seven Great Lakes see A IV 101.
14. “At the place where the Yāma Deities are
established. The places where the Cātumahārājika
and Tāvatiṃsa heavens become established do
not reappear at first because they are connected
with the earth” (Vism-mhṭ 412).
15. Khārudaka—“caustic waters”: the name given to
the waters on which the world-spheres rest (see
M-a IV 178).
16. Kūṭāgāra: see Ch. XII, n.14; here this seems the
most likely of the various meanings of the word.
17. “‘He cannot see them with the divine eye’—with

1145
 the knowledge of the divine eye—because of the
extreme brevity and extreme subtlety of the
material moment in anyone. Moreover, it is
present materiality that is the object of the divine
eye, and that is by prenascence condition. And
there is no occurrence of exalted consciousness
without adverting and preliminary work. Nor is
materiality that is only arising able to serve as
object condition, nor that which is dissolving.
Therefore, it is rightly said that he cannot see with
the divine eye materiality at the moments of
death and reappearance. If the knowledge of the
divine eye has only materiality as its object, then
why is it said that he ‘sees beings’? It is said in
this way since it is mainly concerned with
instances of materiality in a being’s continuity, or
because that materiality is a reason for
apprehending beings. Some say that this is said
according to conventional usage” (Vism-mhṭ 417).
18. In rendering yathābhataṃ here in this very
idiomatic passage M-a II 32 has been consulted.
19. For the word aya see XVI.17.
20. See Abhidhamma Mātikā (“schedule”), Dhs 1f.
This consists of 22 sets of triple classifications
(tika) and 100 sets of double ones (duka). The first
triad “profitable, unprofitable, and [morally]

1146
 indeterminate,” and the first dyad is “root-cause,
not-root-cause.” The Mātikā is used in the
Dhammasaṅgaṇī (for which it serves as the basic
structure), in the Vibhaṅga (in some of the
“Abhidhamma Sections” and in the
“Questionnaires”) and in the Paṭṭhāna. All
dhammas are either classifiable according to these
triads and dyads, under one of the headings, if
the triad or dyad is all-embracing, or are called
“not-so-classifiable” (na-vattabba), if the triad or
dyad is not. The four triads mentioned here are:
no. 13, “dhammas with a limited object, with an
exalted object, with a measureless object”; no. 16,
“dhammas with a path as object, with a path as
root-cause, with path as predominance”; no. 19,
“dhammas with a past object, with a future object,
with a present object”; and no. 21, “dhammas
with an internal object, with an external object,
with an internal-external object.”
21. The “word in the accusative case” is in the first
instance “body,” governed by the verb “converts”
(kāyaṃ pariṇāmeti); see Vism-mhṭ.
22. Vism-mhṭ comments: “Although with the words:
‘These perfumes,’ etc., he apprehends present
perfumes, etc., nevertheless the object of his
resolving consciousness is actually their future
materiality that is to be associated with the

1147
 distinction of not drying up. This is because the
resolve concerns the future … ‘Cream of curd’:
when resolving, his object is the future
appearance of curd.”
Vattanīyasenāsana was apparently a
monastery in the Vindhya Hills (Viñjaṭavī): see
Mhv XIX.6; Dhs-a 419. The Elders Assagutta and
Rohaṇa instructed Kajaṅgala who was sent to
convert Menander (Lamotte, Histoire de la
Bouddhisme Indien, p. 440).
23. Cf. also Vibh 62 and 91.
24. Vism-mhṭ adds: “Some however explain the
meaning in this way: It is as long as, when one
has stepped on the dry bank with a wet foot, the
water line on the foot does not disappear.”
25. The residents of the Abhayagiri Monastery in
Anurādhapura (Vism-mhṭ).

1148
 Part III
Understanding
(Paññā)

1149
 Chapter XIV
The Aggregates
(Khandha-niddesa)

[A. Understanding]

1. [436] Now, concentration was described under the

heading of consciousness in the stanza:
When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding (I.1).
And that has been developed in all its aspects by the
bhikkhu who is thus possessed of the more advanced
development of concentration that has acquired with
direct-knowledge the benefits [described in Chs. XII
and XIII]. But understanding comes next and that has
still to be developed. Now, that is not easy, firstly even
to know about, let alone to develop, when it is taught
very briefly. In order, therefore, to deal with the
detailed method of its development there is the
following set of questions:
(i) What is understanding?
(ii) In what sense is it understanding?
(iii) What are its characteristic, function,

1150
 manifestation, and proximate cause?
(iv) How many kinds of understanding are
there?
(v) How is it developed?
(vi) What are the benefits of developing
understanding?
2. Here are the answers:
(i) WHAT IS UNDERSTANDING? Understanding (paññā)
is of many sorts and has various aspects. An answer
that attempted to explain it all would accomplish
neither its intention nor its purpose, and would,
besides, lead to distraction; so we shall confine
ourselves to the kind intended here, which is
understanding consisting in insight knowledge
associated with profitable consciousness.
3. (ii) IN WHAT SENSE IS IT UNDERSTANDING? It is
understanding (paññā) in the sense of act of
understanding (pajānana).[1] What is this act of
understanding? It is knowing (jānana) in a particular
mode separate from the modes of perceiving
(sañjānana) and cognizing (vijānana). [437] For though
the state of knowing (jānana-bhāva) is equally present
in perception (saññā), in consciousness (viññāṇa), and
in understanding (paññā), nevertheless perception is
only the mere perceiving of an object as, say, blue or

1151
yellow; it cannot bring about the penetration of its
characteristics as impermanent, painful, and not-self.
Consciousness knows the objects as blue or yellow,
and it brings about the penetration of its
characteristics, but it cannot bring about, by
endeavouring, the manifestation of the
[supramundane] path. Understanding knows the
object in the way already stated, it brings about the
penetration of the characteristics, and it brings about,
by endeavouring, the manifestation of the path.
4. Suppose there were three people, a child without
discretion, a villager, and a money-changer, who saw
a heap of coins lying on a money-changer’s counter.
The child without discretion knows merely that the
coins are figured and ornamented, long, square or
round; he does not know that they are reckoned as
valuable for human use and enjoyment. And the
villager knows that they are figured and ornamented,
etc., and that they are reckoned as valuable for human
use and enjoyment; but he does not know such
distinctions as, “This one is genuine, this is false, this
is half-value.” The money-changer knows all those
kinds, and he does so by looking at the coin, and by
listening to the sound of it when struck, and by
smelling its smell, tasting its taste, and weighing it in
his hand, and he knows that it was made in a certain
village or town or city or on a certain mountain or by a

1152
certain master. And this may be understood as an
illustration.
5. Perception is like the child without discretion
seeing the coin, because it apprehends the mere mode
of appearance of the object as blue and so on.
Consciousness is like the villager seeing the coin,
because it apprehends the mode of the object as blue,
etc., and because it extends further, reaching the
penetration of its characteristics. Understanding is like
the money-changer seeing the coin, because, after
apprehending the mode of the object as blue, etc., and
extending to the penetration of the characteristics, it
extends still further, reaching the manifestation of the
path.
That is why this act of understanding should be
understood as “knowing in a particular mode separate
from the modes of perceiving and cognizing.” For that
is what the words “it is understanding in the sense of
act of understanding” refer to.
6. However, it is not always to be found where
perception and consciousness are.[2] [438] But when it
is, it is not disconnected from those states. And
because it cannot be taken as disconnected thus: “This
is perception, this is consciousness, this is
understanding,” its difference is consequently subtle
and hard to see. Hence the venerable Nāgasena said:

1153
“A difficult thing, O King, has been done by the
Blessed One.”—“What, venerable Nāgasena, is the
difficult thing that has been done by the Blessed
One?”—“The difficult thing, O King, done by the
Blessed One was the defining of the immaterial states
of consciousness and its concomitants, which occur
with a single object, and which he declared thus: ’This
is contact, this is feeling, this is perception, this is
volition, this is consciousness’” (Mil 87).
7. (iii) WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION,
MANIFESTATION AND PROXIMATE CAUSE? Understanding
has the characteristic of penetrating the individual
essences of states.[3] Its function is to abolish the
darkness of delusion, which conceals the individual
essences of states. It is manifested as non-delusion.
Because of the words, “One who is concentrated
knows and sees correctly” (A V 3), its proximate cause
is concentration.
8. (iv) HOW MANY KINDS OF UNDERSTANDING ARE THERE?
1. Firstly, as having the characteristic of
penetrating the individual essences of
states, it is of one kind.
2. As mundane and supramundane it is of
two kinds.
3. Likewise as subject to cankers and free

1154
 from cankers, and so on,
4. As the defining of mentality and of
materiality,
5. As accompanied by joy or by equanimity,
6. As the planes of seeing and of
development.
7. It is of three kinds as consisting in what is
reasoned, consisting in what is learnt
(heard), and consisting in development.
8. Likewise as having a limited, exalted, or
measureless object,
9. As skill in improvement, detriment, and
means,
10. As interpreting the internal, and so on.
11. It is of four kinds as knowledge of the four
truths,
12. And as the four discriminations.[4]
9. 1. Herein, the singlefold section is obvious in
meaning.
2. As regards the twofold section, the mundane is
that associated with the mundane path and the
supramundane is that associated with the
supramundane path. So it is of two kinds as mundane

1155
and supramundane.
10. 3. In the second dyad, that subject to cankers is that
which is the object of cankers. That free from cankers is
not their object. This dyad is the same in meaning as
the mundane and supramundane. The same method
applies to the dyads subject to cankers and free from
cankers, associated with cankers and dissociated from
cankers (Dhs 3), and so on. So it is of two kinds as
subject to cankers and free from cankers, and so on.
11. 4. In the third dyad, when a man wants to begin
insight, his understanding of the defining of the four
immaterial aggregates is understanding as defining of
mentality, [439] and his understanding of the defining
of the material aggregate is understanding as defining
of materiality. So it is of two kinds as the defining of
mentality and of materiality.
12. 5. In the fourth dyad, understanding belonging to
two of the kinds of sense-sphere profitable
consciousness, and belonging to sixteen[5] of the kinds
of path consciousness with four of the jhānas in the
fivefold method, is accompanied by joy. Understanding
belonging to two of the kinds of sense-sphere
profitable consciousness, and belonging to (the
remaining) four kinds of path consciousness with the
fifth jhānas is accompanied by equanimity. So it is of two
kinds as accompanied by joy or by equanimity.

1156
13. 6. In the fifth dyad, understanding belonging to
the first path is the plane of seeing. Understanding
belonging to the remaining three paths is the plane of
development (see XXII.127). So it is of two kinds as the
planes of seeing and of development.
14. 7. As regards the triads, understanding acquired
without hearing from another is that consisting in what
is reasoned because it is produced by one’s own
reasoning. Understanding acquired by hearing from
another is that consisting in what is heard, because it is
produced by hearing. Understanding that has reached
absorption, having been somehow produced by
(meditative) development, is that consisting in
development. And this is said: Herein, what is
understanding consisting in what is reasoned? In the
spheres of work invented by ingenuity, or in the
spheres of craft invented by ingenuity, or in the sorts
of science invented by ingenuity, any preference,
view, choice, opinion, judgment, liking for pondering
over things, that concerns ownership of deeds (kamma)
or is in conformity with truth or is of such kind as to
conform with (the axioms) ’Materiality is
impermanent’ or ’Feeling … perception … formations
… consciousness is impermanent’ that one acquires
without hearing it from another—that is called
understanding consisting in what is reasoned.
(In the spheres) that one acquires by hearing it from

1157
another—that is called understanding consisting in
what is learnt (heard).
And all understanding in anyone who has attained
(an attainment) is understanding consisting in
development (Vibh 324–25).
So it is of three kinds as consisting in what is
thought out, in what is heard, and in development.
15. 8. In the second triad, the understanding that
occurs contingent upon sense-sphere states has a
limited object. That which occurs contingent upon fine-
material-sphere states or immaterial-sphere states has
an exalted object. That is mundane insight. That which
occurs contingent upon Nibbāna has a measureless
object. That is supramundane insight. So it is of three
kinds as having a limited, an exalted, or a measureless
object.
16. 9. In the third triad, it is increase that is called
improvement. That is twofold as the elimination of
harm and the arousing of good. Skill in improvement
is skill in these, according as it is said: Herein, what is
skill in improvement? When a man brings these things
to mind both unarisen unprofitable things do not arise
and arisen unprofitable things are abandoned in him;
or when he brings these things to mind [440] both
unarisen profitable things arise and arisen profitable
things advance to growth, increase, development, and

1158
perfection in him. Whatever here is understanding, act
of understanding [for words elided see Dhs 16] non-
delusion, investigation of states, right view, is called
skill in improvement (Vibh 325–26).
17. Non-increase is what is called detriment. That also
is twofold as the diminution of good and the arousing
of harm. Skill in detriment is skill in these, according
as it is said: “Herein, what is skill in detriment? When
a man brings these things to mind, both unarisen
profitable things do not arise …” (Vibh 326), and so
on.
18. But in either of these cases any skill in means to
cause the production of such and such things, which
skill occurs at that moment and is aroused on that
occasion, is what is called skill in means, according as it
is said: “And all understanding of means thereto is
skill in means” (Vibh 326).
So it is of three kinds as skill in improvement, in
detriment, and in means.
19. 10. In the fourth triad, insight-understanding
initiated by apprehending one’s own aggregates is
interpreting the internal.[6] That initiated by
apprehending another’s aggregates or external
materiality not bound up with the faculties, [that is,
inanimate matter], is interpreting the external. That
initiated by apprehending both is interpreting the

1159
internal and external. So it is of three kinds as
interpreting the internal, and so on.
20. 11. As regards the tetrads, in the first tetrad,
knowledge that occurs contingent upon the truth of
suffering is knowledge of suffering; knowledge that
occurs contingent upon the origin of suffering is
knowledge of the origin of suffering; knowledge that
occurs contingent upon the cessation of suffering is
knowledge of the cessation of suffering; and knowledge
that occurs contingent upon the way leading to the
cessation of suffering is knowledge of the way leading to
the cessation of suffering. So it is of four kinds as
knowledge of the four truths.
21. 12. In the second tetrad, the four kinds of
knowledge classed as that concerned with meaning,
etc., are called the four discriminations. For this is said:
“Knowledge about meaning is the discrimination of
meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā). Knowledge about law is
the discrimination of law (dhamma-paṭisambhidā).
Knowledge about enunciation of language dealing
with meaning and law is the discrimination of
language (nirutti-paṭisambhidā). Knowledge about
kinds of knowledge is discrimination of perspicuity
(paṭibhāna-paṭisambhidā)” (Vibh 293).
22. Herein, meaning (attha) is briefly a term for the
fruit of a cause (hetu). For in accordance with the cause

1160
it is served[7] arrived at, reached, therefore it is called
“meaning” (or “purpose”). But in particular the five
things, namely, (i) anything conditionally produced,
[441] (ii) Nibbāna, (iii) the meaning of what is spoken,
(iv) (kamma-) result, and (v) functional
(consciousness), should be understood as meaning.
When anyone reviews that meaning, any knowledge
of his, falling within the category (pabheda) concerned
with meaning, is the discrimination of meaning.
23. Law (dhamma) is briefly a term for a condition
(paccaya). For since a condition necessitates (dahati)
whatever it may be, makes it occur or allows it to
happen, it is therefore called “law” (dhamma). But in
particular the five things, namely, (i) any cause that
produces fruit, (ii) the noble path, (iii) what is spoken,
(iv) what is profitable, and (v) what is unprofitable,
should be understood as law. When anyone reviews
that law, any knowledge of his, falling within the
category concerned with law, is the discrimination of
law.
24. This same meaning is shown in the Abhidhamma
by the following analysis:
(a) “Knowledge about suffering is the discrimination
of meaning. Knowledge about the origin of suffering is
the discrimination of law. [Knowledge about the
cessation of suffering is the discrimination of meaning.

1161
Knowledge about the way leading to the cessation of
suffering is the discrimination of law] …
(b) “Knowledge about cause is the discrimination of
law. Knowledge about the fruit of a cause is the
discrimination of meaning …
(c) “Knowledge about whatever things are born,
become, brought to birth, produced, completed, made
manifest, is the discrimination of meaning. Knowledge
about the things from which those things were born,
became, were brought to birth, produced, completed,
made manifest, is the discrimination of law …
(d) “Knowledge about ageing and death is the
discrimination of meaning. Knowledge about the origin
of ageing and death is the discrimination of law.
[Knowledge about the cessation of ageing and death is
the discrimination of meaning. Knowledge about the
way leading to the cessation of ageing and death is the
discrimination of law. Knowledge about birth …
becoming … clinging … craving … feeling … contact
… the sixfold base … mentality-materiality …
consciousness … knowledge about formations is the
discrimination of meaning. Knowledge about the origin
of formations is the discrimination of law.] Knowledge
about the cessation of formations is the discrimination
of meaning. Knowledge about the way leading to the
cessation of formations is the discrimination of law …

1162
 (e) “Here a bhikkhu knows the Dhamma (Law)—the
Discourses, Songs, [Expositions, Stanzas,
Exclamations, Sayings, Birth Stories, Marvels, and]
Answers to Questions—this is called the discrimination
of law. He knows the meaning of whatever is said thus:
’This is the meaning of this that was said; this is the
meaning of this that was said’—this is called the
discrimination of meaning …
(f) “What states are profitable? On an occasion when
profitable consciousness of the sense sphere has arisen
[that is accompanied by joy and associated with
knowledge, having a visible datum as its object … or a
mental datum as its object, or contingent upon
whatever it may be, on that occasion there is contact
… (for elision see Dhs §1) … there is non-wavering]—
these things are profitable. Knowledge about these
things is the discrimination of law. Knowledge about
their result is the discrimination of meaning” … (Vibh
293–95).[8]
25. Knowledge about enunciation of language dealing with
meaning and law (§21): there is the language that is
individual essence, the usage that has no exceptions,[9]
and deals with that meaning and that law. Any
knowledge falling within the category concerned with
the enunciation of that, with the speaking, with the
utterance of that, concerned with the root-speech of all

1163
beings, the Magadhan language that is individual
essence, in other words, the language of law (dhamma),
[any knowledge that] as soon as it hears it spoken,
pronounced, uttered, knows, “This is the individual-
essence language; this is not the individual-essence
language”—[such knowledge] is discrimination of
language.[10] [442] One who has reached the
discrimination of language knows, on hearing the
words “phasso, vedanā,” etc., that that is the individual-
essence language, and on hearing “phassā, vedano,”
etc., he knows that that is not the individual-essence
language.
26. Knowledge about kinds of knowledge (§21): when a
man is reviewing and makes any of the foregoing
kinds of knowledge the object [of his knowledge], then
any knowledge in him that has knowledge as its object
is discrimination of perspicuity, and so is any knowledge
about these aforesaid kinds of knowledge, which is
concerned with details of their individual domains,
functions, and so on.
27. And these four kinds of discrimination can be
placed in two categories: the plane of the trainer and
the plane of the non-trainer. Herein, those of the chief
disciples and great disciples come into the category of
the non-trainer’s plane. Those of the Elder Ānanda,
the householder Citta, the layman Dhammika, the
householder Upāli, the laywoman Khujjuttarā, etc.,

1164
come into the category of the trainer’s plane.
28. And though they come into the categories of the
two planes thus, they are nevertheless distinguishable
in five aspects, that is to say, as achievement, mastery
of scriptures, hearing, questioning, and prior effort.
Herein, achievement is the reaching of Arahantship.
Mastery of scriptures is mastery of the Buddha’s word.
Hearing is learning the Dhamma carefully and
attentively. Questioning is discussion of knotty
passages and explanatory passages in the texts,
commentaries, and so on. Prior effort is devotion to
insight in the dispensation of former Buddhas, up to
the vicinity of [the stages of] conformity and change-
of-lineage by one who has practiced [the duty of]
going [with the meditation subject on alms round] and
coming back [with it].[11]
29. Others have said:
A prior effort, and great knowledge,
[Knowledge of] dialects, of scriptures,
And questioning, and then achievement,
And likewise waiting on a teacher,
Success in friends—these are conditions
Productive of discriminations.
30. Herein, prior effort is the same as that already
stated. Great learning is skill in some science or sphere
of craft. Dialects means skill in the hundred-and-one

1165
tongues, particularly in that of Magadha. Scriptures
means mastery of the Buddha’s word, even if only of
the Chapter of Similes.[12] Questioning is questioning
about defining the meaning of even a single stanza.
Achievement is stream-entry … or Arahantship. Waiting
on a teacher is living with very learned intelligent
teachers. Success in friends is acquisition of friends such
as that. [443]
31. Herein, Buddhas and Paccekabuddhas reach the
discriminations through prior effort and through
achievement. Disciples do so through all these means.
And there is no special way of developing a
meditation subject in order to attain discriminations.
But in trainers the attaining of the discriminations
comes about next upon the liberation consisting in
trainers’ fruition, and in non-trainers it does so next
upon the liberation consisting in non-trainers’ fruition.
For the discriminations come to success in Noble Ones
only through the noble fruition as the ten powers do
in Perfect Ones.
So these were the discriminations referred to when
it was said above: “It is of four kinds … as the four
discriminations” (§8).
32. (v) HOW IS IT DEVELOPED? Now, the things classed
as aggregates, bases, elements, faculties, truths,
dependent origination, etc., are the soil of this

1166
understanding, and the [first] two purifications,
namely, purification of virtue and purification of
consciousness, are its roots, while the five
purifications, namely, purification of view,
purification by overcoming doubt, purification by
knowledge and vision of what is the path and what is
not the path, purification by knowledge and vision of
the way, and purification by knowledge and vision,
are the trunk. Consequently, one who is perfecting
these should first fortify his knowledge by learning
and questioning about those things that are the “soil”
after he has perfected the two purifications that are the
“roots,” then he can develop the five purifications that
are the “trunk.” This is in brief. The detail is as
follows.

[B. Description of the Five Aggregates]

33. When it was said above “the things classed as

aggregates, bases, elements, faculties, truths,
dependent origination, etc., are the soil,” the
aggregates here are the five aggregates, that is to say,
the materiality aggregate, the feeling aggregate, the
perception aggregate, the formations aggregate, and
the consciousness aggregate.

1167
 [The Materiality Aggregate]

34. Herein, all kinds of states whatsoever that have

the characteristic of “being molested” (ruppana) by
cold, etc., taken all together should be understood as
the materiality (rūpa) aggregate.
1. That is of one kind with the characteristic of
“being molested.”
2. It is also of two kinds when classed as (a) primary
entity (bhūta) and (b) derived [by clinging] (upādāya).
35. Herein (a) primary materiality is of four kinds as the
earth element, water element, fire element, and air
element. Their characteristic, function, and
manifestation have been given under the definition of
the four elements (XI.87, 93); but as to the proximate
cause, each has the other three as its proximate cause.
[444]
36. (b) Derived materiality is of twenty-four kinds as
eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, visible datum, sound,
odour, flavour;[13] femininity faculty, masculinity
faculty, life faculty, heart-basis; bodily intimation,
verbal intimation; space element; lightness of matter,
malleability of matter, wieldiness of matter, growth of
matter, continuity of matter, ageing of matter,
impermanence of matter, and physical nutriment.

1168
37. 1. Herein, the eye’s characteristic is sensitivity of
primary elements that is ready for the impact of
visible data; or its characteristic is sensitivity of
primary elements originated by kamma sourcing from
desire to see.[14] Its function is to pick up [an object]
[15] among visible data. It is manifested as the footing
of eye-consciousness. Its proximate cause is primary
elements born of kamma sourcing from desire to see.
38. 2. The ear’s characteristic is sensitivity of primary
elements that is ready for the impact of sounds; or its
characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements
originated by kamma sourcing from desire to hear. Its
function is to pick up [an object] among sounds. It is
manifested as the footing of ear-consciousness. Its
proximate cause is primary elements born of kamma
sourcing from desire to hear.
39. 3. The nose’s characteristic is sensitivity of primary
elements that is ready for the impact of odours; or its
characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements
originated by kamma sourcing from desire to smell. Its
function is to pick up [an object] among odours. It is
manifested as the footing of nose-consciousness. Its
proximate cause is primary elements born of kamma
sourcing from desire to smell.
40. 4. The tongue’s characteristic is sensitivity of
primary elements that is ready for the impact of

1169
flavours; or its characteristic is sensitivity of primary
elements originated by kamma sourcing from desire to
taste. Its function is to pick up [an object] among
flavours. It is manifested as the footing of tongue-
consciousness. Its proximate cause is primary
elements born of kamma sourcing from desire to taste.
41. 5. The body’s characteristic is sensitivity of
primary elements that is ready for the impact of
tangible data; or its characteristic is sensitivity of
primary elements originated by kamma sourcing from
desire to touch. Its function is to pick up [an object]
among tangible data. It is manifested as the footing of
body-consciousness. Its proximate cause is primary
elements born of kamma sourcing from desire to
touch.
42. Some,[16] however, say that the eye is sensitivity of
primary elements that have fire in excess, and that the
ear, nose, and tongue are sensitivity of primary
elements that have [respectively] air, earth, and water
in excess, and that the body is that of all [four equally].
Others say that the eye is sensitivity of those that have
fire in excess, and that the ear, nose, tongue, and body
are [sensitivity] of those that have [respectively]
aperture, air, water, and earth in excess. They should
be asked to quote a sutta. They will certainly not find
one.

1170
43. But some give as their reason that it is because
these [several sensitivities] are [respectively] aided by
visible data, etc., as qualities of fire, and so on.[17]
They should be asked, “But who has said that visible
data, etc., are qualities of fire and so on? [445] For it is
not possible to say of primary elements, which remain
always inseparable,[18] that ’This is a quality of this
one, that is a quality of that one.’”
44. Then they may say: “Just as you assume, from
excess of some primary element in such and such
material things, the [respective] functions of
upholding (sandhāraṇa), etc., for earth, etc., so from
finding visibility, etc., [respectively] in a state of
excess[19] in material things that have fire in excess,
one may assume that visible data, etc., are
[respectively] qualities of these.” They should be told:
“We might assume it if there were more odour in
cotton, which has earth in excess, than in fermented
liquor, which has water in excess, and if the colour of
cold water were weaker than the colour of hot water,
which has heat in excess.
45. “But since neither of these is a fact, you should
therefore give up conjecturing the difference to be in
the supporting primary elements. Just as the natures
of visible objects, etc., are dissimilar from each other
though there is no difference in the primaries that

1171
form a single group, so too are eye-sensitivity, etc.,
though no other cause of their difference exists.”[20]
This is how it should be taken.
But what is it that is not common to them all?[21] It
is the kamma itself that is the reason for their
difference. Therefore their difference is due to
difference of kamma, not to difference of primary
elements; for if there were difference of primary
elements, sensitivity itself would not arise, since the
Ancients have said: “Sensitivity is of those that are
equal, not of those that are unequal.”
46. Now, among these [sensitivities thus] possessed of
difference due to difference of kamma, the eye and the
ear apprehend non-contiguous objective fields, since
consciousness is caused even if the supporting
[primaries] of the objective fields do not adhere to the
[faculties’] own supporting primaries.[22] The nose,
tongue and body apprehend contiguous objective
fields, because consciousness is caused only if their
objective fields’ [primaries] adhere to their own
supporting [primaries], [that is to say, if the objective
fields’ primaries adhere] as support [in the case of
odours and flavours], and themselves [directly in the
case of tangible data, which are identical with the
three primaries excluding water].
47. 1. There is what is called the “eye” in the world.

1172
That looks like a blue lotus petal and is surrounded by
black eyelashes and varied with dark and light circles.
The eye [sensitivity as meant] here is to be found in
the place in the middle of the black circle surrounded
by the white circle in that [feature of the] eye with its
accessories where there appears the image of the
bodies of those who stand in front of it. It pervades the
eye’s seven layers like oil sprinkled on seven layers of
cotton. It is assisted by the four primary elements
whose [respective] functions are upholding, cohering,
maturing, and moving, as a warrior prince is by four
nurses whose functions are holding, bathing, dressing,
and fanning. It is consolidated by temperature,
consciousness, and nutriment; it is maintained by life;
it is fu rnished with colour, odour, flavour, etc. (see
Ch. XVIII, §5); it is the size of a mere louse’s head; and
it duly serves both as physical basis and as door for
eye-consciousness, and the rest [of the consciousness
of the cognitive series]. [446]
48. And this is said by the General of the Dhamma:
“The sensitivity with which he sees a visible
object
Is small and it is subtle, too, no bigger, than a
louse’s head.”(?)
49. 2. The ear [sensitivity] is to be found inside the
[feature of the] ear-hole with its accessories in the

1173
place that is shaped like a finger-stall and surrounded
by fine brown hairs. It is assisted by the elements in
the way aforesaid. It is consolidated by temperature,
consciousness, and nutriment; it is maintained by life;
it is equipped with colour, etc.; and it duly serves both
as physical basis and as door for ear-consciousness,
and the rest.
50. 3. The nose [sensitivity] is to be found inside the
[feature of the] nose-hole with its accessories in the
place shaped like a goat’s hoof. It has assistance,
consolidation and maintenance in the way aforesaid;
and it duly serves both as physical basis and as door
for nose-consciousness, and the rest.
51. 4. The tongue [sensitivity] is to be found in the
middle of the [feature of the] tongue with its
accessories in the place shaped like a lotus petal tip. It
has assistance, consolidation and maintenance in the
way aforesaid; and it duly serves both as physical
basis and as door for tongue-consciousness, and the
rest.
52. 5. The body [sensitivity] is to be found everywhere,
like a liquid that soaks a layer of cotton, in this
physical body where there is matter that is clung to.
[23] It has assistance, consolidation and maintenance in
the way aforesaid too; and it duly serves both as
physical basis and as door for body-consciousness,

1174
and the rest.
53. Like snakes, crocodiles, birds, dogs, and jackals
that gravitate to their own respective resorts, that is to
say, termite-mounds, water, space, villages, and
charnel grounds, so the eye, etc., should be regarded
as gravitating to their own respective resorts, that is to
say, visible data, and so on (cf. Dhs-a 314).
54. 6. As regards visible data, etc., which come next, a
visible datum has the characteristic of impinging on the
eye. Its function is to be the objective field of eye-
consciousness. It is manifested as the resort of that too.
Its proximate cause is the four great primaries. And all
the [following] kinds of derived materiality are the
same as this. Where there is a difference we shall
mention it. This [visible datum] is of various kinds as
“blue, yellow” (Dhs §617) and so on.
55. 7. Sound has the characteristic of impinging on the
ear. Its function is to be the object of ear-
consciousness. It is manifested as the resort of that too.
It is of various kinds as “drum sound, tabour sound”
(Dhs §621) and so on. [447]
56. 8. Odour has the characteristic of impinging on the
nose. Its function is to be the object of nose-
consciousness. It is manifested as the resort of that too.
It is of various kinds as “root odour, heartwood
odour” (Dhs §625) and so on.

1175
57. 9. Flavour has the characteristic of impinging on
the tongue. Its function is to be the object of tongue-
consciousness. It is manifested as the resort of that too.
It is of various kinds as “root flavour, trunk flavour”
(Dhs §629) and so on.
58. 10. The femininity faculty has the female sex as its
characteristic. Its function is to show that “this is a
female.” It is manifested as the reason for the mark,
sign, work, and ways of the female (cf. Dhs §633).
11. The masculinity faculty has the male sex as its
characteristic. Its function is to show that “this is a
male.” It is manifested as the reason for the mark,
sign, work, and ways of the male (cf. Dhs §634).
Both these last are coextensive with the whole body,
as body-sensitivity is. But it does not follow that they
have to be called either “located in the space where
body-sensitivity is located” or “located in the space
where that is not located.” Like the natures of visible
data, etc., these are not confoundable one with the
other.[24]
59. 12. The life faculty has the characteristic of
maintaining conascent kinds of matter. Its function is
to make them occur. It is manifested in the
establishing of their presence. Its proximate cause is
primary elements that are to be sustained. And
although it has the capacity consisting in the

1176
characteristic of maintaining, etc., yet it only maintains
conascent kinds of matter at the moment of presence,
as water does lotuses and so on. Though states
(dhamma) arise due to their own conditions, it
maintains them, as a wet-nurse does a prince. And it
occurs itself only through its connection with the
states that occur, like a pilot; it does not cause
occurrence after dissolution, because of its own
absence and that of what has to be made to occur. It
does not prolong presence at the moment of
dissolution because it is itself dissolving, like the flame
of a lamp when the wick and the oil are getting used
up. But it must not be regarded as destitute of power
to maintain, make occur, and make present, because it
does accomplish each of these functions at the
moment stated (cf. Dhs §635).[25]
60. 13. The heart-basis has the characteristic of being
the (material) support for the mind-element and for
the mind-consciousness-element. Its function is to
observe them. It is manifested as the carrying of them.
It is to be found in dependence on the blood, of the
kind described in the treatise on mindfulness of the
body (VIII.111), inside the heart. It is assisted by the
primaries with their functions of upholding, etc.; it is
consolidated by temperature, consciousness, and
nutriment; it is maintained by life; and it serves as
physical basis for the mind-element and mind-

1177
consciousness-element, and for the states associated
with them.[26]
61. 14. Bodily intimation is the mode (conformation)
and the alteration (deformation) in the consciousness-
originated air element that causes the occurrence of
moving forward, etc., which mode and alteration are a
condition for the stiffening, upholding, and moving of
the conascent material body. [448] Its function is to
display intention. It is manifested as the cause of
bodily excitement. Its proximate cause is the
consciousness-originated air element. But it is called
“bodily intimation” (kāya-viññatti) because it is the
cause of the intimating (viññāpana) of intention by
means of bodily excitement, and because it is itself
intimatable through the body, in other words, through
that bodily excitement. Moving forward, etc., should
be understood to occur owing to the movement of the
[kinds of matter] that are temperature-born, etc.,
which are interlocked with the consciousness-born
kinds moved by that [intimation][27] (See Dhs §636).
62. 15. Verbal intimation is the mode (conformation)
and the alteration (deformation) in the consciousness-
originated earth element that causes that occurrence of
speech utterance which mode and alteration are a
condition for the knocking together of clung-to matter.
[28] Its function is to display intention. It is manifested

1178
as the cause of the voice in speech. Its proximate cause
is the consciousness-originated earth element. But it is
called “verbal intimation” because it is the cause of the
intimating of intention by means of the voice in
speech, and because it is itself intimatable through
speech, in other words, through that voice in speech.
For, just as, on seeing a sign for water consisting of an
ox skull, etc., hung up in the forest, it is intimated that
“there is water here,” so too, on noticing either the
bodily shaking or the voice in speech thus, they
intimate.[29] (See Dhs §637.)
63. 16. The space element has the characteristic of
delimiting matter. Its function is to display the
boundaries of matter. It is manifested as the confines
of matter; or it is manifested as untouchedness, as the
state of gaps and apertures (cf. Dhs §638). Its
proximate cause is the matter delimited. And it is on
account of it that one can say of material things
delimited that “this is above, below, around, that.”
64. 17. Lightness of matter has the characteristic of non-
slowness. Its function is to dispel heaviness of matter.
It is manifested as light transformability. Its proximate
cause is light matter (cf. Dhs §639).
18. Malleability of matter has the characteristic of non-
stiffenedness. Its function is to dispel stiffness of
matter. It is manifested as non-opposition to any kind

1179
of action. Its proximate cause is malleable matter (cf.
Dhs §640).
19. Wieldiness of matter has the characteristic of
wieldiness that is favourable to bodily action. Its
function is to dispel unwieldiness. It is manifested as
non-weakness. Its proximate cause is wieldy matter
(cf. Dhs §641).
65. These three, however, are not found apart from
each other. Still their difference may be understood as
follows. Lightness of matter is alteration of matter such
as any light (agile) state in material instances, as in one
who is healthy, any non-slowness, any manner of light
transformability in them, which is originated by
conditions that prevent any disturbance of elements
capable of creating sluggishness of matter. Malleability
of matter is alteration of matter such as any malleable
state in material instances, as in a well-pounded hide,
any pliable manner consisting in amenableness to
exercise of power over them in all kinds of work
without distinction, which [449] is originated by
conditions that prevent any disturbance of elements
capable of creating stiffness of matter. Wieldiness of
matter is alteration of matter such as any wieldy state
in material instances, as in well-refined gold, any
manner in them consisting in favourableness to the
work of the body, which is originated by conditions
that prevent any disturbance of elements capable of

1180
creating unfavourableness to the work of the body.
66. 20. Growth of matter has the characteristic of setting
up. Its function is to make material instances emerge
in the first instance. It is manifested as launching; or it
is manifested as the completed state. Its proximate
cause is grown matter.
21. Continuity of matter has the characteristic of
occurrence. Its function is to anchor. It is manifested as
non-interruption. Its proximate cause is matter that is
to be anchored.
Both of these are terms for matter at its birth; but
owing to difference of mode, and according to
[different persons’] susceptibility to instruction, the
teaching in the summary (uddesa) in the
Dhammasaṅgaṇī is given as “growth and continuity”
(cf. Dhs §596); but since there is here no difference in
meaning, consequently in the description (niddesa) of
these words, “the setting up of the sense-bases is the
growth of matter” and “the growth of matter is the
continuity of matter” is said (Dhs §642, 732, 865).
67. And in the Commentary, after saying, “It is
genesis that is called ’setting up,’ increase that is called
’growth,’ occurrence that is called ’continuity,’” this
simile is given: “Genesis as setting up is like the time
when water comes up in a hole dug in a river bank;
increase as growth is like the time when it fills [the

1181
hole]; occurrence as continuity is like the time when it
overflows.” And at the end of the simile it is said: “So
what is stated? Setting up is stated by sense-base;
sense-base is stated by setting up.” Consequently, it is
the first genesis of material instances that is their
setting up; the genesis also of others that are generated
in addition to those is growth since it appears in the
aspect of increase; the repeated genesis also of others
that are generated in addition to those is continuity
since it appears in the aspect of anchoring. This is how
it should be understood to have been declared thus.
68. 22. Ageing has the characteristic of maturing
(ripening) material instances. Its function is to lead on
towards [their termination]. It is manifested as the loss
of newness without the loss of individual essence, like
oldness in paddy. Its proximate cause is matter that is
maturing (ripening). This is said with reference to the
kind of ageing that is evident through seeing
alteration in teeth, etc., as their brokenness, and so on
(cf. Dhs §644). But that of immaterial states, which has
no such [visible] alteration, is called hidden ageing.
And that in earth, water, rocks, the moon, the sun, etc.,
is called incessant ageing. [450]
69. 23. Impermanence of matter has the characteristic of
complete breaking up. Its function is to make material
instances subside. It is manifested as destruction and
fall (cf. Dhs §645). Its proximate cause is matter that is

1182
completely breaking up.
70. 24. Physical nutriment has the characteristic of
nutritive essence. Its function is to feed kinds of
matter. It is manifested as consolidating. Its proximate
cause is a physical basis that must be fed with physical
food. It is a term for the nutritive essence by means of
which living beings sustain themselves (cf. Dhs §646).
71. These, firstly, are the material instances that have
been handed down in the texts.[30] But in the
Commentary, others have been added as follows:
matter as power, matter as procreation, matter as
birth, matter as sickness; and, in the opinion of some,
matter as torpor.[31]
In the first place, matter as torpor is rejected as non-
existent by the words:
Surely thou art a sage enlightened,
There are no hindrances in thee (Sn 541).
As to the rest, matter as sickness is included by
ageing and by impermanence; matter as birth by
growth and continuity; matter as procreation, by the
water element; and matter as power by the air element.
So taken separately not even one of these exists: this
was the agreement reached.
So this derived matter of twenty-four sorts and the
aforesaid matter of the primary elements, which is of

1183
four sorts, together amount to twenty-eight sorts,
neither more nor less.
72. And all that [matter of twenty-eight sorts] is of one
kind as “not-root-cause, root-causeless, dissociated
from root-cause, with conditions, mundane, subject to
cankers” (Dhs §584), and so on.
It is of two kinds as internal and external, gross and
subtle, far and near, produced (nipphanna) and
unproduced, sensitive matter and insensitive matter,
faculty and non-faculty, clung to and not-clung to, and
so on.
73. Herein, the five kinds beginning with the eye are
internal because they occur as an integral part of the
selfhood (in oneself); the rest are external because they
are external to that selfhood (personality). The nine
beginning with the eye and the three elements
excepting the water element, making twelve kinds in
all, are to be taken as gross because of impinging; the
rest are subtle because they are the opposite of that.
What is subtle is far because it is difficult to penetrate,
the other is near because it is easy to penetrate. The
eighteen kinds of matter, that is to say, the four
elements, the thirteen beginning with the eye, and
physical nutriment, are produced because they can be
discerned through their own individual essences,
having exceeded the [purely conceptual] states of

1184
[matter as] delimitation, [matter as] alteration, and
[matter as] characteristic (see §77); the rest, being the
opposite, are unproduced. The five kinds beginning
with the eye are sensitive matter through their being
conditions for the apprehension of visible data, etc.,
because they are, as it were, bright like the surface of a
looking glass; the rest are insensitive matter because
they are the opposite of that. [451] Sensitive matter
itself, together with the three beginning with the
femininity faculty, is faculty in the sense of
predominance; the rest are not-faculty because they are
the opposite of that. What we shall later describe as
“kamma-born” (§75 and XX.27) is clung to because that
is “clung to,” [that is, acquired] by kamma. The rest
are not-clung to because they are the opposite of that.
74. Again, all matter is of three kinds according to the
visible (sanidassana) triad, the kamma-born triad, etc.
(see Dhs 2). Herein, as regards the gross, a visible
datum is visible with impact; the rest are invisible
with impact; all the subtle kinds are invisible without
impact. So firstly it is of three kinds according to the
visible triad.
75. According to the kamma-born triad, etc., however,
that born from kamma is kamma-born; that born from a
condition other than that is not-kamma-born; that not
born from anything is neither-kamma-born-nor-not-
kamma-born.

1185
 That born from consciousness is consciousness-born;
that born from a condition other than consciousness is
not-consciousness-born; that not born from anything is
neither-consciousness-born-nor-not-consciousness-born.
That born from nutriment is nutriment-born; that
born from a condition other than that is not-nutriment-
born; that not born from anything is neither-nutriment-
born-nor-not-nutriment-born.
That born from temperature is temperature-born; that
born from a condition other than that is not-
temperature-born; that not born from anything is
neither-temperature-born-nor-not-temperature-born.
So it is of three kinds according to the kamma-born
triad, and so on.
76. Again, it is of four kinds as seen, etc., as concrete
matter, etc., and as the physical basis tetrads, and so
on.
Herein, the visible-data base is seen because it is the
objective field of seeing. The sound base is heard
because it is the objective field of hearing. The three,
that is to say, odours, flavours, and tangible data, are
sensed (lit. contacted) because they are the objective
fields of faculties that take contiguous [objective
fields]. The rest are cognized because they are the
objective field of consciousness (cognition) only. So
firstly it is of four kinds according to the seen, etc.,

1186
tetrad.[32]
77. Here, however, “produced matter” is concrete
matter; the space-element is delimiting matter; those
from “bodily intimation” up to “wieldiness” are matter
as alteration; birth, ageing and dissolution are matter as
characteristic. So it is of four kinds as concrete matter
and so on.
78. Here, however, what is called the materiality of
the heart is physical basis, not door (see Dhs-a 82f.); the
two intimations are door, not physical basis; sensitive
matter is both physical basis and door; the rest are neither
physical basis nor door. So it is four kinds according to
the physical basis tetrad.
79. Again, it is of five kinds as born of one, born of
two, born of three, born of four, and not born of
anything.
Herein, what is kamma-born only or consciousness-
born only is called born of one. Of these, materiality of
the faculties, together with the heart-basis, is kamma-
born only; the two intimations are consciousness-born
only. But what is born [now] of consciousness and
[now] of temperature is called born of two. That is the
sound base only.[33] What is born of temperature,
consciousness, and nutriment [452] is called born of
three. But that is the three beginning with “lightness”
only. What is born from the four beginning with

1187
kamma is called born of four. That is all the rest except
“matter as characteristic.”
80. But “matter as characteristic” is called not born of
anything. Why? Because there is no arising of arising,
and the other two are the mere maturing and breakup
of what has arisen. Though in the passage, “The
visible-data base, the sound base, the odour base, the
flavour base, the tangible-data base, the space element,
the water element, lightness of matter, malleability of
matter, wieldiness of matter, growth of matter,
continuity of matter, and physical food—these states
are consciousness-originated” (cf. Dhs §667) and so on,
a state of birth [that is, growth] being born from
somewhere can be understood as allowable since the
point of view here is the moment when the conditions
that are giving birth to the kinds of materiality are
exercising their function.
This, firstly, is the section of the detailed
explanation dealing with the materiality aggregate.

[The Consciousness Aggregate]

81. Among the remaining aggregates, however,

whatever has the characteristic of being felt[34] should
be understood, all taken together, as the feeling

1188
aggregate; and whatever has the characteristic of
perceiving, all taken together, as the perception
aggregate; and whatever has the characteristic of
forming, all taken together, as the formations
aggregate; and whatever has the characteristic of
cognizing, all taken together, as the consciousness
aggregate. Herein, since the rest are easy to
understand when the consciousness aggregate has
been understood, we shall therefore begin with the
commentary on the consciousness aggregate.
82. “Whatever has the characteristic of cognizing
should be understood, all taken together, as the
consciousness aggregate” was said above. And what
has the characteristic of cognizing (vijānana)?
Consciousness (viññāṇa); according as it is said, “It
cognizes, friend, that is why ’consciousness’ is said”
(M I 292). The words viññāṇa (consciousness), citta
(mind, consciousness), and mano (mind) are one in
meaning.

[The 89 Kinds of Consciousness—see

Table III]

That same [consciousness], though one in its

individual essence with the characteristic of cognizing,

1189
is threefold according to kind, namely, (I) profitable,
(II) unprofitable, and (III) indeterminate.[35]
83. I. Herein, the profitable is fourfold according to
plane, namely, (A) of the sense sphere, (B) of the fine-
material sphere, (C) of the immaterial sphere, and (D)
supramundane.[36]
I. A. Herein, (1)–(8) that of the sense sphere is
eightfold, being classified according to joy,
equanimity, knowledge, and prompting, that is to say:
(1) when accompanied-by-joy it is either associated-
with-knowledge and unprompted, or (2) prompted; or
(3) it is dissociated-from-knowledge and likewise
[unprompted, or (4) prompted]; and (5) when
accompanied-by-equanimity it is either associated-
with-knowledge and prompted, or (6) unprompted; or
(7) it is dissociated-from-knowledge [453] and likewise
[unprompted, or (8) prompted].
84. (1) When a man is happy on encountering an
excellent gift to be given, or recipient, etc., or some
such cause for joy, and by placing right view foremost
that occurs in the way beginning “There is [merit in]
giving” (M I 288), he unhesitatingly and unurged by
others performs such merit as giving, etc., then his
consciousness is accompanied by joy, associated with
knowledge, and unprompted. (2) But when a man is
happy and content in the way aforesaid, and, while

1190
placing right view foremost, yet he does it hesitantly
through lack of free generosity, etc., or urged on by
others, then his consciousness is of the same kind as
the last but prompted; for in this sense “prompting” is a
term for a prior effort exerted by himself or others
85. (3) But when young children have a natural habit
due to seeing the behaviour of relatives and are joyful
on seeing bhikkhus and at once give them whatever
they have in their hands or pay homage, then the third
kind of consciousness arises. (4) But when they behave
like this on being urged by their relatives, “Give; pay
homage,” then the fourth kind of consciousness arises.
(5)–(8) But when the consciousnesses are devoid of joy
in these four instances through encountering no
excellence in the gift to be given, or in the recipient,
etc., or through want of any such cause for joy, then
the remaining four, which are accompanied by
equanimity, arise.
So sense-sphere profitable [consciousness] should
be understood as of eight kinds, being classed
according to joy, equanimity, knowledge, and
prompting.
86. I. B. The consciousness of the fine-material sphere
is fivefold, being classed according to association with
the jhāna factors. That is to say, (9) the first is
associated with applied thought, sustained thought,

1191
happiness, bliss, and concentration, (10) the second
leaves out applied thought from that, (11) the third
leaves out sustained thought from that, (12) the fourth
makes happiness fade away from that, (13) the fifth is
associated with equanimity and concentration, bliss
having subsided.
87. I. C. That of the immaterial sphere is fourfold by
association with the four immaterial states; for (14) the
first is associated with the jhāna of the base consisting
of boundless space in the way aforesaid, while (15)–
(17) the second, third, and fourth, are [respectively]
associated with those of the base consisting of
boundless consciousness, and so on.
88. I. D. The supramundane is fourfold (18)–(21) by
association with the four paths.
So firstly, profitable consciousness itself is of
twenty-one kinds. [454]
89. II. The unprofitable is one kind according to plane,
being only of the sense sphere. It is of three kinds
according to root, as (a) rooted in greed, (b) rooted in
hate, and (c) rooted in delusion.
90. II. (a) Herein, (22)–(29) that rooted in greed is of
eight kinds, being classed according to joy,
equanimity, [false] view, and prompting, that is to say:
(22) when accompanied by joy it is either associated-
with-[false-]view and unprompted, or (23) prompted;

1192
or (24) it is dissociated-from-[false-]view and likewise
[unprompted or (25) prompted]; and (26) when
accompanied-by-equanimity it is either associated-
with-[false-]view and unprompted, or (27) prompted;
or (28) it is dissociated-from-[false-]view and likewise
[unprompted, or (29) prompted].
91. (22) When a man is happy and content in placing
wrong view foremost of the sort beginning “There is
no danger in sense desires” (M I 307), and either
enjoys sense desires with consciousness that in its own
individual essence is eager without being urged, or
believes auspicious sights, etc., have a [real
substantial] core, then the first kind of unprofitable
consciousness arises (23); when it is with
consciousness that is sluggish and urged on, then it is
the second kind (24). But when a man is happy and
content only, without placing wrong view foremost,
and indulges in sexual intercourse, or covets others’
good fortune, or steals others’ goods, with
consciousness that in its own individual essence is
eager without being urged, then it is the third kind
(25). When it is with consciousness that is sluggish and
urged on, then it is the fourth kind (26)–(29). But when
the consciousnesses are devoid of joy in these four
instances through encountering no excellence in the
sense desires, or through want of any such cause for
joy, then the remaining four, which are accompanied

1193
by equanimity, arise.
So that rooted in greed should be understood as of
eight kinds, being classed according to joy,
equanimity, [false] view and prompting.
92. II. (b) That rooted in hate is of two kinds: (30)–(31)
being accompanied-by-grief and associated-with-
resentment, it is either prompted or unprompted. It
should be understood to occur at the times when
[consciousness] is either keen [if unprompted] or
sluggish [if prompted] in the killing of living things,
and so on.
93. II. (c) That rooted in delusion is of two kinds: (32)–
(33) being accompanied-by-equanimity, it is either
associated-with uncertainty or associated-with-
agitation. It should be understood to occur at the time
of indecision or of distraction.
So unprofitable consciousness is of twelve kinds.
94. III. The indeterminate is of two kinds: (i) resultant
and (ii) functional. Herein, III. i. resultant is of four
kinds according to plane; namely, (A) of the sense
sphere, (B) of the fine-material sphere, (C) of the
immaterial sphere, and (D) supramundane. Herein, III.
i. A. that of the sense sphere is of two kinds, namely, (a)
profitable result and (b) unprofitable result. And III. i.
A. (a) the profitable resultant is of two kinds, namely, (1)
without root-cause and (2) with root-cause.

1194
95. III. i. A. (a) i. Herein, that without root-cause is that
devoid of non-greed, etc., as the cause of result. It is of
eight kinds as (34) eye-consciousness (35)–(38), ear-,
nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness (39), mind-
element with the function of receiving (40)–(41), the
two mind-consciousness-elements with the functions
of investigating, and so on. [455]
96. Herein, (34) eye-consciousness has the characteristic
of being supported by the eye and cognizing visible
data. Its function is to have only visible data as its
object. It is manifested as occupation with visible data.
Its proximate cause is the departure of (70) the
functional mind-element that has visible data as its
object.
(35)–(38) Ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness
[respectively] have the characteristic of being
supported by the ear, etc., and of cognizing sounds,
and so on. Their functions are to have only sounds,
etc., as their [respective] objects. They are manifested
as occupation with [respectively] sounds, and so on.
Their proximate cause is the departure of (70) the
functional mind-element that has [respectively]
sounds, etc., as its object.
97. (39) [The resultant] mind-element has the
characteristic of cognizing [respectively] visible data,
etc., immediately next to (34)–(38) eye-consciousness,

1195
and so on. Its function is to receive visible data, and so
on. It is manifested as the state [of receiving]
corresponding to that [last-mentioned function].[37] Its
proximate cause is the departure of eye-consciousness,
and so on.
(40)–(41) Also the twofold resultant mind-
consciousness-element without root-cause with the
function of investigating, etc., has as its characteristic
the cognizing of the six kinds of objects. Its function is
that of investigating, and so on. It is manifested as the
state [of investigating] corresponding to that [last-
mentioned function]. Its proximate cause is the heart-
basis.
98. But it is classed according to its association with
joy or with equanimity, and according to its being
divisible into that with two positions and that with
five positions [in the cognitive series]. For of these,
(40) one is associated-with-joy because of its presence
when entirely desirable objects occur; and it has two
positions [in the cognitive series] because it occurs as
investigating at the five doors and as registration at
the end of impulsion. (41) The other kind is associated-
with-equanimity because of its presence when
desirable-neutral objects occur, and it has five
positions since it occurs as investigation, registration,
rebirth-linking, life-continuum, and death.

1196
99. And this eightfold resultant consciousness without
root-cause is of two kinds as well because of having an
invariable object and a variable object. It is of three
kinds as classed according to [bodily] pleasure,
[mental] joy, and equanimity. For (34)–(38) the five
consciousnesses have each an invariable object since
they occur respectively only with respect to visible
data, and so on. The others (39)–(41) have a variable
object. For here (39) the mind-element occurs with
respect to the five beginning with visible data, and
(40)–(41) the two mind-consciousness-elements occur
with respect to [all] six. Here, however, body-
consciousness is associated with [bodily] pleasure. The
mind-consciousness-element (40) with two positions is
associated with [mental] joy; the other (41) is
associated with equanimity.
So firstly, the profitable resultant without root-cause
should be understood as of eight kinds.
100. III. i. A. (a) 2. But that with root-cause is (42)–(49)
that associated with non-greed, etc., as the cause of the
result. It is of eight kinds because it is classed
according to joy, etc., like the profitable of the sense
sphere (1)–(8). But it does not occur with respect to the
six objects[38] through giving, etc., as the profitable
does; for it occurs only with respect to the six objects
that are included among limited states,[39] as rebirth-

1197
linking, life-continuum, death, and registration. But
the prompted and unprompted states should be
understood here as due to the source it has come from,
and so on.[40] [456] And while there is no difference in
the associated states, the resultant should be
understood as passive like the reflection of a face in a
looking-glass while the profitable is active like the
face.
101. III. i. A. (b) Unprofitable resultant, though, is
without root-cause only. It is of seven kinds as (50)
eye-consciousness, (51)–(54) ear-, nose-, tongue-, and
body-consciousness, (55) mind-element with the
function of receiving, and (56) mind-consciousness-
element with the function of investigating, etc., and
having five positions. It should be understood as to
characteristic, etc., in the same way as the profitable
resultant without root-cause (34)–(41).
102. Profitable resultant, though, has desirable or
desirable-neutral objects only, while these have
undesirable or undesirable-neutral objects only. The
former are of three kinds, being classed according to
equanimity, bodily pleasure, and mental joy, while
these are of two kinds, being classed according to
bodily pain and equanimity. For here it is only body-
consciousness that is accompanied by bodily pain; the
rest are accompanied by equanimity. And the
equanimity in these is inferior, and not very sharp as

1198
the pain is; while in the former it is superior, and not
very sharp as the pleasure is.
So with these seven kinds of unprofitable resultant
and the previous sixteen kinds of profitable resultant,
sense-sphere resultant consciousness is of twenty-
three kinds.
103. III. i. B. That of the fine-material sphere, however, is
of five kinds (57)–(61) like the profitable (9)–(13). But
the profitable occurs in a cognitive series with the
impulsions as an attainment [of jhāna], while this
occurs in an existence [in the fine-material sphere] as
rebirth-linking, life-continuum, and death.
104. III. i. C. And as that of the fine-material sphere
[was like the profitable of that sphere] so that of the
immaterial sphere (62)–(65) is of four kinds like the
profitable too (14)–(17). And its occurrence is classed
in the same way as that of the fine-material sphere.
105. III. i. D. The supramundane resultant is of four
kinds (66)–(69) because it is [respectively] the fruitions
of the consciousnesses associated with the four paths
(18)–(21). It occurs in two ways, that is to say, as
[fruition in] the cognitive series of the path and as
fruition attainment (see Ch. XXII).
So resultant consciousness in all the four planes is of
thirty-six kinds.

1199
106. III. ii. The functional, however, is of three kinds
according to plane: (A) of the sense sphere, (B) of the
fine-material sphere, (C) of the immaterial sphere.
Herein, III. ii. A., that of the sense sphere, is of two
kinds, namely, (1) without root-cause, and (2) with
root-cause.
III. ii. A. 1. Herein, that without root-cause is that
devoid of non-greed, etc., as the cause of result. That is
of two kinds, being classed as (70) mind-element, and
(71)–(72) mind-consciousness-element.
107. Herein, (70) the mind-element has the
characteristics of being the forerunner of eye-
consciousness, etc., and of cognizing visible data and
so on. Its function is to advert. It is manifested as
confrontation of visible data, and so on. Its proximate
cause is the interruption of [the continued occurrence
of consciousness as] life-continuum. It is associated
with equanimity only.
108. But the mind-consciousness-element is of two
kinds, namely, shared by all and not shared by all.
[457] Herein, (71) that shared by all is the functional
[mind-consciousness-element] accompanied by
equanimity without root-cause. It has the
characteristic of cognizing the six kinds of objects. Its
function is to determine at the five doors and to advert
at the mind door. It is manifested as the states [of

1200
determining and adverting] corresponding to those
[last-mentioned two functions]. Its proximate cause is
the departure either of the resultant mind-
consciousness-element without root-cause (40)–(41) [in
the first case], or of one among the kinds of life-
continuum [in the second]. (72) That not shared by all is
the functional [mind-consciousness-element]
accompanied by joy without root-cause. It has the
characteristic of cognizing the six kinds of objects. Its
function is to cause smiling[41] in Arahants about
things that are not sublime. It is manifested as the state
corresponding to that [last-mentioned function]. Its
proximate cause is always the heart-basis.
So the sense-sphere functional without root-cause is
of three kinds.
109. III. ii. A. 2. That, however, with root cause is of
eight kinds (73)–(80), like the profitable (1)–(8), being
classed according to joy and so on. While the
profitable arises in trainers and ordinary men only,
this arises in Arahants only. This is the difference here.
So firstly, that of the sense sphere is of eleven kinds.
III. ii. B., III. ii. C. That, however, of the fine-material
sphere (81)–(85), and that of the immaterial sphere (86)–
(89) are [respectively] of five kinds and of four kinds
like the profitable. But they should be understood to
differ from the profitable in that they arise only in

1201
Arahants.
So functional consciousness in the three planes is of
twenty kinds in all.
110. So the 21 kinds of profitable, the 12 kinds of
unprofitable, the 36 kinds of resultant, and the 20
kinds of functional, amount in all to 89 kinds of
consciousness. And these occur in the fourteen modes
of (a) rebirth-linking, (b) life-continuum, (c) adverting,
(d) seeing, (e) hearing, (f) smelling, (g) tasting, (h)
touching, (i) receiving, (j) investigating, (k)
determining, (l) impulsion, (m) registration, and (n)
death.

[The 14 Modes of Occurrence of

Consciousness]

111. How so? (a) When, through the influence of the

eight kinds of sense-sphere profitable [consciousness]
(1)–(8), beings come to be reborn among deities and
human beings, then the eight kinds of sense-sphere
resultant with root-cause (42)–(49) occur, and also the
resultant mind-consciousness-element without root-
cause associated with equanimity (41), which is the
weak profitable result with two root-causes in those
who are entering upon the state of eunuchs, etc.,

1202
among human beings—thus nine kinds of resultant
consciousness in all occur as rebirth-linking; and they
do so making their object whichever among the
kamma, sign of kamma, or sign of destiny has
appeared at the time of dying (see also XVII.120).[42]
112. When, through the influence of the profitable of
the fine-material sphere (9)–(13) and the immaterial
sphere (14)–(17), beings are reborn [respectively] in the
fine-material and immaterial kinds of becoming, then
the nine kinds of fine-material (57)–(61) and
immaterial (62)–(65) resultant occur as rebirth-linking;
and they do so making their object only the sign of
kamma that has appeared at the time of dying.[43]
113. When, through the influence of the unprofitable
(22)–(33), they are reborn in a state of loss, then the
one kind of unprofitable resultant mind-
consciousness-element without root-cause (56) occurs
as rebirth-linking; and it does so making its object
whichever among the kamma, sign of kamma, and
sign of destiny has appeared at the time of dying. [458]
This firstly is how the occurrence of nineteen kinds
of resultant consciousness should be understood as
rebirth-linking.
114. (b) When the rebirth-linking consciousness has
ceased, then, following on whatever kind of rebirth-
linking it may be, the same kinds, being the result of

1203
that same kamma whatever it may be, occur as life-
continuum consciousness with that same object; and
again those same kinds.[44] And as long as there is no
other kind of arising of consciousness to interrupt the
continuity, they also go on occurring endlessly in
periods of dreamless sleep, etc., like the current of a
river.[45]
This is how the occurrence of those same [nineteen
kinds of] consciousness should be understood as life-
continuum.
115. (c) With the life-continuum continuity occurring
thus, when living beings’ faculties have become
capable of apprehending an object, then, when a
visible datum has come into the eye’s focus, there is
impinging upon the eye-sensitivity due to the visible
datum. Thereupon, owing to the impact’s influence,
there comes to be a disturbance in [the continuity of]
the life-continuum.[46] Then, when the life-continuum
has ceased, the functional mind-element (70) arises
making that same visible datum its object, as it were,
cutting off the life-continuum and accomplishing the
function of adverting. So too in the case of the ear door
and so on.
116. When an object of anyone of the six kinds has
come into focus in the mind door, then next to the
disturbance of the life-continuum the functional mind-

1204
consciousness-element without root-cause (71) arises
accompanied by equanimity, as it were, cutting off the
life-continuum and accomplishing the function of
adverting.
This is how the occurrence of two kinds of
functional consciousness should be understood as
adverting.

117. (d)–(h) Next to adverting,[47] taking the eye door

first, eye-consciousness (d) arises accomplishing the
function of seeing in the eye door and having the eye-
sensitivity as its physical basis. And [likewise] (e) ear-,
(f) nose-, (g) tongue-, and (h) body-consciousness arise,
accomplishing respectively the functions of hearing,
etc., in the ear door and so on.
These comprise the profitable resultant
[consciousnesses] (34)–(38) with respect to desirable
and desirable-neutral objective fields, and the
unprofitable resultant (50)–(54) with respect to
undesirable and undesirable-neutral objective fields.
This is how the occurrence of ten kinds of resultant
consciousness should be understood as seeing,
hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.
118. (i) Because of the words, “Eye-consciousness
having arisen and ceased, next to that there arises
consciousness, mind, mentation … which is

1205
appropriate mind-element” (Vibh 88), etc., next to eye-
consciousness, etc., and receiving the same objective
fields as they [deal with], mind-element arises as (39)
profitable resultant next to profitable resultant [eye-
consciousness, etc.,] and as (55) unprofitable resultant
next to [459] unprofitable resultant [eye-consciousness,
and so on].
This is how the occurrence of two kinds of resultant
consciousness should be understood as receiving.
119. (j) Because of the words, “Mind-element having
arisen and ceased, also, next to that there arises
consciousness, mind, mentation … which is
appropriate mind-element” (Vibh 89),[48] then
resultant mind-consciousness-element without root-
cause arises investigating the same objective field as
that received by the mind-element. When next to (55)
unprofitable-resultant mind-element it is (56)
unprofitable-resultant, and when next to (39)
profitable-resultant [mind-element] it is either (40)
accompanied by joy in the case of a desirable object, or
(41) accompanied by equanimity in the case of a
desirable-neutral object.
This is how the occurrence of three kinds of
resultant consciousness should be understood as
investigating.
120. (k) Next to investigation, (71) functional mind-

1206
consciousness-element without root-cause arises
accompanied by equanimity determining that same
objective field.
This is how the occurrence of one kind of resultant
consciousness should be understood as determining.
121. (l) Next to determining, if the visible datum, etc.,
as object is vivid,[49] then six or seven impulsions impel
with respect to the objective fields as determined.
These are one among (1)–(8) the eight kinds of sense-
sphere profitable, or (22)–(33) the twelve kinds of
unprofitable, or (72)–(80) the nine remaining sense-
sphere functional. This, firstly, is the way in the case of
the five doors.
But in the case of the mind door those same
[impulsions arise] next to (71) mind-door adverting.

Beyond [the stage of] change-of-lineage[50] any [of

the following 26 kinds of impulsion] that obtains a
condition[51] impels; that is, any kind among (9)–(13)
the five profitable, and (81)–(85) the five functional, of
the fine-material sphere, and (14)–(17) the four
profitable, and (86)–(89) the four functional of the
immaterial sphere, and also (18)–(21) the four path
consciousnesses and (66)–(69) four fruition
consciousnesses of the supramundane.
This is how the occurrence of fifty-five kinds of

1207
profitable, unprofitable, functional, and resultant
consciousness should be understood as impulsion.
122. (m) At the end of the impulsions, if the object is a
very vivid one[52] in the five doors, or is clear in the
mind door, then in sense-sphere beings at the end of
sense-sphere impulsions resultant consciousness
occurs through any condition it may have obtained
such as previous kamma, impulsion consciousness,
etc., with desirable, etc., object.[53] [It occurs thus] as
one among the eight sense-sphere resultant kinds with
root cause (42)–(49) or the three resultant mind-
consciousness elements without root-cause (40), (41),
(56), and it [does so] twice or [460] once, following
after the impulsions that have impelled, and with
respect to an object other than the life-continuum’s
object, like some of the water that follows a little after
a boat going upstream. Though ready to occur with
the life-continuum’s object after the impulsions have
ended, it nevertheless occurs making the impulsions’
object its object. Because of that it is called registration
(tadārammaṇa—lit. “having-that-as-its-object”).
This is how the occurrence of eleven kinds of
resultant consciousness should be understood as
registration.
123. (n) At the end of registration the life-continuum
resumes its occurrence. When the [resumed

1208
occurrence of the] life-continuum is again interrupted,
adverting, etc., occur again, and when the conditions
obtain, the conscious continuity repeats its occurrence
as adverting, and next to adverting seeing, etc.,
according to the law of consciousness, again and
again, until the life-continuum of one becoming is
exhausted. For the last life-continuum consciousness
of all in one becoming is called death (cuti) because of
falling (cavanatta) from that [becoming]. So that is of
nineteen kinds too [like rebirth-linking and life-
continuum].
This is how the occurrence of nineteen kinds of
resultant consciousness should be understood as
death.
124. And after death there is rebirth-linking again;
and after rebirth-linking, life-continuum. Thus the
conscious continuity of beings who hasten through the
kinds of becoming, destiny, station [of consciousness],
and abode [of beings] occurs without break. But when
a man attains Arahantship here, it ceases with the
cessation of his death consciousness.
This is the section of the detailed explanation
dealing with the consciousness aggregate.

[The Feeling Aggregate]

1209
125. Now, it was said above, “Whatever has the
characteristic of being felt should be understood, all
taken together, as the feeling aggregate” (§81). And
here too, what is said to have the characteristic of
being felt is feeling itself, according as it is said, “It is
felt, friend, that is why it is called feeling” (M I 293).
126. But though it is singlefold according to its
individual essence as the characteristic of being felt, it
is nevertheless threefold as to kind, that is to say,
profitable, unprofitable, and indeterminate. Herein, it
should be understood that when associated with the
profitable consciousness described in the way
beginning “(1)–(8) That of the sense sphere is eight-
fold, being classified according to joy, equanimity,
knowledge, and prompting” (§83), it is profitable;[54]
that associated with unprofitable consciousness is
unprofitable; that associated with indeterminate
consciousness is indeterminate. [461]
127. It is fivefold according to the analysis of its
individual essence into [bodily] pleasure, [bodily]
pain, [mental] joy, [mental] grief, and equanimity.
Herein, pleasure is associated with profitable
resultant body-consciousness (38) and pain with
unprofitable resultant body-consciousness (54). Joy is
associated with 62 kinds of consciousness, namely, as
to sense sphere, with 4 kinds of profitable (1)–(4), with

1210
4 resultant with root-cause (42)–(45), with 1 resultant
without root-cause (40), with 4 functional with root-
cause (73)–(76), with 1 functional without root-cause
(72), and with 4 unprofitable (22)–(25); and as to the
fine-material-sphere, with 4 kinds of profitable (9)–
(12), 4 resultant (57)–(60), and 4 functional (81)–(84),
leaving out that of the fifth jhāna in each case; but
there is no supramundane without jhāna and
consequently the [eight] kinds of supramundane (18)–
(21) and (66)–(69) multiplied by the five jhāna make
forty; but leaving out the eight associated with the
fifth jhāna, it is associated with the remaining 32 kinds
of profitable resultant. Grief is associated with two
kinds of unprofitable (30)–(31). Equanimity is
associated with the remaining fifty-five kinds of
consciousness.
128. Herein, pleasure has the characteristic of
experiencing a desirable tangible datum. Its function is
to intensify associated states. It is manifested as bodily
enjoyment. Its proximate cause is the body faculty.
Pain has the characteristic of experiencing an
undesirable tangible datum. Its function is to wither
associated states. It is manifested as bodily affliction.
Its proximate cause is the body faculty.
Joy has the characteristic of experiencing a desirable
object. Its function is to exploit[55] in one way or

1211
another the desirable aspect. It is manifested as mental
enjoyment. Its proximate cause is tranquillity.
Grief has the characteristic of experiencing an
undesirable object. Its function is to exploit in one way
or another the undesirable aspect. It is manifested as
mental affliction. Its proximate cause is invariably the
heart-basis.
Equanimity has the characteristic of being felt as
neutral. Its function is not to intensify or wither
associated states much. It is manifested as
peacefulness. Its proximate cause is consciousness
without happiness.[56]
This is the section of the detailed explanation
dealing with the feeling aggregate.

[The Perception Aggregate]

129. Now, it was said above, “Whatever has the

characteristic of perceiving should be understood, all
taken together, as the perception aggregate” (§81).
And here too, what is said to have the characteristic of
perceiving is perception itself, according as it is said,
“It perceives, friend, that is why it is called
perception” (M I 293).

1212
 But though it is singlefold according to its
individual essence as the characteristic of perceiving,
it is nevertheless threefold as to kind, that is to say,
profitable, unprofitable, and indeterminate. Herein,
[462] that associated with profitable consciousness is
profitable, that associated with unprofitable
consciousness is unprofitable, that associated with
indeterminate consciousness is indeterminate. Since
there is no consciousness dissociated from perception,
perception therefore has the same number of divisions
as consciousness [that is to say, eighty-nine].
130. But though classed in the same way as
consciousness, nevertheless, as to characteristic, etc., it
all has just the characteristic of perceiving. Its function
is to make a sign as a condition for perceiving again
that “this is the same,” as carpenters, etc., do in the
case of timber, and so on. It is manifested as the action
of interpreting by means of the sign as apprehended,
like the blind who “see” an elephant (Ud 68–69). Its
proximate cause is an objective field in whatever way
that appears, like the perception that arises in fawns
that see scarecrows as men.
This is the section of the detailed explanation
dealing with the perception aggregate.

[The Formations Aggregate—see

1213
 Tables II & IV]

131. Now, it was said above, “Whatever has the

characteristic of forming should be understood, all
taken together, as the formations aggregate” (§81).
And here too, what is said to have the characteristic of
forming is that which has the characteristic of
agglomerating.[57] What is that? It is formations
themselves, according as it is said, “They form the
formed, bhikkhus, that is why they are called
formations” (S III 87).
132. They have the characteristic of forming. Their
function is to accumulate. They are manifested as
intervening.[58] Their proximate cause is the
remaining three [immaterial] aggregates. So according
to characteristic, etc., they are singlefold. And
according to kind they are threefold, namely, (I)
profitable, (II) unprofitable, and (III) indeterminate. As
regards these, when associated with profitable
consciousness they are profitable, when associated
with unprofitable consciousness they are unprofitable,
when associated with indeterminate consciousness
they are indeterminate.

[According to Association with

1214
 Consciousness]

133. I. (1) Herein, firstly, those associated with the first

sense-sphere profitable consciousness (1) amount to
thirty-six, that is to say, the constant ones, which are
the twenty-seven given in the texts as such, and the
four “or-whatever-states,”[59] and also the five
inconstant ones (cf. Dhs §1).
Herein, the twenty-seven given as such are these:
(i) contact,
(ii) volition,
(iii) applied thought, [463]
(iv) sustained thought,
(v) happiness (interest),
(vi) energy,
(vii) life,
(viii) concentration,
(ix) faith,
(x) mindfulness,
(xi) conscience,
(xii) shame,

1215
 (xiii) non-greed,
(xiv) non-hate,
(xv) non-delusion,
(xvi) tranquillity of the [mental] body,
(xvii) tranquillity of consciousness,
(xviii) lightness of the [mental] body,
(xix) lightness of consciousness,
(xx) malleability of the [mental] body,
(xxi) malleability of consciousness,
(xxii) wieldiness of the [mental] body,
(xxiii) wieldiness of consciousness,
(xxiv) proficiency of the [mental] body,
(xxv) proficiency of consciousness,
(xxvi) rectitude of the [mental) body,
(xxvii) rectitude of consciousness.
The four ’or-whatever-states’ are these:
(xxviii) zeal (desire),
(xxix) resolution,
(xxx) attention (bringing to mind),
(xxxi) specific neutrality.

1216
 And the five inconstant are these:
(xxxii) compassion,
(xxxiii) gladness,
(xxxiv) abstinence from bodily misconduct,
(xxxv) abstinence from verbal misconduct,
(xxxvi) abstinence from wrong livelihood.
These last arise sometimes [but not always], and
when they arise they do not do so together.
134. Herein, (i) it touches (phusati), thus it is contact
(phassa). This has the characteristic of touching. Its
function is the act of impingement. It is manifested as
concurrence. Its proximate cause is an objective field
that has come into focus.
[As to its characteristic], although this is an
immaterial state, it occurs with respect to an object as
the act of touching too.[60] And [as to its function],
although it is not adherent on anyone side[61] as eye-
cum-visible-object and ear-cum-sound are, yet it is
what makes consciousness and the object impinge. It is
said to be manifested as concurrence because it has
been described as its own action, namely, the
concurrence of the three [(cf. M I 111), that is, eye,
visible object, and eye-consciousness]. And it is said to
have as its proximate cause an objective field that has

1217
come into focus because it arises automatically
through the appropriate [conscious] reaction and with
a faculty when the objective field is presented. But it
should be regarded as like a hideless cow (S II 99)
because it is the habitat[62] of feeling.
135. (ii) It wills (cetayati), thus it is volition (cetanā); it
collects, is the meaning. Its characteristic is the state of
willing. Its function is to accumulate. It is manifested
as coordinating. It accomplishes its own and others’
functions, as a senior pupil, a head carpenter, etc., do.
But it is evident when it occurs in the marshalling
(driving) of associated states in connection with
urgent work, remembering, and so on. [464]
136. (iii)–(v) What should be said about applied
thought, sustained thought, and happiness has already
been said in the commentary on the first jhāna in the
Description of the Earth Kasiṇa (IV.88–98).
137. (vi) Energy (viriya) is the state of one who is
vigorous (vīra). Its characteristic is marshalling
(driving). Its function is to consolidate conascent
states. It is manifested as non-collapse. Because of the
words: “Bestirred, he strives wisely” (A II 115), its
proximate cause is a sense of urgency; or its proximate
cause is grounds for the initiation of energy. When
rightly initiated, it should be regarded as the root of all
attainments.

1218
138. (vii) By its means they live, or it itself lives, or it is
just mere living, thus it is life. But its characteristic,
etc., should be understood in the way stated under
material life (§59); for that is life of material things and
this is life of immaterial things. This is the only
difference here.
139. (viii) It puts (ādhiyati) consciousness evenly
(samaṃ) on the object, or it puts it rightly (sammā) on it,
or it is just the mere collecting (samādhāna) of the
mind, thus it is concentration (samādhi). Its
characteristic is non-wandering, or its characteristic is
non-distraction. Its function is to conglomerate
conascent states as water does bath powder. It is
manifested as peace. Usually its proximate cause is
bliss. It should be regarded as steadiness of the mind,
like the steadiness of a lamp’s flame when there is no
draught.
140. (ix) By its means they have faith (saddahanti), or it
itself is the having of faith, or it is just the act of having
faith (saddahana), thus it is faith (saddhā). Its
characteristic is having faith, or its characteristic is
trusting. Its function is to clarify, like a water-clearing
gem, or its function is to enter into, like the setting out
across a flood (cf. Sn 184). It is manifested as non-
fogginess, or it is manifested as resolution. Its
proximate cause is something to have faith in, or its
proximate cause is the things beginning with hearing

1219
the Good Dhamma (saddhamma) that constitute the
factors of stream-entry.[63] It should be regarded as a
hand [because it takes hold of profitable things], as
wealth (Sn 182), and as seed (Sn 77).
141. (x) By its means they remember (saranti), or it
itself remembers, or it is just mere remembering
(saraṇa), thus it is mindfulness (sati). It has the
characteristic of not wobbling.[64] Its function is not to
forget. It is manifested as guarding, or it is manifested
as the state of confronting an objective field. Its
proximate cause is strong perception, or its proximate
cause is the foundations of mindfulness concerned
with the body, and so on (see MN 10). It should be
regarded, however, as like a pillar because it is firmly
founded, or as like a door-keeper because it guards the
eye-door, and so on.
142. (xi)–(xii) It has conscientious scruples (hiriyati)
about bodily misconduct, etc., thus it is conscience
(hiri). This is a term for modesty. It is ashamed
(ottappati) of those same things, thus it is shame
(ottappa). This is a term for anxiety about evil. Herein,
conscience has the characteristic of disgust at evil, while
shame has the characteristic of dread of it. Conscience
has the function of not doing evil and that in the mode
of modesty, while shame has the function of not doing
it and that in the mode of dread. They are manifested

1220
as shrinking from evil in the way already stated. Their
proximate causes are self-respect and respect of others
[respectively]. [465] A man rejects evil through
conscience out of respect for himself, as the daughter of
a good family does; he rejects evil through shame out
of respect for another, as a courtesan does. But these
two states should be regarded as the guardians of the
world (see A I 51).
143. (xiii)–(xv) By its means they are not greedy (na
lubbhanti), or it itself is not greedy, or it is just the mere
not being greedy (alubbhana), thus it is non-greed
(alobha). The same method applies to non-hate (adosa)
and non-delusion (amoha) [na dussanti, adussana = adosa,
and na muyhanti, amuyhana = amoha (see §§171,161)].
Of these, non-greed has the characteristic of the mind’s
lack of desire for an object, or it has the characteristic
of non-adherence, like a water drop on a lotus leaf. Its
function is not to lay hold, like a liberated bhikkhu. It
is manifested as a state of not treating as a shelter, like
that of a man who has fallen into filth. Non-hate has the
characteristic of lack of savagery, or the characteristic
of non-opposing, like a gentle friend. Its function is to
remove annoyance, or its function is to remove fever,
as sandalwood does. It is manifested as agreeableness,
like the full moon. Non-delusion has the characteristic
of penetrating [things] according to their individual
essences, or it has the characteristic of sure

1221
penetration, like the penetration of an arrow shot by a
skilful archer. Its function is to illuminate the objective
field, like a lamp. It is manifested as non-
bewilderment, like a guide in a forest. The three
should be regarded as the roots of all that is profitable.
144. (xvi)–(xvii) The tranquillizing of the body is
tranquillity of the body. The tranquillizing of
consciousness is tranquillity of consciousness. And here
body means the three [mental] aggregates, feeling,
[perception and formations] (see Dhs 40). But both
tranquillity of that body and of consciousness have,
together, the characteristic of quieting disturbance of
that body and of consciousness. Their function is to
crush disturbance of the [mental] body and of
consciousness. They are manifested as inactivity and
coolness of the [mental] body and of consciousness.
Their proximate cause is the [mental] body and
consciousness. They should be regarded as opposed to
the defilements of agitation, etc., which cause
unpeacefulness in the [mental] body and in
consciousness.
145. (xviii)–(xix) The light (quick) state of the [mental]
body is lightness of the body. The light (quick) state of
consciousness is lightness of consciousness. They have
the characteristic of quieting heaviness in the [mental]
body and in consciousness. Their function is to crush
heaviness in the [mental] body and in consciousness.

1222
They are manifested as non-sluggishness of the
[mental] body and of consciousness. Their proximate
cause is the [mental] body and consciousness. They
should be regarded as opposed to the defilements of
stiffness and torpor, which cause heaviness in the
[mental] body and in consciousness.
146. (xx)–(xxi) The malleable state of the [mental]
body is malleability of body. The malleable state of
consciousness is malleability of consciousness. They have
the characteristic of quieting rigidity in the [mental]
body and in consciousness. Their function is to crush
stiffening in the [mental] body and in consciousness.
They are manifested as non-resistance. Their
proximate cause is the [mental body and
consciousness. They should be regarded as opposed to
the defilements of views, conceit (pride), etc., which
cause stiffening of the [mental body and of
consciousness.
147. (xxii)–(xxiii) The wieldy state of the [mental]
body is wieldiness of body. The wieldy state of
consciousness is wieldiness of consciousness. They have
the characteristic of quieting unwieldiness in the
[mental] body and in consciousness. [466] Their
function is to crush unwieldiness in the [mental] body
and in consciousness. They are manifested as success
in making [something] an object of the [mental] body
and consciousness. Their proximate cause is the

1223
[mental] body and consciousness. As bringing trust in
things that should be trusted in and as bringing
susceptibility of application to beneficial acts, like the
refining of gold, they should be regarded as opposed
to the remaining hindrances, etc., that cause
unwieldiness in the [mental] body and in
consciousness.
148. (xxiv)–(xxv) The proficient state of the [mental]
body is proficiency of body. The proficient state of
consciousness is proficiency of consciousness. They have
the characteristic of healthiness of the [mental] body
and of consciousness. Their function is to crush
unhealthiness of the [mental] body and of
consciousness. They are manifested as absence of
disability. Their proximate cause is the [mental] body
and consciousness. They should be regarded as
opposed to faithlessness, etc., which cause
unhealthiness in the [mental] body and in
consciousness.
149. (xxvi)–(xxvii) The straight state of the [mental]
body is rectitude of body. The straight state of
consciousness is rectitude of consciousness. They have
the characteristic of uprightness of the [mental] body
and of consciousness. Their function is to crush
tortuousness in the [mental] body and in
consciousness. They are manifested as non-
crookedness. Their proximate cause is the [mental]

1224
body and consciousness. They should be regarded as
opposed to deceit, fraud, etc., which cause
tortuousness in the [mental] body and in
consciousness.[65]
150. (xxviii) Zeal (desire) is a term for desire to act. So
that zeal has the characteristic of desire to act. Its
function is scanning for an object. It is manifested as
need for an object. That same [object] is its proximate
cause. It should be regarded as the extending of the
mental hand in the apprehending of an object.

151. (xxix) The act of resolving[66] is resolution. It has

the characteristic of conviction. Its function is not to
grope. It is manifested as decisiveness. Its proximate
cause is a thing to be convinced about. It should be
regarded as like a boundary-post owing to its
immovableness with respect to the object.
152. (xxx) It is the maker of what is to be made, it is
the maker in the mind (manamhi kāro), thus it is
attention (bringing-to-mind—manasi-kāra). It makes the
mind different from the previous [life-continuum]
mind, thus it is attention. It has three ways of doing
this: as the controller of the object, as the controller of
the cognitive series, and as the controller of
impulsions. Herein, the controller of the object is the
maker in the mind, thus it is attention. That has the
characteristic of conducting (sāraṇa). Its function is to

1225
yoke associated states to the object. It is manifested as
confrontation with an object. Its proximate cause is an
object. It should be regarded as the conductor (sārathi)
of associated states by controlling the object, itself
being included in the formations aggregate. Controller
of the cognitive series is a term for five-door adverting
(70). Controller of impulsions is a term for mind-door
adverting (71). These last two are not included here.
153. (xxxi) Specific neutrality (tatra-majjhattatā—lit.
“neutrality in regard thereto”) is neutrality
(majjhattatā) in regard to those states [of consciousness
and consciousness-concomitants arisen in association
with it]. It has the characteristic of conveying
consciousness and consciousness-concomitants
evenly. Its function is to prevent deficiency and excess,
[467] or its function is to inhibit partiality. It is
manifested as neutrality. It should be regarded as like
a conductor (driver) who looks with equanimity on
thoroughbreds progressing evenly.
154. (xxxii)–(xxxiii) Compassion and gladness should be
understood as given in the Description of the Divine
Abodes (IX.§92, 94, 95), except that those are of the
fine-material sphere and have attained to absorption,
while these are of the sense sphere. This is the only
difference. Some, however, want to include among the
inconstant both loving-kindness and equanimity. That
cannot be accepted for, as to meaning, non-hate itself

1226
is loving-kindness, and specific neutrality is
equanimity.
155. (xxxiv)–(xxxvi) Abstinence from bodily misconduct:
the compound kāyaduccaritavirati resolves as
kāyaduccaritato virati; so also with the other two. But as
regards characteristic, etc., these three have the
characteristic of non-transgression in the respective
fields of bodily conduct, etc.; they have the
characteristic of not treading there, is what is said.
Their function is to draw back from the fields of bodily
misconduct, and so on. They are manifested as the not
doing of these things. Their proximate causes are the
special qualities of faith, conscience, shame, fewness of
wishes, and so on. They should be regarded as the
mind’s averseness from evil-doing.
156. So these are the thirty-six formations that should
be understood to come into association with the first
profitable consciousness of the sense sphere (1). And
as with the first, so with the second (2), the only
difference here being promptedness.
(3)–(4) Those associated with the third (3) should be
understood as all the foregoing except non-delusion
(xv). Likewise with the fourth (4), the only difference
here being promptedness.
(5)–(6) All those stated in the first instance, except
happiness (v), come into association with the fifth (5).

1227
Likewise with the sixth (6), the only difference here
being promptedness.
(7)–(8) [Those associated] with the seventh (7)
should be understood as [the last] except non-delusion
(xv). Likewise with the eighth (8), the only difference
here being promptedness.
157. (9)–(13) All those stated in the first instance,
except the three abstinences (xxxiv-xxxvi), come into
association with the first of the fine-material profitable
[kinds of consciousness] (9). With the second (10)
applied thought (iii) is also lacking. With the third (11)
sustained thought (iv) is also lacking. With the fourth
(12) happiness (v) is also lacking. With the fifth (13)
compassion (xxxii) and gladness (xxxiii), among the
inconstant, are also lacking.
(14)–(17) In the case of the four kinds of immaterial
[profitable consciousness] these are the same as the
last-mentioned, for it is only the immaterialness that is
the difference here.
158. (18)–(21) As regards the supramundane, firstly,
in the case of the path consciousness having the first
jhāna they should be understood to be as stated in the
case of the first fine-material-sphere consciousness (9).
The paths classed as belonging to the second jhāna,
etc., should be understood to be as stated in the cases
[respectively] of the second fine-material-sphere jhāna,

1228
and so on (10)–(13). But the difference here is absence
of compassion (xxxii) and gladness (xxxiii),[67]
constancy of the abstinences (xxxiv-xxxvi), and
supramundaneness. [468]
159. II. (22) As regards the unprofitable, there are firstly
seventeen associated with the first unprofitable
consciousness rooted in greed (22), that is to say,
thirteen constant given in the texts as such (see Dhs §
365) and four or-what-ever-states.
Herein, the thirteen given as such are these:
contact (i),
volition (ii),
applied thought (iii),
sustained thought (iv),
happiness (v),
energy (vi),
life (vii),
concentration (viii),
(xxxvii) consciencelessness,
(xxxviii) shamelessness,
(xxxix) greed,
(xl) delusion,

1229
 (xli) wrong view.
The four or-whatever-states are these:
zeal (xxviii),
resolution (xxix),
(xlii) agitation,
attention (xxx).
160. Herein, (xxxvii) it has no conscientious scruples,
thus it is consciencelessness. (xxxviii) It is unashamed,
thus it is shamelessness. Of these, consciencelessness has
the characteristic of absence of disgust at bodily
misconduct, etc., or it has the characteristic of
immodesty. Shamelessness has the characteristic of
absence of dread on their account, or it has the
characteristic of absence of anxiety about them. This is
in brief here. The detail, however, is the opposite of
what was said above under conscience (xi) and shame
(xii).
161. (xxxix) By its means they are greedy, or it itself is
greedy, or it is just the mere being greedy, thus is it
greed. (xl) By its means they are deluded, or it itself is
deluded, or it is just the mere being deluded, thus it is
delusion.
162. Of these, greed has the characteristic of grasping
an object, like birdlime (lit. “monkey lime”). Its

1230
function is sticking, like meat put in a hot pan. It is
manifested as not giving up, like the dye of lamp-
black. Its proximate cause is seeing enjoyment in
things that lead to bondage. Swelling with the current
of craving, it should be regarded as taking [beings]
with it to states of loss, as a swift-flowing river does to
the great ocean.
163. Delusion has the characteristic of blindness, or it
has the characteristic of unknowing. Its function is
non-penetration, or its function is to conceal the
individual essence of an object. It is manifested as the
absence of right theory (see Ch. XVII, §52), or it is
manifested as darkness. Its proximate cause is unwise
(unjustified) attention. It should be regarded as the
root of all that is unprofitable.
164. (xli) By its means they see wrongly, or it itself
sees wrongly, or it is just the mere seeing wrongly,
thus it is wrong view. Its characteristic [469] is unwise
(unjustified) interpreting. Its function is to presume. It
is manifested as wrong interpreting. Its proximate
cause is unwillingness to see Noble Ones, and so on. It
should be regarded as the most reprehensible of all.
165. (xlii) Agitation is agitatedness. It has the
characteristic of disquiet, like water whipped by the
wind. Its function is unsteadiness, like a flag or banner
whipped by the wind. It is manifested as turmoil, like

1231
ashes flung up by pelting with stones. Its proximate
cause is unwise attention to mental disquiet. It should
be regarded as distraction of consciousness.
166. The remaining formations here should be
understood as already stated under the profitable. For
it is only the unprofitableness that differentiates them
as bad.
So these are the seventeen formations that should be
understood to come into association with the first
unprofitable consciousness (22).
(23) And as with the first, so with the second (23),
but here the difference is promptedness and
inconstant [occurrence] of (xliii) stiffening and torpor.
167. Herein, (xliii) stiffening (thīnanatā) is stiffness
(thīna); making torpid (middhanatā) is torpor (middha).
The meaning is, paralysis due to lack of urgency, and
loss of vigour. The compound thīnamiddha (stiffness-
and-torpor) should be resolved into thīnañ ca middhañ
ca. Herein, stiffness has the characteristic of lack of
driving power. Its function is to remove energy. It is
manifested as subsiding. Torpor has the characteristic
of unwieldiness. Its function is to smother. It is
manifested as laziness, or it is manifested as nodding
and sleep.[68] The proximate cause of both is unwise
attention to boredom, sloth, and so on.

1232
168. (24) With the third [unprofitable consciousness]
(24) there should be understood to be associated those
given for the first (22), excepting wrong view (xli). But
here the difference is that there is inconstant
[occurrence] of (xliv) pride (conceit).
That [pride] has the characteristic of haughtiness. Its
function is arrogance. It is manifested as vain
gloriousness. Its proximate cause is greed dissociated
from views. It should be regarded as like madness.
(25) With the fourth (25) should be understood to be
associated those given for the second (23), excepting
wrong view (xli). And here pride (xliv) is among the
inconstant too.
169. (26) Those given for the first (22), excepting
happiness (v), come into association with the fifth (26).
(27) And as with the fifth (26), so with the sixth too
(27); but the difference here is promptedness and the
inconstant [occurrence] of stiffness-and-torpor (xliii).
(28) With the seventh (28) should be understood to
be associated those given for the fifth (26), except
views (xli); but pride (xliv) is inconstant here. (29)
With the eighth (29) should be understood to be
associated those given for the sixth (27), except views
(xli); and here too pride (xliv) is among the inconstant.
170. (30)–(31) As regards the two [kinds of

1233
unprofitable consciousness] rooted in hate, [470] there
are, firstly, eighteen associated with the first (30), that
is, eleven constant given in the texts as such (see Dhs §
413), four or-whatever-states, and three inconstant.
Herein the eleven given as such are these:
contact (i),
volition (ii),
applied thought (iii),
sustained thought (iv),
energy (vi),
life (vii),
concentration (viii),
consciencelessness (xxxvii),
shamelessness (xxxviii),
(xiv) hate,
delusion (xl).
The four or-whatever-states are these:
zeal (xxviii),
resolution (xxix),
agitation (xlii),
attention (xxx).

1234
 The three inconstant are these:
(xlvi) envy,
(xlvii) avarice,
(xlviii) worry.
171. Herein, (xlv) by its means they hate, or it itself
hates, or it is just mere hating, thus it is hate (dosa). It
has the characteristic of savageness, like a provoked
snake. Its function is to spread, like a drop of poison,
or its function is to burn up its own support, like a
forest fire. It is manifested as persecuting (dūsana), like
an enemy who has got his chance. Its proximate cause
is the grounds for annoyance (see A V 150). It should
be regarded as like stale urine mixed with poison.
172. (xlvi) Envying is envy. It has the characteristic of
being jealous of other’s success. Its function is to be
dissatisfied with that. It is manifested as averseness
from that. Its proximate cause is another’s success. It
should be regarded as a fetter.
173. (xlvii) Avariciousness is avarice. Its characteristic
is the hiding of one’s own success that has been or can
be obtained. Its function is not to bear sharing these
with others. It is manifested as shrinking, or it is
manifested as meanness. Its proximate cause is one’s
own success. It should be regarded as a mental
disfigurement.

1235
174. (xlviii) The vile (kucchita) that is done (kata) is
villainy (kukata).[69] The state of that is worry
(kukkucca). It has subsequent regret as its characteristic.
Its function is to sorrow about what has and what has
not been done. It is manifested as remorse. Its
proximate cause is what has and what has not been
done. It should be regarded as slavery.
175. The rest are of the kind already described.
So these eighteen formations should be understood
to come into association with the first [unprofitable
consciousness] rooted in hate (30).
(31) And as with the first (30), so with the second
(31), the only difference, however, being
promptedness and the presence of stiffness and torpor
(xliii) among the inconstant.
176. (32)–(33) As regards the two rooted in delusion,
firstly: [associated] with [the consciousness that is]
associated with uncertainty (32) [471] are the eleven
given in the texts as such thus:
contact (i),
volition (ii),
applied thought (iii),
sustained thought (iv),
energy (vi),

1236
 life (vii),
(xlix) steadiness of consciousness,
consciencelessness (xxxvii),
shamelessness (xxxviii),
delusion (xl),
(l) uncertainty.
The or-whatever-states are these two:
agitation (xlii),
attention (xxx).
And these together total thirteen.
177. Herein, (xlix) steadiness of consciousness is weak
concentration (viii) consisting in mere steadiness in
occurrence.[70]
(1) It is without wish to cure (vigatā cikicchā), thus it
is uncertainty (vicikicchā). It has the characteristic of
doubt. Its function is to waver. It is manifested as
indecisiveness, or it is manifested as taking various
sides. Its proximate cause is unwise attention. It
should be regarded as obstructive of theory (see
XVII.52).
The rest are as already described.
178. (33) [The consciousness] associated with agitation

1237
(33) has the same [formations as the consciousness]
associated with uncertainty (32), except for
uncertainty (1). But with the absence of uncertainty
resolution (xxix) arises here. So with that they are
likewise thirteen, and concentration (viii) is stronger
because of the presence of resolution. Also agitation is
given in the texts as such, while resolution (xxix) and
attention (xxx) are among the or-whatever-states.
Thus should the unprofitable formations be
understood.
179. III. As regards the indeterminate, firstly, the
resultant indeterminate (34)–(69) are twofold, classed as
those without root-cause and those with root-cause.
Those associated with resultant consciousness without
root-cause (34)–(41), (50)–(56) are those without root-
cause.
Herein, firstly, those associated with the profitable
resultant (34) and unprofitable resultant (50) eye-
consciousness are the four given in the texts as such,
namely:
contact (i),
volition (ii),
life (vii),
steadiness of consciousness (xlix),

1238
 which amount to five with
attention (xxx)
as the only or-whatever-state.
These same kinds are associated with ear-, nose-,
tongue-, and body-consciousness (35)–(38), (51)–(54).
180. Those associated with both kinds of resultant
mind-element (39), (55) come to eight by adding
applied thought (iii), sustained thought (iv) and
resolution (xxix). Likewise those associated with the
threefold mind-consciousness-element with root-cause
(40), (41), (56). But here (40) that accompanied by joy
should be understood to have happiness (v) also in
addition to that.
181. The [formations] associated with resultant
consciousness with root-cause (42)–(49) are those with
root-cause. Of these, firstly, those associated with the
sense-sphere resultant [consciousness] with root-cause
are similar to the formations associated with the eight
sense-sphere [consciousnesses] (1)–(8). But of the
inconstant ones, compassion (xxxii) and gladness
(xxxiii) are not among the resultant because they have
living beings as their object. For the resultant ones of
the sense-sphere have only limited objects. And not
only compassion and gladness but also the three
abstinences (xxxiv)–(xxxvi) are not among the
resultant; [472] for it is said that “the five training

1239
precepts are profitable only” (Vibh 291).
182. (57)–(69) Those associated with the resultant
consciousness of the fine-material sphere (57)–(61), the
immaterial sphere (62)–(65), and the supramundane
(66)–(69) are similar to the formations associated with
the profitable consciousnesses of those kinds (9)–(21)
too.
183. (70)–(89) Functional indeterminate [formations] are
also twofold classed as those without root-cause (70)–
(72) and those with root-cause (73)–(80). Those
without root-cause are associated with functional
consciousness without root-cause; and they are the
same as those associated [respectively] with profitable
resultant mind-element (39) and the pair of mind-
consciousness-elements without root-cause (40)–(41).
But in the case of the two mind-consciousness-
elements (71)–(72), energy (vi) is additional, and
because of the presence of energy, concentration (viii)
is strong. This is the difference here.
184. Those associated with functional consciousness
with root-cause (73)–(80) are those with root-cause. Of
these, firstly, those associated with the eight sense-
sphere functional consciousnesses (73)–(80) are similar
to the formations associated with the eight sense-
sphere profitable (1)–(8), except for the abstinences
(xxxiv)–(xxxvi).

1240
 Those associated with the functional
[consciousnesses] of the fine-material sphere (81)–(85)
and the immaterial sphere (86)–(89) are in all aspects
similar to those associated with profitable
consciousness (9)–(17).
This is how formations should be understood as
indeterminate.
This is the section of the detailed explanation
dealing with the formations aggregate.

[C. Classification of the Aggregates]

185. The foregoing section, firstly, is that of the

detailed explanation of the aggregates according to the
Abhidhamma-Bhājaniya [of the Vibhaṅga]. But the
aggregates have been given in detail by the Blessed
One [in the Suttanta-Bhājaniya] in this way: “Any
materiality whatever, whether past, future or present,
internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or
superior, far or near: all that together in the mass and
in the gross is called the materiality aggregate. Any
feeling whatever … Any perception whatever … Any
formations whatever … Any consciousness whatever,
whether past, future or present … all that together in
the mass and in the gross is called the consciousness

1241
aggregate” (Vibh 1–9; cf. M III 17).

[Materiality]

186. Herein, the word whatever includes without

exception. Materiality prevents over-generalization.
Thus materiality is comprised without exception by
the two expressions. Then he undertakes its exposition
as past, future and present, etc.; for some of it is classed
as past and some as future, and so on. So also in the
case of feeling, and so on.
Herein, the materiality called (i) past is fourfold,
according to (a) extent, (b) continuity, (c) period, and
(d) moment. Likewise (ii) the future and (iii) the
present.[71]
187. Herein, (a) firstly, according to extent: in the case
of a single becoming of one [living being], previous to
rebirth-linking is past, subsequent to death is future,
between these two is present.
188. (b) According to continuity: that [materiality]
which has like or single origination[72] by temperature
and single origination by nutriment, though it occurs
successively, [473] is present. That which, previous to
that, was of unlike origination by temperature and

1242
nutriment is past. That which is subsequent is future.
That which is born of consciousness and has its
origination in one cognitive series, in one impulsion,
in one attainment, is present. Previous to that is past.
Subsequent to that is future. There is no special
classification into past continuity, etc., of that which
has its origination in kamma, but its pastness, etc.,
should be understood according as it supports those
which have their origination through temperature,
nutriment, and consciousness.
189. (c) According to period: any period among those
such as one minute, morning, evening, day-and-night,
etc., that occurs as a continuity, is called present.
Previous to that is past. Subsequent is future.
190. (d) According to moment: what is included in the
trio of moments, [that is to say, arising, presence, and
dissolution] beginning with arising is called present. At
a time previous to that it is future. At a time
subsequent to that it is past.[73]
191. Furthermore, that whose functions of cause and
condition[74] have elapsed is past. That whose function
of cause is finished and whose function of condition is
unfinished is present. That which has not attained to
either function is future. Or alternatively, the moment
of the function is present. At a time previous to that it
is future. At a time subsequent to that it is past.

1243
 And here only the explanations beginning with the
moment are absolutely literal. The rest are in a
figurative [or relative] sense.
192. (iv)–(v) The division into internal and external is as
already stated (§73). Besides, it is internal in the sense
of one’s own[75] that should be understood here as
internal and that of another person as external.
(vi)–(vii) Gross and subtle are also as already stated
(§73).
193. (viii)–(ix) Inferior and superior are twofold,
namely, figuratively (relatively) and absolutely
(literally). Herein, the materiality of the Sudassin
deities is inferior to the materiality of the Akaniṭṭha
(Highest) deities. That same materiality [of the
Sudassin deities] is superior to the materiality of the
Sudassa deities. Thus, firstly, should inferiority and
superiority be understood figuratively (relatively)
down as far as the denizens of hell. But absolutely
(literally) it is inferior where it arises as unprofitable
result, and it is superior where it arises as profitable
result.[76]
194. (x)–(xi) Far and near: this is also as already
described (§73). Besides, relative farness and nearness
should be understood here according to location.
195. All that together in the mass and in the gross: by

1244
making all that materiality, separately described by
the words “past,” etc., into a collection by
understanding its oneness, in other words, its
characteristic of being molested (ruppana), it comes to
be called the materiality (rūpa) aggregate. This is the
meaning here.
196. By this, too, it is shown that the materiality
aggregate is all materiality, which all comes into the
collection with the characteristic of being molested; for
there is no materiality aggregate apart from
materiality. [474]
And just as in the case of materiality, so also feeling,
etc., [are respectively shown as the feeling aggregate,
etc.,] since they come under the collections with the
[respective] characteristics of being felt, etc.; for there
is no feeling aggregate apart from feeling and so on.

[Feeling]

197. In the classification (i)–(iii) into past, etc., the past,

future, and present state of feeling should be
understood according to continuity and according to
moment and so on.
Herein, according to continuity, that included in a
single cognitive series, a single impulsion, a single

1245
attainment, and that occurring in association with an
objective field of one kind,[77] is present. Before that is
past. Subsequent is future.
According to moment, etc.: that feeling included in the
trio of moments, which is in between the past time
and the future time, and which is performing its own
function, is present. Before that is past. Subsequent is
future.
198. (iv)–(v)The classification into internal and external
should be understood according to the internal in the
sense of one’s own.
(vi)–(vii) The classification into gross and subtle
should be understood (a) according to kind, (b)
individual essence, (c) person, and (d) the mundane
and supramundane, as stated in the Vibhaṅga in the
way beginning “Unprofitable feeling is gross,
profitable and indeterminate feeling is subtle,
[profitable and unprofitable feeling is gross,
indeterminate feeling is subtle]” (Vibh 3), and so on.
199. (a) According to kind, firstly: unprofitable feeling is
a state of disquiet, because it is the cause of
reprehensible actions and because it produces burning
of defilement, so it is gross [compared] with profitable
feeling. And because it is accompanied by
interestedness and drive and result, and because of the
burning of the defilements, and because it is

1246
reprehensible, it is gross compared with resultant
indeterminate. Also because it is accompanied by
result, because of the burning of the defilements, and
because it is attended by affliction and is
reprehensible, it is gross compared with functional
indeterminate. But in the opposite sense profitable and
indeterminate feeling are subtle compared with
unprofitable feeling. Also the two, that is, profitable
and unprofitable feeling, involve interestedness, drive
and result, so they are respectively gross compared
with the twofold indeterminate. And in the opposite
sense the twofold indeterminate is subtle compared
with them. This, firstly, is how grossness and subtlety
should be understood according to kind.
200. (b) According to individual essence: painful feeling
is gross compared with the others because it is without
enjoyment, it involves intervention, causes
disturbance, creates anxiety, and is overpowering. The
other two are subtle compared with the painful
because they are satisfying, peaceful, and superior,
and respectively agreeable and neutral. Both the
pleasant and the painful are gross compared with the
neither-painful-nor-pleasant because they involve
intervention, cause disturbance and are obvious. The
latter is subtle in the way aforesaid compared with
both the former. Thus should grossness and subtlety
be understood according to individual essence.

1247
201. (c) According to person: feeling in one who has no
attainment is gross compared with that in one who
has one, because it is distracted by a multiple object. In
the opposite sense the other is subtle. This is how
grossness and subtlety should be understood
according to person. [475]
202. (d) According to the mundane and supramundane:
feeling subject to cankers is mundane, and that is gross
compared with that free from cankers, because it is the
cause for the arising of cankers, is liable to the floods,
liable to the bonds, liable to the ties, liable to the
hindrances, liable to the clingings, defilable, and
shared by ordinary men. The latter, in the opposite
sense, is subtle compared with that subject to cankers.
This is how grossness and subtlety should be
understood according to the mundane and
supramundane.
203. Herein, one should beware of mixing up [the
classifications] according to kind and so on. For
although feeling associated with unprofitable resultant
body-consciousness is subtle according to kind
because it is indeterminate, it is nevertheless gross
according to individual essence, and so on. And this is
said: “Indeterminate feeling is subtle, painful feeling is
gross. The feeling in one with an attainment is subtle,
that in one with no attainment is gross. Feeling free
from cankers is subtle, feeling accompanied by

1248
cankers is gross” (Vibh 3). And like painful feeling, so
also pleasant, etc., is gross according to kind and
subtle according to individual essence.
204. Therefore feeling’s grossness and subtlety should
be understood in such a way that there is no mixing
up of the classifications according to kind and so on.
For instance, [when it is said] “The indeterminate
according to kind is subtle compared with the
profitable and the unprofitable,” the individual-
essence class, etc., must not be insisted upon like this:
“Which kind of indeterminate? Is it the painful? Is it
the pleasant? Is it that in one with an attainment? Is it
that in one with no attainment? Is it that subject to
cankers? Is it that free from cankers?” and so in each
instance.
205. Furthermore, because of the words “Or feeling
should be regarded as gross or subtle in comparison
with this or that feeling” (Vibh 4), among the
unprofitable, etc., feeling accompanied by hate, too, is
gross compared with that accompanied by greed
because it burns up its own support, like a fire; and
that accompanied by greed is subtle. Also, that
accompanied by hate is gross when the hate is
constant, and subtle when it is inconstant. And the
constant is gross when giving result that lasts for the
aeon, while the other is subtle. And of those giving
result lasting for the aeon the unprompted is gross,

1249
while the other is subtle. But that accompanied by
greed is gross when associated with [false] view, while
the other is subtle. That also when constant and giving
result lasting for the aeon and unprompted is gross,
while the others are subtle. And without distinction
the unprofitable with much result is gross, while that
with little result is subtle. But the profitable with little
result is gross, while that with much result is subtle.
206. Furthermore, the profitable of the sense sphere is
gross; that of the fine-material sphere is subtle; next to
which the immaterial, and next the supramundane
[should be similarly compared]. That of the sense
sphere is gross in giving, while it is subtle in virtue;
next, that in development. Also, that in development
is gross with two root-causes, while with three root-
causes it is subtle. Also that with three root-causes is
gross when prompted, while it is subtle when
unprompted. That of the fine-material sphere is gross
in the first jhāna, [while it is subtle in the second jhāna.
That also of the second jhāna is gross] … of the fifth
jhāna is subtle. And that of the immaterial sphere
associated with the base consisting of boundless space
is gross … [476] that associated with the base
consisting of neither-perception-nor-non-perception is
subtle only. And the supramundane associated with
the stream-entry path is gross … that associated with
the Arahant path is subtle only. The same method

1250
applies also to resultant and functional feeling in the
various planes and to feeling stated according to pain,
etc., according to one with no attainment, etc., and
according to that subject to cankers, and so on.
207. Then according to location, painful feelings in
hell are gross, while in the animal generation they are
subtle … Those among the Paranimmitavasavatti
Deities are subtle only. And the pleasant should be
construed throughout like the painful where suitable.
208. And according to physical basis, any feeling that
has an inferior physical basis is gross, while one with a
superior physical basis is subtle.
(viii)–(ix) What is gross should be regarded as
inferior in the inferior-superior classification, and what
is subtle superior.
209. [(x)–(xi) The word far is explained in the
Vibhaṅga in the way beginning “The unprofitable is
far from the profitable and indeterminate” (Vibh 4)
and the word near in the way beginning “Unprofitable
feeling is near to unprofitable feeling” (Vibh 4).
Therefore, unprofitable feeling is far from the
profitable and the indeterminate because of
dissimilarity, unconnectedness, and non-resemblance.
The profitable and the indeterminate are likewise far
from the unprofitable. And so in all instances. But
unprofitable feeling is near to unprofitable feeling

1251
because of similarity and resemblance.
This is the section of the detailed explanation
dealing with the past, etc., classifications of the feeling
aggregate.

[Perception, Formations and

Consciousness]

210. This should also be understood of the perception,

etc., associated with any kind of feeling.

[D. Classes of Knowledge of the

Aggregates]

Having understood this, again as regards these

same aggregates:
Knowledge of aggregates is classed
(1) As to order, and (2) distinction,
(3) As to neither less nor more,
(4) And likewise as to simile,
(5) And twice as to how to be seen,

1252
 (6) And as to good for one seeing thus—
This is the way of exposition
That a wise man should rightly know.
211. 1. Herein, as to order: order is of several kinds,
namely, order of arising, order of abandoning, order
of practice, order of plane, order of teaching.
Herein, “First there comes to be the foetus in the
first stage, then there comes to be the foetus in the
second stage” (S I 206), etc., is order of arising. “Things
to be abandoned by seeing, things to be abandoned by
development” (Dhs 1), etc., is order of abandoning.
“Purification of virtue [477] … purification of
consciousness” (M I 148), etc., is order of practice. “The
sense sphere, the fine-material sphere” (Paṭis I 83),
etc., is order of plane. “The four foundations of
mindfulness, the four right efforts” (D II 120), etc., or
“Talk on giving, talk on virtue” (M I 379), etc., is order
of teaching.
212. Of these, firstly, order of arising is not applicable
here because the aggregates do not arise in the order
in which they are successively dealt with, as is the case
with “the foetus in the first stage,” etc., nor is order of
abandoning applicable, because the profitable and
indeterminate are not to be abandoned; nor is order of
practice, because what is unprofitable is not to be
practiced; nor is order of plane, because feeling, etc., are

1253
included in all four planes.
213. Order of teaching is appropriate however; for there
are those people who, while teachable, have fallen into
assuming a self among the five aggregates owing to
failure to analyze them; and the Blessed One is
desirous of releasing them from the assumption by
getting them to see how the [seeming] compactness of
mass [in the five aggregates] is resolved; and being
desirous of their welfare, he first, for the purpose of
their easy apprehension, taught the materiality
aggregate, which is gross, being the objective field of
the eye, etc.; and after that, feeling, which feels matter
as desirable and undesirable; then perception, which
apprehends the aspects of feeling’s objective field,
since “What one feels, that one perceives” (M I 293);
then formations, which form volitionally through the
means of perception; and lastly, consciousness, which
these things beginning with feeling have as their
support, and which dominates them.[78]
This, in the first place, is how the exposition should
be known as to order.
214. 2. As to distinction: as to the distinction between
aggregates and aggregates-as-objects-of-clinging. But
what is the distinction between them? Firstly,
aggregates is said without distinguishing. Aggregates [as
objects] of clinging is said distinguishing those that are

1254
subject to cankers and are liable to the clingings,
according as it is said: “Bhikkhus, I shall teach you the
five aggregates and the five aggregates [as objects] of
clinging. Listen … And what, bhikkhus, are the five
aggregates? Any kind of materiality whatever,
bhikkhus, whether past, future or present … far or
near: this is called the materiality aggregate. Any kind
of feeling whatever … Any kind of perception
whatever … Any kind of formations whatever … Any
kind of consciousness whatever … far or near: this is
called the consciousness aggregate. These, bhikkhus,
are called the five aggregates. And what, bhikkhus,
are the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging? Any
kind of materiality whatever … far or near, that is
subject to cankers and liable to the clingings: this is
called the materiality aggregate [as object] of clinging.
Any kind of feeling whatever … Any kind of
perception whatever … Any kind of formations
whatever … Any kind of consciousness whatever …
far or near, that is subject to cankers and liable to the
clingings: this is called the consciousness aggregate [as
object] of clinging. These, bhikkhus, are called the five
aggregates [as objects] of clinging” (S III 47). [478]
215. Now, while there is feeling, etc., both free from
cankers [and subject to them],[79] not so materiality.
However, since materiality can be described as a
[simple] aggregate in the sense of a total, it is therefore

1255
mentioned among the [simple] aggregates. And since
it can be described as an aggregate [that is the object]
of clinging in the sense of a total and in the sense of
being subjected to cankers, that [same materiality] is
therefore mentioned among the aggregates [as objects]
of clinging too. But feeling, etc., are only mentioned
among the [simple] aggregates when they are free
from cankers. When they are subject to cankers, they
are mentioned among the aggregates [as objects] of
clinging. And here the meaning of the term
“aggregates as objects of clinging” should be regarded
as this: aggregates that are the resort of clinging are
aggregates of clinging. But here all these taken
together are intended as aggregates.
216. 3. As to neither less nor more: but why are five
aggregates, neither less nor more, mentioned by the
Blessed One? (a) Because all formed things that
resemble each other fall into these groups, (b) because
that is the widest limit as the basis for the assumption
of self and what pertains to self, and (c) because of the
inclusion[80] by them of the other sorts of aggregates.
217. (a) When the numerous categories of formed
states are grouped together according to similarity,[81]
materiality forms one aggregate through being
grouped together according to similarity consisting in
materiality; feeling forms one aggregate through being

1256
grouped together according to similarity consisting in
feeling; and so with perception and the other two. So
they are stated as five because similar formed things
fall into groups.
218. (b) And this is the extreme limit as the basis for
the assumption of self and what pertains to self, that is
to say, the five beginning with materiality. For this is
said: “Bhikkhus, when matter exists, it is through
clinging to matter, through insisting upon
(interpreting) matter, that such a view as this arises:
’This is mine, this is I, this is my self.’ When feeling
exists … When perception exists … When formations
exist … When consciousness exists, it is through
clinging to consciousness, through insisting upon
(interpreting) consciousness, that such a view as this
arises: ’This is mine, this is I, this is my self’”(S III 181–
82). So they are stated as five because this is the widest
limit as a basis for the assumption of self and what
pertains to self.
219. (c) And also, since those other [sorts of
aggregates] stated as the five aggregates of things
beginning with virtue[82] are comprised within the
formations aggregate, they are included here too.
Therefore they are stated as five because they include
the other sorts.
This is how the exposition should be known as to

1257
neither less nor more.
220. 4. As to simile: the materiality aggregate [as object]
of clinging is like a sick-room because it is the
dwelling-place, as physical basis, door, and object, of
the sick man, namely, the consciousness aggregate as
object of clinging. The feeling aggregate as object of
clinging is like the sickness because it afflicts. The
perception aggregate as object of clinging is like the
provocation of the sickness because it gives rise to
feeling associated with greed, etc., owing to
perception of sense desires, and so on. The formations
aggregate as object of clinging is like having recourse
to what is unsuitable because it is the source of feeling,
which is the sickness; [479] for it is said: “Feeling as
feeling is the formed that they form” (S III 87), and
likewise: “Because of unprofitable kamma having
been performed and stored up, resultant body-
consciousness has arisen accompanied by pain” (Dhs
§556). The consciousness aggregate as object of
clinging is like the sick man because it is never free
from feeling, which is the sickness.
221. Also they are (respectively) like the prison, the
punishment, the offence, the punisher, and the
offender. And they are like the dish, the food, the
curry sauce [poured over the food], the server, and the
eater.[83]

1258
 This is how the exposition should be known as to
simile.
222. 5. Twice as to how to be seen: the exposition should
be known twice as to how to be seen, namely, in brief
and in detail.
223. In brief [that is, collectively] the five aggregates
as objects of clinging should be seen as an enemy with
drawn sword (S IV 174) in the Snake Simile, as a
burden (S III 25) according to the Burden Sutta, as a
devourer (S III 87f) according to the To-be-devoured
Discourse, and as impermanent, painful, not-self,
formed, and murderous, according to the Yamaka
Sutta (S III 112f).
224. In detail [that is, individually,] matter should be
regarded as a lump of froth because it will not stand
squeezing, feeling as a bubble on water because it can
only be enjoyed for an instant, perception as a mirage
because it causes illusion, formations as a plantain
trunk because they have no core, and consciousness as
a conjuring trick because it deceives (S III 140–42).

In particular, even sublime internal materiality[84]

should be regarded as foul (ugly); feeling should be
regarded as painful because it is never free from the
three kinds of suffering (see XVI.34); perception and
formations as not-self because they are unmanageable;
and consciousness as impermanent because it has the

1259
nature of rise and fall.
225. 6. As to good for one seeing thus: good comes to be
accomplished in one who sees in the two ways thus in
brief and in detail. And the way of definition should
be known according to that, that is to say, firstly, one
who sees the five aggregates as objects of clinging in
the form of an enemy with drawn sword, etc., is not
worried by the aggregates, but one who sees
materiality, etc., in detail as a lump of froth, etc., is not
one who sees a core in the coreless.
226. And in particular, [480] one who sees internal
materiality as foul (ugly) fully understands nutriment
consisting of physical nutriment. He abandons the
perversion [of perceiving] beauty in the foul (ugly), he
crosses the flood of sense desire, he is loosed from the
bond of sense desire, he becomes canker-free as
regards the canker of sense desire, he breaks the
bodily tie of covetousness. He does not cling with
sense-desire clinging.
227. One who sees feeling as pain fully understands
nutriment consisting of contact. He abandons the
perversion of perceiving pleasure in the painful. He
crosses the flood of becoming. He is loosed from the
bond of becoming. He becomes canker-free as regards
the canker of becoming. He breaks the bodily tie of ill
will. He does not cling with rules-and-vows clinging.

1260
228. One who sees perception and formations as not-
self fully understands nutriment consisting of mental
volition. He abandons the perversion of perceiving
self in the not-self. He crosses the flood of views. He is
loosed from the bond of views. He breaks the bodily
tie of interpretations (insistence) that “This is the
truth.” He does not cling with self-theory clinging.
229. One who sees consciousness as impermanent
fully understands nutriment consisting of
consciousness. He abandons the perversion of
perceiving permanence in the impermanent. He
crosses the flood of ignorance. He is loosed from the
bond of ignorance. He becomes canker-free as regards
the canker of ignorance. He breaks the bodily tie of
holding to rules and vows. He does not [cling with
false-] view clinging.
230. Such blessings there will be
From seeing them as murderers and otherwise,
Therefore the wise should see
The aggregates as murderers and otherwise.

The fourteenth chapter called The

Description of the Aggregates in the
Treatise on the Development of
Understanding in the Path of Purification

1261
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1262
Notes for Chapter XIV

1. Cf. Paṭis I 42, etc.; Abhidhamma definitions very

commonly make use of the Pali forms of verbal
nouns, here instanced by paññā (understanding =
state of understanding) and pajānana
(understanding = act of understanding), both
from the verb pajānāti (he understands). English
does not always, as in this case, distinguish
between the two. Similarly, for example, from the
verb socati (he sorrows) we find soka (sorrow, state
of sorrowing) and socana (sorrowing, act of
sorrowing), and here the English differentiates.
Cf. parallel treatment of paññā at M-a II 343f.
2. “In arisings of consciousness with two root-causes
[i.e. with non-greed and non-hate but without
non-delusion], or without root-cause,
understanding does not occur” (Vism-mhṭ 432).
“Just as pleasure is not invariably inseparable
from happiness, so perception and consciousness
are not invariably inseparable from
understanding. But just as happiness is invariably
inseparable from pleasure, so understanding is
invariably inseparable from perception and
consciousness” (Vism-mhṭ 432).
3. “A phenomenon’s own essence (sako bhāvo) or

1263
 existing essence (samāno vā bhāva) is its individual
essence (sabhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 433). Cf. Ch. VIII,
note 68, where Vism-mhṭ gives the definition
from saha-bhāva (with essence).
4. Paṭisambhidā is usually rendered by “analysis”
(see e.g. Points of Controversy—Kathāvatthu
translation—pp. 377ff). But the Tipiṭaka
explanations of the four paṭisambhidā suggest no
emphasis on analysis rather than synthesis. Vism-
mhṭ gives the following definition of the term:
“Knowledge that is classified (pabheda-gata = put
into a division) under meaning (attha) as capable
of effecting the explanation and definition of
specific characteristics of the meaning class
(meaning division) is called attha-paṭisambhidā;
and so with the other three” (Vism-mhṭ 436).
“Discrimination” has been chosen for paṭisambhidā
because, while it has the sense of “division,” it
does not imply an opposite process as “analysis”
does. Also it may be questioned whether the four
are well described as “entirely logical”: “entirely
epistemological” might perhaps be both less rigid
and nearer; for they seem to cover four
interlocking fields, namely: meanings of
statements and effects of causes (etc.), statements
of meanings and causes of effects (etc.), language
as restricted to etymological rules of verbal

1264
 expression, and clarity (or perspicuous
inspiration) in marshalling the other three.
5. I.e. the four paths with the first jhāna and those
with the second, third, and fourth, out of the five
(Vism-mh 434).
6. The word abhinivisati with its noun abhinivesa
means literally “to dwell on,” and so “to adhere,”
or “insist.” In the Tipiṭaka it always appears in a
bad sense and always appears in contexts with
wrong view and clinging (see e.g. M III 30–31,
Nidd I 436, and also Vism-mhṭ quoted above at I.
140). However, in the Commentaries, the word
appears also in a good sense as at XIV.130, XXI.73
and 83f., and at M-a I 250 (cf. saddhaṃ nivisati, M II
173). In this good sense it is synonymous with
right interpretation of experience. All the bare
experience of perception is interpreted by the
mind either in the sense of permanence, pleasure,
self, which is wrong because it is not confirmed
by experience, or in the sense of impermanence,
etc., which is right because it is confirmed by
experience (see XIV. 130). There is no not
interpreting experience, and it is a function of the
mind that the interpretation adopted is “dwelt
upon,” i.e. insisted upon. And so it is this
insistence or interpretation in accordance with
reality as confirmed by experience that is the

1265
 abhinivesa of the Commentaries in the good sense.
For these reasons the words interpretation,
misinterpretation and insistence have been chosen
here as renderings.
7. Arīyati—“to honour, to serve.” Not in PED. Cf.
ger. araṇīya (M-a I 21,173), also not in PED,
explained by the Majjhima Nidāya ṭīkā as “to be
honoured” (payirūpasitabba).
8. This quotation has been filled out from the
Vibhaṅga text for clarity.
9. Byabhicāra (vyabhicāra): not in PED; normal
grammarian’s term for an “exception.”
10. The idea behind the term “individual-essence
language” (sabhāvanirutti), that is to say, that there
is a real name for each thing that is part of that
thing’s individual essence, is dealt with at Dhs-a
391–92. Magadhan as “the root speech of all
beings” and the “individual-essence language” is
dealt with in greater detail at Vibh-a 387.
11. The expression garapaccāgatikabhāva refers to the
practice of “carrying the meditation subject to and
from the alms round,” which is described at M-a I
257 in detail. The same expression is also used of
a certain kind of refuse-rag (see II. 17).
12. “The ’Chapter of Similes’ is the Chapter of Twin

1266
 Verses in the Dhammapada (Dhp 1–20), they say.
Others say that it is the Book of Pairs in the First
Fifty (MN 31–40)” (Vism-mhṭ 436).
13. “Tangible data are omitted from this list because,
not being derived matter, they are included in the
primaries” (Vism-mhṭ 442). They are described as
consisting of three of the four primaries,
excluding the water (cohesion) element. “What is
the materiality of the great primaries? It is the
tangible-data base and the water-element” (Dhs
663). For the whole list see Dhs 596, in which
(N.B.) the heart-basis does not appear. See also
note 32 and Ch. XV, n. 15.
14. “Here the first-mentioned characteristic of the eye
is described according to the kamma that
produces a selfhood, and is common to all of it,
and this without touching on differentiation is the
cause. The second is according to the specialized
kamma generated thus, “Let my eye be thus.”
This is what they say. But it can be taken that the
first-mentioned characteristic is stated as
sensitivity’s interest in lighting up its own
objective fields, the five senses’ state of sensitivity
being taken as a generality; and that the second is
stated as the seeing that is due to the particular
division of its own cause, the sensitivities’ cause
as the state of kamma being taken as a generality

1267
or as a unity. The same method applies to the ear
and so on.
“Here it may be asked, ’Is the arising of the
faculties of the eye, etc., due to kamma that is one
or to kamma that is different?’ Now, the Ancients
say, “In both ways.” Herein, firstly, in the case of
the arising of an eye, etc., due to kamma that is
different there is nothing to be explained since the
cause is divided up. But when their arising is due
to kamma that is one, how does there come to be
differentiation among them? It is due to
dividedness in the cause too. For it is craving, in
the form of longing for this or that kind of
becoming that, itself having specific forms owing
to hankering after the sense-bases included in
some kind of becoming or other, contrives, acting
as decisive-support, the specific divisions in the
kamma that generates such a kind of becoming.
As soon as the kamma has acquired the
differentiation induced by that [hankering] it
generates through effort consisting in appropriate
ability a multiple fruit with differentiated
individual essences, as though it had itself taken
on a multiple form. And the ability here need not
be understood as anything other than the able
state; for it is simply the effort of producing fruit
that is differentiated by the differentiation due to

1268
 the differentiation in its cause. And the fact of this
differentiating effort on the part of kamma that is
one being the cause of the multiple faculties will
be dealt with below as to logic and texts (note 21).
Besides, it is told how one kind of consciousness
only is the cause of the generation of the sixteen
kinds of resultant consciousness and so on; and in
the world it is also found that a single paddy seed
is the cause of the generation of the ripe, the
unripe, the husked, and the unhusked fruit. But
what is the use of logical thinking? For the eye,
etc., are the fruit of kamma; and kamma-result is
exclusively the province of a Buddha’s
knowledge” (Vism-mhṭ 444).
15. Āviñjana—“picking up”: see āvijjhati in PED.
16. “’Some’ are certain Mahāsaṅghikas; for among
these Vasudhamma says this: ’In the eye fire is in
excess; in the ear, air; in the nose, earth; in the
tongue, water; in the body all are equal’” (Vism-
mhṭ 444).
17. “’As qualities of fire, and so on’: [aided] by visible
data as the illuminating [quality] of heat, which is
called lighting up; by sound [as a quality] of air,
by odour [as a quality] of earth, by flavour [as a
quality] of the water called spittle—so according
to the first theory [that of ’some’]; and it can be

1269
 suitably adjusted to accord with the second [that
of ’others’] because they need to be assisted by
such and such qualities of primaries what is
meant is that they have to be helped in
apprehending visible data and so on. This theory
holds that the quality is the ability of the eye, etc.,
to light up [respectively] visible data, etc., only
when associated with the reasons that are their
accessories consisting of light, etc., and aperture’s
state of decisive support for ear-consciousness.
Aperture is taken in due order, as are fire, etc.,
since it is absence of primaries. Or alternatively,
when others intend that aperture is a quality of
primaries, as visible data, etc., are, then the
qualities of primaries are construable in their
order thus: [aided] by visible data and light [as a
quality] of fire, by sound [as a quality] of aperture
called space, by odour [as a quality] of air, by
flavour [as a quality] of water, by tangible data [as
a quality] of earth” (Vism-mhṭ 445).
18. The four primaries are held to be inseparable and
not to exist separate from each other; cf. quotation
from the “Ancients” in §45. Vism-mhṭ says:
“Excess is in capability, not in quantity, otherwise
their inseparability would be illogical” (Vism-mhṭ
451).
19. “’From finding visibility, etc., [respectively] in a state

1270
 of excess’: from finding them associated with these
differences, namely, the bright visible datum in
fire, sound audible through its individual essence
in air, the odour beginning with surabhi perfume
in earth, and the sweet taste in water, thus ’visible
data, etc., are the [respective] qualities of these.’ This is
according to the first theory, and he has stated the
conclusion (uttara) that follows, beginning with
’we might assume’ in terms of that. The second is
confuted in the same way. Or alternatively, ’Then
they may say,’ etc., can be taken as said
emphasizing, in order to confute it, the theory of
Kaṇāda, which asserts that the eye, etc., are
respectively made by fire, space, earth, water, and
air, that have visible data, etc., as their respective
qualities” (Vism-mhṭ 445).
20. In the P.T.S. text and Sinhalese Hewavitarne text
the word ekakalāpe, “that form a single group,”
occurs in this sentence but is not in the Harvard
text.
21. “If there is no differentiation according to
primaries, what then is the reason for the
differentiation of the eye, and so on? Though the
kamma that is produced by the longing for a
selfhood (individual personality) with five sense-
bases is one only, still it should be taken as called
’not common to them all’ and ’difference of kamma’

1271
 because it is the cause of the differentiation of the
eye, and so on. For it is not a condition for the ear
through the same particular difference through
which it is a condition for the eye, since, if it were,
it would then follow that there was no distinction
between the faculties. Because of the words, ’At
the moment of rebirth-linking, exalted volition is
a condition, as kamma condition, for the kinds of
materiality due to kamma performed’ (Paṭṭh) it
must be recognized that a single volition is
kamma condition for all the kinds of materiality
due to kamma performed that come into existence
at the moment of rebirth-linking. For if the
volition were different, then, when there came to
be the arising of the faculties, it would follow that
the materiality due to kamma performed was
generated by limited and exalted kamma. And
rebirth-linking that is one is not generated by a
plurality of kinds of kamma. Thus it is established
that the arising of the plurality of the faculties is
due to a single kamma” (Vism-mhṭ 446).
22. See also §134 and notes 60, 61. The amplification
in this paragraph is from Vism-mhṭ, which
continues: “There is another method: the eye and
the ear have non-contiguous objective fields
because arising of consciousness is caused while
their objective fields are separated by an interval

1272
and apart (adhika). Some say that the ear has a
contiguous objective field. If it did, then sound
born of consciousness would not be the object of
ear-consciousness, for there is no arising
externally of what is consciousness-originated.
And in the texts sound as object is spoken of as
being the object of ear-consciousness without
making any distinction. Besides, there would be
no defining the direction and position of the
sound because it would then have to be
apprehended in the place occupied by the
possessor of the objective field, as happens in the
case of an odour. Consequently it remains in the
same place where it arose, if it comes into focus in
the ear avenue (so the Burmese ed.). Are not the
sounds of washermen [beating their washing on
stones] heard later by those who stand at a
distance? No; because there is a difference in the
way of apprehending a sound according to the
ways in which it becomes evident to one nearby
and to one at a distance. For just as, because of
difference in the way of apprehending the sound
of words according to the ways in which it
becomes evident to one at a distance and to one
nearby, there comes to be [respectively] not
apprehending, and apprehending of the
differences in the syllables, so also, when the

1273
 sound of washermen (a) becomes [an occurrence]
that is evident throughout from beginning to end
to one who is nearby, and (b) becomes an
occurrence that is evident in compressed form in
the end or in the middle to one who is at a
distance, it is because there is a difference in the
apprehending and definition, which occur later in
the cognitive series of ear-consciousness, that
there comes to be the assumption (abhimāna)
’Heard faintly is heard later.’ But that sound
comes into the ear’s focus at the moment of its
own existence and in dependence on the place
where it arises (see XIII. 112; Dhs-a 313). If there is
absolutely no successive becoming of sound, how
does an echo arise? The sound, though it remains
at a distance, is a condition for the arising of an
echo and for the vibration of vessels, etc.,
elsewhere as a magnet (ayo-kanta) is for the
movement of iron” (Vism-mhṭ 446–47).
23. Upādiṇṇa (also upādiṇṇaka) is pp. of upādiyati (he
clings), from which the noun upādāna (clinging)
also comes. Upādiṇṇa-(ka-)rūpa (clung-to matter) =
kammaja-rūpa (kamma-born matter): see Dhs §653.
It is vaguely renderable by “organic or sentient or
living matter”; technically, it is matter of the four
primaries that is “clung to” (upādiṇṇa) or
“derived” (upādāya) by kamma. Generally taken

1274
 as a purely Abhidhamma term (Dhs 1), it
nevertheless occurs in the Suttas at M I 185 in the
same sense.
24. Ee reads añnamaññaṃ saṅkaro natthi. Ae omits
saṅkaro natthi. The word saṅkara in the sense of
“confounding” or “error” is not in PED; see Vism
concluding verses, PTS ed., p.711:
“Though these things, that is to say, the ’mark
… of the female,’ etc., arise each due to its own
condition consisting in kamma, etc., they mostly
only do so as modes in a continuity accompanied
by the femininity faculty. And so ’it is manifested
as the reason for the mark,’ etc., is said making
the femininity faculty their cause.
“As regards the ’mark of the female,’ etc., too,
its ’facultiness’ is stated as predominance, in other
words, as a state of cause, because the conditions
for the modal matter (ākāra-rūpa) consisting of the
mark of the female, etc., in a continuity
accompanied by faculties do not arise otherwise,
and because these kinds of materiality are a
condition for apprehending the female. But
because the femininity faculty does not generate
even the material instances in its own group or
maintain or consolidate them, and because it does
not so act for the material instances of other

1275
 groups, it is therefore not called in the text faculty,
presence, and non-disappearance conditions, as
the life faculty is for the material instances of its
group, and as nutriment is for the material
instances in succeeding groups. And it is because
the mark, etc., are dependent on other conditions
that wherever they have predominance its shape
is encountered, even in dead and sculptured
matter that resembles it. And so too with the
masculinity faculty.
“And since these two do not occur together in
a single continuity, because of the words, ’Does
the masculinity faculty arise in one in whom the
femininity faculty arises?No’ (Yamaka), etc.,
therefore even in a hermaphrodite there is only
one of them at a given moment (see also Dhs-a
323)” (Vism-mhṭ 448).
25. “Since the life faculty is itself entirely kamma-
born it is established, by taking them as
conascent, that the things to be protected by it are
kamma-born too; this is why there is no inclusion
of the term ’kamma-born.’ It maintains as if it
were its own that kamma-born matter by being
the cause of its occurrence even though only
lasting for a moment; that is why it has the
characteristic of maintaining conascent kinds of
matter. For kamma alone is not competent to be

1276
 the cause of kamma-born things” presence, as
nutriment, etc., are of the nutriment-born. Why?
Because it is no longer existent at that moment.
“’Because it does accomplish each of those
functions’: it does so because it is a condition for
distinguishing what is living. For it is the life
faculty that distinguishes matter that is bound up
with faculties from dead matter, and kamma-born
matter and what is bound up with that from
matter that is temperature originated, and so on.
“And the life faculty must be regarded as the
reason not only for presence during a moment but
also for non-interruption of connection; otherwise
death as the termination of a life span would be
illogical” (Vism-mhṭ 448).
26. “’The heart-basis … the support for the mind-
element and for the mind-consciousness-element’:
how is that to be known? (i) From scriptures and
(ii) from logical reasoning.
“The scripture is this: ’The materiality
dependent on which the mind-element and mind-
consciousness-element occur is a condition, as a
support condition, for the mind-element and the
mind-consciousness-element and what is
associated therewith’ (Paṭṭh I.4). If that is so, why
is it not mentioned in the Rūpakaṇḍa of the

1277
Dhammasaṅgaṇi? (Dhs §583ff.). Its not being
mentioned there is for another reason. What is
that? Non-inconsistency of the teaching. For while
eye consciousness, etc., have the eye, etc., as their
respective supports absolutely, mind-
consciousness does not in the same way have the
heart-basis as its support absolutely. And the
teaching in the physical-basis dyad (vatthu-duka)
is given by way of the material support thus,
’There is matter that is the physical basis of eye-
consciousness, there is matter that is not the
physical basis of eye-consciousness’ (Dhs §585)
and so on; and if the dyads were stated by way of
what had the heart-basis absolutely as its support
thus, ’There is matter that is the physical basis of
mind-consciousness’ and so on, then the object
dyads (ārammaṇa-duka) do not fall into line: for
one cannot say: ’There is matter that is the object
of mind-consciousness, there is matter that is not
the object of mind-consciousness.’ So the physical-
basis dyads and object dyads being thus made
inconsistent, the teaching would lack unity, and
the Master’s wish was to give the teaching here in
a form that has unity. That is why the heart-basis
is not mentioned, not because it is
unapprehendable.
“(ii) But the logical reasoning should be

1278
understood in this way. In the five constituent
becoming, [that is, in the sense sphere and fine-
material sphere,] these two elements have as their
support produced (nipphanna) derived matter.
Herein, since the visible-data base, etc., and
nutritive essence, are found to occur apart from
what is bound up with faculties, to make them the
support would be illogical. And since these two
elements are found in a continuity that is devoid
of the femininity and masculinity faculties [i.e. in
the Brahmā-world], to make them the support
would be illogical too. And in the case of the life
faculty that would have to have another function,
so to make it the support would be illogical too.
So it is the heart-basis that remains to be
recognized as their support. For it is possible to
say that these two elements have as their support
produced derived matter, since existence is bound
up with matter in the five-constituent becoming.
Whatever has its existence bound up with matter
is found to have as its support produced derived
matter, as the eye-consciousness-element does.
And the distinction ’in the five-constituent
becoming’ is made on account of the mind-
consciousness-element; in the four-constituent
becoming, [that is, the immaterial sphere,] there is
no mind-element. Does there not follow

1279
contradiction of the middle term (hetu) because of
establishing faculties as their support? No;
because that is disproved by what is seen. For
these two elements are not, as in the case of eye-
consciousness, controlled by the slackness and
keenness, etc., of their physical basis; and
accordingly it is not said in the texts that they
have the faculties as their condition. Hence their
having faculties as their support, in other words,
their being controlled by them, is disproved.
“Granted that these two elements have as their
support the derived matter consisting of the
heart-basis, how is it to be known that it is
kamma-originated, has an invariable function,
and is to be found located in the heart? It may be
said to be kamma-originated because, like the eye,
it is the materiality of a physical basis; and
because of that it has an invariable function;
because it is the materiality of a physical basis and
because it is a support for consciousness, is the
meaning. It is known that its location is there
because of the heart’s exhaustion (khijjana) in one
who thinks of anything, bringing it to mind
intently and directing his whole mind to it”
(Vism-mhṭ 449–50).
The word hadaya (heart), used in a purely
mental and not physical sense, occurs in the

1280
 definitions of the mind-element and mind-
consciousness-element in the Vibhaṅga (Vibh 88–
89). The brain (matthaluṅga), which seems to have
been first added as the 32nd part of the body in
the Paṭisambhidā (Paṭis I 7), was ignored, and the
Visuddhimagga is hard put to it to find a use for it.
The Piṭakas (e.g. Paṭṭh 1,4 quoted above) connect
the mind with the matter of the body without
specifying.
27. “It is the mode and the alteration of what? Of
consciousness-originated primary elements that
have the air-element in excess of capability. What
is that capability? It is the state of being
consciousness-born and the state of being derived
matter. Or alternatively, it can be taken as the
mode alteration of the air element. If that is so,
then intimation is illogical as derived matter, for
there is no derived matter with a single primary
as its support, since ’matter derived from the four
great primaries’ (M I 53) is said. That is not
wrong. Alteration of one of the four is that of all
four, as with wealth shared among four. And
excess of air element in a material group (kalāpa)
does not contradict the words ’of the air element’;
and excess is in capability, not in quantity,
otherwise their inseparability would be illogical.
According to some it is that of the air element

1281
only. In their opinion the state of derived matter
is inapplicable (durupapāda) to intimation, since
the alteration of one is not that of all. But this [air
element] is apprehended by mind-door impulsion
that is next to the non-intimating [apprehension]
that is next to the apprehension of the appearance
of motion in the movement of the hands, and so
on. There is a certain kind of alteration that is
separate from the appearance of motion. And the
apprehension of the former is next to the
apprehension of the latter. How is that to be
known? By the apprehension of intention. For no
apprehension of intention such as, ’He is getting
this done, it seems’ is met with in the case of trees’
movements, etc., which are devoid of intention.
But it is met with in the case of hand movements
and so on. Therefore there is a certain kind of
alteration that is separate from the appearance of
motion, and it is known as the ’intimator of the
intention.’ Also it is known by inference that the
apprehension of the alteration is next to the
apprehension of the appearance thus: The
intimator intimates the meaning to be intimated
only when it is apprehended as a cause, not
merely as present. For they say accordingly:
Sounds that have entered no objective field
Do not awaken any kind of meaning;

1282
 And also beings merely recognized
As such communicate no meanings either.
“If just the apprehension of the alteration is
the reason for the apprehension of the intention,
why is there no apprehension of intention in
unapprehended communication (saṅketa)ī It is not
only just the apprehension of the alteration that is
the reason for the apprehension of the intention;
but rather it should be taken that the
apprehension of the previously-established
connection is the decisive support for this. The
stiffening, upholding, and movement are due to
the air-element associated with the alteration
belonging to the intimation, is what is said. What,
is it all the air-element that does all those things?
It is not like that. For it is the air element given
rise to by the seventh impulsion that, by acquiring
as its reinforcing conditions the air elements given
rise to by the preceding impulsions, moves
consciousness-originated matter by acting as
cause for its successive arisings in adjacent
locations, (desantaruppatti—cf. Ch. VIII, n. 54) not
the others. The others, however, help it by doing
the stiffening and upholding, the successive
arising in adjacent locations being itself the
movement. So the instrumentality should be
taken as attributed when there is the sign [of

1283
movement]; otherwise there would not be
uninterestedness and momentariness of
dhammas. And here the cart to be drawn by
seven yokes is given as simile in the Commentary.
But when consciousness-born matter moves, the
kinds of matter born of temperature, kamma, and
nutriment move too because they are bound up
with it, like a piece of dry cow-dung thrown into
a river’s current.
“Since it has been said that the apprehension
of intimation is next to the apprehension of the
appearance of motion, how then, is the air
element itself as the maker of the movement
accompanied by the alteration consisting in the
intimation? It is not like that. It is the air elements
given rise to by the first impulsion, etc., and
which are unable to cause movement in that way
and perform only the stiffening and upholding,
that should be taken as only accompanied by the
alteration belonging to intimation. For it is the
alteration coexistent with the intention that is the
intimation, because of giving rise to alteration in
whatever direction it wishes to cause the
occurrence of moving forward and so on. Taking
it in this way, it is perfectly logical to say that the
origination of intimation belongs to mind-door
adverting. Since the intention possessed of the

1284
 aforesaid alteration is intimated through the
apprehension of that alteration, it is said that ’Its
function is to display intention.’ The air element
being the cause of the motion of the bodily
intimation, is figuratively said, as a state of
alteration, to be ’manifested as the cause of bodily
motion.’ ’Its proximate cause is the consciousness-
originated air-element’ is said since the air
element’s excessive function is the cause of
intimating intention by movement of the body”
(Vism-mhṭ 450–52). Cf. Dhs-a 83f.
28. Vacībheda—”speech utterance” is not in PED,
which does not give this use of bheda. Vism-mhṭ
(p. 452) explains: “The function (—’knocking
together’) of the vocal apparatus (—’clung-to
matter’).”
29. “The question, ’It is the mode and the alteration of
what?’ should be handled in the same way as for
bodily intimation, with this difference: for ’next to
the apprehension of the appearance of movement’
substitute ’next to the hearing of an audible
sound.’ And here, because of the absence of
stiffening, etc., the argument beginning, ’For it is
the air element given rise to by the seventh
impulsion’ does not apply; for the sound arises
together with the knocking together, and the
knocking together only applies in the case of the

1285
 first impulsion, and so on. The knocking together
is the arising of groups of primaries (bhūta-kalāpa)
in proximity to each other due to conditions. The
movement is the progression of the successive
arising in adjacent locations. This is the difference.
The earth element’s knocking together is parallel
to the air element’s moving as regards function”
(Vism-mhṭ 452).
30. In actual fact the heart-basis is not in the Piṭakas as
such.
31. “’Some’ are the inmates of the Abhayagiri
Monastery at Anurādhapura” (Vism-mhṭ 455). A
long discussion on this follows in Vism-mhṭ, not
given here.
32. “’Sensed (muta)’ means apprehendable by sensing
(mutvā), by reaching; hence he said ’because they
are the objective fields of faculties that take contiguous
[objective fields]’ (cf. §46). But what is it that is
called a tangible datum? It is the three elements,
earth, heat, and air. But why is the water element
not included here? Is not cold apprehended by
touching; and that is the water element? Certainly
it is apprehended but it is not the water element.
What is it then? It is just the fire element. For
there is the sensation (buddhi) of cold when heat is
sluggish. There is no quality that is called cold;

1286
there is only the assumption (abhimāna) of
coldness due to the sluggishness of the state of
heat. How is that to be known? Because of the
unreliability of the sensation of cold, like ’beyond
and not beyond.’ For in hot weather, while those
who stand in the sun and go into the shade have
the sensation of cold, yet those who go to the
same place from an underground cave have the
sensation of heat. And if coldness were the water
element it would be found in a single group
(kalāpa) along with heat; but it is not so found.
That is why it may be known that coldness is not
the water element. And that is conclusive (uttara)
for those who agree to the inseparable existence of
the primary elements; and it is conclusive too
even for those who do not agree because it is
disproved by associate existence through seeing
the functions of the four primaries in a single
group. It is conclusive too for those who say that
coldness is the characteristic of the air element; for
if coldness were the air element, coldness would
be found in a single group along with heat, and it
is not so found. That is why it may be known that
coldness is not the air element either. But those
who hold the opinion that fluidity (dravatā) is the
water element and that that is apprehended by
touching should be told: ’That fluidity touched is

1287
 merely the venerable ones’ assumption as is the
case with shape.’ For this is said by the Ancients:
’Three elements coexisting with fluidity
Together form what constitutes a tangible;
That “I succeed in touching this fluidity”
Is a common misconception in the world.
And as a man who touches elements,
And apprehends a shape then with his
mind,
Fancies “I really have been touching
shape,”
So too fluidity is recognized’” (Vism-mhṭ
459).
33. “’The sound base only’: here some say, ’The
consciousness-born is always intimative
(saviññattika).’ The Ancients say, ’There is sound
due to the intervention (vipphāra) of applied
thought that does not intimate.’ While depending
on the word of the Great Commentary that puts it
thus, ’Intimatable (cognizable) through the ear by
means of the sound due to applied thought’s
intervention,’ still there is also need of the arising
of consciousness-originated sound without
intimation (cognition) for because of the words,
’For the intimation (cognition) is not due to
intimating speech’ (?), it arises together with
sound not intimatable (cognizable) through the

1288
 ear. That being so, there would have to be a
consciousness-born sound-ennead. And that
theory is rejected by Saṅghakaras who imagine
that it is self-contradictory to say that there is
sound not intimatable (cognizable) through the
ear. Others, however, do not reject the Great
Commentary’s statement and they comment on
its intention. How? [They say that] the non-
intimation (non-cognition) through the ear of the
sound activated due to applied thought’s
intervention is stated in the Suttas with this
intention, ’He tells by hearing with the divine ear
the subtle sound that is conascent with the
intimation, originated by applied thought, and
consisting in movement of the tongue and palate,
and so on’ (cf. A I 171), and that in the Paṭṭhāna
(Paṭṭh 1, 7) the state of object condition for ear-
consciousness is stated with reference to gross
sound” (Vism-mhṭ 460).
34. “’Has the characteristic of being felt’ means that it
has as its characteristic what is felt, what is
experienced as the ’taste (stimulus)’ of the object.
’Characteristic of perceiving’ means that it has as its
characteristic the perceiving of an object classed
as blue, etc., and the knowing, the apprehending,
of it by arousing the perception of it as blue,
yellow, long, short, and so on. Forming

1289
 (abhisaṅkharaṇa) is accumulating, or it is
contriving by becoming interested. And it is
because volition is basic in both of these ways that
the formations aggregate is said thus to have the
characteristic of forming. For in expounding the
formations aggregate in the Suttanta-Bhājaniya of
the Vibhaṅga, volition was expounded by the
Blessed One thus, ’Eye-contact-born volition’
(Vibh 8) and so on. ’Has the characteristic of
cognizing’ means that it has as its characteristic
that kind of knowing called apprehension of an
object in a mode in which the objective field is
apprehended differently from the mode of
perceiving” (Vism-mhṭ 462).
35. Profitable in the sense of health, blamelessness,
and pleasant result (see Vism-mhṭ 463).
Unprofitable in the opposite sense. Indeterminate
because not describable as either profitable or
unprofitable (see Vism-mhṭ 464). This is the first
of the twenty-two triads in the Abhidhamma
Mātikā (Dhs 1).
Pali has five principal words, nāma, viññāṇa,
mano, citta, and ceto, against the normal English
consciousness and mind. While their etymology can
be looked up in the dictionary, one or two points
need noting here. Nāma (rendered by “mentality”
when not used to refer to a name) is almost

1290
 confined in the sense considered to the expression
nāma-rūpa (“mentality-materiality”) as the fourth
member of the dependent origination, where it
comprises the three mental aggregates of feeling,
perception and formations, but not that of
consciousness (viññāṇa). Viññāṇa (rendered by
“consciousness”) is, loosely, more or less a
synonym for mano and citta; technically, it is bare
cognition considered apart from feeling,
perception or formations. Mano (rendered by
“mind”), when used technically, is confined to the
sixth internal base for contact (Ch. XV). Citta
(rendered by “mind” and “consciousness” or
“[manner of] consciousness”), when used
technically, refers to a momentary type-situation
considered as viññāṇa in relation to the tone of its
concomitant feeling, perception and formations.
Possibly, a better rendering would have been
“cognizance” throughout. It carries a flavour of its
etymological relative, cetanā (“volition”). Ceto
(another etymological relative, rendered by
“heart”—i.e. “seat of the emotions,”—“will” or
“mind”), when used loosely is very near to citta;
but technically it is restricted to one or two such
expressions as ceto-vimutti (“mind-deliverance” or
“heart-deliverance”).
36. “’Sense sphere’ (kāmāvacara): here there are the

1291
 two kinds of sense desire (kāma), sense desire as
basis (vatthu-kāma) and sense desire as defilement
(kilesakāma). Of these, sense desire as [objective]
basis particularized as the five cords of sense
desire (pañca-kāma-guṇa = dimensions of sensual
desires), is desired (kāmiyati). Sense desire as
defilement, which is craving, desires (kāmeti). The
sense sphere (kāmāvacara) is where these two
operate (avacaranti) together. But what is that? It is
the elevenfold sense-desire becoming, i.e. hell,
asura demons, ghosts, animals, human beings,
and six sensual-sphere heavens. So too with the
fine-material sphere and the immaterial sphere,
taking “fine-material” as craving for the fine-
material too, and “immaterial” as craving for the
immaterial too. It crosses over (uttarati) from the
world (loka), thus it is supramundane (lokuttara)”
(Vism-mhṭ 464).
37. The meaning of the expression tathābhāva-
paccupaṭṭhāna appears more clearly where it is
used again at §108. In this definition (sādhana) the
function (kicca-rasa) in fact describes the verb
action (kicca) while the manifestation
(paccupaṭṭhāna) describes the relevant nounal state
(bhāva). So “tathābhāva” means that what has just
been taken as a function (e.g. “receiving”) is to be
taken also as a state (“reception”).

1292
38. “To the six kinds of objects all classed as limited,
etc., past, etc., internal, etc” (Vism-mhṭ 474).
39. Registration consciousness does not, it is stated,
occur with an object of exalted consciousness—
see Vibh-a 154.
40. “’The source it has come from, and so on’ means the
source it has come from and its condition. Here,
in the opinion of certain teachers the result of the
unprompted profitable is unprompted and the
result of the prompted is prompted, like the
movement of the face’s reflection in a looking-
glass when the face moves; thus it is due to the
source it has come from. But in the opinion of other
teachers the unprompted arises due to powerful
kamma as condition and the prompted does so
due to weak kamma; thus it is due to its condition”
(Vism-mhṭ 474).
41. “With respect to such unsublime objects as the
forms of skeletons or ghosts” (Vism-mhṭ 476). See
e.g. Vin III 104.
42. See also M-a IV 124f. “Here ’kamma’ is stored-up
profitable kamma of the sense sphere that has got
an opportunity to ripen; hence he said ’that has
appeared.’ ’Sign of kamma’ is the gift to be given
that was a condition for the volition at the
moment of accumulating the kamma. ’Sign of

1293
 destiny’ is the visible-data base located in the
destiny in which he is about to be reborn” (Vism-
mhṭ 477). See XVII. 136ff.
43. “’The sign of kamma” here is only the kamma’s
own object consisting of an earth kasiṇa, etc”
(Vism-mhṭ 478).
44. “’With that same object’: if kamma is the life-
continuum’s object, then it is that kamma; if the
sign of the kamma, or the sign of the destiny, then
it is one of those” (Vism-mhṭ 478).
45. “’Occurring endlessly’: this is, in fact, thus called
’bhavaṅga’ (life-continuum, lit. ’limb’ (or
’practice’—see II. 11) of becoming) because of its
occurring as the state of an aṅga (’limb’ or
’practice’) of the rebirth-process becoming
(uppatti-bhava)” (Vism-mhṭ 478).
For the commentarial description of dream
consciousness and kamma effected during
dreams, see Vibh-a (commentary to Ñāṇa-
Vibhaṅga, Ekaka) and A-a, (commentary to AN
5:196) which largely but not entirely overlap.
Vism-mhṭ says here: “The seeing of dreams is
done with consciousness consisting only of the
functional” (Vism-mhṭ 478).
46. “’A disturbance in the life-continuum’ is a wavering
of the life-continuum consciousness; the meaning

1294
 is that there is the arrival at a state that is a reason
for dissimilarity in its occurrence twice in that
way. For it is called disturbance (calana) because it
is like a disturbance (movement) since there
seems to be a cause for an occasion (avatthā) in the
mind’s continuity different from the previous
occasion. Granted, firstly, that there is impact on
the sensitivity owing to confrontation with an
object, since the necessity for that is established by
the existence of the objective field and the
possessor of the objective field, but how does
there come to be disturbance (movement) of the
life-continuum that has a different support?
Because it is connected with it. And here the
example is this: when grains of sugar are put on
the surface of a drum and one of the grains of
sugar is tapped, a fly sitting on another grain of
sugar moves” (Vism-mhṭ 478).
47. “’Next to adverting’ means next to five-door
adverting. For those who do not admit the
cognitive series beginning with receiving, just as
they do not admit the heart basis, the Pali has
been handed down in various places in the way
beginning, ’For the eye-consciousness element as
receiving (sampaṭicchanāya cakkhuviññāṇadhātuyā)’
(see Ch. IV, n. 13); for the Pali cannot be
contradicted” (Vism-mhṭ 479). The quotation as it

1295
 stands is not traced to the Piṭakas.
48. See Ch. IV, note 13.
49. “’If … vivid (lit. large)’: this is said because it is the
occurrence of consciousness at the end of the
impulsions that is being discussed. For an object
is here intended as ’vivid’ when its life is fourteen
conscious moments; and that should be
understood as coming into focus when it has
arisen and is two or three moments past” (Vism-
mhṭ 479).
50. “This includes also the preliminary-work and the
cleansing (see Ch. XXII, note 7), not change-of-
lineage only” (Vism-mhṭ 479). See also IV.74 and
XXI. 129.
51. “’That obtains a condition’: any impulsion that has
obtained a condition for arising next to change-of-
lineage, as that of the fine-material sphere, and so
on” (Vism-mhṭ 479).
52. “’A very vivid one’ is one with a life of sixteen
conscious moments. For registration
consciousness arises with respect to that, not with
respect to any other. ’Clear’ means very evident,
and that is only in the sense sphere; for
registration arises with respect to that” (Vism-mhṭ
479).

1296
53. “’Previous kamma’: this is said in order to show the
differences in kinds of registration; for kamma
that generates rebirth-linking is not the only kind
to generate registration; other kinds of kamma do
so too. But the latter generates registration unlike
that generatable by the kamma that generates
rebirth-linking. ’Impulsion consciousness’: this is
said in order to show what defines the
registration; for it is said, ’Registration is
definable by impulsion’ (?). The word ’etc.’
includes rebirth-linking, however; for that is not a
condition for registration that is more outstanding
than itself. ’Any condition’: any condition from
among the desirable objects, etc., that has
combined (samaveta) to produce the arising of
registration” (Vism-mhṭ 479).
54. “This should be regarded as a secondary
characteristic (upalakkhaṇa) of profitable feeling,
that is to say, the fact that whatever profitable
feeling there is, is all associated with profitable
consciousness. That, however, is not for the
purpose of establishing its profitableness. For the
profitableness of profitable feeling is not due to its
association with profitable consciousness, but
rather to wise attention and so on. That is why he
said ’as to kind.’ So too in the case of the
unprofitable and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 481).

1297
55. Sambhoga—“exploiting”: not in this sense in PED
(see also XVII.51).
56. “Pleasure and pain respectively gratify and afflict
by acting in one way on the body and in another
way on the mind, but not so equanimity, which is
why the latter is described as of one class.
“Just as, when a man places a piece of cotton
wool on an anvil and strikes it with an iron
hammer, and his hammer goes right through the
cotton and hits the anvil, the violence of the blow
is great, so too because the violence of the
impact’s blow is great, body-consciousness is
accompanied by pleasure when the object is a
desirable or desirable-neutral one, and by pain
when the object is an undesirable or undesirable-
neutral one. [It is the impact of primary matter
(tangible object) on the primaries of the body.]
“Herein, though profitable-resultant and
unprofitable-resultant consciousness
discriminated according to the desirable and
undesirable might logically be associated with
pleasure and pain, nevertheless the eight kinds of
consciousness that have the eye, etc., as their
support ((34)–(37) and (50)–(53)) are invariably
associated only with equanimity, because of the
gentleness of the impact’s blow in the case of two

1298
 instances of derived matter, like that of two pieces
of cotton wool” (Vism-mhṭ 482). For a simile see
Dhs-a 263.
57. “’The characteristic of agglomerating’ means the
characteristic of adding together (sampiṇḍana);
then they are said to have the function of
accumulating, for the dhammas in the formations
aggregate are so described because volition is
their basis” (Vism-mhṭ 484).
58. Vipphāra—“intervening” here is explained by
Vism-mhṭ (p. 484) as vyāpāra (interest or work);
not in this sense in PED. See Ch. VI, note 6.
59. Yevāpanaka (ye-vā-pana-ka) is commentarial
shorthand derived from the Dhammasaṇgaṇī
phrase “ye-vā-pana tasmiṃ samaye aññe pi atthi
paṭiccasamuppannā arūpino dhammā”—“Or
whatever other immaterial conditionally-arisen
states (phenomena) there are too on that
occasion” (Dhs 1). Cf. also M I 85.
60. “’As the act of touching too’: by this he shows that
this is its individual essence even though it is
immaterial. And the characteristic of touching is
obvious in its occurrence in such instances as, say,
the watering of the mouth in one who sees
another tasting vinegar or a ripe mango, the
bodily shuddering in a sympathetic person who

1299
 sees another being hurt, the trembling of the
knees in a timid man standing on the ground
when he sees a man precariously balanced on a
high tree branch, the loss of power of the legs in
one who sees something terrifying such as a pisāca
(goblin)” (Vism-mhṭ 484–85).
61. For “non-adherent” see §46. “’On any one side’
means on any one side of itself, like a pair of
planks and so on. ’Non-adherent’ means not
sticking (asaṃsilissamāna). It is only the impact
without adherence that contact shares with visible
data and sound, not the objective field. Just as,
though eye and ear are non-adherent respectively
to visible data and sounds still they have the
word ’touched’ used of them, so too it can be said
of contact’s touching and impinging on the object.
Contact’s impinging is the actual concurrence
(meeting) of consciousness and object” (Vism-mhṭ
485).
62. Adhiṭṭhāna—“habitat” (or site or location or
foundation): this meaning not given in PED.
63. The four factors of stream-entry (see S V 347) are:
waiting on good men, hearing the Good
Dhamma, wise attention, and practice in
accordance with the Dhamma. Again they are:
absolute confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma,

1300
 and the Sangha, and possession of noble virtue (S
V 343).
64. “Apilāpana (’not wobbling’) is the steadying of an
object, the remembering and not forgetting it,
keeping it as immovable as a stone instead of
letting it go bobbing about like a pumpkin in
water” (Vism-mhṭ 487).
65. “And here by tranquilization, etc., of
consciousness only consciousness is tranquillized
and becomes light, malleable, wieldy, proficient
and upright. But with tranquilization, etc., of the
[mental] body also the material body is
tranquillized, and so on. This is why the
twofoldness of states is given by the Blessed One
here, but not in all places” (Vism-mhṭ 489).
66. “’The act of resolving’ should be understood as the
act of being convinced (sanniṭṭhāna) about an
object, not as trusting (pasādana)” (Vism-mhṭ 489).
See §140.
67. “Because the path consciousnesses have Nibbāna
as their object and because compassion, gladness,
etc., have living beings as their object, there is no
compassion, etc., in the path” (Vism-mhṭ 491).
68. ”Because the paralysis (saṃhanana) of
consciousness comes about through stiffness, but
that of matter through torpor like that of the three

1301
 aggregates beginning with feeling, therefore
torpor is manifested as nodding and sleep”
(Vism-mhṭ 493).
69. Kukata is not in PED. It is impossible to render
into English this “portmanteau” etymology, e.g.
kucchita-kata—kukata, kukutatā … kukkucca, which
depends mostly on a fortuitous parallelism of
meaning and verbal forms in the Pali. While
useless to strict modern etymologists, it has a
definite semantic and mnemonic use.
70. “’Mere steadiness in occurrence’ is mere presence for
a moment. That it is only “mere steadiness in
occurrence” owing to the mere condition for the
steadiness of the mind (ceto) is because of lack of
real steadiness due to absence of decidedness
(nicchaya), and it is incapable of being a condition
for such steadiness in continuity (see §188) as the
steadiness of consciousness stated thus: ’like the
steadiness of a flame sheltered from a draught’
(XIV.139)” (Vism-mhṭ 495).
71. “Here when the time is delimited by death and
rebirth-linking the term ’extent’ is applicable. It is
made known through the Suttas in the way
beginning ’Was I in the past?’ (M I 8); for the past
state is likewise mentioned as ’extent’ in the
Bhaddekaratta Sutta too in the way beginning,

1302
 ’He does not follow what is past (the past extent)’
(M III 1 88). But when it is delimited in the
ultimate sense as in the Addhāniruttipatha Sutta
thus, ’Bhikkhus, there are three extents, the past
extent, the future extent, and the present extent’
(It 53), then it is appropriate as delimited by
moment. Herein, the existingness of the present is
stated thus, ’Bhikkhus, of matter that is born …
manifested, it is said that: “It exists”’ (S IV 72),
and pastness and futureness are respectively
called before and after that” (Vism-mhṭ 496).
72. “Cold temperature is like with cold, and hot with
hot. But that temperature which falls on the body,
whether hot or cold, and occurs as a continuity in
one mode, being neither less nor more, is called
’single temperature.’ The word ’single’ is used
because of the plurality of ’like’ temperature. So
too with nutriment. ’In one cognitive series, in one
impulsion’ refers respectively to five-door and
mind-door consciousness. The explanations of
continuity and period are given in the
Commentaries for the purpose of helping the
practice of insight” (Vism-mhṭ 496).
73. In these two paragraphs “past” and “future” refer
not to time, as in the other paragraphs, but to the
materiality.

1303
74. “’Cause’ (hetu) is what gives birth (janaka);
’condition’ (paccaya) is what consolidates
(upatthambhaka). Their respective functions are
arousing and consolidating. Just as the seed’s
function is to arouse the sprout and that of the
earth, etc., is to consolidate it, and just as kamma’s
function is to arouse result as matter that is due to
kamma performed, and that of nutriment is to
consolidate it, so the function of those [conditions]
that give birth to each material group and each
thought-arising and serve as kamma and
proximity-conditions, etc., for them, and the
function of those that consolidate them and serve
as conascence, prenascence, and postnascence
conditions for them may be construed
accordingly as appropriate.
“Because there is similarity and dissimilarity
in temperature, etc., in the way stated, the
pastness, etc., of material instances originated by
it are stated according to continuity. But there is
no such similarity and dissimilarity in the kamma
that gives birth to a single becoming, so instead of
stating according to continuity the pastness, etc.,
of material instances originated by that, it is stated
according to what consolidates. However, when
there comes to be reversal of sex, then the male
sex disappears owing to powerful unprofitable

1304
 kamma, and the female sex appears owing to
weak profitable kamma; and the female sex
disappears owing to weak unprofitable kamma,
while the male sex appears owing to powerful
profitable kamma (see Dhs-a 321). So there is in
fact dissimilarity in what is originated by kamma
and consequent dissimilarity in what is past, etc.,
in accordance with the continuity of these as well.
But it is not included because it does not happen
always” (Vism-mhṭ 497).
75. Niyakajjhatta—“internally in the sense of one’s
own”: four kinds of ajjhatta (internal, lit.
“belonging to oneself”) are mentioned in the
commentaries and sub-commentaries (see Dhs-a
46): gocarajjhatta—internally as range or resort (M-
a IV 161; II 90, 292), ajjhattajjhata—internally as
such (Vism-mhṭ 152), niyakajjhatta—internally in
the sense of one’s own (IV.141, IX.114, this ref.; M-
a IV 161), visayajjhatta—internally as objective
field (M-a IV 160).
76. Profitable result is superior because it produces a
desirable object (see Vism-mhṭ 498). This question
is treated at length at Vibh-a 9f.
77. “The feeling that accompanies the faith, etc.,
occurring in one who sees an image of the
Buddha or who hears the Dhamma, even for a

1305
 whole day, is ’present’” (Vism-mhṭ 499).
78. “Consciousness dominates because of the words,
’Dhammas have mind as their forerunner’ (Dhp
l), ’Dhammas (states) that have parallel turn-over
with consciousness’ (Dhs §1522), and ’The king,
lord of the six doors (?)’” (Vism-mhṭ 503).
79. Sammohavinodanī (Be) (Khandha Vibhaṅga
Commentary) in the identical passage, reads
vedanādayo anāsavā pi sāsavā pi atthi. Ee and Ae
read vedanādayo anāsavā pi atthi.
80. Avarodha—“inclusion”: not in PED. The term
etaparama—“the widest limit” is not mentioned in
PED. See M I 80, 339; S V 119; M-a III, 281. Cf. also
etāvaparama, M I 246.
81. “When all formed dhammas are grouped together
according to similarity, they naturally fall into
five aggregates. Herein, it is the items that are the
same owing to the sameness consisting
respectively in ’molesting,’ etc., that are to be
understood as ’similar.’ Among them, those that
are strong in the volition whose nature is
accumulating with the function of forming the
formed, are called the formations aggregate. And
the others, that is, contact, etc., which are devoid
of the distinguishing characteristics of ’being
molested,’ etc., may also be so regarded under the

1306
 generality of forming the formed. But the
similarities consisting in touching are not
describable separately by the word ’aggregate,’
and so that is why no aggregates of contact, etc.,
have been stated by the Perfect One who knows
the similarities of dhammas. ’Bhikkhus, whatever
ascetics or brahmans there are who are asserters
of eternity and declare the self and the world to
be eternal, all do so depending and relying on
these same five aggregates or on one or other of
them’ (cf. S IV 46), and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 503).
82. The aggregates of virtue, concentration,
understanding, liberation, and knowledge and
vision of liberation (S I 99), etc.
83. “The matter of the body is like the prison because
it is the site of the punishment. Perception is like the
offence because owing to perception of beauty,
etc., it is a cause of the punishment, which is feeling.
The formations aggregate is like the punisher
because it is a cause of feeling. Consciousness is
like the offender because it is afflicted by feeling.
Again, matter is like the dish because it bears the
food. Perception is like the curry sauce because,
owing to perception of beauty, etc., it hides the
food, which is feeling. The formations aggregate is
like the server because it is a cause of feeling; and
service is included since one who is taking a meal

1307
 is usually served. Consciousness is like the eater
because it is helped by feeling” (Vism-mhṭ 504).
For cāraka (prison) see XVI.18.
84. Ee and Ae both read visesato ca sūḷāram pi
ajjhattikaṃ rūpaṃ. But Sammohavinodanī (Be) in
identical passage reads visesato ca subhārammaṇam
pi oḷārikam pi ajjhattika-rūpaṃ.

1308
 Chapter XV
The Bases and Elements
(Āyatana-dhātu-niddesa)

[A. Description of the Bases]

1. [481] The “bases” (XIV.32) are the twelve bases, that

is to say, the eye base, visible-data base, ear base,
sound base, nose base, odour base, tongue base,
flavour base, body base, tangible-data base, mind
base, mental-data base.
2. Herein:
(1) Meaning, (2) character, (3) just so much,
(4) Order, and (5) in brief and detail,
(6) Likewise as to how to be seen—
Thus should be known the exposition.
3. 1. Herein, [as to meaning] firstly individually:
It relishes (cakkhati), thus it is an eye (cakkhu); the
meaning is that it enjoys a visible datum and turns it
to account.
It makes visible (rūpayati), thus it is a visible datum
(rūpa); the meaning is that by undergoing an alteration
in appearance (colour) it evidences what state is in the

1309
mind (lit. heart).
It hears (suṇāti), thus it is an ear (sota).
It is emitted (sappati), thus it is sound (sadda); the
meaning is that it is uttered.
It smells (ghāyati), thus it is a nose (ghāna).
It is smelt (gandhayati) thus it is odour (gandha); the
meaning is that it betrays its own physical basis.
It evokes (avhayati) life (jīvita), thus it is a tongue
(jivhā).
Living beings taste (rasanti) it, thus it is flavour
(rasa); the meaning is that they enjoy it.
It is the origin (āya) of vile (kucchita) states subject to
cankers, thus it is a body (kāya), origin being the place
of arising.
It is touched (phusiyati), thus it is a tangible datum
(phoṭṭhabba).
It measures (munāti), thus it is a mind (mano).
They cause their own characteristic to be borne
(dhārayanti), thus they are mental data (dhammā).[1]
4. [As to meaning] in general, however, base (āyatana)
should be understood as such (a) because of its
actuating (āyatana), (b) because of being the range
(tanana) of the origins (āya), and (c) because of leading

1310
on (nayana) what is actuated (āyata).[2]
Now, the various states of consciousness and its
concomitants belonging to such and such a door-cum-
object among those consisting of the eye-cum-visible-
datum, etc., (a) are actuated (āyatanti), each by means
of its individual function of experiencing, etc.; they are
active, strive, and endeavour in these, is what is
meant. And (b) these [doors-cum-objects] provide the
range for (tananti) those states that are origins (āya);
they give them scope, is what is meant. And (c) as
long as this suffering of the round of rebirths, which
has gone on occurring throughout the beginningless
round of rebirths and so is enormously actuated
(āyata), does not recede, so long they lead on (nayanti);
they cause occurrence, is what is meant.
So all these [482] things are called “bases” because
they actuate, because they are the range of the origins,
and because they lead on what is actuated.
5. Furthermore, “base, (āyatana) should be understood
in the sense of place of abode, store (mine),[3] meeting
place, locality of birth, and cause. For accordingly in
the world in such phrases as the lord’s sphere”
(āyatana) and “Vāsudeva’s sphere” (āyatana), it is a
place of abode that is called “base”; and in such
phrases as “the sphere of gold” and “the sphere of
silver” it is a store (mine) that is called “base.” But in

1311
the Dispensation, in such passages as:
“And so in the delightful realm (āyatana)
Those flying in the air attend him” (A III 43),
it is a meeting place; and in such phrases as “The
southern land is the realm (āyatana) of cattle” (?) it is
the locality of birth; and in such passages as “He
acquires the ability to be a witness of it … whenever
there is an occasion (āyatana) for it’” (M I 494; A I 258),
it is a cause.
6. And these various states of consciousness and its
concomitants dwell in the eye, etc., because they exist
in dependence on them, so the eye, etc., are their place
of abode. And they frequent the eye, etc., because they
have them [respectively] as their [material] support
and as their object, so the eye, etc., are their store. And
the eye, etc., are their meeting place because they meet
together in one or other of them, [using them] as
physical basis, door, and object. And the eye, etc., are
the locality of their birth because they arise just there,
having them as their respective supports and objects.
And the eye, etc., are their reason because they are
absent when the eye, etc., are absent.
7. So for these reasons too these things are called
“bases” in the sense of place of abode, store, meeting
place, locality of birth, and reason.
Consequently, in the sense already stated, it is an

1312
eye and that is a base, thus it is the eye base … They
are mental data and those are a base, thus they are the
mental-data base.
This is how the exposition should be known here as
to meaning.
8. 2. Character: Here too the exposition should be
known as to the characteristic of the eye and so on. But
their characteristics should be understood in the way
given above in the Description of the Aggregates
(XIV.37ff.).
9. 3. As to just so much: as just so many.[4] What is
meant is this: The eye, etc., are mental data too; that
being so, why is “twelve bases” said instead of simply
“mental-data base?” It is for the sake of defining door-
cum-object for the arising of the six consciousness
groups. And here they are stated as twelve since this is
how they are classed when so defined. [483]
10. For only the eye base is the door of arising, and
only the visible-data base is the object, of the
consciousness group comprised in a cognitive series
containing eye-consciousness. Likewise the others for
the others.
But only one part of the mind base, in other words,
the life-continuum mind,[5] is the door of arising, and
only the mental-data base not common to all is the

1313
object, of the sixth [consciousness group].
So they are called “the twelve” because they define
door-cum-object for the arising of the six
consciousness groups. This is how the exposition
should be known here as to just so much.
11. 4. As to order: here too, from among “order of
arising,” etc., mentioned above (XIV.211), only “order
of teaching” is appropriate. For the eye is taught first
among the internal bases since it is obvious because it
has as its objective field what is visible with resistance
(see last triad, Dhs 2). After that the ear base, etc.,
which have as their objective fields what is invisible
with resistance. Or alternatively, the eye base and ear
base are taught first among the internal bases because
of their great helpfulness as [respective] causes for the
“incomparable of seeing” and the “incomparable of
hearing” (see D III 250). Next, the three beginning
with the nose base. And the mind base is taught last
because it has as its resort the objective fields of the
[other] five (M I 295). But among the external bases the
visible-data base, etc., [are taught] each one next [to its
corresponding internal base] because they are the
respective resorts of the eye base, and so on.
12. Furthermore, their order may be understood as
that in which the reasons for consciousness’s arising
are defined; and it is said: “Due to eye and to visible

1314
objects eye-consciousness arises, … due to mind and
mental objects mind-consciousness arises” (M I 111).
This is how the exposition should be known here as
to order.
13. 5. In brief and in detail: in brief the twelve bases are
simply mentality-materiality because the mind base
and one part of the mental-data base are included in
mentality, and the rest of the bases in materiality.
14. But in detail, firstly as regards the internal bases,
the eye base is, as to kind, simply eye sensitivity; but
when it is classified according to condition, destiny,
order [of beings], and person,[6] it is of infinite variety.
Likewise the four beginning with the ear base. And
the mind base, when classified according to profitable,
unprofitable, resultant, and functional consciousness,
is of eighty-nine kinds or of one hundred and twenty-
one kinds,[7] but it is of infinite variety when classified
according to physical basis, progress, and so on.[8] The
visible-data, sound, odour, and flavour bases are of
infinite variety when classified according to
dissimilarity, condition, and so on.[9] The tangible-
data base is of three kinds as consisting of earth
element, fire element, and air element; [484] but when
classified according to condition, etc., it is of many
kinds. The mental-data base is of many kinds when
classified according to the several individual essences

1315
of feeling, perception, formations, subtle matter, and
Nibbāna (see Vibh 72).
This is how the exposition should be known in brief
and in detail.
15. 6. As to how to be seen: here all formed bases should
be regarded as having no provenance and no
destination. For they do not come from anywhere
prior to their rise, nor do they go anywhere after their
fall. On the contrary, before their rise they had no
individual essence, and after their fall their individual
essences are completely dissolved. And they occur
without mastery [being exercisable over them] since
they exist in dependence on conditions and in between
the past and the future. Hence they should be
regarded as having no provenance and no destination.
Likewise they should be regarded as incurious and
uninterested. For it does not occur to the eye and the
visible datum, etc., “Ah, that consciousness might
arise from our concurrence.” And as door, physical
basis, and object, they have no curiosity about, or
interest in, arousing consciousness. On the contrary, it
is the absolute rule that eye-consciousness, etc., come
into being with the union of eye with visible datum,
and so on. So they should be regarded as incurious
and uninterested.
16. Furthermore, the internal bases should be

1316
regarded as an empty village because they are devoid
of lastingness, pleasure, and self; and the external ones
as village-raiding robbers (S IV 175) because they raid
the internal ones. And this is said: “Bhikkhus, the eye
is harassed by agreeable and disagreeable visible
objects” (S IV 175). Furthermore, the internal ones
should be regarded as like the six creatures (S IV 198–
99) and the external ones as like their resorts.
This is how the exposition should be known here as
to how to be seen.
This, firstly, is the section of the detailed
explanation dealing with the bases.

[B. Description of the Elements]

17. The “elements” next to that (XIV.32) are the

eighteen elements, that is to say, eye element, visible-
data element, eye-consciousness element; ear element,
sound element, ear-consciousness element; nose
element, odour element, nose-consciousness element;
tongue element, flavour element, tongue-
consciousness element; body element, tangible-data
element, body-consciousness element; mind element,
mental-data element, mind-consciousness element.
18. Herein:

1317
 (1) As to meaning, (2) characteristic, et cetera,
(3) Order, (4) just so much, and (5) reckoning,
(6) Then condition, and (7) how to be seen—
Thus should be known the exposition.
19. 1. Herein, as to meaning: first the exposition of
“eye,” etc., should be known individually as to
meaning in the way beginning: It relishes (cakkhati),
thus it is an eye (cakkhu); it makes visible (rūpayati),
thus it is a visible datum; [485] and the consciousness
of the eye is eye-consciousness (see §3).
As to meaning in general: (a) it sorts out (vidahati),
(b) it assorts [well] (dhīyate), (c) a sorting out (vidhāna),
(d) it is sorted out (vidhīyate) by means of that, or (e) it
causes to be sorted (dhīyati) here, thus it is a sort (dhātu
= element).[10]
20. (a) The mundane sorts (elements), when defined
according to their instrumentality, sort out (vidahanti)
the suffering of the round of rebirths, which is of
many kinds, just as the “sorts” (ores—see XI.20) of
gold and silver, etc., do gold and silver, and so on. (b)
They assort [well] (dhīyante) with living beings, as a
burden does with burden bearers; they are borne
(dhāriyanti), is the meaning. (c) And they are only mere
sortings out (vidhāna) of suffering because no mastery
is exercisable over them. (d) And by means of them as
instruments the suffering of the round of rebirths is

1318
continually being sorted out (anuvidhīyati) by living
beings. (e) And that [suffering], being sorted out
(vihita) in this way, is caused to be sorted (dhīyati) into
those [sorts (elements)]; it is caused to be placed in
them, is the meaning. So each thing (dhamma) among
those beginning with the eye is called a “sort” (dhātu—
element) in the meaning just stated beginning “It sorts
out, it assorts well.”
21. Furthermore, while the self of the sectarians does
not exist with an individual essence, not so these.
These, on the contrary, are elements (dhātu) since they
cause [a state’s] own individual essence to be borne
(dhārenti).[11] And just as in the world the variously-
coloured constituents of marble such as malachite,
cinnabar, etc., are called “elements,” so too these
[beginning with the eye] are elements like those;[12]
for they are the “variously-coloured” constituents of
knowledge and the knowable. Or just as the general
term “elements” is used for juices, blood, etc., which
are constituents of the collection called the “carcass,”
when they are distinguished from each other by
dissimilarity of characteristic, so too the general term
“elements” should be understood as used for the
constituents of the selfhood (personality) called “the
pentad of aggregates”; for these things beginning with
the eye are distinguished from each other by
dissimilarity of characteristic.

1319
22. Furthermore, “element” is a term for what is
soulless; and for the purpose of abolishing the
perception of soul the Blessed One accordingly taught
the elements in such passages as “Bhikkhu, this man
has six elements” (M III 239). Therefore the exposition
should be understood here firstly as to meaning thus:
it is an eye and that is an element, thus it is the eye-
element … It is mind-consciousness and that is an
element, thus it is mind-consciousness element.
23. 2. As to characteristic, et cetera: here too the
exposition should be understood as to the
characteristic, etc., of the eye, and so on. And that
should be understood in the way given above in the
Description of the Aggregates (XIV.37ff.).
24. 3. As to order: here too, from among “order of
arising,” etc., mentioned above (XIV.211), only “order
of teaching” is appropriate. It is set forth according to
successive definition of cause and fruit.[13] For the
pair, eye element and visible-data element, are the
cause and eye-consciousness element is the fruit. So in
each case.
25. 4. As to just so much: as just so many. What is
meant is this: in various places in the Suttas and
Abhidhamma the following as well as other [486]
elements are met with—the illumination element,
beauty element, base-consisting-of-boundless-space

1320
element, base-consisting-of-boundless-consciousness
element, base-consisting-of-nothingness element, base-
consisting-of-neither-perception-nor-non-perception
element, cessation-of-perception-and-feeling element
(S II 150); sense-desire element, ill-will element,
cruelty element, renunciation element, non-ill-will
element, non-cruelty element (Vibh 86); bodily-
pleasure element, bodily-pain element, joy element,
grief element, equanimity element, ignorance element
(Vibh 85); initiative element, launching element,
persistence element (S V 66); inferior element, medium
element, superior element (D III 215); earth element,
water element, fire element, air element, space
element, consciousness element (Vibh 82); formed
element, unformed element (M III 63); the world of
many elements, of various elements (M I 70)—that
being so, why is the classification only made according
to these eighteen instead of making it according to all
of them? Because, as far as individual essence is
concerned, all existing elements are included in that
[classification].
26. The visible data-element itself is the illumination
element. The beauty element is bound up with visible-
data and so on. Why? Because it is the sign of the
beautiful. The sign of the beautiful is the beauty
element and that does not exist apart from visible data
and so on. Or since the visible data, etc., that are

1321
objects consisting of profitable kamma-result are
themselves the beauty element, that is thus merely
visible data and so on. As regards the base-consisting-
of-boundless-space element, etc., the consciousness is
mind-consciousness element only, while the
remaining [states] are the mental-data element. But the
cessation-of-perception-and-feeling element does not
exist as an individual essence; for that is merely the
cessation of two elements.[14]
27. The sense-desire element is either merely the
mental-data element, according as it is said, “Herein,
what is the sense-desire element? It is the thought,
applied thought, … wrong thinking, that is associated
with sense desires” (Vibh 86), or it is the eighteen
elements, according as it is said: “Making the Avīci
hell the lower limit and making the
Paranimmitavasavatti deities the upper limit, the
aggregates, elements, bases, materiality, feeling,
perception, formations, and consciousness that are in
this interval, that belong here, are included here: these
are called the sense desire element” (Vibh 86). [487]
28. The renunciation element is the mental-data
element; also, because of the passage, “Also all
profitable states are the renunciation element” (Vibh
86), it is the mind-consciousness element too. The
elements of ill-will, cruelty, non-ill-will, non-cruelty,
bodily pleasure, bodily pain, joy, grief, equanimity,

1322
ignorance, initiative, launching, and persistence are
the mental-data element too.
29. The inferior, medium, and superior elements are
the eighteen elements themselves; for inferior eyes,
etc., are the inferior element, and medium and
superior eyes, etc., are the medium and superior
elements. But literally speaking, the unprofitable
mental-data element and mind-consciousness element
are the inferior element; both these elements, when
mundane profitable or mundane indeterminate, and
the eye element, etc., are the medium element; but the
supramundane mental-data element and mind-
consciousness element are the superior element.
30. The earth, fire, and air elements are the tangible-
data element; the water element and the space element
are the mental-data element only; “consciousness
element” is a term summarizing the seven
consciousness elements beginning with eye-
consciousness.
31. Seventeen elements and one part of the mental-
data element are the formed element; but the
unformed element is one part of the mental-data
element only. The “world of many elements, of
various elements” is merely what is divided up into
the eighteen elements.
So they are given as eighteen because, as to

1323
individual essence, all existing elements are included
in that [classification].
32. Furthermore, they are stated as eighteen for the
purpose of eliminating the kind of perception to be
found in those who perceive a soul in consciousness,
the individual essence of which is cognizing; for there
are beings who perceive a soul in consciousness, the
individual essence of which is cognizing. And so the
Blessed One, who was desirous of eliminating the
long-inherent perception of a soul, has expounded the
eighteen elements thus making evident to them not
only consciousness’s multiplicity when classed as eye-,
ear-, nose-, tongue-and body-consciousness elements,
and mind, and mind-consciousness elements, but also
its impermanence, which is due to its existing in
dependence on eye-cum-visible-data, etc., as
conditions.
33. What is more, the inclinations of those who are
teachable in this way [have to be considered]; and in
order to suit the inclinations of beings who are
teachable by a teaching that is neither too brief nor too
long, eighteen are expounded. For:
By methods terse and long as need may be
He taught the Dhamma, so that from beings’
hearts,
If they have wit to learn, the dark departs

1324
 Melting in the Good Dhamma’s brilliancy.
This is how the exposition should be understood
here as to just so much.
34. 5. As to reckoning: the eye-element, firstly, is
reckoned as one thing according to kind, [488] namely,
eye sensitivity. Likewise, the ear, nose, tongue, body,
visible-data, sound, odour, and flavour elements are
reckoned as ear sensitivity, and so on (XIV.37ff.). But
the tangible-data element is reckoned as three things,
namely, earth, fire and air. The eye-consciousness
element is reckoned as two things, namely, profitable
and unprofitable kamma-result; and likewise the
consciousness elements of the ear, nose, tongue, and
body. The mind element is reckoned as three things,
namely, five-door adverting (70), and profitable (39)
and unprofitable (55) resultant receiving. The mental-
data element as twenty things, namely, three
immaterial aggregates, sixteen kinds of subtle matter,
and the unformed element (see Vibh 88).[15] Mind-
consciousness element is reckoned as seventy-six
things, namely, the remaining profitable, unprofitable,
and indeterminate consciousnesses. This is how the
exposition should be understood as to reckoning.
35. 6. Condition: the eye element, firstly, is a condition,
in six ways, namely, dissociation, pre-nascence,
presence, non-disappearance, support, and faculty for

1325
the eye-consciousness element. The visible-data
element is a condition, in four ways, namely,
prenascence, presence, non-disappearance, and object,
for the eye-consciousness element. Similarly with the
ear-element and the sound-element for the ear-
consciousness element and so on.
36. The adverting mind element (70) is a condition, as
the five conditions, namely: proximity, contiguity,
absence, disappearance, and proximity-decisive-
support, for these five [beginning with the eye-
consciousness element]. And these five are so too for
the receiving mind element ((39), (55)). And so is the
receiving mind element for the investigating mind-
consciousness element ((40), (41), (56)). And so is that
too for the determining mind-consciousness element
(71). And so is the determining mind-consciousness
element for impulsion mind-consciousness element.
But the impulsion mind-consciousness element is a
condition, as the six conditions, namely, as the five
already stated and as repetition condition, for the
immediately following impulsion mind-consciousness
element.
This, firstly, is the way in the case of the five doors.
37. In the case of the mind door, however, the life-
continuum mind-consciousness element is a condition,
as the previously-stated five conditions, for the

1326
adverting mind-consciousness element (71). And the
adverting mind-consciousness element is so for the
impulsion mind-consciousness element.
38. The mental-data element is a condition in many
ways, as conascence, mutuality, support, association,
presence, non-disappearance, etc.,[16] for the seven
consciousness elements. The eye element, etc., and
some of the mental-data element,[17] are conditions, as
object condition, etc., for some of the mind-
consciousness element.
39. And not only are the eye and visible data, etc.,
conditions for the eye-consciousness element, etc.,
[respectively], but also light, etc., are too. Hence the
former teachers said: “Eye-consciousness arises due to
eye, visible datum, light, and attention. [489] Ear-
consciousness arises due to ear, sound, aperture, and
attention. Nose-consciousness arises due to nose,
odour, air, and attention. Tongue-consciousness arises
due to tongue, flavour, water, and attention. Body-
consciousness arises due to body, tangible datum,
earth, and attention. Mind-consciousness arises due to
life-continuum-mind,[18] mental datum, and
attention.”
This is in brief. But the kinds of conditions will be
explained in detail in the Description of Dependent
Origination (XVII.66ff.).

1327
 This is how the exposition should be understood
here as to condition.
40. 7. How to be seen: the meaning is that here too the
exposition should be understood as to how they are to
be regarded. For all formed elements are to be
regarded as secluded from the past and future,[19] as
void of any lastingness, beauty, pleasure, or self, and
as existing in dependence on conditions.
41. Individually, however, the eye element should be
regarded as the surface of a drum, the visible-data
element as the drumstick, and the eye-consciousness
element as the sound. Likewise, the eye element
should be regarded as the surface of a looking-glass,
the visible-data element as the face, and the eye-
consciousness element as the image of the face. Or
else, the eye-element should be regarded as sugarcane
or sesame, the visible-data element as the [sugarcane]
mill or the [sesame] wheel rod, and the eye-
consciousness element as the sugarcane juice or the
sesame oil. Likewise, the eye-element should be
regarded as the lower fire-stick, the visible-data
element as the upper fire-stick,[20] and the eye-
consciousness element as the fire. So too in the case of
the ear and so on.
42. The mind element, however, should be regarded
as the forerunner and follower of eye-consciousness,

1328
etc., as that arises.
As to the mental-data element, the feeling aggregate
should be regarded as a dart and as a stake, the
perception and formations aggregates as a disease
owing to their connection with the dart and stake of
feeling. Or the ordinary man’s perception should be
regarded as an empty fist because it produces pain
through [disappointed] desire; or as a forest deer [with
a scarecrow] because it apprehends the sign
incorrectly. And the formations aggregate should be
regarded as men who throw one into a pit of hot coals,
because they throw one into rebirth-linking, or as
thieves pursued by the king’s men because they are
pursued by the pains of birth; or as the seeds of a
poison-tree, because they are the root-cause of the
aggregates’ continuity, which brings all kinds of harm.
And materiality should be regarded as a razor-wheel
(see J-a IV 3), because it is the sign of various kinds of
dangers.
The unformed element, however, should be
regarded as deathless, as peace, as safety. Why?
Because it is the opposite of all ill. [490]
43. The mind-consciousness element should be
regarded as a forest monkey, because it does not stay
still on its object; or as a wild horse, because it is
difficult to tame; or as a stick flung into the air,

1329
because it falls anyhow; or as a stage dancer, because
it adopts the guise of the various defilements such as
greed and hate.

The fifteenth chapter called “The

Description of the Bases and Elements”
in the Treatise on the Development of
Understanding in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1330
Notes for Chapter XV

1. The following words in §3 are not in PED: cakkhati

(it relishes), rūpayati (it makes visible—only
referred to under rūpa), sappati (it is emitted; pass.
of sapati, to swear (Ud 45)), udāhariyati (it is
uttered, lit. “is carried up to”), gandhayati (it is
smelt), sūcayati (it betrays), rasati (it tastes). Be ed.
of Vibh-a reads manayati (not in PED) for muṇāti
in parallel passage.
Vism-mhṭ (p. 508) explains cakkhati (relishes)
semantically by “tasting a flavour as in ’relishing’
honey or sauce” and cites M I 503. Linguistically it
connects the word with ācikkhati (to show).
“When a visible form (rūpa) undergoes, like
the visible aspect of a chameleon, an alteration in
appearance (colour) at times when [the mind is]
dyed with greed or corrupted with hate, etc., it
makes visible what state [is prevalent] in the heart
(i.e. the mind) and makes that evident as though
it were an actual visible object; the meaning is that
it demonstrates it by giving it, as it were, a
graspable entity (saviggaha). Or the word rūpa
means demonstration, and that is the same as
evidencing. Or the word rūpa can be regarded as
evidencing of elements too, since it has many

1331
 meanings. Rūpayati (it makes visible) is a
derivative (nibbacana) of the word rūpa that
expresses appearance (colour), while ruppati (it is
molested) is a derivative that expresses the
materiality aggregate. [As to sound] only the
sound of words (vacana-sadda) would be covered
by the meaning ’is uttered (udāhariyati),’ and here
sound is not only the sound of words, but rather
all that can be cognized by the ear is what ’is
emitted (sappati)’; the meaning is that by means of
its own conditions it is emitted (sappiyati), is made
cognizable by the ear” (Vism-mhṭ 508) (cf. also
sappari, to crawl). “’It evokes life (jīvitaṃ avhayati)’
owing to appetite for tastes in food (āhāra), which
is the cause of life (jīvita), since the act of
swallowing is rooted in approval of tastes. This is
the linguistic characteristic of the word jivhā
(tongue)” (Vism-mhṭ 509).
2. The following words in §4 are not in PED: āyatana
(actuating: verbal n. fm. āyatati, to actuate); tanana
(range: verbal n. fm. tanoti, to provide a range for,
to extend—q.v. PED—; mentioned under āyatana,
base); nayana (lead in on: verbal n. fm. neti, to lead
on; lit, meaning not in PED); āyatati (to actuate—
cakkhuviññāṇādīnaṃ uppādanaṃ āyatanaṃ, Vism-
mhṭ). See also āyāpenti Paṭis II 21.
3. Ākara means either a mine or a store (PED

1332
 apparently believes in mining for pearls—see
ratanākara).
4. “Because of the absence of anything whatever not
included in the twelve bases, there is no arguing
that they are more than twelve” (Vism-mhṭ 510).
5. “’In other words, the life-continuum mind’: that
which occurs twice in disturbance (see Ch. XIV,
note 46). Only when there has been the
occurrence of the life-continuum in a state of
disturbance (in a state of dissimilar occurrence) is
there the arising of adverting, not otherwise.
Taking it thus as the reason for adverting, what is
called ’life-continuum mind’ is a door of arising.
’Not common to all’ means not common to eye-
consciousness and the rest” (Vism-mhṭ 510). See
M I 293.
6. “’Condition’ is kamma, etc., ’destiny’ is from hell
upwards; ’order [of beings]’ refers to such species
as elephants, horses, etc., or to the castes of the
khattiyas (warrior nobles), and so on; ’person’
refers to any given living being’s continuity”
(Vism-mhṭ 511).
7. There are eighty-one mundane sorts of
consciousness; and since there is no path or
fruition without jhāna, when the four paths and
four fruitions are multiplied by the five jhānas,

1333
 there are forty kinds of supramundane
consciousness: 81+40 = 121.
8. “’Physical basis’ is that consisting of the eye, etc.;
according to that ’Progress’ is a painful progress,
and the other three. ’And so on’ refers to jhāna,
predominance, plane, object, and so on” (Vism-
mhṭ 512).
9. “Blue is similar to blue; it is dissimilar to any
other colour. ’Condition’ is kamma, and so on”
(Vism-mhṭ 512).
10. The verb dahati, the basis of all these derivatives,
means literally “to put.” “There are five meanings
stated, since the word dhātu (element, sort,
’putting’) has its form established (siddha) here by
(a) the transitive (kattu), (b) the intransitive
(kamma), (c) the abstract noun (bhāva), (d) the
instrumental case (kāraṇa), and (e) the causative
voice (adhikaraṇa). Supramundane elements do
not sort out (vidahanti) the suffering of the round
of rebirths; on the contrary, they destroy
(vidhaṃsenti) it. That is why ’mundane’ is
specified” (Vism-mhṭ 513).
11. “’Are elements since they cause [a state’s] own
individual essence to be borne’: here, while the
establishment of the word’s form should be
understood as “dadhātī ti dhātu (it puts, sorts, thus

1334
 it is an element),’ still taking the word dhā to share
the meanings [of both dadhāti and dhāreti (see
XI.104)], there is also the meaning of the active
voice different from the first, because the
meanings of vidhāna (sorting out) and dhāraṇa
(causing to bear) are unconnected. The causing of
the bearing of mere individual essences without
any permanent living being, is a basic meaning of
the word dhātu (element), and so it is stated
separately” (Vism-mhṭ 513).
12. “’Are elements like those elements’: here, just as the
word “lion” (sīha), which is properly applicable to
the bearer of a mane, [is used] of a man, so too the
word ’element,’ which is properly applicable to
the constituents of marble, is used of the eye and
so on” (Vism-mhṭ 513).
13. “’Successive definition of cause and fruit’ is just the
state of cause and fruit” (Vism-mhṭ 514).
14. “It is the mere cessation of the mind-
consciousness element and mental-data element
because it is the ceasedness of thought-arisings in
the fourth immaterial state” (Vism-mhṭ 514).
15. In XIV.35–70, the material instances listed total 28,
that is, 4 primary elements, 9 sense faculties
(excluding the tangible-data faculty, which is the
3 elements except water), and 15 kinds of subtle

1335
 materiality beginning with the femininity faculty
(cf. treatment at Dhs §596). Other lists, however,
sometimes give a total of 26 kinds, that is, 10
sense faculties (including the tangible-data
faculty, which is the 3 primary elements) and 16
kinds of subtle materiality, that is, the above-
mentioned 15 plus the water element, which is
listed then after the space element (cf. treatment at
Dhs §653 and list at M-a II 261). See Table I.
16. “Here the word ’etc.’ stands for the mind-
consciousness element’s states where suitable as
root-cause, predominance, kamma, kamma-result,
nutriment, faculty, jhāna, and path conditions”
(Vism-mhṭ 516).
17. “I.e. subtle materiality and Nibbāna” (Vism-mhṭ
516).
18. “’Life-continuum mind’ is the life-continuum
consciousness occurring twice in disturbance”
(Vism-mhṭ 516).
19. “Formed elements are secluded in both instances
(i.e. when past and future) because their
individual essences are unapprehendable then”
(Vism-mhṭ 516).
20. Adharāraṇi (adho-araṇi)—“lower fire-stick” and
uttarāraṇi (uttara-araṇi)—“upper fire-stick” are not
in PED as such.

1336
 Chapter XVI
The Faculties and Truths
(Indriya-sacca-niddesa)

[A. Description of the Faculties]

1. [491] The “faculties” listed next to the elements

(XIV.32) are the twenty-two faculties, namely, eye
faculty, ear faculty, nose faculty, tongue faculty, body
faculty, mind faculty, femininity faculty, masculinity
faculty, life faculty, [bodily] pleasure faculty, [bodily]
pain faculty, [mental] joy faculty, [mental] grief
faculty, equanimity faculty, faith faculty, energy
faculty, mindfulness faculty, concentration faculty,
understanding faculty, “I-shall-come-to-know-the-
unknown” faculty, final-knowledge faculty, final-
knower faculty.
2. Herein:
(l) As to meaning, (2) character and so on,
(3) Order, (4) divided and undivided,
(5) Likewise function, and (6) also plane—
The exposition should be known.
3. 1. Herein, firstly, the meaning of eye, etc., is
explained in the way beginning: “It relishes (cakkhati),

1337
thus it is an eye (cakkhu)” (XV.3). But as regards the
last three, the first is called the “I-shall-come-to-know-
the-unknown” faculty because it arises in the initial
stage [of the stream-entry path moment] in one who
has entered on the way thus “I shall come to know the
deathless state, or the Dhamma of the Four (Noble)
Truths, not known,”[1] and because it carries the
meaning of faculty (rulership). The second of them is
called the final-knowledge faculty because of knowing
finally, and because it carries the meaning of faculty.
The third is called the final-knower faculty because it
arises in one who has destroyed cankers, who
possesses final knowledge, and whose task of getting
to know the four truths is finished, and because it
carries the meaning of faculty.
4. But what is this meaning of faculty (rulership
—indriyattha) that they have? (a) The meaning of being
the mark of a ruler (inda) is the meaning of faculty
(rulership). (b) The meaning of being taught by a ruler
is the meaning of faculty, (c) The meaning of being
seen by a ruler is the meaning of faculty, (d) The
meaning of having been prepared by a ruler is the
meaning of faculty, (e) The meaning of having been
fostered by a ruler is the meaning of faculty.[2] And all
that applies here in one instance or another.
5. The Blessed One, Fully Enlightened, is a ruler (inda)

1338
because of supreme lordship. And so is kamma,
profitable and unprofitable; for no one has lordship
over the kinds of kamma. So here, the faculties
(indriya), [492] which are created by kamma, are the
mark of profitable and unprofitable kamma. And since
they are prepared by it, they are faculties in the sense of
(a) being the mark of a ruler and (d) in the sense of
having been prepared by a ruler. But since they have also
been correctly made evident and disclosed by the
Blessed One, they are all faculties (b) in the sense of
being taught by a ruler and (c) in the sense of being seen
by a ruler. And since some of them were cultivated by
the Blessed One, Ruler of Sages, in his cultivation of
domain and some in his cultivation of development,
they are faculties (e) in the sense of being fostered by a
ruler.
6. Furthermore, they are faculties (rulership) in the
sense of lordship called predominance. For
predominance of the eye, etc., is implied in the
occurrence of eye-consciousness, etc., because of the
(consciousness’) keenness when that [faculty] is keen
and slowness when it is slow.
This, firstly, is the exposition as to meaning.
7. 2. As to character and so on: the meaning is that the
exposition of the eye and so on should be known
according to characteristic, function, manifestation,

1339
proximate cause, and so on. But these characteristics,
etc., of theirs are given above in the Description of the
Aggregates (XIV.37ff.). For the four beginning with the
understanding faculty are simply non-delusion as to
meaning. The rest are each given there as such.
8. 3. As to order: this too is only order of teaching (see
XIV.211). Herein, the noble plane [which is the stage of
stream-entry, etc.] is attained through the full-
understanding of internal states, and so the eye faculty
and the rest included in the selfhood are taught first.
Then the femininity faculty and masculinity faculty, to
show on what account that selfhood is called
“woman” or “man.” Next, the life faculty, to make it
known that although that selfhood is twofold, still its
existence is bound up with the life faculty. Next the
[bodily-] pleasure faculty, etc., to make it known that
there is no remission of these feelings as long as that
[selfhood] continues, and that all feeling is [ultimately]
suffering. Next, the faith faculty, etc., to show the way,
since these things are to be developed in order to
make that [suffering] cease. Next, the “I-shall-come-to-
know-the-unknown” faculty to show that the way is
not sterile, since it is through this way that this state is
first manifested in oneself. Next, the final-knowledge
faculty, because it is the fruit of the last-mentioned
faculty and so must be developed after it. Next, the
final-knower faculty, the supreme reward, is taught

1340
last to make it known that it is attained by
development, and that when it is attained there is
nothing more to be done. This is the order here. [493]
9. 4. As to divided and undivided: here there is only
division of the life faculty; for that is twofold as the
material-life faculty and the immaterial-life faculty.
There is no division of the others.
This is how the exposition should be known here as
to divided and undivided.
10. 5. As to function: what is the faculties’ function?
Firstly, because of the words “The eye base is a
condition, as faculty condition, for the eye-
consciousness element and for the states associated
therewith” (Paṭṭh 1.5) the eye faculty’s function is to
cause by its own keenness, slowness, etc., the
occurrence of eye-consciousness and associated states,
etc., in a mode parallel to its own,[3] which is called
their keenness, slowness, etc., this function being
accomplishable through the state of faculty condition.
So too in the case of the ear, nose, tongue, and body.
But the function of the mind faculty is to make
conascent states subject to its own mastery. That of the
life faculty is to maintain conascent states. That of the
femininity faculty and the masculinity faculty is to
allot the modes of the mark, sign, work and ways of
women and men. That of the faculties of pleasure,

1341
pain, joy, and grief is to govern conascent states and
impart their own particular mode of grossness to those
states. That of the equanimity faculty is to impart to
them the mode of quiet, superiority and neutrality.
That of the faculties of faith, etc., is to overcome
opposition and to impart to associated states the mode
of confidence and so on. That of the “I-shall-come-to-
know-the-unknown” faculty is both to abandon three
fetters and to confront associated states with the
abandonment of them. That of the final-knowledge
faculty is both to attenuate and abandon respectively
lust, ill will, etc., and to subject conascent states to its
own mastery. That of the final-knower faculty is both
to abandon endeavour in all functions and to
condition associated states by confronting them with
the Deathless.
This is how the exposition should be known here as
to function.
11. 6. As to plane: the faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue,
body, femininity, masculinity, pleasure, pain, and
grief are of the sense sphere only. The mind faculty,
life faculty, and equanimity faculty, and the faculties
of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and
understanding are included in the four planes. The joy
faculty is included in three planes, namely, sense
sphere, fine-material sphere, and supramundane. The
last three are supramundane only. This is how the

1342
exposition should be known here as to plane.
The monk who knows the urgent need
To keep the faculties restrained
By fully understanding them
Will make an end of suffering.
12. This is the section of the detailed explanation
dealing with the faculties.

[B. Description of the Truths]

13. [494] The “truths” next to that (XIV.32) are the Four
Noble Truths; that is to say, the noble truth of
suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the
noble truth of the cessation of suffering, the noble
truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
14. Herein:
(1) As to class, and (2) derivation,
(3) Division by character, et cetera,
(4) As to meaning, (5) tracing out meaning,
And likewise (6) neither less nor more,
(7) As to order, (8) as to expounding
Birth and so on, (9) knowledge’s function,
(10) As to division of the content,
(11) As to a simile, and (12) tetrad,

1343
 (13) As to void, (14) singlefold and so on,
(15) Similar and dissimilar—
Thus should be known the exposition
By those who know the teaching’s order.
15. 1. Herein, as to class: the meanings of [the truths of]
suffering, etc., are analyzed as four in each case that
are “real, not unreal, not otherwise” (S V 435) and
must be penetrated by those penetrating suffering,
etc., according as it is said: “Suffering’s meaning of
oppressing, meaning of being formed, meaning of
burning, meaning of changing, these are suffering’s
four meanings of suffering, which are real, not unreal,
not otherwise. Origin’s meaning of accumulating,
meaning of source, meaning of bondage, meaning of
impeding … Cessation’s meaning of escape, meaning
of seclusion, meaning of being unformed, meaning of
deathlessness … The path’s meaning of outlet,
meaning of cause, meaning of seeing, meaning of
predominance, these are the path’s meanings of path,
which are real, not unreal, not otherwise” (Paṭis II 104;
cf. Paṭis I 19). Likewise, “Suffering’s meaning of
oppressing, meaning of being formed, meaning of
burning, meaning of change, are its meaning of
penetration to” (cf. Paṭis I 118), and so on. So suffering,
etc., should be understood according to the four
meanings analyzed in each case.
16. 2. As to derivation, 3. division by character, et cetera:

1344
here, however, firstly “as to derivation” [of the word
dukkha (suffering):] the word du (“bad”) is met with in
the sense of vile (kucchita); for they call a vile child a
du-putta (“bad child”). The word kham (“-ness”),
however is met with in the sense of empty (tuccha), for
they call empty space “kham.” And the first truth is
vile because it is the haunt of many dangers, and it is
empty because it is devoid of the lastingness, beauty,
pleasure, and self conceived by rash people. So it is
called dukkhaṃ (“badness” = suffering, pain), because
of vileness and emptiness. [495]
17. [Samudaya (origin):] the word sam (= prefix “con-”)
denotes connection, as in the words samāgama
(concourse, coming together), sameta (congregated,
gone together), and so on. The word u denotes rising
up, as in the words uppanna (arisen, uprisen), udita
(ascended, gone up), and so on. The word aya [4]
denotes a reason (kāraṇa). And this second truth is the
reason for the arising of suffering when combined
with the remaining conditions. So it is called dukkha-
samudaya (the origin of suffering) because it is the
reason in combination for the arising of suffering.
18. [Nirodha (cessation):] the word ni denotes absence,
and the word rodha, a prison.[5] Now, the third truth is
void of all destinies [by rebirth] and so there is no
constraint (rodha) of suffering here reckoned as the

1345
prison of the round of rebirths; or when that cessation
has been arrived at, there is no more constraint of
suffering reckoned as the prison of the round of
rebirths. And being the opposite of that prison, it is
called dukkha-nirodha (cessation of suffering). Or
alternatively, it is called “cessation of suffering”
because it is a condition for the cessation of suffering
consisting in non-arising.
19. [Nirodhagāminī paṭipadā (way leading to cessation):]
because the fourth truth goes (leads) to the cessation of
suffering since it confronts that [cessation] as its object,
and being the way to attain cessation of suffering, it is
called dukkha-nirodha-gāminī paṭipadā, the way leading
to the cessation of suffering.
20. They are called Noble Truths because the Noble
Ones, the Buddhas, etc., penetrate them, according as
it is said: “Bhikkhus, there are these Four Noble
Truths. What four? … These, bhikkhus are the Four
Noble Truths” (S V 425). The Noble Ones penetrate
them, therefore they are called Noble Truths.
21. Besides, the Noble Truths are the Noble One’s
Truths, according as it is said: “Bhikkhus, in the world
with its deities, its Māras and its Brahmās, in this
generation with its ascetics and brahmans, with its
princes and men, the Perfect One is the Noble One.
That is why they are called Noble Truths” (S V 435).

1346
Or alternatively, they are called Noble Truths because
of the nobleness implied by their discovery, according
as it is said: “Bhikkhus, it is owing to the correct
discovery of these Four Noble Truths that the Perfect
One is called accomplished, fully enlightened” (S V
433).
22. Besides, the Noble Truths are the Truths that are
Noble. To be noble is to be not unreal; the meaning is,
not deceptive, according as it is said: “Bhikkhus, these
Four Noble Truths are real, not unreal, not otherwise
that is why they are called Noble Truths” (S V 435).
This is how the exposition should be known here as
to derivation.
23. 3. How as to division by character, et cetera? The truth
of suffering has the characteristic of afflicting. [496] Its
function is to burn. It is manifested as occurrence (as
the course of an existence). The truth of origin has the
characteristic of producing. Its function is to prevent
interruption. It is manifested as impediment. The truth
of cessation has the characteristic of peace. Its function
is not to die. It is manifested as the signless.[6] The
truth of the path has the characteristic of an outlet. Its
function is to abandon defilements. It is manifested as
emergence. They have, moreover, the respective
characteristics of occurrence, making occur, non-
occurrence, and making not occur, and likewise the

1347
characteristics of the formed, craving, the unformed,
and seeing. This is how the exposition should be
understood here as to characteristic, et cetera.
24. 4. As to meaning, 5. tracing out the meaning: as to
“meaning” firstly, what is the “meaning of truth”
(saccattha)? It is that which, for those who examine it
with the eye of understanding, is not misleading like
an illusion, deceptive like a mirage, or undiscoverable
like the self of the sectarians, but is rather the domain
of noble knowledge as the real unmisleading actual
state with its aspects of affliction, production, quiet,
and outlet. It is this real unmisleading actualness that
should be understood as the “meaning of truth” just as
[heat is] the characteristic of fire, and just as [it is] in
the nature of the world [that things are subject to birth,
ageing and death], according as it is said, “Bhikkhus,
this suffering is real, not unreal, not otherwise” (S V
430), and so on, in detail.
25. Furthermore:
There is no pain but is affliction.
And naught that is not pain afflicts:
This certainty that it afflicts
Is what is reckoned here as truth.
No other source of pain than craving.
Nor aught that source provides but pain:
This certainty in causing pain

1348
 Is why it is considered truth.
There is no peace except Nibbāna,
Nibbāna cannot but be peace:
This certainty that it is peace
Is what is reckoned here as truth.
No outlet other than the path.
Nor fails the path to be the outlet:
Its status as the very outlet
Has made it recognized as truth.
This real infallibility.
Which is their true essential core.
Is what the wise declare to be
Truth’s meaning common to all four.
This is how the exposition should be understood as
to meaning.
26. 5. How as to tracing out the meaning? This word
“truth” (sacca) is met with in various meanings. In
such passages as “Let him speak truth and not be
angry” (Dhp 224) it is verbal truth. In such passages as
“Ascetics and brahmans base themselves on truth” (?)
it is the truth of abstinence [from lying]. In such
passages as [497] “Why do they declare diverse truths,
the clever talkers that hold forth?” (Sn 885) it is truth
as views. And in such passages as “Truth is one, there
is no second” (Sn 884) it is, as truth in the ultimate
sense, both Nibbāna and the path. In such passages as

1349
“Of the four truths how many are profitable?” (Vibh
112; Paṭis II 108) it is noble truth. And here too it is
proper as noble truth.
This is how the exposition should be understood as
to tracing out the meaning.
27. 6. As to neither less nor more: but why are exactly
four noble truths stated, neither less nor more?
Because no other exists and because none can be
eliminated. For there is none extra to them, nor can
any one of them be eliminated, according as it is said:
“Bhikkhus, that an ascetic or brahman here should
come and say: ’This is not the truth of suffering, the
truth of suffering is another; I shall set aside this truth
of suffering and make known another truth of
suffering’—that is not possible” (?) and so on, and
according as it is said: “Bhikkhus, that any ascetic or
brahman should say thus: ’This is not the first noble
truth of suffering that is taught by the ascetic Gotama;
rejecting this first noble truth of suffering, I shall make
known another first noble truth of suffering’—that is
not possible” (S V 428) and so on.
28. Furthermore, when announcing occurrence, [that
is, the process of existence,] the Blessed One
announced it with a cause, and he announced non-
occurrence as having a means thereto. So they are
stated as four at the most as occurrence and non-

1350
occurrence and the cause of each. Likewise, they are
stated as four since they have to be respectively fully
understood, abandoned, realized, and developed; and
also since they are the basis for craving, craving, the
cessation of craving, and the means to the cessation of
craving; and also since they are the reliance [depended
upon], the delight in the reliance, removal of the
reliance, and the means to the removal of the reliance.
This is how the exposition should be understood
here as to neither less nor more.
29. 7. As to order, this too is only order of teaching (see
XIV.211). The truth of suffering is given first since it is
easy to understand because of its grossness and
because it is common to all living beings. The truth of
origin is given next to show its cause. Then the truth of
cessation, to make it known that with the cessation of
the cause there is the cessation of the fruit. The truth of
the path comes last to show the means to achieve that.
[498]
30. Or alternatively, he announced the truth of
suffering first to instill a sense of urgency into living
beings caught up in the enjoyment of the pleasure of
becoming; and next to that, the truth of origin to make
it known that that [suffering] neither comes about of
itself as something not made nor is it due to creation
by an Overlord, etc. (see §85), but that on the contrary

1351
it is due to this [cause]; after that, cessation, to instill
comfort by showing the escape to those who seek the
escape from suffering with a sense of urgency because
overwhelmed by suffering with its cause. And after
that, the path that leads to cessation, to enable them to
attain cessation. This is how the exposition should be
understood here as to order.
31. 8. As to expounding birth and so on: the exposition
should be understood here in accordance with the
expositions of the things beginning with birth given
by the Blessed One when describing the Four Noble
Truths, that is to say, (i) the twelve things in the
description of suffering: “Birth is suffering, ageing is
suffering,[7] death is suffering, sorrow, lamentation,
pain, grief, and despair are suffering, association with
the unloved is suffering, separation from the loved is
suffering, not to get what one wants is suffering, in
short, the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging are
suffering” (Vibh 99); and (ii) the threefold craving in
the description of origin: “That craving which
produces further becoming, is accompanied by delight
and greed, delighting in this and that, that is to say,
craving for sense desires, craving for becoming,
craving for non-becoming” (Vibh 101); and (iii)
Nibbāna, which has one meaning only, in the
description of cessation: “That which is the
remainderless fading away and cessation of that same

1352
craving, giving it up, relinquishing it, letting it go, not
relying on it” (Vibh 103); and (iv) the eight things in
the description of the path: “What is the noble truth of
the way leading to the cessation of suffering? It is this
Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say, right view, right
thinking, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration”
(Vibh 104).

[The Truth of Suffering]

[(i) Birth]

32. Now, this word birth (jāti) has many meanings. For
in the passage “[He recollects … ] one birth (jāti), two
births” (D I 81) it is becoming. In the passage,
“Visākhā, there is a kind (jāti) of ascetics called
Nigaṇṭhas (Jains)” (A I 206) it is a monastic order. In
the passage, “Birth (jāti) is included in two
aggregates” (Dhātuk 15) it is the characteristic of
whatever is formed. In the passage, “His birth is due
to the first consciousness arisen, the first cognition
manifested, in the mother’s womb” (Vin I 93) it is
rebirth-linking. [499] In the passage “As soon as he
was born (sampatijāta), Ānanda, the Bodhisatta …” (M
III 123) it is parturition. In the passage “One who is
not rejected and despised on account of birth” (A III

1353
152) it is clan. In the passage “Sister, since I was born
with the noble birth” (M II 103) it is the Noble One’s
virtue.
33. Here it should be regarded as the aggregates that
occur from the time of rebirth-linking up to the exit
from the mother’s womb in the case of the womb-
born, and as only the aggregates of rebirth-linking in
the case of the rest. But this is only an indirect
treatment. In the direct sense, however, it is the first
manifestation of any aggregates that are manifested in
living beings when they are born anywhere that is
called “birth.”
34. Its characteristic is the first genesis in any [sphere
of] becoming. Its function is to consign [to a sphere of
becoming]. It is manifested as an emerging here from
a past becoming; or it is manifested as the variedness
of suffering.
But why is it suffering? Because it is the basis for
many kinds of suffering.[8] For there are many kinds
of suffering, that is to say, intrinsic suffering (dukkha-
dukkha),[9] suffering in change (vipariṇāma-dukkha), and
suffering due to formations (saṅkhāra-dukkha); and
then concealed suffering, exposed suffering, indirect
suffering, and direct suffering.
35. Herein, bodily and mental, painful feeling are
called intrinsic suffering because of their individual

1354
essence, their name, and their painfulness. [Bodily and
mental] pleasant feeling are called suffering in change
because they are a cause for the arising of pain when
they change (M I 303). Equanimous feeling and the
remaining formations of the three planes are called
suffering due to formations because they are oppressed
by rise and fall. Such bodily and mental affliction as
earache, toothache, fever born of lust, fever born of
hate, etc., is called concealed suffering because it can
only be known by questioning and because the
infliction is not openly evident; it is also called
“unevident suffering.” The affliction produced by the
thirty-two tortures,[10] etc., is called exposed suffering
because it can be known without questioning and
because the infliction is openly evident; it is also called
“evident suffering.” Except intrinsic suffering, all
given in the exposition of the truth of suffering [in the
Vibhaṅga] (Vibh 99) beginning with birth are also
called indirect suffering because they are the basis for
one kind of suffering or another. But intrinsic
suffering is called direct suffering.
36. Herein, this birth is suffering because it is the basis
for the suffering in the states of loss as made evident
by the Blessed One by means of a simile in the
Bālapaṇḍita Sutta (M III 165f.), etc., and for the
suffering that arises in the happy destinies in the
human world and is classed as “rooted in the descent

1355
into the womb,” and so on. [500]
37. Here the suffering classed as “rooted in the descent
into the womb,” and so on, is this: When this being is
born in the mother’s womb, he is not born inside a
blue or red or white lotus, etc., but on the contrary,
like a worm in rotting fish, rotting dough, cesspools,
etc., he is born in the belly in a position that is below
the receptacle for undigested food (stomach), above
the receptacle for digested food (rectum), between the
belly-lining and the backbone, which is very cramped,
quite dark, pervaded by very fetid draughts redolent
of various smells of ordure, and exception-ally
loathsome.[11] And on being reborn there, for ten
months he undergoes excessive suffering, being
cooked like a pudding in a bag by the heat produced
in the mother’s womb, and steamed like a dumpling
of dough, with no bending, stretching, and so on. So
this, firstly, is the suffering rooted in the descent into
the womb.
38. When the mother suddenly stumbles or moves or
sits down or gets up or turns round, the extreme
suffering he undergoes by being dragged back and
forth and jolted up and down, like a kid fallen into the
hands of a drunkard, or like a snake’s young fallen
into the hands of a snake-charmer; and also the
searing pain that he undergoes, as though he had
reappeared in the cold hells, when his mother drinks

1356
cold water, and as though deluged by a rain of embers
when she swallows hot rice gruel, rice, etc., and as
though undergoing the torture of the “lye-pickling”
(see M I 87), when she swallows anything salty or
acidic, etc.—this is the suffering rooted in gestation.
39. When the mother has an abortion, the pain that
arises in him through the cutting and rending in the
place where the pain arises that is not fit to be seen
even by friends and intimates and companions—this
is the suffering rooted in abortion.
40. The pain that arises in him when the mother gives
birth, through his being turned upside-down by the
kamma-produced winds [forces] and flung into that
most fearful passage from the womb, like an infernal
chasm, and lugged out through the extremely narrow
mouth of the womb, like an elephant through a
keyhole, like a denizen of hell being pounded to pulp
by colliding rocks—this is the suffering rooted in
parturition.
41. The pain that arises in him after he is born, and his
body, which is as delicate as a tender wound, is taken
in the hands, bathed, washed, rubbed with cloths, etc.,
and which pain is like being pricked with needle
points and gashed with razor blades, etc.—this is the
suffering rooted in venturing outside the mother’s
womb. [501]

1357
42. The pain that arises afterwards during the course
of existence in one who punishes himself, in one who
devotes himself to the practice of mortification and
austerity according to the vows of the naked ascetics,
in one who starves through anger, and in one who
hangs himself—this is the suffering rooted in self-
violence.
43. And that arising in one who undergoes flogging,
imprisonment, etc., at the hands of others is the
suffering rooted in others’ violence.
So this birth is the basis for all this suffering. Hence
this is said:
Now, were no being born in hell again
The pain unbearable of scorching fires
And all the rest would then no footing gain;
Therefore the Sage pronounced that birth is pain.
Many the sorts of pain that beasts endure
When they are flogged with whips and sticks and
goads,
Since birth among them does this pain procure,
Birth there is pain: the consequence is sure.
While ghosts know pain in great variety
Through hunger, thirst, wind, sun and what not
too,
None, unless born there, knows this misery;
So birth the Sage declares this pain to be.

1358
 In the world-interspace, where demons dwell
In searing cold and inspissated gloom,
Is pain requiring birth there for its spell;
So with the birth the pain ensues as well.
The horrible torment a being feels on coming out,
When he has spent long months shut up inside
the
mother’s womb—
A hellish tomb of excrement—would never come
about
Without rebirth: that birth is pain there is no room
for doubt.
But why elaborate? At any time or anywhere
Can there exist a painful state if birth do not
precede?
Indeed this Sage so great, when he expounded
pain,
took care
First to declare rebirth as pain, the condition
needed there.
This, firstly, is the exposition of birth. [502]

[(ii) Ageing]

44. Ageing is suffering: ageing is twofold; as a

1359
characteristic of whatever is formed, and in the case of
a continuity, as the oldness of aggregates included in a
single becoming, which oldness is known as
“brokenness” and so on (see M III 249). The latter is
intended here.
But this ageing has as its characteristic the maturing
(ripening) of aggregates. Its function is to lead on to
death. It is manifested as the vanishing of youth. It is
suffering because of the suffering due to formations
and because it is a basis for suffering.
45. Ageing is the basis for the bodily and mental
suffering that arises owing to many conditions such as
leadenness in all the limbs, decline and warping of the
faculties, vanishing of youth, undermining of strength,
loss of memory and intelligence, contempt on the part
of others, and so on.
Hence this is said:
With leadenness in every limb,
With every faculty declining,
With vanishing of youthfulness,
With memory and wit grown dim,
With strength now drained by undermining,
With growing unattractiveness
To wife and family and then
With dotage coming on, what pain

1360
 Alike of body and of mind
A mortal must expect to find!
Since ageing all of this will bring,
Ageing is well named suffering.
This is the exposition of ageing.

[(iii) Death]

46. Death is suffering: death too is twofold, as a

characteristic of the formed, with reference to which it
is said, “Ageing and death are included in the
aggregates” (Dhātuk 15), and as the severing of the
connection of the life faculty included in a single
becoming, with reference to which it is said, “So
mortals are in constant fear … that they will die” (Sn
576). The latter is intended here. Death with birth as its
condition, death by violence, death by natural causes,
death from exhaustion of the life span, death from
exhaustion of merit, are names for it.
47. It has the characteristic of a fall. Its function is to
disjoin. It is manifested as absence from the destiny [in
which there was the rebirth]. It should be understood
as suffering because it is a basis for suffering.
Hence this is said:

1361
 Without distinction as they die
Pain grips their minds impartially
When wicked men their foul deeds see
Or sign of new rebirth, may be.
Also when good men cannot bear
To part from all that they hold dear.
Then bodily pain severs sinews.
Joints and so on, and continues [503]
Torture unbearable, which racks
All those whose vitals death attacks
With grip that shall no more relax.
Death is the basis of such pain.
And this suffices to explain
Why death the name of pain should gain.
This is the exposition of death. [(iv) Sorrow]
48. As regards sorrow, etc., sorrow is a burning in the
mind in one affected by loss of relatives, and so on.
Although in meaning it is the same as grief,
nevertheless it has inner consuming as its
characteristic, its function is completely to consume
the mind. It is manifested as continual sorrowing. It is
suffering because it is intrinsic suffering and because it
is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
Sorrow is a poisoned dart
That penetrates a being’s heart;
Setting up a burning there

1362
 Like burning with a red-hot spear.
This state of mind brings future pain (see
XVII.273f.)
Such as disease, and then again
Ageing and death, so one may tell
Where for it is called pain as well.
This is the exposition of sorrow.

[(v) Lamentation]

49. Lamentation is verbal clamour on the part of one

affected by loss of relatives and so on. It has crying out
as its characteristic. Its function is proclaiming virtues
and vices. It is manifested as tumult. It is suffering
because it is a state of suffering due to formations and
because it is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
Now, when a man is struck by sorrows dart and
he laments
The pain he is already undergoing he augments
With pain born of dry throat and lips and palate,
hard to bear.
And so lamenting too is pain, the Buddha did
declare.
This is the exposition of lamentation.

1363
 [(vi) Pain]

50. Pain is bodily pain. Its characteristic is the

oppression of the body. Its function is to cause grief in
the foolish. It is manifested as bodily affliction. It is
suffering because it is intrinsic suffering, and because
it brings mental suffering. Hence this is said:
Pain distresses bodily.
Thereby distressing mentally again;
So acting fundamentally.
It therefore is especially called pain.
This is the exposition of pain. [504]

[(vii) Grief]

51. Grief is mental pain. Its characteristic is mental

oppression. Its function is to distress the mind. It is
manifested as mental affliction. It is suffering because
it is intrinsic suffering, and because it brings bodily
suffering. For those who are gripped by mental pain
tear their hair, weep, thump their breasts, and twist
and writhe; they throw themselves upside-down,[12]
use the knife, swallow poison, hang themselves with
ropes, walk into fires, and undergo many kinds of

1364
suffering. Hence this is said:
Though grief itself distresses mind.
It makes distress of bodily kind occur.
And that is why this mental grief
Is pain, as those that have no grief aver.
This is the exposition of grief.

[(viii) Despair]

52. Despair is the same as the humour produced by

excessive mental suffering in one affected by loss of
relatives, and so on. Some say that it is one of the
states included in the formations aggregate. Its
characteristic is burning of the mind. Its function is to
bemoan. It is manifested as dejection. It is suffering
because it is suffering due to formations, because of
the burning of the mind, and because of bodily
dejection. Hence this is said:
So great the pain despair imparts
It burns the heart as with fever’s flame;
The body’s function it impairs
And so despair borrows from pain its name.
This is the exposition of despair.

53. Sorrow is like the cooking [of oil, etc.][13] in a pot

1365
over a slow fire. Lamentation is like its boiling over
from the pot when cooking over a quick fire. Despair
is like what remains in the pot after it has boiled over
and is unable to do so any more, going on cooking in
the pot till it dries up.

[(ix) Association with the Unloved]

54. Association with the unloved is meeting with

disagreeable beings and formations (inanimate
things). Its characteristic is association with the
undesirable. Its function is to distress the mind. It is
manifested as a harmful state. It is suffering because it
is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
The mere sight of an unloved thing
Brings firstly mental suffering.
And suffering of body too
Through touching it can then ensue.
And we therefore may recognize.
Since meeting the unloved gives rise
To either kind of pain, that
He decided pain its name should be.
This is the exposition of association with the
unloved. [505]

1366
 [(x) Separation from the Loved]

55. Separation from the loved is to be parted from

agreeable beings and formations (inanimate things).
Its characteristic is dissociation from desirable objects.
Its function is to arouse sorrow. It is manifested as
loss. It is suffering because it is a basis for the suffering
of sorrow. Hence this is said:
The dart of sorrow wounds the heart
Of fools who from their wealth must part or kin.
Which roughly should be grounds enough
For counting the loved lost as suffering.
This is the exposition of separation from the loved.

[(xi) Not to Get What One Wants]

56. Not to get what one wants: the want itself of some
unobtainable object [expressed] in such passages as
“Oh, that we were not subject to birth!” (Vibh 101) is
called suffering since one does not get what is wanted.
Its characteristic is the wanting of an unobtainable
object. Its function is to seek that. It is manifested as
disappointment. It is suffering because it is a basis for
suffering. Hence this is said:

1367
 When beings here expect to gain
Something they build their hopes upon
Which fails them, they are woebegone
With disappointment’s numbing pain.
Thereof the cause is hope they wed
To something they cannot obtain:
“Not to get what one wants is pain”
The Conqueror has therefore said.
This is the exposition of not to get what one wants.

[(xii) The Five Aggregates]

57. In short the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging:

Now, birth and ageing and each thing
Told in describing suffering,
And those not mentioned, could not be
Were there no aggregates for clinging.
Wherefore these aggregates for clinging
Are taken in totality
As pain by Him, the Dhamma’s King,
Who taught the end of suffering.
58. For birth, etc., thus oppress the pentad of
aggregates [as objects] of clinging as fire does fuel, as
shooting does a target, as gadflies, flies, etc., do a

1368
cow’s body, as reapers do a field, as village raiders do
a Village; and they are generated in the aggregates as
weeds, creepers, etc., are on the ground, as flowers,
fruits and sprouts are on trees.
59. And the aggregates [as objects] of clinging have
birth as their initial suffering, ageing as their medial
suffering, and death as their final suffering. The
suffering due to burning in one who is the victim of
the pain that threatens death is sorrow. The suffering
consisting in crying out by one who is unable to bear
that is lamentation. Next, the suffering consisting in
affliction of the body due to the contact of undesirable
tangible data, in other words, disturbance of the
elements, is pain. [506] The suffering oppressing the
mind through resistance to that in ordinary people
oppressed by it, is grief. The suffering consisting in
brooding[14] in those dejected by the augmentation of
sorrow, etc., is despair. The suffering consisting in
frustration of wants in those whose hopes are
disappointed is not to get what one wants. So when their
various aspects are examined, the aggregates [as
objects] of clinging are themselves suffering.
60. It is impossible to tell it [all] without remainder,
showing each kind of suffering, even [by going on
doing so] for many eons, so the Blessed One said, “In
short the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging are
suffering” in order to show in short how all that

1369
suffering is present in any of the five aggregates [as
objects] of clinging in the same way that the taste of
the water in the whole ocean is to be found in a single
drop of its water.
This is the exposition of the aggregates [as objects]
of clinging. This, firstly, is the method for the
description of suffering.

[The Truth of the Origin of Suffering]

61. But in the description of the origin, the expression

yāyaṃ taṇhā (that craving which) = yā ayaṃ taṇhā. [As
regards the expression] produces further becoming: it is a
making become again, thus it is “becoming again”
(punabbhava); becoming again is its habit, thus it
“produces further becoming” (ponobbhavika). The
expression nandirāgasahagatā (accompanied by concern
and greed) = nandirāgena sahagatā; what is meant is
that it is identical in meaning with delight and greed.
Concerned with this and that: wherever personality is
generated there is concern with that. The expression
that is to say (seyyathidaṃ) is a particle; its meaning is
“which is that.” Craving for sense desires, craving for
becoming, craving for non-becoming will be explained in
the Description of Dependent Origination

1370
(XVII.233ff.). Although this is threefold, it should
nevertheless be understood as “the noble truth of the
origin of suffering,” taking it as one in the sense of its
generating the truth of suffering.

[The Truth of the Cessation of

Suffering]

62. In the description of the cessation of suffering it is

the cessation of the origin that is stated by the words
that which is … of that same craving, and so on. Why is
that? Because the cessation of suffering comes about
with the cessation of its origin. For it is with the
cessation of its origin that suffering ceases, not
otherwise. Hence it is said: [507]
“Just as a tree cut down grows up again
While yet its root remains unharmed and sound,
So with the tendency to crave intact
This suffering is ever reproduced” (Dhp 338).
63. So it is because suffering ceases only through the
cessation of its origin that, when teaching the cessation
of suffering, the Blessed One therefore taught the
cessation of the origin. For the Perfect Ones behave
like lions.[15] When they make suffering cease and
when they teach the cessation of suffering, they deal

1371
with the cause, not the fruit. But the sectarians behave
like dogs. When they make suffering cease and when
they teach the cessation of suffering, by teaching
devotion to self-mortification, etc., they deal with the
fruit, not the cause. This, in the first place, is how the
motive for teaching the cessation of suffering by
means of the cessation of its origin should be
understood.
64. This is the meaning. Of that same craving: of that
craving which, it was said, “produces further
becoming,” and which was classed as “craving for
sense desires” and so on. It is the path that is called
fading away; for “With the fading away [of greed] he is
liberated” (M I 139) is said. Fading away and cessation is
cessation through fading away. Remainderless fading
away and cessation is cessation through fading away
that is remainderless because of eradication of
inherent tendencies. Or alternatively, it is abandoning
that is called fading away; and so the construction here
can be regarded as “remainderless fading away,
remainderless cessation.”
65. But as to meaning, all of them are synonyms for
Nibbāna. For in the ultimate sense it is Nibbāna that is
called “the noble truth of the cessation of suffering.”
But because craving fades away and ceases on coming
to that,[16] it is therefore called “fading away” and
“cessation.” And because there comes to be the giving

1372
up, etc., of that [craving] on coming to that [Nibbāna],
and since there is not even one kind of reliance here
[to be depended upon] from among the reliances
consisting in the cords of sense desires, etc., it is
therefore called giving it up, relinquishing it, letting it go,
not relying on it.
66. It has peace as its characteristic. Its function is not
to die; or its function is to comfort. It is manifested as
the signless; or it is manifested as non-diversification.
[17]

[Discussion on Nibbāna]

67. [Question 1] Is Nibbāna non-existent because it is

unapprehendable, like the hare’s horn?
[Answer] That is not so, because it is apprehendable
by the [right] means. For it is apprehendable [by some,
namely, the nobles ones] by the [right] means, in other
words, by the way that is appropriate to it, [the way of
virtue, concentration, and understanding]; it is like the
supramundane consciousness of others, [which is
apprehendable only by certain of the Noble Ones] by
means of knowledge of penetration of others’ minds.
Therefore it should not be said that it is non-existent
because unapprehendable; for it should not be said

1373
that what the foolish ordinary man does not
apprehend is unapprehendable.
68. Again, it should not be said that Nibbāna does not
exist. Why not? Because it then follows that the way
would be futile. [508] For if Nibbāna were non-
existent, then it would follow that the right way,
which includes the three aggregates beginning with
virtue and is headed by right understanding, would
be futile. And it is not futile because it does reach
Nibbāna.
[Q. 2] But futility of the way does not follow because
what is reached is absence, [that is, absence of the five
aggregates consequent upon the cutting off of the
defilements].
[A.] That is not so. Because, though there is absence of
past and future [aggregates], there is nevertheless no
reaching of Nibbāna [simply because of that].
[Q. 3] Then is the absence of present [aggregates] as
well Nibbāna?
[A.] That is not so. Because their absence is an
impossibility, since if they are absent their non-
presence follows. [Besides, if Nibbāna were absence of
present aggregates too,] that would entail the fault of
excluding the arising of the Nibbāna element with
result of past clinging left, at the path moment, which
has present aggregates as its support.

1374
[Q. 4] Then will there be no fault if it is non-presence
of defilements [that is Nibbāna]?
[A.] That is not so. Because it would then follow that
the noble path was meaningless. For if it were so, then,
since defilements [can be] non-existent also before the
moment of the noble path, it follows that the noble
path would be meaningless. Consequently that is no
reason; [it is unreasonable to say that Nibbāna is
unapprehendable, that it is non-existence, and so on].
69. [Q. 5] But is not Nibbāna destruction, because of
the passage beginning, “That, friend, which is the
destruction of greed … [of hate … of delusion … is
Nibbāna]?” (S IV 251).
[A.] That is not so, because it would follow that
Arahantship also was mere destruction. For that too is
described in the [same] way beginning, “That, friend,
which is the destruction of greed … of hate … of
delusion … is Arahantship]” (S IV 252).
And what is more, the fallacy then follows that
Nibbāna would be temporary, etc.; for if it were so, it
would follow that Nibbāna would be temporary, have
the characteristic of being formed, and be obtainable
regardless of right effort; and precisely because of its
having formed characteristics it would be included in
the formed, and it would be burning with the fires of
greed, etc., and because of its burning it would follow

1375
that it was suffering.
[Q. 6] Is there no fallacy if Nibbāna is that kind of
destruction subsequent to which there is no more
occurrence?
[A.] That is not so. Because there is no such kind of
destruction. And even if there were, the aforesaid
fallacies would not be avoided.
Also because it would follow that the noble path
was Nibbāna. For the noble path causes the
destruction of defects, and that is why it is called
“destruction”; and subsequent to that there is no more
occurrence of the defects.
70. But it is because the kind of destruction called
“cessation consisting in non-arising,” [that is,
Nibbāna,] serves figuratively speaking as decisive-
support [for the path] that [Nibbāna] is called
“destruction” as a metaphor for it.
[Q. 7] Why is it not stated in its own form?
[A.] Because of its extreme subtlety. And its extreme
subtlety is established because it inclined the Blessed
One to inaction, [that is, to not teaching the Dhamma
(see M I 186)] and because a Noble One’s eye is
needed to see it (see M I 510).
71. It is not shared by all because it can only be
reached by one who is possessed of the path. And it is

1376
uncreated because it has no first beginning.
[Q. 8] Since it is, when the path is, then it is not
uncreated.
[A.] That is not so, because it is not arousable by the
path; it is only reachable, not arousable, by the path;
that is why it is uncreated. It is because it is uncreated
that it is free from ageing and death. It is because of
the absence of its creation and of its ageing and death
that it is permanent. [509]
72. [Q. 9] Then it follows that Nibbāna, too, has the
kind of permanence [claimed] of the atom and so on.
[A.] That is not so. Because of the absence of any cause
[that brings about its arising].
[Q. 10] Because Nibbāna has permanence, then, these
[that is, the atom, etc.] are permanent as well.
[A.] That is not so. Because [in that proposition] the
characteristic of [logical] cause does not arise. [In other
words, to say that Nibbāna is permanent is not to
assert a reason why the atom, etc., should be
permanent]
[Q. 11] Then they are permanent because of the
absence of their arising, as Nibbāna is.
[A.] That is not so. Because the atom and so on have
not been established as facts.

1377
73. The aforesaid logical reasoning proves that only
this [that is, Nibbāna] is permanent [precisely because
it is uncreated]; and it is immaterial because it
transcends the individual essence of matter.
The Buddhas’ goal is one and has no plurality. But
this [single goal, Nibbāna,] is firstly called with result of
past clinging left since it is made known together with
the [aggregates resulting from past] clinging still
remaining [during the Arahant’s life], being thus
made known in terms of the stilling of defilement and
the remaining [result of past] clinging that are present
in one who has reached it by means of development.
But [secondly, it is called without result of past clinging
left] since after the last consciousness of the Arahant,
who has abandoned arousing [future aggregates] and
so prevented kamma from giving result in a future
[existence], there is no further arising of aggregates of
existence, and those already arisen have disappeared.
So the [result of past] clinging that remained is non-
existent; and it is in terms of this non-existence, in the
sense that “there is no [result of past] clinging here”
that that [same goal is called] without result of past
clinging left (see It 38).
74. Because it can be arrived at by distinction of
knowledge that succeeds through untiring
perseverance, and because it is the word of the
Omniscient One, Nibbāna is not non-existent as

1378
regards individual essence in the ultimate sense; for
this is said: “Bhikkhus, there is an unborn, an
unbecome, an unmade, an unformed” (It 37; Ud 80).
[18]

This is the section of the definition dealing with the

description of the cessation of suffering.

[The Truth of the Way]

75. In the description of the way leading to the cessation

of suffering eight things are given. Though they have,
of course, already been explained as to meaning in the
Description of the Aggregates, still we shall deal with
them here in order to remain aware of the difference
between them when they occur in a single moment [on
the occasion of the path].
76. Briefly (see XXII.31 for details), when a meditator is
progressing towards the penetration of the four truths,
his eye of understanding with Nibbāna as its object
eliminates the inherent tendency to ignorance, and
that is right view. It has right seeing as its characteristic.
Its function is to reveal elements. It is manifested as
the abolition of the darkness of ignorance.
77. When he possesses such view, his directing of the
mind on to Nibbāna, which [directing] is associated

1379
with that [right view], abolishes wrong thinking, and
that is right thinking. Its characteristic is right directing
of the mind on to [its object]. Its function is to bring
about absorption [of the path consciousness in
Nibbāna as object]. It is manifested as the abandoning
of wrong thinking.
78. And when he sees and thinks thus, his abstinence
from wrong speech, which abstinence is associated
with that [right view], abolishes bad verbal conduct,
[510] and that is called right speech. It has the
characteristic of embracing.[19] Its function is to
abstain. It is manifested as the abandoning of wrong
speech.
79. When he abstains thus, his abstinence from killing
living things, which abstinence is associated with that
[right view], cuts off wrong action, and that is called
right action. It has the characteristic of originating.[20]
Its function is to abstain. It is manifested as the
abandoning of wrong action.
80. When his right speech and right action are
purified, his abstinence from wrong livelihood, which
abstinence is associated with that, [right view] cuts off
scheming, etc., and that is called right livelihood. It has
the characteristic of cleansing.[21] Its function is to
bring about the occurrence of a proper livelihood. It is
manifested as the abandoning of wrong livelihood.

1380
81. When he is established on that plane of virtue
called right speech, right action, and right livelihood,
his energy, which is in conformity and associated with
that [right view], cuts off idleness, and that is called
right effort. It has the characteristic of exerting. Its
function is the non-arousing of unprofitable things,
and so on. It is manifested as the abandoning of wrong
effort.
82. When he exerts himself thus, the non-forgetfulness
in his mind, which is associated with that [right view],
shakes off wrong mindfulness, and that is called right
mindfulness. It has the characteristic of establishing.[22]
Its function is not to forget. It is manifested as the
abandoning of wrong mindfulness.
83. When his mind is thus guarded by supreme
mindfulness, the unification of mind, which is
associated with that [right view], abolishes wrong
concentration, and that is called right concentration. It
has the characteristic of non-distraction. Its function is
to concentrate. It is manifested as the abandoning of
wrong concentration.
This is the method in the description of the way
leading to the cessation of suffering.
This is how the exposition should be understood
here as to defining birth and so on.

1381
 [General]

84. 9. As to knowledge’s function (see §14): the exposition

should be understood according to knowledge of the
truths. For knowledge of the truths is twofold, namely,
knowledge as idea and knowledge as penetration (cf.
S V 431f; also XXII.92ff.). Herein, knowledge as idea is
mundane and occurs through hearsay, etc., about
cessation and the path. Knowledge consisting in
penetration, which is supramundane, penetrates the
four truths as its function by making cessation its
object, according as it is said, “Bhikkhus, he who sees
suffering sees also the origin of suffering, sees also the
cessation of suffering, sees also the way leading to the
cessation of suffering” (S V 437), and it should be
repeated thus of all [four truths]. But its function will
be made clear in the purification by knowledge and
vision (XXII.92f.). [511]
85. When this knowledge is mundane, then, occurring
as the overcoming of obsessions, the knowledge of
suffering therein forestalls the [false] view of
individuality; the knowledge of origin forestalls the
annihilation view; the knowledge of cessation
forestalls the eternity view; the knowledge of the path
forestalls the moral-inefficacy-of-action view. Or
alternatively, the knowledge of suffering forestalls

1382
wrong theories of fruit, in other words, [seeing]
lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self in the
aggregates, which are devoid of lastingness, beauty,
pleasure, and self; and knowledge of origin forestalls
wrong theories of cause that occur as finding a reason
where there is none, such as “The world occurs owing
to an Overlord, a Basic Principle, Time, Nature
(Individual Essence),” etc.;[23] the knowledge of
cessation forestalls such wrong theories of cessation as
taking final release to be in the immaterial world, in a
World Apex (Shrine), etc.; and the path knowledge
forestalls wrong theories of means that occur by
taking to be the way of purification what is not the
way of purification and consists in devotion to
indulgence in the pleasures of sense desire and in self-
mortification. Hence this is said:
As long as a man is vague about the world.
About its origin, about its ceasing.
About the means that lead to its cessation.
So long he cannot recognize the truths.
This is how the exposition should be understood
here as to knowledge’s function.
86. 10. As to division of content: all states excepting
craving and states free from cankers are included in
the truth of suffering. The thirty-six modes of behaviour
of craving[24] are included in the truth of origin. The

1383
truth of cessation is unmixed. As regards the truth of the
path: the heading of right view includes the fourth road
to power consisting in inquiry, the understanding
faculty, the understanding power, and the
investigation-of-states enlightenment factor. The term
right thinking includes the three kinds of applied
thought beginning with that of renunciation (D III
215). The term right speech includes the four kinds of
good verbal conduct (A II 131). The term right action
includes the three kinds of good bodily conduct (cf. M
I 287). The heading right livelihood includes fewness of
wishes and contentment. Or all these [three] constitute
the virtue loved by Noble Ones, and the virtue loved
by Noble Ones has to be embraced by the hand of
faith; consequently the faith faculty, the faith power,
and the road to power consisting in zeal are included
because of the presence of these [three]. The term right
effort includes fourfold right endeavour, the energy
faculty, energy power, and energy enlightenment
factor. The term right mindfulness includes the fourfold
foundation of mindfulness, the mindfulness faculty,
the mindfulness power, and the mindfulness
enlightenment factor. The term right concentration
includes the three kinds of concentration beginning
with that accompanied by applied and sustained
thought (D III 219), consciousness concentration, the
concentration faculty, [512] the concentration power,

1384
and the enlightenment factors of happiness,
tranquillity, concentration, and equanimity.
This is how the exposition should be understood as
to division of content.
87. 11. As to simile: The truth of suffering should be
regarded as a burden, the truth of origin as the taking
up of the burden, the truth of cessation as the putting
down of the burden, the truth of the path as the means
to putting down the burden (see S III 26), The truth of
suffering is like a disease, the truth of origin is like the
cause of the disease, the truth of cessation is like the
cure of the disease, and the truth of the path is like the
medicine. Or the truth of suffering is like a famine, the
truth of origin is like a drought, the truth of cessation
is like plenty, and the truth of the path is like timely
rain.
Furthermore, these truths can be understood in this
way by applying these similes: enmity, the cause of
the enmity, the removal of the enmity, and the means
to remove the enmity; a poison tree, the tree’s root, the
cutting of the root, and the means to cut the root; fear,
the cause of fear, freedom from fear, and the means to
attain it; the hither shore, the great flood, the further
shore, and the effort to reach it.
This is how the exposition should be understood as
to simile.

1385
88. 12. As to tetrad: (a) there is suffering that is not
noble truth, (b) there is noble truth that is not
suffering, (c) there is what is both suffering and noble
truth, and (d) there is what is neither suffering nor
noble truth. So also with origin and the rest.
89. Herein, (a) though states associated with the path
and the fruits of asceticism are suffering since they are
suffering due to formations (see §35) because of the
words, “What is impermanent is painful” (S II 53; III
22), still they are not the noble truth [of suffering], (b)
Cessation is a noble truth but it is not suffering, (c) The
other two noble truths can be suffering because they
are impermanent, but they are not so in the real sense
of that for the full-understanding of which (see §28)
the life of purity is lived under the Blessed One. The
five aggregates [as objects] of clinging, except craving,
are in all aspects both suffering and noble truth. [513]
(d) The states associated with the path and the fruits of
asceticism are neither suffering in the real sense of that
for the full-understanding of which the life of purity is
lived under the Blessed One, nor are they noble truth.
Origin, etc., should also be construed in the
corresponding way. This is how the exposition should
be understood here as to tetrad.
90. 13. As to void, singlefold, and so on: firstly, as to void:
in the ultimate sense all the truths should be
understood as void because of the absence of (i) any

1386
experiencer, (ii) any doer, (iii) anyone who is
extinguished, and (iv) any goer. Hence this is said:
For there is suffering, but none who suffers;
Doing exists although there is no door.
Extinction is but no extinguished person;
Although there is a path, there is no goer.
Or alternatively:
So void of lastingness, and beauty, pleasure, self,
Is the first pair, and void of self the deathless
state,
And void of lastingness, of pleasure and of self
Is the path too; for such is voidness in these four.
91. Or three are void of cessation, and cessation is void
of the other three. Or the cause is void of the result,
because of the absence of suffering in the origin, and
of cessation in the path; the cause is not gravid with its
fruit like the Primordial Essence of those who assert
the existence of Primordial Essence. And the result is
void of the cause owing to the absence of inherence of
the origin in suffering and of the path in cessation; the
fruit of a cause does not have its cause inherent in it,
like the two atoms, etc., of those who assert inherence.
Hence this is said:
Here three are of cessation void;
Cessation void, too, of these three;
The cause of its effect is void,

1387
 Void also of its cause the effect must be.
This, in the first place, is how the exposition should
be understood as to void.[25] [514]
92. 14. As to singlefold and so on: and here all suffering is
of one kind as the state of occurrence. It is of two kinds
as mentality-materiality. It is of three kinds as divided
into rebirth-process becoming in the sense sphere,
fine-material sphere, and immaterial sphere. It is of
four kinds classed according to the four nutriments. It
is of five kinds classed according to the five aggregates
[as objects] of clinging.
93. Also origin is of one kind as making occur. It is of
two kinds as associated and not associated with [false]
view. It is of three kinds as craving for sense desires,
craving for becoming, and craving for non-becoming.
It is of four kinds as abandonable by the four paths. It
is of five kinds classed as delight in materiality, and so
on. It is of six kinds classed as the six groups of
craving.
94. Also cessation is of one kind being the unformed
element. But indirectly it is of two kinds as “with
result of past clinging left” and as “without result of
past clinging left”;[26] and of three kinds as the stilling
of the three kinds of becoming; and of four kinds as
approachable by the four paths; and of five kinds as
the subsiding of the five kinds of delight; and of six

1388
kinds classed according to the destruction of the six
groups of craving.
95. Also the path is of one kind as what should be
developed. It is of two kinds classed according to
serenity and insight, or classed according to seeing
and developing. It is of three kinds classed according
to the three aggregates; for the [path], being selective,
is included by the three aggregates, which are
comprehensive, as a city is by a kingdom, according as
it is said: “The three aggregates are not included in the
Noble Eightfold Path, friend Visākha, but the Noble
Eightfold Path is included by the three aggregates.
Any right speech, any right action, any right
livelihood: these are included in the virtue aggregate.
Any right effort, any right mindfulness, any right
concentration: these are included in the concentration
aggregate. Any right view, any right thinking: these
are included in the understanding aggregate” (M I
301).
96. For here the three beginning with right speech are
virtue and so they are included in the virtue
aggregate, being of the same kind. For although in the
text the description is given in the locative case as “in
the virtue aggregate,” still the meaning should be
understood according to the instrumental case [that is,
“by the virtue aggregate.”]

1389
 As to the three beginning with right effort,
concentration cannot of its own nature cause
absorption through unification on the object; but with
energy accomplishing its function of exerting and
mindfulness accomplishing its function of preventing
wobbling, it can do so.
97. Here is a simile: three friends, [thinking,] “We will
celebrate the festival,” entered a park. Then one saw a
champak tree in full blossom, but he could not reach
the flowers by raising his hand. The second bent down
for the first to climb on his back. But although
standing on the other’s back, he still could not pick
them because of his unsteadiness. [515] Then the third
offered his shoulder [as support]. So standing on the
back of the one and supporting himself on the other’s
shoulder, he picked as many flowers as he wanted and
after adorning himself, he went and enjoyed the
festival. And so it is with this.
98. For the three states beginning with right effort,
which are born together, are like the three friends who
enter the park together. The object is like the champak
tree in full blossom. Concentration, which cannot of its
own nature bring about absorption by unification on
the object, is like the man who could not pick the
flower by raising his arm. Effort is like the companion
who bent down, giving his back to mount upon.
Mindfulness is like the friend who stood by, giving his

1390
shoulder for support. Just as standing on the back of
the one and supporting himself on the other’s
shoulder he could pick as many flowers as he wanted,
so too, when energy accomplishes its function of
exerting and when mindfulness accomplishes its
function of preventing wobbling, with the help so
obtained concentration can bring about absorption by
unification on the object. So here in the concentration
aggregate it is only concentration that is included as of
the same kind. But effort and mindfulness are
included because of their action [in assisting].
99. Also as regards right view and right thinking,
understanding cannot of its own nature define an
object as impermanent, painful, not-self. But with
applied thought giving [assistance] by repeatedly
hitting [the object] it can.
100. How? Just as a money changer, having a coin
placed in his hand and being desirous of looking at it
on all sides equally, cannot turn it over with the power
of his eye only, but by turning it over with his fingers
he is able to look at it on all sides, similarly
understanding cannot of its own nature define an
object as impermanent and so on. But [assisted] by
applied thought with its characteristic of directing the
mind on to [the object] and its function of striking and
threshing, as it were, hitting and turning over, it can
take anything given and define it. So here in the

1391
understanding aggregate it is only right view that is
included as of the same kind. But right thinking is
included because of its action [in assisting].
101. So the path is included by the three aggregates.
Hence it was said that it is of three kinds classed
according to the three aggregates. And it is of four
kinds as the path of stream-entry and so on.
102. In addition, all the truths are of one kind because
they are not unreal, or because they must be directly
known. They are of two kinds as (i and ii) mundane
and (iii and iv) supramundane, or (i, ii, and iv) formed
and (iii) unformed. They are of three kind as (ii) to be
abandoned by seeing and development, (iii and iv) not
to be abandoned, and (i) neither to be abandoned nor
not to be abandoned. They are of four kinds classed
according to what has to be fully understood, and so
on (see §28).
This is how the exposition should be understood as
to singlefold and so on. [516]
103. 15. As to similar and dissimilar, all the truths are
similar to each other because they are not unreal, are
void of self, and are difficult to penetrate, according as
it is said: “What do you think, Ānanda, which is more
difficult to do, more difficult to perform, that a man
should shoot an arrow through a small keyhole from a
distance time after time without missing or that he

1392
should penetrate the tip of a hair split a hundred times
with the tip [of a similar hair]?”—“This is more
difficult to do, venerable sir, more difficult to perform,
that a man should penetrate the tip of a hair split a
hundred times with the tip [of a similar
hair].”—“They penetrate something more difficult to
penetrate than that, Ānanda, who penetrate correctly
thus, ’This is suffering’ … who penetrate correctly
thus, ’This is the way leading to the cessation of
suffering’” (S V 454). They are dissimilar when
defined according to their individual characteristics.
104. And the first two are similar since they are
profound because hard to grasp, since they are
mundane, and since they are subject to cankers. They
are dissimilar in being divided into fruit and cause,
and being respectively to be fully understood and to
be abandoned. And the last two are similar since they
are hard to grasp because profound, since they are
supramundane, and since they are free from cankers.
They are dissimilar in being divided into object and
what has an object, and in being respectively to be
realized and to be developed. And the first and third
are similar since they come under the heading of
result. They are dissimilar in being formed and
unformed. Also the second and fourth are similar
since they come under the heading of cause. They are
dissimilar in being respectively entirely unprofitable

1393
and entirely profitable. And the first and fourth are
similar in being formed. They are dissimilar in being
mundane and supramundane. Also the second and
the third are similar since they are the state of neither-
trainer-nor-non-trainer (see Vibh 114). They are
dissimilar in being respectively with object and
without object.
A man of vision can apply
By suchlike means his talent so
That he among the truths may know
The similar and contrary.

The sixteenth chapter called “The

Description of the Faculties and Truths”
in the Treatise on the Development of
Understanding in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1394
Notes for Chapter XVI

1. “In the noble path moment’s initial stage” (Vism-

mhṭ 519).
2. The words siṭṭha (prepared—sajjita, uppādita
Vism-mhṭ 520), and juṭṭha (fostered—sevita, Vism-
mhṭ 520) are not in PED. The Pali is: indaliṅgaṭṭho
indriyaṭṭho, indadesitaṭṭho indriyaṭṭho, indadiṭṭhaṭṭho
indriyaṭṭho, indasiṭṭhaṭṭho indriyaṭṭho, indajuṭṭhaṭṭho
indriyaṭṭho; cf. Pāṇini V 2,93: Indriyam indraliṅgam
indradṛṣṭam indrasṛṣṭam indrajuṣṭam indradattam iti
vā.
3. Anuvattāpana—“causing occurrence parallel to”:
not in PED; not in CPD.
4. Aya—“reason”: not in PED in this sense.
5. Cāraka—“prison”: not in PED in this sense; see
XIV.221.
6. “’Signless’: being secluded from the sign of the
five aggregates, it is taken as having no graspable
entity (aviggaha)” (Vism-mhṭ 525).
7. “Sickness is not included here (as at D II 305 for
example) because no particular person is meant,
and there are persons in whom sickness does not
arise at all, like the venerable Bakkula (MN 124);

1395
 otherwise it may be taken as already included by
suffering itself; for in the ultimate sense sickness
is bodily pain conditioned by disturbance of
elements” (Vism-mhṭ 527).
8. “The question, “But why is it suffering?” means
this: granted firstly that birth in hell is painful,
since hell is unalloyed pain, and that it is painful
in the other unhappy destinies since it is
originated by bad kamma; but how is it so in the
happy destinies since it is there originated by
kamma that leads to bliss? The answer, “Because it
is the basis for many kinds of suffering”, etc., shows
that this birth is not called suffering because of
having suffering as its individual essence—for
there is no rebirth-linking associated with painful
feeling—but rather because it is the foundation
for suffering” (Vism-mhṭ 528).
Something must be said here about the words
dukkha and sukha, the former being perhaps the
hardest after dhamma to render into English.
Dukkha is consistently rendered by either the
vaguer general term “suffering” or by the more
specific “[bodily] pain.” Different, but
overlapping, ideas are expressed. The latter needs
no explanation; but “suffering” must be stretched
to include the general insecurity of the whole of
experience, of the impermanent world. For this,

1396
 “uneasiness” would certainly be preferable (“ill”
is sometimes used), but multiplication of
renderings is to be avoided as much as possible;
local accuracy is only too often gained at the cost
of general disorientation in a work of this sort,
with these very general words capable of sharp
focusing. Again, sukha has been rendered as either
“bliss” or “pleasure,” though the latter does not at
all necessarily imply any hedonism construed
with sensual pleasure (kāma). Again, “ease” (in
the sense of relief) is in many ways preferable for
the first sense but has not been used for the
reason already given.
9. “Since also what does not have suffering as its
individual essence is yet called suffering
indirectly, consequently ’intrinsic suffering’
(dukkha-dukkha) is said particularizing what does
have suffering as its individual essence, just as in
the case of particularizing ’concrete matter’”
(rūpa-rūpa) (see 14.77) (Vism-mhṭ 528). For these
three kinds see S IV 259.
10. See MN 13 and 129, though it is not clear where
the figure “thirty-two” is taken from.
11. Pavana—“stench”: not in PED, in this sense. The
Sammohavinodanī (Be) reproducing this passage
inserts the word asuci (impurity), lacking in Ee

1397
 and Ae eds. of Vism. Kuṇapa is only given the
meaning of “corpse or carcass” in PED; but Vism-
mhṭ says, “various ordures (kuṇapa) such as bile,
phlegm, pus, blood, excrement, gorge and so on”
(Vism-mhṭ 529). “Whether the mother is [twenty],
[thirty], or [forty] years old, it is ’as exceptionally
loathsome’ as an excrement bucket that has not
been washed for a like number of years” (Vism-
mhṭ 529).
12. Ee and Ae read uddhapādaṃ (or uddhaṃ pādaṃ)
papatanti, but Vibh-a (Be) reads chinnapapātaṃ
papatanti. The former reading is favoured by
Vism-mhṭ.
13. Vibh-a (Be) adds telādīnaṃ; not in Ee and Ae texts.
14. Anutthunana—“brooding”: not in PED = anto
nijjhāyana (Vism-mhṭ 532).
15. “Just as a lion directs his strength against the man
who shot the arrow at him, not against the arrow,
so the Buddhas deal with the cause, not with the
fruit. But just as dogs, when struck with a clod,
snarl and bite the clod and do not attack the
striker, so the sectarians who want to make
suffering cease devote themselves to mutilating
the body, not to causing cessation of defilements”
(Vism-mhṭ 533).
16. “’On coming to that (taṃ āgamma)’: on reaching

1398
that Nibbāna by making it the object” (Vism-mhṭ
533). Āgamma (ger. of āgacchati—to come) is
commonly used as an adverb in the sense of
“owing to” (e.g. at M I 119). Here, however, it is
taken literally by the Commentaries and forms an
essential part of the ontological proof of the
positive existence of Nibbāna. The
Sammohavinodanī (commentary on the Āyatana-
Vibhaṅga Abhidhamma-bhājaniya) refutes the
suggestion of a disputant (vitaṇḍavādin) who
asserts that Nibbāna is “mere destruction”
(khayamatta). The arguments used are merely
supplementary to those in §69 here, and so are not
quoted. The conclusion of the argument is worth
noting, however, because of the emphasis on the
words “taṃ āgamma.” It is this: “It is on coming to
Nibbāna that greed, etc., are destroyed. It is the
same Nibbāna that is called ’destruction of greed,
destruction of hate, destruction of delusion.’
These are just three terms for Nibbāna—When
this was said, he asked: You say ’On coming to’
(āgamma); from where have you got this ’on
coming to’?It is got from the Suttas—Quote the
sutta—’Thus ignorance and craving, on coming to
that, are destroyed in that, are abolished in that,
nor does anything anywhere … (evaṃ avijjā ca
taṇhā ca taṃ āgamma tamhi khīṇaṃ tamhi bhaggaṃ

1399
 na ca kiñci kadāci …).’ When this was said, the
other was silent.” The quotation has not been
traced.
17. Nippapañca (non-diversification) is one of the
synonyms for Nibbāna. The word papañca is
commonly used in the Commentaries in the sense
(a) of an impediment or obstacle (Dhp-a I 18), and
(b) as a delay, or diffuseness (XVII.73). The sense
in which the word is used in the Suttas is that of
diversifying and is best exemplified at M I 111:
“Friends, due to eye and to a visible object eye-
consciousness arises. The coincidence of the three
is contact. With contact as condition there is
feeling. What a man feels that he perceives. What
he perceives he thinks about. What he thinks
about he diversifies (papañceti). Owing to his
having diversified, the evaluation of diversifying
perceptions besets a man with respect to past,
future, and present visible objects,” and so on.
This kind of papañca is explained by the
Commentaries as “due to craving, pride and
views” (M-a I 25; II 10; II 75, etc.), and it may be
taken as the diversifying action, the choosing and
rejecting, the approval and disapproval (M I 65),
exercised by craving, etc., on the bare material
supplied by perception and thought.
Consequently, though it is bound up with

1400
 craving, etc., a false emphasis is given in
rendering papañca in these contexts by
“obsession” as is done in PED. Nippapañca as a
term for Nibbāna emphasizes the absence of that.
18. This discussion falls under three headings:
Questions one to four refute the assertion that
Nibbāna is mythical and non-existent; questions
five to seven refute the assertion that Nibbāna is
“mere destruction;” (further argued in the
Sammohavinodanī—Vibh-a 51f.) the remaining
questions deal with the proof that only Nibbāna
(and not the atom, etc.,) is permanent because
uncreated.
The Paramatthamañjūsā (Vism-mhṭ) covers the
subject at great length and reinforces the
arguments given here with much syllogistic
reasoning. However, only the following
paragraph will be quoted here, which is
reproduced in the commentaries to Ud 80 and It
37. (The last sentence marked ** appears only in
the Udāna Commentary. Readings vary
considerably):
“Now, in the ultimate sense the existingness of
the Nibbāna-element has been demonstrated by
the Fully Enlightened One, compassionate for the
whole world, by many sutta passages such as

1401
’Dhammas without condition,’ ’Unformed
dhammas’ (see Dhs 2), ’Bhikkhus, there is that
base (sphere) where neither earth … ’ (Ud 80),
’This state is very hard to see, that is to say, the
stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of all
substance of becoming’ (D II 36; M I 167),
’Bhikkhus, I shall teach you the unformed and the
way leading to the unformed’ (S IV 362), and so
on, and in this sutta, ’Bhikkhus, there is an
unborn …” (It 87; Ud 80). So even if the wise trust
completely in the Dispensation and have no
doubts, though they may not yet have had direct
perception of it, nevertheless there are persons
who come to understand through another’s
guidance (reading paraneyya-buddhino); and the
intention here is that this logical reasoning under
the heading of deduction (niddhāraṇa) should be
for the purpose of removing their doubts.
“Just as it is owing to full-understanding
(reading yathā pariññeyyatāya) that from the sense
desires and from materiality, etc (reading
rūpādīnaṃ), that have something beyond them,
there is made known an escape [from them] that
is their opposite and whose individual essence is
devoid of them, so there must exist an escape that
is the opposite of, and whose individual essence is
devoid of, all formed dhammas, all of which have

1402
the aforesaid individual essence (reading evaṃ
taṃ-sabhāvānaṃ), and it is this escape that is the
unformed element.
“Besides, insight knowledge, which has
formed dhammas as its object, and also
conformity knowledge, abandon the defilements
with the abandoning consisting in substitution of
opposites, being unable to abandon them with the
abandoning consisting in cutting off. Likewise,
the kind of knowledge that has conventional truth
(sammuti-sacca) [that is, concepts] as its object, in
the first jhāna, etc., abandons the defilements only
with the abandoning consisting in suppression,
not by cutting them off. So, because the kind of
knowledge that has formed dhammas as its object
and that which has conventional truth as its object
are both incapable of abandoning defilements by
cutting them off, there must [consequently] exist
an object for the noble-path-knowledge that
effects their abandonment by cutting them off,
[which object must be] of a kind opposite to both.
And it is this that is the unformed element.
“Likewise, the words, ’Bhikkhus, there is an
unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an unformed’
and so on, which demonstrate the existingness of
Nibbāna in the ultimate sense, are not misleading
because they are spoken by the Blessed One, like

1403
the words, ’All formations are impermanent, all
formations are painful, all dhammas (states) are
not self’ (Dhp 277–79; A I 286, etc.).
“Likewise, in certain instances as regards
scope, the word ’Nibbāna’ has the correct ultimate
meaning for its scope [precisely] because of the
existence of its use as a mere metaphor—like the
word ’lion’ (see Ch. XV, note 12, for the word
lion). *Or alternatively, the unformed element
exists in the ultimate sense also, because its
individual essence is the opposite of, is free from,
that of the other kind [of element such as] the
earth element and feeling*” (Vism-mhṭ 534–40).
The Pali of the last two paragraphs is taken to
read thus:
“Tathā ’atthi bhikkhave ajātaṃ abhūtaṃ akataṃ
asaṅkhatan’ ti idaṃ nibbāna-padassa paramatthato
atthibhāva-jotakaṃ vacanaṃ aviparītatthaṃ bhagavatā
kathitattā; yaṃ hi bhagavatā bhāsitaṃ taṃ
aviparitatthaṃ yathā taṃ ’sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā sabbe
saṅkhārā dukkhā sabbe dhammā anattā’ ti.
“Tathā nibbāna-saddo katthaci (pi) visaye
yathābhūta-paramatthavisayo upacāravuttimatta-
sabhāvato (pi) seyyathā pi sīha-saddo. *Atha vā
atth’eva paramatthato asaṅkhata-dhātu itaraṃ
tabbiparītavimutta-sabhāvattā seyyathā pi pathavī-

1404
 dhātu vedanā vā ti.”*
The discussion is summarized and additional
arguments are added in the Abhidhammāvatāra.
The later Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha appears to have
shelved the problem. It may be noted that in the
whole of this discussion (particularly in the
answer to Q. 4) no mention is made of the
abandoning of the inherent tendencies (anusaya)
in the attainment of Nibbāna (see, e.g., MN 64; S II
66). For derivations of the word “Nibbāna” see
VIII.247 and note 72.
19. “Right speech has as its individual essence the
embracing of associated states through
affectionateness because it is the opposite of false
speech and the other kinds, which, being rough
owing to their respective functions of deceiving,
etc., do not embrace” (Vism-mhṭ 541).
20. “Bodily work (kāyika-kriyā) originates (sets up)
whatever has to be done. And that originating
(setting up) is itself a combining, so the abstinence
called right action is said to have originating as its
individual essence. Or it is the picking up of
associated states which is the causing of them to
be originated, on the part of bodily work, like the
picking up of a burden” (Vism-mhṭ 541).
21. “The purification of a living being or of associated

1405
 states is ’cleansing’” (Vism-mhṭ 541).
22. Viniddhunana—“shaking off”: not in PED, (but see
under dhunāti); cf. II.11.
23. “Those who hold that there is an Overlord
(Omnipotent Being) as reason say, ’An Overlord
(issara) makes the world occur, prepares it, halts,
it, disposes of it.’ Those who hold that there is a
Basic Principle as reason say, ’The world is
manifested from out of a Basic Principle (padhāna),
and it is reabsorbed in that again.’ Those who
hold the theory of Time say:
Time it is that creates beings,
Disposes of this generation;
Time watches over those who sleep;
To outstrip Time is hard indeed.
Those who hold the theory of Nature (sabhāva
—individual essence) say, ’The world appears
and disappears (sambhoti vibhoti ca) just because of
its nature (individual essence), like the sharp
nature (essence) of thorns, like the roundness of
wood-apples (kabiṭṭha = Feronia elephantum), like
the variedness of wild beasts, birds, snakes, and
so on.’ The word, ’etc.’ refers to those who preach
fatalism and say, ’The occurrence of the world is
due to atoms. All is due to causes effected in the
past. The world is determined, like drilled gems

1406
 threaded on an unbroken string. There is no
doing by a man’; and to those who preach chance:
It is by chance that they occur,
By chance as well that they do not;
Pleasure and pain are due to chance,
This generation [lives] by chance;
and to those who preach liberation by
chance.
“’Taking final release to be in the immaterial
world” like that of Rāmudaka, Āḷāra (see MN 26),
etc., or ’in a World Apex (World Shrine—
lokathūpika)’ like that of the Nigaṇṭhas (Jains). And
by the word, ’etc.’ are included also the preachers
of ’Nibbāna here and now’ as the self’s
establishment in its own self when it has become
dissociated from the qualities (guṇa) owing to the
non-occurrence of the Basic Principle (padhāna,
Skr. pradhāna—see the Sāṃkhya system), and
being in the same world as, in the presence of, or
in union with, Brahmā” (Vism-mhṭ 543).
24. “The ’thirty-six modes of behaviour of craving’ are
the three, craving for sense desires, for becoming,
and for non-becoming, in the cases of each one of
the twelve internal-external bases; or they are
those given in the Khuddakavatthu-Vibhaṅga
(Vibh 391 and 396), leaving out the three periods

1407
 of time, for with those they come to one hundred
and eight” (Vism-mhṭ 544). “’Thoughts of
renunciation, etc.’: in the mundane moment they
are the three separately, that is, non-greed, loving
kindness, and compassion; they are given as one
at the path moment, owing to the cutting off of
greed, ill will and cruelty” (Vism-mhṭ 544).
“’Consciousness concentration (citta-samādhi)’
is the road to power consisting of [purity of]
consciousness, they say” (Vism-mhṭ 544).
25. It may be noted in passing that the word anattā
(not-self) is never applied directly to Nibbāna in
the Suttas (and Abhidhamma), or in Bhante
Buddhaghosa’s commentaries (Cf. Ch. XXI, note
4, where Vism-mhṭ is quoted explaining the scope
of applicability of the “three characteristics”). The
argument introduced here that, since attā (self) is
a non-existent myth, therefore Nibbāna (the
unformed dhamma, the truth of cessation) is void
of self (atta-suñña) is taken up in the
Saddhammappakāsinī (Hewavitarne Ce, p. 464):
All dhammas whether grouped together
In three ways, two ways, or one way,
Are void: thus here in this dispensation
Do those who know voidness make their
comment.

1408
 “How so? Firstly, all mundane dhammas are
void of lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self
because they are destitute of lastingness, beauty,
pleasure, and self. Path and fruition dhammas are
void of lastingness, pleasure, and self, because
they are destitute of lastingness, pleasure, and
self. Nibbāna dhammas (pl.) are void of self
because of the non-existence (abhāva) of self.
[Secondly,] formed dhammas, both mundane and
supramundane, are all void of a [permanent]
living being (satta) because of the non-existence of
[such] a living being of any sort whatever. The
unformed dhamma (sing.) is void of formations
because of the non-existence (abhāva: or absence)
of those formations too. [Thirdly,] all dhammas
formed and unformed are void of self because of
the non-existence of any person (puggala) called
’self’ (attā).”
26. “It is clung-to (upādiyati) by the kinds of clinging
(upādāna), thus it is ’result-of-past-clinging’
(upādi): this is the pentad of aggregates [as objects]
of clinging. Taking Nibbāna, which is the escape
from that, as its stilling, its quieting, since there is
remainder of it up till the last consciousness [of
the Arahant], after which there is no remainder of
it, the Nibbāna element is thus conventionally
spoken of in two ways as ’with result of past

1409
clinging left’ (sa-upādi-sesa) and ’without result of
past clinging left’ (an-upādi-sesa)” (Vism-mhṭ 547).

1410
 Chapter XVII
The Soil of Understanding—
Conclusion:
Dependent Origination
(Paññā-bhūmi-niddesa)

[Section A. Definition of Dependent

Origination]

1. [517] The turn has now come for the exposition of

the dependent origination itself, and the dependently-
originated states comprised by the word “etc.,” since
these still remain out of the states called the “soil”
(bhūmi), of which it was said above, “The states
classed as aggregates, bases, elements, faculties,
truths, and dependent origination, etc., are the ’soil’”
(XIV.32).
2. Herein, firstly, it is the states beginning with
ignorance that should be understood as dependent
origination. For this is said by the Blessed One: “And
what is the dependent origination, bhikkhus? With
ignorance as condition there are [volitional]
formations; with formations as condition,
consciousness; with consciousness as condition,

1411
mentality-materiality; with mentality-materiality as
condition, the sixfold base; with the sixfold base as
condition, contact; with contact as condition, feeling;
with feeling as condition, craving; with craving as
condition, clinging; with clinging as condition,
becoming; with becoming as condition, birth; with
birth as condition there is ageing-and-death, and
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair; thus
there is the arising of this whole mass of suffering.
This is called the dependent origination, bhikkhus” (S
II 1).
3. Secondly, it is the states beginning with ageing-
and-death that should be understood as dependently-
originated states. For this is said by the Blessed One:
“And what are the dependently-originated states,
bhikkhus? Ageing-and-death is impermanent,
bhikkhus, formed, dependently originated, subject to
destruction, subject to fall, subject to fading away,
subject to cessation.[1] Birth is impermanent, bhikkhus,
… Becoming … Clinging … Craving … Feeling …
Contact … The sixfold base … Mentality-materiality
… Consciousness … Formations … Ignorance is
impermanent, bhikkhus, formed, dependently
originated, subject to destruction, subject to fall,
subject to fading away, subject to cessation. These are
called the dependently-originated states, bhikkhus” (S
II 26). [518]

1412
4. Here is a brief explanation. The states that are
conditions should be understood as the dependent
origination. The states generated by such and such
conditions are dependently-originated states.
5. How is that to be known? By the Blessed One’s
word. For it is precisely those states which are
conditions, that with the synonyms beginning with
“reality” have been called “dependent origination” by
the Blessed One when teaching the dependent
origination in the sutta on the Teaching of the
Dependent Origination and Dependently-originated
States thus:
“And what is dependent origination, bhikkhus?
“With birth as condition, bhikkhus, there is ageing and
death. Whether Perfect Ones arise or do not arise,
there yet remains that element, relatedness of states,
regularity of states, specific conditionally. The Perfect
One discovers it, penetrates to it. Having discovered it,
penetrated to it, he announces it, teaches it, makes it
known, establishes, exposes, expounds, and explains
it: ’See,’ he says, ’With birth as condition there is
ageing and death.’
“With becoming as condition, bhikkhus, there is birth
… With ignorance as condition, bhikkhus, there are
formations. Whether Perfect Ones arise or do not arise,
there yet remains that element, relatedness of states,

1413
regularity of states, specific conditionally. The Perfect
One discovers it, penetrates to it. Having discovered it,
penetrated to it, he announces it, teaches it, makes it
known, establishes, exposes, expounds and explains it:
’See,’ he says, ’With ignorance as condition there are
formations.’
“So, bhikkhus, that herein which is reality, not
unreality, not otherness, specific conditionality: that is
called dependent origination” (S II 25f.).
Consequently, it should be understood that dependent
origination has the characteristic of being the
conditions for the states beginning with ageing-and-
death. Its function is to continue [the process of]
suffering. It is manifested as the wrong path.
6. Because particular states are produced by particular
conditions, neither less nor more, it is called reality
(suchness). Because once the conditions have met in
combination there is no non-producing, even for an
instant, of the states they generate, it is called not
unreality (not unsuchness). Because there is no arising
of one state with another state’s conditions, it is called
not otherness. Because there is a condition, or because
there is a total of conditions, for these states beginning
with ageing-and-death as already stated, it is called
specific conditionality.
7. Here is the word meaning: idappaccayā (lit. that-

1414
conditions) = imesaṃ paccayā (conditions for those);
idappaccayā (that-conditions) = idappaccayatā (that-
conditionality, conditionality for those, specific
conditionality). Or alternatively, idappaccayatā (that-
conditionality) = idappaccayānaṃ samūho (the total of
that-conditions, total specific conditionality).
8. The characteristic must be sought from grammar.
Some, in fact, [say that the expression paṭicca
samuppāda (dependent origination) is characterized
thus:] “having depended (paṭicca), a right (sammā)
arising (uppāda), [depending on causes rightly by]
disregarding such causes conjectured by sectarians as
the Primordial Essence (Prakṛti), World Soul (Puruṣa),
and so on.” So what they call dependent origination
(paṭicca samuppāda) is a simple arising (uppāda) [for
they equate the prefix saṃ only with sammā (rightly)
and ignore saṃ (with, con-)]. That is untenable. [519]
Why? (1) There is no such sutta; (2) it contradicts
suttas; (3) it admits of no profound treatment; and (4)
it is ungrammatical.
9. (1) No sutta describes the dependent origination as
simple arising.
(2) Anyone who asserts that dependent origination is
of that kind involves himself in conflict with the
Padesavihāra Sutta. How? The Newly Enlightened
One’s abiding (vihāra) is the bringing of the dependent

1415
origination to mind, because, of these words of the
Blessed One’s: “Then in the first watch of the night the
Blessed One brought to mind the dependent
origination in direct and reverse order” [as origination
and cessation] (Vin I 1; Ud 2). Now, “padesavihāra” is
the abiding (vihāra) in one part (desa) of that, according
as it is said, “Bhikkhus, I abode in a part of the abiding
in which I abode when I was newly enlightened” (S V
12; Paṭis I 107). And there he abode in the vision of
structure of conditions, not in the vision of simple
arising, according as it is said, “So I understood
feeling with wrong view as its condition, and feeling
with right view as its condition, and feeling with
wrong thinking as its condition …” (S V 12), all of
which should be quoted in full. So anyone who asserts
that dependent origination is simple arising involves
himself in conflict with the Padesavihāra Sutta.
10. There is likewise contradiction of the Kaccāna
Sutta. For in the Kaccāna Sutta it is said, “When a man
sees correctly with right understanding the origination
of the world, Kaccāna, he does not say of the world
that it is not” (S II 17). And there it is the dependent
origination in forward order, not simple arising, that,
as the origination of the world from its conditions, is
set forth in order to eliminate the annihilation view.
For the annihilation view is not eliminated by seeing
simple arising; but it is eliminated by seeing the chain

1416
of conditions as a chain of fruits following on a chain
of conditions. So anyone who asserts that the
dependent origination is simple arising involves
himself in contradiction of the Kaccāna Sutta.
11. (3) It admits of no profound treatment: this has been
said by the Blessed One, “This dependent origination
is profound, Ānanda, and profound it appears” (D II
55; S II 92). And the profundity is fourfold as we shall
explain below (XVII.304f.); but there is none of that in
simple arising. And this dependent origination is
explained [by the teachers] as adorned with the
fourfold method (XVII.309); but there is no [need of]
any such tetrad of methods in simple arising. So
dependent origination is not simple arising, since that
admits of no profound treatment.
12. (4) It is ungrammatical: [520] this word paṭicca (lit.
“having depended”; freely “due to,” “dependent”),
[being a gerund of the verb paṭi + eti, to go back to],
establishes a meaning [in a formula of establishment
by verb] when it is construed as past with the same
subject [as that of the principal verb], as in the
sentence “Having depended on (paṭicca = ’due to’) the
eye and visible objects, eye-consciousness arises
(uppajjati)” (S II 72). But if it is construed here with the
word uppāda (arising), [which is a noun], in a formula
of establishment by noun, there is a breach of
grammar, because there is no shared subject [as there

1417
is in above-quoted sentence], and so it does not
establish any meaning al all. So the dependent
origination is not simple arising because that is
ungrammatical.
13. Here it might be [argued]: “We shall add the
words ’comes to be’ (hoti) thus: ’Having depended,
arising comes to be’ (paṭicca, samuppādo hoti).” That
will not do. Why not? Because there is no instance in
which it has been added, and because the fallacy of the
arising of an arising follows. For in such passages as
“Paṭiccasamuppādaṃ vo bhikkhave desessāmi. Katamo ca
bhikkhave paṭiccasamuppādo … Ayaṃ vuccati bhikkhave
paṭiccasamuppādo (I shall teach you the dependent
origination, bhikkhus. And what is the dependent
origination? … This is called the dependent
origination, bhikkhus)” (S II 1), the words “comes to
be” (hoti) are not added in any single instance. And
there is no [such expression as] “arising comes to be”:
if there were, it would be tantamount to saying that
arising itself had an arising too.
14. And those are wrong who imagine that specific
conditionality (idappaccayatā) is the specific conditions’
[abstract] essence—what is called “abstract essence”
being a [particular] mode in ignorance, etc., that acts
as cause in the manifestation of formations, etc.—and
that the term “dependent origination” is used for an
alteration in formations when there is that [particular

1418
mode in the way of occurrence of ignorance]. Why are
they wrong? Because it is ignorance, etc., themselves
that are called causes. For in the following passage it is
ignorance, etc., themselves, not their alteration, that
are called the causes [of these states]: “Therefore,
Ānanda, just this is the cause, this is the source, this is
the origin, this is the condition, for ageing-and-death,
that is to say, birth … for formations, that is to say,
(ignorance)” (D II 57–63—the last clause is not in the
Dīgha text). Therefore it is the actual states themselves
as conditions that should be understood as
“dependent origination.” So what was said above (§4)
can be understood as rightly said.
15. If any notion arises in the guise of a literal
interpretation of the term “dependent origination”
(paṭicca-samuppāda) to the effect that it is only arising
that is stated, it should be got rid of by apprehending
the meaning of this expression in the following way.
For:
In double form this term relates to a totality of
state
Produced from a conditionality;
Hence the conditions for that sum
Through metaphor’s device have come
To bear their fruits’ name figuratively
In the Blessed One’s exposition.

1419
16. This term “dependent origination,” when applied
to the total of states produced from the [total]
conditionality, must be taken in two ways. [521] For
that [total] ought to be arrived at (paṭicco—adj.),[2]
since when it is arrived at (paṭiyamāno), it leads to
[supramundane] welfare and bliss and so the wise
[regard] it as worthy to be arrived at (paccetuṃ); and
then, when it arises (uppajjamāno), it does so “together
with” (saha) and “rightly” (sammā), not singly or
causelessly, thus it is a co-arising (samuppādo).
Consequently: it is to be arrived at (paṭicco) and it is a
co-arising (samuppādo), thus it is dependent origination
(paṭicca-samuppāda). Again: it arises as a togetherness
(saha), thus it is a co-arising (samuppāda); but it does so
having depended (paṭicca—ger.) in combination with
conditions, not regardless of them. Consequently: it,
having depended (paṭicca), is a co-arising (samuppāda),
thus in this way also it is dependent origination
(paṭicca-samuppāda). And the total of causes is a
condition for that [total of states produced from the
conditionality], so, because it is a condition for that,
this [total of causes] is called, “dependent origination,”
using for it the term ordinarily used for its fruit just as
in the world molasses, which is a condition for
phlegm, is spoken of thus, “Molasses is phlegm,” or
just as in the Dispensation the arising of Buddhas,
which is a condition for bliss, is spoken of thus, “The

1420
arising of Buddhas is bliss” (Dhp 194).
17. Or alternatively:
The sum of causes too they call
“Facing its counterpart,” so all
Is in that sense “dependent,” as they tell;
This sum of causes too, as stated,
Gives fruits that rise associated,
So “co-arising” it is called as well.
18. This total of causes—indicated severally under the
heading of each cause, beginning with ignorance—for
the manifestation of formations, etc., is called
“dependent” (paṭicco—adj.), taking it as “facing, gone
to, its counterpart” (paṭimukham ito) owing to the
mutual interdependence of the factors in the
combination, in the sense both that they produce
common fruit and that none can be dispensed with.
And it is called a “co-arising” (samuppādo) since it
causes the states that occur in unresolved mutual
interdependence to arise associatedly. Consequently:
it is dependent (paṭicco) and a co-arising (samuppādo),
thus in this way also it is dependent origination
(paṭicca-samuppāda).
19. Another method:
This total conditionally, acting interdependently,
Arouses states together equally;
So this too is a reason here wherefore the Greatest

1421
 Sage, the Seer,
Gave to this term its form thus succinctly.
20. Among the conditions described under the
headings of ignorance, etc., the respective conditions
that make the [conditionally-arisen] states beginning
with formations arise are incapable of making them
arise when not mutually dependent and when
deficient. Therefore this conditionality by depending
(paṭicca—ger.) makes states arise (uppādeti) equally and
together (samaṃ saha ca), not piecemeal and
successively—so it has been termed here thus by the
Sage who is skilled in phraseology that conforms to its
meaning: it has been accurately termed “dependent
origination” (paṭicca samuppāda), is the meaning.
21. And while so termed:
The first component will deny the false view of
eternity
And so on, and the second will prevent
The nihilistic type of view and others like it, while
the two
Together show the true way that is meant.
The first: the word “dependent” (paṭicca) indicates the
combination of the conditions, [522] since states in the
process of occurring exist in dependence on the
combining of their conditions; and it shows that they
are not eternal, etc., thus denying the various

1422
doctrines of eternalism, no-cause, fictitious-cause, and
power-wielder.[3] What purpose indeed would the
combining of conditions serve, if things were eternal,
or if they occurred without cause, and so on?
23. The second: the word “origination” (samuppāda)
indicates the arising of the states, since these occur
when their conditions combine, and it shows how to
prevent annihilationism, etc., thus preventing the
various doctrines of annihilation [of a soul], nihilism,
[“there is no use in giving,” etc.,] and moral-inefficacy-
of-action, [“there is no other world,” etc.]; for when
states [are seen to] arise again and again, each
conditioned by its predecessor, how can the doctrines
of annihilationism, nihilism, and moral-inefficacy-of-
action be maintained?
24. The two together: since any given states are
produced without interrupting the [cause-fruit]
continuity of any given combination of conditions, the
whole expression “dependent origination” (paṭicca-
samuppāda) represents the middle way, which rejects
the doctrines, “He who acts is he who reaps” and
“One acts while another reaps” (S II 20), and which is
the proper way described thus, “Not insisting on local
language and not overriding normal usage” (M III
234).[4]
This, in the first place, is the meaning of the mere

1423
words “dependent origination” (paṭicca-samuppāda).

[Section B. Exposition]
[I. Preamble]

25. Now, in teaching this dependent origination the

Blessed One has set forth the text in the way
beginning, “With ignorance as condition there are
formations” (S II 20). Its meaning should be
commented on by one who keeps within the circle of
the Vibhajjavādins,[5] who does not misrepresent the
teachers, who does not advertise his own standpoint,
who does not quarrel with the standpoint of others,
who does not distort suttas, who is in agreement with
the Vinaya, who looks to the principal authorities
(mahāpadesa—D II 123ff.), who illustrates the law
(dhamma), who takes up the meaning (attha),
repeatedly reverting to that same meaning, describing
it in various different ways.[6] And it is inherently
difficult to comment on the dependent origination, as
the Ancients said:
The truth, a being, rebirth-linking,
And the structure of conditions,
Are four things very hard to see
And likewise difficult to teach.

1424
Therefore, considering that to comment on the
dependent origination is impossible except for those
who are expert in the texts:
Whilst I would now begin the comment
On the structure of conditions
I find no footing for support
And seem to founder in a sea. [523]
However, many modes of teaching
Grace the Dispensation here,
And still the former teachers’ way
Is handed down unbrokenly.
Therefore on both of these relying
For my support, I now begin
Its meaning to elucidate:
Listen therefore attentively.
26. For this has been said by the former teachers:
Whoever learns alertly this [discourse]
Will go from excellence to excellence,
And when perfected, he will then escape
Beyond the vision of the King of Death.

[II. Brief Exposition]

27. So as regards the passages that begin: “With

1425
ignorance as condition there are formations” (S II 20),
to start with:
(1) As different ways of teaching, (2) meaning,
(3) Character, (4) singlefold and so on,
(5) As to defining of the factors,
The exposition should be known.
28. 1. Herein, as different ways of teaching: the Blessed
One’s teaching of the dependent origination is
fourfold, namely, (i) from the beginning; or (ii) from
the middle up to the end; and (iii) from the end; or (iv)
from the middle down to the beginning. It is like four
creeper-gatherers’ ways of seizing a creeper.
29. (i) For just as one of four men gathering creepers
sees only the root of the creeper first, and after cutting
it at the root, he pulls it all out and takes it away and
uses it, so the Blessed One teaches the dependent
origination from the beginning up to the end thus:
“So, bhikkhus, with ignorance as condition there are
formations; … with birth as condition ageing-and-
death” (M I 261).
30. (ii) Just as another of the four men sees the middle
of the creeper first, and after cutting it in the middle,
he pulls out only the upper part and takes it away and
uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the middle
up to the end thus: “When he is delighted with,
welcomes, remains committed to that feeling, then

1426
delight arises in him. Delight in feelings is clinging.
With his clinging as condition there is becoming; with
becoming as condition, birth” (M I 266).
31. (iii) Just as another of the four men sees the tip of
the creeper first, and seizing the tip, he follows it
down to the root and takes all of it away and uses it,
so the Blessed One teaches it from the end down to the
beginning thus: “’With birth as condition, ageing-and-
death,’ so it was said. But is there ageing-and-death
with birth as condition, or not, or how is it here?—
There is ageing-and-death with birth as condition, so
we think, venerable sir. [524] ’With becoming as
condition, birth,’ so it was said … ’With ignorance as
condition there are formations,’ so it was said. But are
there formations with ignorance as condition, or not,
or how is it here?—There are formations with
ignorance as condition, so we think, venerable sir” (M
I 261).
32. (iv) Just as one of the four men sees only the
middle of the creeper first, and after cutting it in the
middle and tracing it down as far as the root, he takes
it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from
the middle down to the beginning thus: “And these
four nutriments, bhikkhus: what is their source? What
is their origin? From what are they born? By what are
they produced? These four nutriments have craving as
their source, craving as their origin, they are born from

1427
craving, produced by craving. Craving: what is its
source? … Feeling: … Contact: … The sixfold base: …
Mentality-materiality: … Consciousness: …
Formations: what is their source? … By what are they
produced? Formations have ignorance as their source
… they are … produced by ignorance” (S II 11f.).
33. Why does he teach it thus? Because the dependent
origination is wholly beneficial and because he has
himself acquired elegance in instructing. For the
dependent origination is entirely beneficial: starting
from any one of the four starting points, it leads only
to the penetration of the proper way. And the Blessed
One has acquired elegance in instructing: it is because
he has done so through possession of the four kinds of
perfect confidence and the four discriminations and by
achieving the fourfold profundity (§304) that he
teaches the Dhamma by various methods.
34. But it should be recognized, in particular, that (i)
when he sees that people susceptible of teaching are
confused about the analysis of the causes of the
process [of becoming], he employs his teaching of it
forwards starting from the beginning in order to show
that the process carries on according to its own
peculiar laws and for the purpose of showing the
order of arising. (iii) And it should be recognized that
when he surveys the world as fallen upon trouble in
the way stated thus, “This world has fallen upon

1428
trouble; it is born, ages, dies, passes away, and
reappears” (S II 10), he employs his teaching of it
backwards starting from the end in order to show the
[laws governing the] various kinds of suffering
beginning with ageing and death, which he
discovered himself in the early stage of his
penetration. And (iv) it should be recognized that he
employs his teaching of it backwards from the middle
down to the beginning in order to show how the
succession of cause and fruit extends back into the
past [existence], and again forwards from the past, in
accordance with his definition of nutriment as the
source [of ignorance] (see M I 47f.). And (ii) it should
be recognized that he employs his teaching of it
forwards from the middle up to the end in order to
show how the future [existence] follows on [through
rebirth] from arousing in the present causes for
[rebirth] in the future.
35. Of these methods of presentation, that cited here
should be understood to be that stated in forward
order starting from the beginning in order to show to
people susceptible of teaching who are confused about
the laws of the process [of becoming] that the process
carries on according to its own peculiar laws, [525]
and for the purpose of showing the order of arising.
36. But why is ignorance stated as the beginning here?
How then, is ignorance the causeless root-cause of the

1429
world like the Primordial Essence of those who assert
the existence of a Primordial Essence? It is not
causeless. For a cause of ignorance is stated thus,
“With the arising of cankers there is the arising of
ignorance” (M I 54). But there is a figurative way in
which it can be treated as the root cause. What way is
that? When it is made to serve as a starting point in an
exposition of the round [of becoming].
37. For the Blessed One gives the exposition of the
round with one of two things as the starting point:
either ignorance, according as it is said, “No first
beginning of ignorance is made known, bhikkhus,
before which there was no ignorance, and after which
there came to be ignorance. And while it is said thus,
bhikkhus, nevertheless it is made known that
ignorance has its specific condition” (A V 113); or
craving for becoming, according as it is said, “No first
beginning of craving for becoming is made known,
bhikkhus, before which there was no craving for
becoming, and after which there came to be craving
for becoming. And while it is said thus, bhikkhus,
nevertheless it is made known that craving for
becoming has its specific condition” (A V 116).
38. But why does the Blessed One give the exposition
of the round with those two things as starting points?
Because they are the outstanding causes of kamma
that leads to happy and unhappy destinies.

1430
39. Ignorance is an outstanding cause of kamma that
leads to unhappy destinies. Why? Because, just as
when a cow to be slaughtered is in the grip of the
torment of burning with fire and belabouring with
cudgels, and being crazed with torment, she drinks
the hot water although it gives no satisfaction and
does her harm, so the ordinary man who is in the grip
of ignorance performs kamma of the various kinds
beginning with killing living things that leads to
unhappy destinies, although it gives no satisfaction
because of the burning of defilements and does him
harm because it casts him into an unhappy destiny.
40. But craving for becoming is an outstanding cause
of kamma that leads to happy destinies. Why?
Because, just as that same cow, through her craving
for cold water, starts drinking cold water, which gives
satisfaction and allays her torment, so the ordinary
man in the grip of craving for becoming performs
kamma of the various kinds beginning with abstention
from killing living things that leads to happy destinies
and gives satisfaction because it is free from the
burning of defilements and, by bringing him to a
happy destiny, allays the torment of suffering
[experienced] in the unhappy destinies.
41. Now, as regards these two states that are starting
points in expositions of the process [of becoming], in
some instances the Blessed One teaches the Dhamma

1431
based on a single one of these states, for instance, [526]
“Accordingly, bhikkhus, formations have ignorance as
their cause, consciousness has formations as its cause”
(S II 31), etc.; likewise, “Bhikkhus, craving increases in
one who dwells seeing enjoyment in things productive
of clinging; with craving as condition there is
clinging” (S II 84), and so on. In some instances he
does so based on both, for instance: “So, bhikkhus, for
the fool who is hindered by ignorance and tethered by
craving there arises this body. Now, this body [with its
six internal bases] and externally [the six bases due to]
mentality-materiality make a duality. Due to this
duality there is contact, as well as the six [pairs of]
bases, touched through which the fool feels pleasure
and pain” (S II 23f.), and so on.
42. Of these ways of presentation, that cited here in
the form “With ignorance as condition there are
formations” should be understood as one based on a
single state. This, firstly, is how the exposition should
be known “as to different ways of teaching.”
43. 2. As to meaning: as to the meaning of the words
“ignorance” and so on. Bodily misconduct, etc., for
example, “ought not to be found” (avindiya), in the
sense of being unfit to be carried out; the meaning is
that it should not be permitted. It finds (vindati) what
ought not to be found (avindiya), thus it is ignorance
(avijjā). Conversely, good bodily conduct, etc. “ought

1432
to be found” (vindiya). It does not find (na vindati)
what ought to be found (vindiya), thus it is ignorance
(avijjā). Also it prevents knowing (avidita) the meaning
of collection in the aggregates, the meaning of
actuating in the bases, the meaning of voidness in the
elements, the meaning of predominance in the
faculties, the meaning of reality in the truths, thus it is
ignorance (avijjā). Also it prevents knowing the
meaning of suffering, etc., described in four ways as
“oppression,” etc. (XVI.15), thus it is ignorance.
Through all the kinds of generations, destinies,
becoming, stations of consciousness, and abodes of
beings in the endless round of rebirths it drives beings
on (AntaVIrahite saṃsāre … satte JAvāpeti), thus it is
ignorance (avijjā). Amongst women, men, etc., which
are in the ultimate sense non-existent, it hurries on
(paramatthato AVIJjamānesu itthi-purisādisu JAvati), and
amongst the aggregates, etc., which are existent, it
does not hurry on (vijjamānesu pi khandhādisu na javati),
thus it is ignorance (avijjā). Furthermore, it is
ignorance because it conceals the physical bases and
objects of eye-consciousness, etc., and the dependent
origination and dependently-originated states.
44. That due to (paṭicca) which fruit comes (eti) is a
condition (paccaya). “Due to” (paṭicca) = “not without
that”; the meaning is, not dispensing with it. “Comes”
(eti) means both “arises” and “occurs.” Furthermore,

1433
the meaning of “condition” is the meaning of “help.”
It is ignorance and that is a condition, thus it is
“ignorance as condition,” whence the phrase “with
ignorance as condition.”
“They form the formed” (S III 87), thus they are
formations. Furthermore, formations are twofold,
namely, (a) formations with ignorance as condition,
and (b) formations given in the texts with the word
“formations” (saṅkhāra). Herein, (a) the three, namely,
formations of merit, of demerit, and of the
imperturbable, and the three, namely, the bodily, the
verbal, and the mental formations, which make six, are
“formations with ignorance as condition.” And all
these are simply mundane profitable and unprofitable
volition.
45. But (b) these four, namely, (i) the formation
consisting of the formed (saṅkhata-saṅkhāra), [527] (ii)
the formation consisting of the kamma-formed
(abhisaṅkhata-saṅkhāra), (iii) the formation consisting in
the act of kamma-forming (forming by kamma—
abhisaṅkharaṇa-saṅkhāra), and (iv) the formation
consisting in momentum (payogābhisaṅkhāra), are the
kinds of formations that have come in the texts with
the word “formations.”
46. Herein, (i) all states with conditions, given in such
passages as “Formations are impermanent” (S I 158; D

1434
II 157), are formations consisting of the formed. (ii) In
the Commentaries material and immaterial states of
the three planes generated by kamma are called
formations consisting of the kamma-formed. These are
also included in the passage, “Formations are
impermanent.” But there is no instance in the texts
where they are found separately. (iii) Profitable and
unprofitable volition of the three planes is called the
formation consisting in the act of kamma-forming. It is
found in the texts in such passages as “Bhikkhus, this
man in his ignorance forms the formation of merit” (S
II 82). (iv) But it is bodily and mental energy that is
called the formation consisting in momentum. This is
given in the texts in such passages as “The wheel,
having gone as far as the impetus (abhisaṅkhāra)
carried it, stood as though it were fixed” (A I 112).
47. And not only these, but many other kinds of
formations are given in the texts with the word
“formation” (saṅkhāra), in the way beginning, “When a
bhikkhu is attaining the cessation of perception and
feeling, friend Visākha, first his verbal formation
ceases, then his bodily formation, then his mental
formation” (M I 302). But there is no formation among
them not included by (i) “formations consisting of the
formed.”
48. What is said next after this in the [rest of the
exposition] beginning, “With formations as condition,

1435
consciousness” should be understood in the way
already stated. But as to those words not yet dealt
with: It cognizes (vijānāti), thus it is consciousness
(viññāṇa—see M I 292). It bends [towards an object]
(namati), thus it is mentality (nāma). It is molested
(ruppati), thus it is materiality (rūpa—see S III 87). It
provides a range for the origins (āye tanoti) and it leads
on what is actuated (āyatañ ca nayati), thus it is a base
(āyatana—see XV.4). It touches (phusati), thus it is
contact (phassa). It is felt (vedayati), thus it is feeling
(vedanā—see M I 293). It frets (or it thirsts—paritassati),
thus it is craving (taṇhā). It clings (upādiyati), thus it is
clinging (upādāna). It becomes (bhavati) and it makes
become (bhāvayati), thus it is becoming (bhava). The act
of being born is birth. The act of growing old is ageing.
By means of it they die, thus it is death. The act of
sorrowing is sorrow. The act of lamenting is
lamentation. It makes [beings] suffer (dukkhayati), thus
it is pain (dukkha); or it consumes in two ways (DVedhā
KHAṇati—see IV.100) by means of [the two moments
(khaṇa)] arising and presence, thus it is pain (dukkha).
The state of a sad mind (dummana-bhāva) is grief
(domanassa). Great misery (bhuso āyāso) is despair
(upāyāsa). There is means “is generated.”
49. And the words “There is” should be construed
with all the terms, not only with those beginning with
sorrow; for otherwise, when “With ignorance as

1436
condition, formations” was said, it would not be
evident what they did, but by construing it with the
words “There is” (or “there are”), since “ignorance as
condition” stands for “it is ignorance and that is a
condition,” consequently [528] the defining of the
condition and the conditionally-arisen state is effected
by the words “with ignorance as condition there are
formations.” And so in each instance.
50. Thus signifies the process described. By that he
shows that it is with ignorance, etc., as the causes and
not with creation by an Overlord, and so on. Of that:
of that aforesaid. Whole: unmixed, entire. Mass of
suffering: totality of suffering; not a living being, not
pleasure, beauty, and so on. Arising: generating. There
is: is brought about.
This is how the exposition should be known here “as
to meaning.”
51. 3. As to character, etc.: as to the characteristics of
ignorance, etc., that is to say, ignorance has the
characteristic of unknowing. Its function is to confuse.
It is manifested as concealing. Its proximate cause is
cankers. Formations have the characteristic of forming.
Their function is to accumulate.[7] They are manifested
as volition. Their proximate cause is ignorance.
Consciousness has the characteristic of cognizing. Its
function is to go before (see Dhp 1). It manifests itself

1437
as rebirth-linking. Its proximate cause is formations; or
its proximate cause is the physical-basis-cum-object.
Mentality (nāma) has the characteristic of bending
(namana). Its function is to associate. It is manifested as
inseparability of its components, [that is, the three
aggregates]. Its proximate cause is consciousness.
Materiality (rūpa) has the characteristic of being
molested (ruppana). Its function is to be dispersed. It is
manifested as [morally] indeterminate. Its proximate
cause is consciousness. The sixfold base (saḷāyatana)
has the characteristic of actuating (āyatana). Its
function is to see, and so on. It is manifested as the
state of physical basis and door. Its proximate cause is
mentality-materiality. Contact has the characteristic of
touching. Its function is impingement. It manifests
itself as coincidence [of internal and external base and
consciousness]. Its proximate cause is the sixfold base.
Feeling has the characteristic of experiencing. Its
function is to exploit the stimulus of the objective field.
It is manifested as pleasure and pain. Its proximate
cause is contact. Craving has the characteristic of being
a cause [that is, of suffering]. Its function is to delight.
It is manifested as insatiability. Its proximate cause is
feeling. Clinging has the characteristic of seizing. Its
function is not to release. It is manifested as a strong
form of craving and as [false] view. Its proximate
cause is craving. Becoming has the characteristic of

1438
being kamma and kamma-result. Its function is to
make become and to become. It is manifested as
profitable, unprofitable, and indeterminate. Its
proximate cause is clinging. The characteristic of birth,
etc., should be understood as stated in the Description
of the Truths (XVI.32f.). This is how the exposition
should be known here “as to character, etc.”
52. 4. As to singlefold, and so on: here ignorance is
singlefold as unknowing, unseeing, delusion, and so
on. It is twofold as “no theory” and “wrong theory”
(cf. §303);[8] likewise as prompted and unprompted. It
is threefold as associated with the three kinds of
feeling. It is fourfold as non-penetration of the four
truths. It is fivefold as concealing the danger in the
five kinds of destinies. [529] It should, however, be
understood that all the immaterial factors [of the
dependent origination] have a sixfold nature with
respect to the [six] doors and objects.
53. Formations are singlefold as states subject to
cankers (Dhs 3), states with the nature of result (Dhs
1), and so on (cf. Vibh 62).[9] They are twofold as
profitable and unprofitable; likewise as limited and
exalted, inferior and medium, with certainty of
wrongness and without certainty. They are threefold
as the formation of merit and the rest. They are
fourfold as leading to the four kinds of generation.

1439
They are fivefold as leading to the five kinds of
destiny.
54. Consciousness is singlefold as mundane (Dhs 3),
resultant (Dhs 1), and so on. It is twofold as with root-
cause and without root-cause and so on. It is threefold
as included in the three kinds of becoming; as
associated with the three kinds of feeling; and as
having no root-cause, having two root-causes, and
having three root-causes. It is fourfold and fivefold
[respectively] according to generation and destiny.
55. Mentality-materiality is singlefold as dependent on
consciousness, and as having kamma as its condition.
It is twofold as having an object [in the case of
mentality], and having no object [in the case of
materiality]. It is threefold as past, and so on. It is
fourfold and fivefold respectively according to
generation and destiny.
56. The sixfold base is singlefold as the place of origin
and meeting. It is twofold as sensitivity of primary
elements and as consciousness [of the sixth base], and
so on. It is threefold as having for its domain [objective
fields that are] contiguous, non-contiguous, and
neither (see XIV.46). It is fourfold and fivefold
respectively as included in the kinds of generation and
destiny.
The singlefoldness, etc., of contact, etc., should be

1440
understood in this way too.
This is how the exposition should be known here “as
to singlefold and so on.”
57. 5. As to defining of the factors: sorrow, etc., are
stated here for the purpose of showing that the Wheel
of Becoming never halts; for they are produced in the
fool who is afflicted by ageing and death, according as
it is said: “The untaught ordinary man, bhikkhus, on
being touched by painful bodily feeling, sorrows,
grieves and laments, beating his breast, he weeps and
becomes distraught” (M III 285; S IV 206). And as long
as these go on occurring so long does ignorance, and
so the Wheel of Becoming renews [its revolution]:
“With ignorance as condition there are formations”
and so on. That is why the factors of the dependent
origination should be understood as twelve by taking
those [that is, sorrow, etc.,] along with ageing-and-
death as one summarization. This is how the
exposition should be known here “as to defining of the
factors.”
58. This, firstly, is the brief treatment. The following
method, however, is in detail.

[III. Detailed Exposition]

[(i) Ignorance]

1441
According to the Suttanta method [530] ignorance is
unknowing about the four instances beginning with
suffering. According to the Abhidhamma method it is
unknowing about the eight instances [that is to say,
the above-mentioned four] together with [the four]
beginning with the past; for this is said: “Herein, what
is ignorance? It is unknowing about suffering,
[unknowing about the origin of suffering, unknowing
about the cessation of suffering, unknowing about the
way leading to the cessation of suffering], unknowing
about the past, unknowing about the future,
unknowing about the past and future, unknowing
about specific conditionality and conditionally-arisen
states” (cf. Dhs §1162).
59. Herein, while ignorance about any instance that is
not the two supra-mundane truths can also arise as
object (see §102), nevertheless here it is only intended
[subjectively] as concealment. For when [thus] arisen it
keeps the truth of suffering concealed, preventing
penetration of the true individual function and
characteristic of that truth. Likewise, origin, cessation,
and the path, bygone five aggregates called the past,
coming five aggregates called the future, both of these
together called the past and future, and both specific
conditionality and conditionally-arisen states together
called specific conditionality and conditionally-arisen states
—all of which it keeps concealed, preventing their true

1442
individual functions and characteristics being
penetrated thus: “This is ignorance, these are
formations.” That is why it is said, “It is unknowing
about suffering … unknowing about specific
conditionality and conditionally-arisen states.”

[(ii) Formations]

60. Formations are the six mentioned in brief above

thus, “the three, namely, formations of merit, etc., and
the three, namely, the bodily formation, etc.” (§44); but
in detail here the [first] three formations are twenty-
nine volitions, that is to say, the formation of merit
consisting of thirteen volitions, counting the eight
sense-sphere profitable volitions that occur in giving,
in virtue, etc., and the five fine-material profitable
volitions that occur in development [of meditation];
then the formation of demerit consisting of the twelve
unprofitable volitions that occur in killing living
things, etc.; then the formation of the imperturbable
consisting in the four profitable volitions associated
with the immaterial sphere, which occur in
development [of those meditations].
61. As regards the other three, the bodily formation is
bodily volition, the verbal formation is verbal volition,

1443
and the mental formation is mental volition. This triad
is mentioned in order to show that at the moment of
the accumulation of the kamma the formations of
merit, etc., occur in these [three] kamma doors. For the
eight sense-sphere profitable and twelve unprofitable
volitions, making twenty, are the bodily formation
when they occur in the body door and produce bodily
intimation. Those same volitions [531] are called the
verbal formation when they occur in the speech door
and produce verbal intimation. But volition connected
with direct-knowledge is not included here in these
two cases because it is not a condition for [resultant
rebirth-linking] consciousness later. And like direct-
knowledge volition, so also volition connected with
agitation is not included; therefore that too should not
be included as a condition for [rebirth-linking]
consciousness. However, all these have ignorance as
their condition. And all the twenty-nine volitions are
the mental formation when they arise in the mind
door without originating either kind of intimation. So
this triad comes within the first triad, and accordingly,
as far as the meaning is concerned, ignorance can be
understood as condition simply for formations of
merit and so on.
62. Herein, it might be [asked]: How can it be known
that these formations have ignorance as their
condition?—By the fact that they exist when ignorance

1444
exists. For when unknowing—in other words,
ignorance—of suffering, etc., is unabandoned in a
man, owing firstly to his unknowing about suffering
and about the past, etc., then he believes the suffering
of the round of rebirths to be pleasant and he embarks
upon the three kinds of formations which are the
cause of that very suffering. Owing to his unknowing
about suffering’s origin he embarks upon formations
that, being subordinated to craving, are actually the
cause of suffering, imagining them to be the cause of
pleasure. And owing to his unknowing about
cessation and the path, he misperceives the cessation
of suffering to be in some particular destiny [such as
the Brahmā-world] that is not in fact cessation; he
misperceives the path to cessation, believing it to
consist in sacrifices, mortification for immortality, etc.,
which are not in fact the path to cessation; and so
while aspiring to the cessation of suffering, he
embarks upon the three kinds of formations in the
form of sacrifices, mortification for immortality, and
so on.
63. Furthermore, his non-abandonment of that
ignorance about the four truths in particular prevents
him from recognizing as suffering the kind of
suffering called the fruit of merit, which is fraught
with the many dangers beginning with birth, ageing,
disease and death, and so he embarks upon the

1445
formation of merit classed as bodily, verbal, and
mental formations, in order to attain that [kind of
suffering], like one desiring celestial nymphs [who
jumps over] a cliff. Also, not seeing how that fruit of
merit reckoned as pleasure eventually breeds great
distress owing to the suffering in its change and that it
gives little satisfaction, he embarks upon the
formation of merit of the kinds already stated, which
is the condition for that very [suffering in change], like
a moth that falls into a lamp’s flame, and like the man
who wants the drop of honey and licks the honey-
smeared knife-edge. Also, not seeing the danger in the
indulgence of sense desires, etc., with its results,
[wrongly] perceiving pleasure and overcome by
defilements, he embarks upon the formation of
demerit that occurs in the three doors [of kamma], like
a child who plays with filth, and like a man who
wants to die and eats poison. Also, unaware of the
suffering due to formations and the suffering-in-
change [inherent] in kamma-results in the immaterial
sphere, owing to the perversion of [wrongly
perceiving them as] eternal, etc., he embarks upon the
formation of the imperturbable which is a mental
formation, like one who has lost his way and takes the
road to a goblin city.
64. So formations exist only when ignorance exists,
[532] not when it does not; and that is how it can be

1446
known that these formations have ignorance as their
condition.
This is said too: “Not knowing, bhikkhus, in
ignorance, he forms the formation of merit, forms the
formation of demerit, forms the formation of the
imperturbable. As soon as a bhikkhu’s ignorance is
abandoned and clear vision arisen, bhikkhus, with the
fading away of ignorance and the arising of clear
vision he does not form even formations of merit” (cf.
S II 82).
65. Here it might be said: “Let us then firstly agree
that ignorance is a condition for formations. But it
must now be stated for which formations, and in
which way it is a condition.”
Here is the reply: “Twenty-four conditions have been
stated by the Blessed One as follows.”

[The 24 Conditions]

66. “(1) Root-cause condition, (2) object condition, (3)

predominance condition, (4) proximity condition, (5)
contiguity condition, (6) conascence condition, (7)
mutuality condition, (8) support condition, (9)
decisive-support condition, (10) prenascence
condition, (11) postnascence condition, (12) repetition
condition, (13) kamma condition, (14) kamma-result

1447
condition, (15) nutriment condition, (16) faculty
condition, (17) jhāna condition, (18) path condition,
(19) association condition, (20) dissociation condition,
(21) presence condition, (22) absence condition, (23)
disappearance condition, (24) non-disappearance
condition” (Paṭṭh I 1).
67. (1) Herein, it is a root-cause and a condition, thus
it is root-cause condition. It is by its being a root-cause
that it is a condition; what is meant is that it is a
condition owing to its status as root-cause. The same
method applies in the case of object condition and the
rest.
Herein, “cause” (hetu) is a term for a part of a
syllogism, for a reason, and for a root. For with the
words “proposition” (paṭiññā), “cause” (hetu = middle
term), etc., in the world it is a member of a syllogism
(vacanāvayava) that is called a cause. But in the
Dispensation, in such passages as “Those states that
are produced from a cause” (Vin I 40), it is a reason
(kāraṇa); and in such passages as “Three profitable
[root-] causes, three unprofitable [root-]causes” (Dhs
§1053), it is a root (mūla) that is called a cause. The last
is intended here.
68. As to “condition” (paccaya), the word-meaning
here is this: It [the fruit] comes from that, depending
thereon (paṭicca etasmā eti), thus that is a condition;

1448
(paccaya, see note 2) the meaning is, [a state] occurs by
not dispensing with that. What is meant is: when a
state is indispensable to another state’s presence or
arising, the former is a condition for the latter. But as
to characteristic, a condition has the characteristic of
assisting; for any given state [533] that assists the
presence or arising of a given state is called the latter’s
condition. The words condition, cause, reason, source,
originator, producer, etc., are one in meaning though
different in the letter. So, since it is a cause in the sense
of a root, and a condition in the sense of assistance,
briefly a state that is assistantial in the sense of a root
is a [root-]cause condition.
69. The intention of [some] teachers is that it
establishes the profitable, etc., state in what is
profitable, etc., as paddy seeds, etc., do for paddy, etc.,
and as the colour of gems, etc., do for the lustre of
gems, and so on.[10] But if that is so, then [it follows
that] the state of root-cause condition does not apply
to the kinds of materiality originated by it, for it does
not establish any profitableness, etc., in them.
Nevertheless, it is a condition for them, for this is said:
“Root-causes are a condition, as root-cause condition,
for the states associated with a root-cause and for the
kinds of materiality originated thereby” (Paṭṭh I 1).
Again, the indeterminateness of root-causeless
consciousness is established without it. And the

1449
profitableness, etc., of those with root-cause is bound
up with wise attention, etc., not with the associated
root-causes. And if the profitableness, etc., resided in
the associated root-causes as an individual essence,
then either the non-greed bound up with the root-
cause in the associated states would be only profitable
or it would be only indeterminate; but since it can be
both, profitableness, etc., in the root-causes must still
be sought for, just as in the associated states [such as
wise attention, and so on].
70. But when the root-causes’ sense of root is taken as
establishing stableness, rather than as establishing
profitableness, etc., there is no contradiction. For states
that have obtained a root-cause condition are firm, like
trees, and stable; but those without root-cause are, like
moss [with roots no bigger than] sesame seeds, etc.,
unstable. So an assistantial state may be understood as
a root-cause condition, since it establishes stableness
through being of assistance in the sense of a root.
71. (2) As to the others that follow, a state that assists
by being an object is an object condition. Now, there are
no states that are not object conditions; for the passage
beginning “The visible-data base [is a condition, as
object condition,] for the eye-consciousness element”
concludes thus: “When any states, as states of
consciousness and consciousness-concomitants, arise
contingent upon any states, these [latter] states are

1450
conditions, as object condition, for those [former]
states” (Paṭṭh I 1).[11] For just as a weak man both gets
up and stands by hanging on to (ālambitvā) a stick or
rope, so states of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants always arise and are present contingent
upon visible data, etc., as their object (ārammaṇa =
ālambana). Therefore all states that are objects of
consciousness and consciousness-concomitants should
be understood as object condition. [534]
72. (3) A state that assists in the sense of being
foremost is a predominance condition. It is of two kinds
as conascent and as object. Herein, because of the
passage beginning “Predominance of zeal is a
condition, as predominance condition, for states
associated with zeal and for the kinds of materiality
originated thereby” (Paṭṭh I 2), it is the four states
called zeal, [purity of] consciousness, energy, and
inquiry, that should be understood as predominance
condition; but not simultaneously, for when
consciousness occurs with emphasis on zeal and
putting zeal foremost, then it is zeal and not the others
that is predominant. So with the rest. But the state, by
giving importance to which, immaterial states occur, is
their object-predominance. Hence it is said: “When any
states, as states of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants, arise by giving importance to any states,
these [latter] states are a condition, as predominance

1451
condition, for those [former] states” (Paṭṭh I 2).
73. (4), (5) A state that assists by being proximate is a
proximity condition. A state that assists by being
contiguous is a contiguity condition. The explanation of
this pair of conditions is very diffuse, but substantially
it is this:[12] the regular order of consciousness begins
thus, mind element is proximate (next) after eye-
consciousness, mind-consciousness element is
proximate (next) after mind element, and this is
established only by each preceding consciousness, not
otherwise; consequently, a state that is capable of
arousing an appropriate kind of consciousness
proximate (next) to itself is a proximity condition.
Hence it is said: “Proximity condition: eye-
consciousness and the states associated therewith are a
condition, as proximity condition, for mind element
and for the states associated therewith” (Paṭṭh I 2).
74. (5) Proximity condition is the same as contiguity
condition. The difference here is only in the letter,
there is none in the meaning; just as in the case of the
words “growth” and “continuity” (XIV.66), etc., and
as in the case of the “terminology dyad,” “language
dyad,” (Dhs §1306) and so on.
75. The opinion of [certain] teachers[13] is that
proximity condition refers to proximity of aim (fruit)
and contiguity condition refers to proximity of time.

1452
But that is contradicted by such statements as “The
profitable [consciousness] belonging to the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception in
one who emerges from cessation is a condition, as
contiguity condition, for fruition attainment
[consciousness]” (Paṭṭh I 160).
76. Now, they say in this context that “the ability of
states to produce [their fruit] is not diminished, but
the influence of meditative development prevents
states from arising in proximity.” But that only
establishes that there is no proximity of time; and we
also say the same, namely, that there is no proximity
of time there owing to the influence of development.
[535] But since there is no proximity of time, the state
of contiguity condition is therefore impossible
[according to them] since their belief is that the
contiguity condition depends on proximity of time (cf.
M-a II 363). Instead of adopting any such
misinterpretation, the difference should be treated as
residing in the letter only, not in the meaning. How?
There is no interval (antara) between them, thus they
are proximate (anantara); they are quite without
interval because [even the distinction of] co-presence
is lacking, thus they are contiguous (samanantara).[14]
77. (6) A state that, while arising, assists [another
state] by making it arise together with itself is a
conascence condition, as a lamp is for illumination. With

1453
the immaterial aggregates, etc., it is sixfold, according
as it is said: “(i) The four immaterial aggregates are a
condition, as conascence condition, for each other, (ii)
the four great primaries are … for each other; (iii) at
the moment of descent into the womb mentality and
materiality are … for each other; (iv) states of
consciousness and its concomitants are … for the
kinds of materiality originated by consciousness; (v)
the great primaries are … for derived materiality; (vi)
material states are sometimes [as at rebirth-linking] a
condition, as conascence condition, and sometimes [as
in the course of an existence] not a condition as
conascence condition, for immaterial states” (Paṭṭh I
3). This refers only to the heart-basis.
78. (7) A state that assists by means of mutual
arousing and consolidating is a mutuality condition, as
the three sticks of a tripod give each other
consolidating support. With the immaterial
aggregates, etc., it is threefold, according as it is said:
“The four immaterial aggregates are a condition, as
mutuality condition, [for each other]; the four great
primaries are a condition, as mutuality condition, [for
each other]; at the moment of descent into the womb
mentality and materiality are a condition, as mutuality
condition, [for each other]” (Paṭṭh I 3).
79. (8) A state that assists in the mode of foundation
and in the mode of support is a support condition, as

1454
the earth is for trees, as canvas is for paintings, and so
on. It should be understood in the way stated for
conascence thus: “The four immaterial aggregates are
a condition, as support condition, for each other”
(Paṭṭh I 3), but the sixth instance has been set forth in
this way here: “The eye base [is a condition, as
support condition,] for the eye-consciousness element
[and for the states associated therewith]; the ear base
… the nose base … the tongue base … the body base is
a condition, as support condition, for the body-
consciousness element and for the states associated
therewith; the materiality with which as their support
the mind element and the mind-consciousness
element occur is a condition, as support condition, for
the mind element, for the mind-consciousness
element, and for the states associated therewith”
(Paṭṭh I 4).
80. (9) Decisive-support condition: firstly, here is the
word-meaning: [536] it is treated as support, not
dispensed with, by its own fruit because [its own
fruit’s] existence is dependent on it, thus it is the
support. But just as great misery is despair, so great
support is decisive support. This is a term for a cogent
reason. Consequently, a state that assists by being a
cogent reason should be understood as a decisive-
support condition.
It is threefold, namely, (a) object-decisive-support, (b)

1455
proximate-decisive-support, and (c) natural-decisive-
support condition.
81. (a) Herein, firstly, object-decisive-support condition
is set forth without differentiating it from object-
predominance in the way beginning: “Having given a
gift, having undertaken the precepts of virtue, having
done the duties of the Uposatha, a man gives that
importance and reviews it; he gives importance to
former things well done and reviews them. Having
emerged from jhāna, he gives jhāna importance and
reviews it. Trainers give importance to change-of-
lineage and review it. They give importance to
cleansing and review it.[15] Trainers, having emerged
from a path, give importance to the path and review
it” (Paṭṭh I 165). Herein, the object in giving
importance to which consciousness and consciousness
concomitants arise, is necessarily a cogent one among
these objects. So their difference may be understood in
this way: object-predominance is in the sense of what is
to be given importance to, and object-decisive-support is
in the sense of a cogent reason.
82. (b) Also proximate-decisive-support condition is set
forth without differentiating it from the proximity
condition in the way beginning, “Any preceding
profitable aggregates are a condition, as decisive-
support condition, for any succeeding aggregates”
(Paṭṭh I 165). But in the exposition there is a

1456
distinction, because in the exposition of the schedule
(mātikā-nikkhepa) they are given as proximity in the
way beginning, “Eye-consciousness element and the
states associated therewith are a condition, as
proximity condition, for mind element and for the
states associated therewith” (Paṭṭh I 2) and as decisive-
support in the way beginning, “Any preceding
profitable states are a condition as decisive-support
condition, for any succeeding profitable states” (Paṭṭh
I 4), though it comes to the same thing as regards the
meaning. Nevertheless, proximity may be understood
as the ability to cause the occurrence of an appropriate
conscious arising proximate (next) to itself, and
decisive support as the preceding consciousness’s
cogency in the arousing of the succeeding
consciousnesses.
83. For while in the cases of root-cause and other such
conditions consciousness can arise actually without
any of those conditions, there is no arising of
consciousness without a proximate consciousness [to
precede it], so this is a cogent condition. Their
difference, then, may be understood in this way:
proximity condition arouses an appropriate
consciousness proximate (next) to itself, while
proximity-decisive-support condition is a cogent reason.
84. (c) As to natural-decisive-support: the decisive-
support is natural, thus it is a natural-decisive-

1457
support. Faith, virtue, etc., produced in, or climate,
food, etc., habitual to, one’s own continuity are called
natural. Or else, it is a decisive-support by nature,
[537] thus it is a natural-decisive-support. The
meaning is that it is unmixed with object and
proximity. It should be understood as variously
divided up in the way beginning: “Natural-decisive-
support: with faith as decisive-support a man gives a
gift, undertakes the precepts of virtue, does the duties
of the Uposatha, arouses jhāna, arouses insight,
arouses the path, arouses direct-knowledge, arouses
an attainment. With virtue … With learning … With
generosity … With understanding as decisive-support
a man gives a gift … arouses an attainment. Faith,
virtue, learning, generosity, understanding, are
conditions, as decisive-support condition, for [the
repeated arising of] faith, virtue, learning, generosity,
understanding” (Paṭṭh I 165). So these things
beginning with faith are natural-decisive-support
since they are both natural and decisive-supports in
the sense of a cogent reason.
85. (10) A state that assists by being present, having
arisen previously, is a prenascence condition. It is
elevenfold as physical basis and object in the five
doors, and as the heart-basis, according as it is said:
“The eye base is a condition, as prenascence condition,
for the eye-consciousness element and for the states

1458
associated therewith. The ear base … The nose base …
The tongue base … The body base … The visible-data
base … The sound base … The odour base … The
flavour base … The tangible-data base is a condition,
as prenascence condition, for the body-consciousness
element and for the states associated therewith. The
visible-data base … The sound base … The odour base
… The flavour base … the tangible data base [is a
condition, as prenascence condition,] for the mind
element. The materiality with which as their support
the mind element and mind-consciousness element
occur is a condition, as prenascence condition, for the
mind-element and for the states associated therewith,
and it is sometimes [as in the course of an existence] a
condition, as prenascence condition, sometimes [as at
rebirth-linking] not a condition, as prenascence
condition, for the mind-consciousness element and for
the states associated therewith” (Paṭṭh I 4–5).
86. (11) An immaterial state that [while present]
assists prenascent material states [also present] by
consolidating them is a postnascence condition, like the
volition of appetite for food, which assists the bodies
of vultures’ young. Hence it is said: “Postnascent [538]
states of consciousness and its concomitants are a
condition, as postnascence condition, for the
prenascent [co-present] body” (Paṭṭh I 5).
87. (12) A state that assists the efficiency and power of

1459
the proximate (next) in the sense of repetition is a
repetition condition, like repeated application to books
and so on. It is threefold as profitable, unprofitable,
and functional impulsion; for it is said: “Preceding
profitable states are a condition, as repetition
condition, for succeeding profitable states …
Preceding unprofitable … Preceding functional
indeterminate states are a condition, as repetition
condition, for succeeding functional indeterminate
states” (Paṭṭh I 5).
88. (13) A state that assists by means of the action
called intervening of consciousness is a kamma
condition. It is twofold as (a) profitable and
unprofitable volition acting from a different time, and
(b) as all conascent volition (see Paṭṭh I 172), according
as it is said: “Profitable and unprofitable kamma is a
condition, as kamma condition, for resultant
aggregates and for the kinds of materiality due to
kamma performed. Conascent volition is a condition,
as kamma condition, for associated states and for the
kinds of materiality originated thereby” (Paṭṭh I 5).
89. (14) A resultant state that, by effortless quiet,
assists effortless quiet [in other states] is a kamma-result
condition. In the course of an existence it is a condition
for states originated by it, and at rebirth-linking for the
kinds of materiality due to kamma performed, and in
both cases for the associated states, according as it is

1460
said: “One resultant indeterminate aggregate is a
condition, as kamma-result condition, for three
aggregates and for the kinds of materiality originated
by consciousness … At the moment of rebirth-linking
one resultant indeterminate aggregate [is a condition
…] for three aggregates … Three aggregates [are a
condition …] for one aggregate … Two aggregates are
a condition, as kamma-result condition, for two
aggregates and for the kinds of materiality due to
kamma performed. Aggregates are a condition, as
kamma-result condition, for the physical basis” (Paṭṭh
I 173).
90. (15) The four kinds of nutriment, which assist
material and immaterial states by consolidating them,
are nutriment conditions, according as it is said:
“Physical nutriment is a condition, as nutriment
condition, for this body. Immaterial nutriments are
conditions, as nutriment condition, for associated
states and for the kinds of materiality originated by
them” (Paṭṭh I 5). But in the Question Section it is said:
“At the moment of rebirth-linking, resultant
indeterminate nutriments are conditions, as nutriment
condition, for aggregates associated therewith and for
the kinds of materiality due to kamma performed”
(Paṭṭh I 174).
91. (16) Leaving out the femininity and masculinity
faculties, the twenty remaining faculties (see XIV.1),

1461
which assist in the sense of predominance, [539] are
faculty conditions. Herein, the five, namely, the eye
faculty, etc., are conditions only for immaterial states,
the rest are conditions for material and immaterial
states, according as it is said: “The eye faculty [is a
condition, as faculty condition,] for eye-consciousness
element [and for the states associated therewith]. The
ear faculty … The nose faculty … The tongue faculty
… The body faculty is a condition, as faculty
condition, for the body-consciousness element and for
the states associated therewith. The material life
faculty is a condition, as faculty condition, for the
kinds of materiality due to kamma performed. The
immaterial faculties are a condition, as faculty
condition, for the states associated therewith and for
the kinds of materiality originated thereby” (Paṭṭh 1,
5–6). But in the Question Section it is said: “At the
moment of rebirth-linking resultant indeterminate
faculties are a condition, as faculty condition, for
associated aggregates and for the kinds of materiality
due to kamma performed” (Paṭṭh I 175).
92. (17) All the seven jhāna factors classed as
profitable, etc.—leaving out the pair, pleasant and
painful feeling, in the case of the two sets of five
consciousnesses—which factors assist in the sense of
constituting a state of jhāna, are jhāna conditions,
according as it is said: “The jhāna factors are a

1462
condition, as jhāna condition, for the states associated
with jhāna and for the kinds of materiality originated
thereby” (Paṭṭh I 6). But in the Question Section it is
said: “At the moment of rebirth-linking, resultant
indeterminate jhāna factors are a condition, as jhāna
condition, for associated aggregates and for the kinds
of materiality due to kamma performed” (Paṭṭh I 175).
93. (18) The twelve path factors classed as profitable,
etc., which assist in the sense of an outlet from
whatever it may be, are path conditions, according as it
is said: “The path factors are a condition, as path
condition, for states associated therewith and for the
kinds of materiality originated thereby” (Paṭṭh I 6). But
in the Question Section it is said: “At the moment of
rebirth-linking, resultant indeterminate path factors
are a condition, as path condition, for aggregates
associated therewith and for the kinds of materiality
due to kamma performed” (Paṭṭh I 176).
But these two, namely, jhāna and path conditions,
should be understood as inapplicable to the two sets
of five consciousnesses and to the consciousnesses
without root-cause ((34)–(41), (50)–(56), (70)–(72)).
94. (19) Immaterial states that assist by the kind of
association consisting in having the same physical
basis, same object, same arising, same cessation, are
association conditions, according as it is said: “The four

1463
immaterial aggregates are a condition, as association
condition, for each other” (Paṭṭh I 6).
95. (20) Material states that assist immaterial states,
and immaterial states that assist material states by not
having sameness of physical basis, etc., are dissociation
conditions. This is threefold as conascent, postnascent,
and prenascent, for this is said: “Conascent profitable
aggregates are a condition, as dissociation condition,
for the kinds of materiality originated by
consciousness. Postnascent [540] profitable [mental]
aggregates are a condition, as dissociation condition,
for this prenascent body” (Paṭṭh I 176). But in the
analysis of the conascent in the indeterminate clause it
is said: “At the moment of rebirth-linking, resultant
indeterminate aggregates are a condition, as
dissociation condition, for the kinds of materiality due
to kamma performed. The aggregates are a condition,
as dissociation condition, for the physical basis, and
the physical basis for the aggregates” (Paṭṭh I 176). But
the prenascent should be understood as the eye
faculty, etc., and the physical basis, according as it is
said: “The prenascent eye base [is a condition, as
dissociation condition,] for eye-consciousness … The
body base is a condition, as dissociation condition, for
body-consciousness. The physical basis [is a condition,
as dissociation condition,] for resultant-indeterminate
and functional-indeterminate aggregates … The

1464
physical basis [is a condition, as dissociation
condition,] for profitable aggregates … The physical
basis [is a condition, as dissociation condition,] for
unprofitable aggregates” (Paṭṭh I 176–77).
96. (21) A state that, by means of existingness
characterized by presence, assists a like state by
consolidating it, is a presence condition. A sevenfold
summary is laid down for it according to immaterial
aggregates, great primaries, mentality-materiality,
consciousness and consciousness-concomitants, great
primaries, bases, and physical [heart] basis, according
as it is said: “The four immaterial aggregates are a
condition, as presence condition, for each other. The
four great primaries … are … for each other. At the
time of descent into the womb mentality and
materiality [are a condition, as presence condition,] for
each other. States of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants are … for the kinds of materiality
originated by consciousness. The four great primaries
are … for derived materiality. The eye base is … for
the eye-consciousness element [and for the states
associated therewith]. The [ear base … nose base …
tongue base …] body base is … for the body-
consciousness element … The visible-data base [is …
for the eye-consciousness element … The sound base
… odour base … flavour base …] tangible-data base is
a condition, as presence condition, for the body-

1465
consciousness element and for the states associated
therewith. The visible-data base … The [sound base …
odour base … flavour base …] tangible-data base is a
condition, as presence condition, for the mind element
and for the states associated therewith. The materiality
with which as their support the mind element and
mind-consciousness element occur is a condition, as
presence condition, for the mind element, for the
mind-consciousness element, and for the states
associated therewith” (Paṭṭh I 6).
97. But in the Question Section, after setting forth
conascence, prenascence, postnascence, nutriment,
and faculty, the description is given first under
conascence in the way beginning, “One aggregate is a
condition, as presence condition, for three aggregates
and for materiality originated thereby” (Paṭṭh I 178).
Under prenascence the description is given according
to the prenascent eye and so on. Under postnascence
the description is given according to postnascent
consciousness and consciousness-concomitants as
conditions for this body. Under nutriments and
faculties [respectively] the description is given thus:
“Physical nutriment is a condition, as presence
condition, for this body,” [541] and “The material life
faculty is a condition, as presence condition, for
materiality due to kamma performed” (Paṭṭh I 178).[16]
98. (22) Immaterial states that, by their ceasing in

1466
contiguity [before], assist by giving opportunity to
immaterial states that arise proximately (next) after
them are absence conditions, according as it is said:
“States of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants that have ceased in contiguity are a
condition, as absence condition, for present states of
consciousness and consciousness-concomitants” (Paṭṭh
I 7).
99. (23) Those same states, because they assist by their
disappearance, are a disappearance condition, according
as it is said: “States of consciousness and
consciousness-concomitants that have disappeared in
contiguity are a condition, as disappearance condition,
for present states of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants” (Paṭṭh I 7).
100. (24) The same states that are presence condition,
because they assist by their non-disappearance, should
be understood as a non-disappearance condition. Or this
dyad is stated as an embellishment of teaching to suit
the needs of those who are teachable, just as [in the
Mātikā of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī] the “dissociated-from-
cause dyad” is given after the “causeless dyad.”

[How Ignorance is a Condition for Formations]

101. Now, as regards these twenty-four conditions:

1467
 For those of merit ignorance
Is a condition in two ways
And for the next in many ways
But for the last kind only once.
102. Herein, for those of merit ignorance is a condition in
two ways: it is a condition in two ways, namely, as
object condition and as decisive-support condition.
For ignorance is a condition, as object condition, for
formations of merit of the sense sphere at the time of
comprehending [by means of insight] ignorance as
liable to destruction and fall; and it is likewise for
those of the fine-material sphere at the time of
knowing a confused mind by means of direct-
knowledge consciousness [through penetrating others’
minds, and so on]. But it is a condition, as decisive-
support condition, in two cases, that is to say, [for the
sense-sphere formation] in one who, for the purpose
of surmounting ignorance, fulfils the various instances
of sense-sphere merit-making consisting in giving,
etc., and [for the fine-material-sphere formation] in
one who arouses the fine-material jhānas [for the same
purpose]. Likewise in one who effects that merit while
aspiring to the delight of sense-sphere becoming and
fine-material becoming because he is confused by
ignorance.
103. And for the next in many ways: it is a condition for
formations of demerit in many ways. How? As object

1468
condition at the time of the arising of greed, etc.,
contingent upon ignorance; as object-predominance
and object-decisive-support respectively at the times
of giving importance [to ignorance] and enjoying [it];
as decisive-support in one who, being confused by
ignorance and unaware of danger, kills living things,
etc.; as proximity, contiguity, proximity-decisive-
support, repetition, absence, and disappearance, for
the second impulsion and those that follow; as root-
cause, conascence, mutuality, support, association,
presence, and non-disappearance, in one doing
anything unprofitable. It is thus a condition in many
ways.
104. But for the last kind only once: [542] it is reckoned
as a condition in one way, namely, as decisive-support
condition only, for formations of the imperturbable.
But its relation as decisive-support condition should
be understood as stated under formations of merit.

[No Single Fruit from Single Cause]

105. Here it may be asked: But how is this? Is ignorance

the only condition for formations, or are there other
conditions? What is the position here? For firstly, if it
is the only one, there follows the assertion of a single
cause;[17] but then if there are others, the description
of it as a single cause, namely, “With ignorance as

1469
condition there are formations,” is incorrect—It is not
incorrect. Why not? Here is the reason:
Nor from a single cause arise
One fruit or many, nor one fruit from many;
’Tis helpful, though, to utilize
One cause and fruit as representative.
106. Here there is no single or multiple fruit of any
kind from a single cause, nor a single fruit from
multiple causes, but only multiple fruit from multiple
causes. So from multiple causes, in other words, from
temperature, earth, seed, and moisture, is seen to arise
a multiple fruit, in other words, the shoot, which has
visible form, odour, taste, and so on. But one
representative cause and fruit given in this way, “With
ignorance as condition there are formations; with
formations as condition, consciousness,” have a
meaning and a use.
107. For the Blessed One employs one representative
cause and fruit when it is suitable for the sake of
elegance in instruction and to suit the idiosyncrasies of
those susceptible of being taught. And he does so in
some instances because it is a basic factor, and in some
instances because it is the most obvious, and in some
instances because it is not common to all.
In the passage “With contact as condition, feeling” (M
I 261) he mentions a single cause and fruit because

1470
they are basic factors. For contact is the basic cause of
feeling since the kinds of feeling are defined according
to the kinds of contact [as “eye-contact-born feeling”
and so on], and feeling is contact’s basic fruit since
contact is defined according to the kinds of feeling
[that it produces]. He mentions a single cause in the
passage “Disease due to phlegm” (A V 110) because
that is the most obvious. For here what is obvious is
the phlegm, not the kamma, etc., [mentioned later in
the same sutta]. He mentions a single cause in the
passage “Bhikkhus, any states whatever that are
unprofitable are all rooted in unwise attention” (cf. S V
91) because it is not common to all. For unwise
attention to unprofitable things is not common to all
[states] in the way that, say, physical basis and object
are common to all.
108. Consequently, although other causes of
formations such as physical basis and object,
conascent states, etc., are actually existent, still
ignorance may be understood as the representative
cause of formations [firstly] because it is the basic
factor as the cause of other causes of formations such
as craving, etc., as it is said: “Craving increases in one
who dwells seeing enjoyment” (S II 84), and “With the
arising of ignorance there is the arising of cankers” (M
I 55); and again because it is the most obvious, “Not
knowing, bhikkhus, in ignorance, he forms the

1471
formation of merit” (cf. S II 82); and lastly because it is
not common to all. [543] So the use of one
representative cause and fruit should in each instance
be understood according to this explanation of it.[18]
109. Here it may be said: “We admit that. But
ignorance is reprehensible and has entirely
undesirable fruit. How then can it rightly be a
condition for formations of merit and of the
imperturbable? Sugarcane does not grow from [bitter]
neem seeds.” Why should it not be right? For in the
world [that is, even among thinkers outside the
Dispensation it is recognized that]
Both as opposed and unopposed
A state’s conditions may be found,
And both as like and unlike too:
That does not make it their result.
110. It is established in the world that when states
have a condition, it may be opposed or unopposed to
them as to presence, individual essence, function, and
so on. For a preceding consciousness is a condition,
opposed as to presence, for the succeeding
consciousness; and the preceding training is a
condition likewise for the plying of crafts, etc., which
take place subsequently. Kamma is a condition,
opposed as to individual essence, for materiality; and
so are milk, etc., for curds, and so on. Light is a

1472
condition, opposed as to function, for eye-
consciousness; and so are molasses, etc., for
intoxicants, and so on. But eye-cum-visible-data, etc.,
are respectively a condition, unopposed as to
presence, for eye-consciousness, and so on. And the
first impulsion, and those that follow, are a condition,
unopposed as to individual essence and function, for
the impulsions that follow them. And just as
conditions operate as opposed and unopposed, so also
they operate as like and unlike. Materiality—for
example, temperature and nutriment—is a condition
for materiality: the like for the like. And so are paddy
seeds, etc., for paddy crops, and so on. The material is
a condition for the immaterial, and so is the
immaterial for the material: the unlike for the like.
And so are ox hair and ram’s hair, horns, curd, and
sesame flour, etc., respectively for dabba grass, reeds,
bhūtanaka grass, and so on.[19] And those states for
which these are the opposed and unopposed, like and
unlike, conditions are not the results of these states as
well.
111. So although this ignorance has entirely
undesirable fruit for its result and is reprehensible in
its individual essence, yet it should be understood as a
condition, opposed or unopposed and like or unlike as
the case may be, as to presence, function, and
individual essence, for all these formations of merit,

1473
etc. And its state as a condition has already been given
in the way beginning, “For when unknowing—in
other words, ignorance—of suffering, etc., is
unabandoned in a man, owing firstly to his
unknowing about suffering and about the past, etc.,
then be believes the suffering of the round of rebirths
to be pleasant and he embarks upon the three kinds of
formations, which are the cause of that very suffering”
(§62).
112. Moreover, there is this way of explanation as
well:
Now, when a man is ignorant
Of death and rebirth and the round,
The characteristics of the formed,
Dependently-arisen states, [544]
And in his ignorance he forms
Formations of this triple kind,
Then ignorance itself will be
Condition for each of the three.
113. But how does a man who is confused about these
things perform these three kinds of formations?
Firstly, when he is confused about death, instead of
taking death thus, “Death in every case is break-up of
aggregates,” he figures that it is a [lasting] being that
dies, that it is a [lasting] being’s transmigration to
another incarnation, and so on.

1474
114. When he is confused about reappearance, instead
of taking rebirth thus, “Birth in every case is
manifestation of aggregates,” he figures that it is a
lasting being’s manifestation in a new body.
115. When he is confused about the round of rebirths,
instead of taking the round of rebirths as pictured
thus:
The endless chain of aggregates,
Of elements, of bases too,
That carries on unbrokenly
Is what is called “the round of births,”
he figures that it is a lasting being that goes from this
world to another world, that comes from another
world to this world.
116. When he is confused about the characteristics of
formations, instead of apprehending their specific and
general characteristics, he figures that formations are
self, belong to a self, are lasting, pleasant, beautiful.
117. When he is confused about dependently-arisen
states, instead of taking the occurrence of formations
to be due to ignorance, etc., he figures that it is a self
that knows or does not know, that acts and causes
action, that appears in rebirth-linking, and he figures
that atoms, an Overlord, etc., shape its body in the
various states of the embryo and endow it with
faculties, and that when it has been endowed with

1475
faculties it touches, feels, craves, clings, and
endeavours, and that it becomes anew in the next
becoming; or he figures thus, “All beings … [are]
moulded by fate, coincidence and nature” (D I 53).
118. Thus he figures, blinded by ignorance. He is like
a blind man who wanders about the earth,
encountering now right and now wrong paths, now
heights and now hollows, now even and now uneven
ground, and so he forms formations now of merit,
now of demerit, now imperturbable.
119. Hence this is said:
As one born blind, who gropes along
Without assistance from a guide,
Chooses a road that may be right
At one time, at another wrong,
So while the foolish man pursues
The round of births without a guide,
Now to do merit he may choose
And now demerit in such plight.
But when the Dhamma he comes to know
And penetrates the truths besides,
Then ignorance is put to flight
At last, and he in peace may go.
This is the detailed explanation of the clause, “With
ignorance as condition there are formations.” [545]

1476
 [(iii) Consciousness]
[(1) Kinds of Mundane Resultant Consciousness]

120. In the clause, with formations as condition,

consciousness, consciousness is sixfold as eye-
consciousness, and so on. Herein, eye-consciousness is
twofold, namely, profitable [kamma-]resultant and
unprofitable [kamma-]resultant (see Table II for
bracketed numbers that follow). Likewise ear-, nose-,
tongue-, and body-consciousness ((34)–(38) and (50)–
(54)). But mind-consciousness is twenty-two-fold,
namely, the two profitable and unprofitable resultant
mind elements ((39) and (55)), the three root-causeless
mind-consciousness elements ((40), (41) and (56)), the
eight sense-sphere resultant consciousnesses with
root-cause ((42)–(49)), the five of the fine-material
sphere ((57)–(61)), and the four of the immaterial
sphere ((62)–(65)). So all the thirty-two mundane
resultant consciousnesses ((34)–(65)) are included by
these six kinds of consciousness. But the
supramundane kinds do not belong to the exposition
of the round [of becoming], and so they are not
included.
121. Here it may be asked: “But how is it to be known
that this consciousness of the kind stated actually has
formations as its condition?”—Because there is no
kamma-result when there is no stored-up kamma. For

1477
this consciousness is kamma-result, and kamma-result
does not arise in the absence of stored-up kamma. If it
did, then all kinds of kamma-resultant
consciousnesses would arise in all kinds of beings, and
they do not do so. This is how it should be known that
such consciousness has formations as its condition.
122. But which kind of consciousness has which kind
of formations as its condition?
Firstly, the following sixteen kinds arise with the
sense-sphere formation of merit as condition: the five
profitable resultants beginning with eye-consciousness
((34)–(38)), and in the case of mind-consciousness one
kind of mind element (39) and two kinds of mind-
consciousness element ((40)–(41)), and the eight kinds
of sense-sphere resultant ((42)–(49)), according as it is
said: “Owing to profitable kamma of the sense sphere
having been performed, stored up, resultant eye-
consciousness” (Dhs §431), “ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-
consciousness” (Dhs §443), “resultant mind element
arises” (Dhs §455), “mind-consciousness element
accompanied by joy arises” (Dhs §469), “mind-
consciousness element accompanied by equanimity
arises” (Dhs §484), “accompanied by joy and
associated with knowledge … accompanied by joy,
associated with knowledge and prompted …
accompanied by joy and dissociated from knowledge
… accompanied by joy, dissociated from knowledge

1478
and prompted … accompanied by equanimity and
associated with knowledge … accompanied by
equanimity, associated with knowledge and prompted
… accompanied by equanimity and dissociated from
knowledge … accompanied by equanimity,
dissociated from knowledge and prompted” (Dhs
§498).
123. There are five kinds of resultant fine-material-
sphere consciousness ((57)–(61)) with the fine-
material-sphere formation of merit as condition,
according as it is said: “Owing to that same profitable
kamma of the fine-material sphere having been
performed, stored up, [by the development of that
same profitable jhāna,] [546] secluded from sense
desires … he enters upon and dwells in the resultant
first jhāna … fifth jhāna” (Dhs §499).
124. There are seven kinds of consciousness with the
formation of demerit as condition: the five
unprofitable resultants beginning with eye-
consciousness ((50)–(54)), one mind element (55), and
one mind-consciousness element (56), according as it
is said: “Because of unprofitable kamma having been
performed and stored up, resultant eye-consciousness
has arisen … ear- … nose- … tongue- … body-
consciousness has arisen” (Dhs §556), “resultant mind
element” (Dhs §562), “resultant mind-consciousness
element has arisen” (Dhs §564).

1479
125. There are four kinds of immaterial resultant
consciousness ((62)–(65)) with the formation of the
imperturbable as condition, according as it is said:
“Owing to that same profitable kamma of the
immaterial sphere having been performed, stored up
[by the development of that same profitable
immaterial jhāna, with the abandoning of bodily
pleasure and pain … he enters upon and dwells in the
resultant fourth jhāna, which,] with the complete
surmounting of perceptions of material form … is
accompanied by the base consisting of boundless
space” (Dhs §501), “accompanied by the base
consisting of boundless consciousness” (Dhs §502),
“accompanied by the base consisting of nothingness”
(Dhs §503), “accompanied by the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception” (Dhs §504).
126. After knowing what kind of consciousness has
what formations as its condition, one should now
understand how it occurs as follows.

[(2) The Occurrence of Resultant Consciousness]

Now, this resultant consciousness all occurs in two

ways, namely, (a) in the course of an individual
existence (or continuity), and (b) at the rebirth-linking
[moment].
Herein, there are the two fivefold consciousnesses

1480
((34)–(38) and (50)–(54)), two mind elements ((39) and
(55)), and root-causeless mind-consciousness element
accompanied by joy (40), that is, thirteen which occur
only in the course of an existence in the five-
constituent kind of becoming.[20] The remaining
nineteen occur in the three kinds of becoming, either
in the course of an existence or at rebirth-linking, as
appropriate. How?

[2. (a) In the Course of an Existence]

127. Firstly, in one who has been reborn by means of

either profitable-result or unprofitable result:
according as his faculties mature, so the five
profitable-resultant eye-, etc., consciousnesses occur
accomplishing the respective functions of seeing,
hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching ((d)–(h)),
contingent respectively upon a desirable or desirable-
neutral visible datum, etc., as object that has come into
the focus of the eye, etc., and having the sensitivity of
the eye, etc., as [material] support. And likewise the
five unprofitable-resultant consciousnesses; the only
difference being this, that the visible data, etc., as
object for these are undesirable or undesirable-neutral.
And these ten are invariable as to their door, object,
physical basis, and position [in the cognitive series],
and invariable as to their functions.

1481
128. After that, next to the profitable-resultant eye-,
etc., consciousness, the profitable-resultant mind
element (39) occurs accomplishing the function of
receiving (i), contingent upon the same object as that of
the former, and having the heart-basis as support.
[547] And next after the unprofitable-resultant eye-,
etc., consciousness, the unprofitable-resultant mind
element (55) occurs likewise. But these two, while
variable as to door and object, are invariable as to
physical basis and position, and invariable as to
function.
129. Then next to the profitable-resultant mind
element, the root-causeless mind-consciousness
element accompanied by joy (40) occurs
accomplishing the function of investigation (j),
contingent upon the same object as that of the mind
element, and having the heart-basis as support. And
when the object is a vivid one in any of the six doors
belonging to sense-sphere beings, usually at the end of
impulsions associated with greed it holds up the
[renewal of the] course of the life-continuum (b) by
occurring either once or twice as registration (m),
having the same object as that apprehended by the
impulsions—so it is said in the Majjhima
Commentary.[21] But in the Abhidhamma
Commentary two turns of consciousness have been
handed down with respect to registration. This

1482
consciousness has two names, “registration” (tad-
ārammaṇa—lit. having that object that the preceding
impulsions had) and “aftermath life-continuum”
(piṭṭhi-bhavaṅga—see XIV.122). It is variable as to door
and object, it is invariable as to physical basis, and it is
variable as to position and function.
This, in the first place, it should be understood, is how
thirteen kinds of consciousness occur only in the
course of an individual existence in the five-
constituent kind of becoming.
130. As to the remaining nineteen ((41)–(49) and (56)–
(65)), there is none that does not occur as a rebirth-
linking (a) appropriate to it (see §133). But in the
course of an individual existence, firstly, two, namely,
profitable-resultant and unprofitable-resultant root-
causeless mind-consciousness elements ((41) and (56))
occur accomplishing four functions, that is to say, the
function of investigating in the five doors (j) next after
profitable-resultant and unprofitable-resultant mind
element, the function of registration (m) in the six
doors in the way already stated, the function of life-
continuum (b) that continues after rebirth-linking given
by themselves, as long as there is no thought-arising to
interrupt the life-continuum, and lastly the function of
death (n) at the end [of the course of an existence]. And
so these two are invariable as to [possession of heart-]
basis, and variable as to door, object, position, and

1483
function.
131. The eight sense-sphere consciousnesses with
root-cause ((42)–(49)) occur accomplishing three
functions, namely, the function of registration (m) in
the six doors in the way already stated, the function of
life-continuum (b) after rebirth-linking given by
themselves, as long as there is no thought-arising to
interrupt the life-continuum, and lastly the function of
death (n) at the end. And they are invariable as to
[possession of heart-] basis, and variable as to door,
position, and function.
132. The five fine-material consciousnesses ((57)–(61))
and the four immaterial consciousnesses ((62)–(65))
occur accomplishing two functions, namely, the
function of life-continuum (b) that continues after
rebirth-linking given by themselves, as long as there is
no thought-arising to interrupt the life-continuum,
and the function of death (n) at the end. As regards
these, those of the fine-material sphere are invariable
as to [possession of heart-]basis and as to their object,
and they are variable as to position and function,
while the others occur invariably without [heart-]
basis, and they are invariable as to object, and variable
as to position and function.
This, in the first place, is how the thirty-twofold
resultant consciousness occurs in the course of an

1484
individual existence with formations as condition.
And there [in the course of an existence] these several
formations are conditions, as kamma condition and
decisive-support condition, for this [thirty-twofold
resultant consciousness]. [548]

[2. (b) At Rebirth-Linking]

133. But what was said above, namely, “as to the

remaining nineteen, there is none that does not occur
as a rebirth-linking appropriate to it” (§130), is hard to
understand since it is too brief. Hence, in order to
show the details it may be asked: (i) How many kinds
of rebirth-linking are there? (ii) How many kinds of
rebirth-linking consciousness? (iii) Where and by what
means does rebirth-linking come about? (iv) What
does rebirth-linking [consciousness] have as its object?
134. (i) Including the rebirth-linking of non-percipient
beings there are twenty kinds of rebirth-linking.
(ii) There are nineteen kinds of rebirth-linking
consciousnesses, as already described.
(iii) Herein, rebirth-linking by means of the
unprofitable-resultant root-causeless mind-
consciousness element (56) comes about in the states
of loss. Rebirth-linking by means of the profitable-
resultant (41) comes about in the human world among

1485
those blind from birth, born deaf, born mad, born
drivelling (see M I 20; M-a I 118), the sexless, and so
on. Rebirth-linking by means of the eight principal
resultant consciousnesses with root-cause ((42)–(49))
comes about among deities of the sense sphere and the
meritorious among men. That by means of the five
fine-material resultant kinds comes about in the fine-
material Brahmā-world. That by means of the four
immaterial-sphere resultant kinds comes about in the
immaterial world. So rebirth-linking [consciousness]
conforms to the means by which, and the place in
which, it comes about.
(iv) Briefly, rebirth-linking [consciousness] has three
kinds of objects, namely, past, present, and not-so-
classifiable (see Ch. III, n. 32). Non-percipient rebirth-
linking [consciousness] has no object.
135. Herein, in the base consisting of boundless
consciousness and the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception, the object of rebirth-
linking is past. That of the ten kinds of sense-sphere
rebirth-linking is past or present. That of the rest is not-
so-classifiable. But while the rebirth-linking
consciousness occurs thus with three kinds of objects,
the death consciousness, next to which it occurs, has
only a past or a not-so-classifiable object, there being
no death consciousness with a present object.
Consequently, it should be understood how it occurs

1486
in the happy destinies and the unhappy destinies as
follows, that is to say, how rebirth-linking
consciousness with one of three kinds of objects occurs
next to death consciousness with one of two kinds of
objects.
136. [From happy to unhappy destiny.] For example,
firstly in the case of a person in the happy destinies of
the sense-sphere who is an evildoer, when he is lying
on his deathbed, his evil kamma according as it has
been stored up, or its sign, comes into focus in the
mind door. For it is said, “Then [the evil deeds that he
did in the past] … cover him [and overspread him and
envelop him]” (M III 164), and so on. Then next to the
cognitive series of impulsions ending in
registration[22] that arose contingent upon that
[kamma or its sign], death consciousness arises
making the life-continuum’s objective field its object.
When it has ceased, rebirth-linking consciousness
arises contingent upon that same kamma or kamma
sign that had come into focus, and it does so located in
the unhappy destiny, being driven there by the force
of defilements that have not been cut off. [549] This is
the kind of rebirth-linking that has a past object and
comes next to death consciousness with a past object.
137. In another’s case, owing to kamma of the kind
already described, there comes into focus at the mind
door at the time of death the sign of the unhappy

1487
destinies with the appearance of fire and flames, etc.,
in the hells, and so on.[23] So when the life-continuum
has twice arisen and ceased, three sorts of cognitive-
series consciousness arise contingent upon that object,
namely, the one adverting, impulsions numbering five
because of the slowing down due to the nearness of
death, and two registrations. After that, one death
consciousness arises making the life-continuum’s
objective field its object. At this point eleven
consciousnesses have elapsed. Then, having that same
object, which has a life span of the remaining five
conscious moments, his rebirth-linking consciousness
arises. This is the kind of rebirth-linking that has a
present object and comes next to death with a past
object.
138. In another’s case, at the time of death there comes
into focus in one of the five doors an inferior object
that is a cause of greed, and so on. When a series of
consciousnesses up to determining have arisen in due
succession, there arise impulsions numbering five
because of slowing down due to the nearness of death,
and two registrations. After that, one death
consciousness arises making the life-continuum’s
objective field its object. At this point fifteen
consciousnesses have elapsed, namely, two life-
continuums, one each adverting, seeing, receiving,
investigating and determining, five impulsions, two

1488
registrations, and one death consciousness. Then,
having that same object, which has a life span of the
remaining one conscious moment, his rebirth-linking
consciousness arises. This also is the kind of rebirth-
linking that has a present object and comes next to a
death consciousness with a past object.
This, firstly, is how rebirth-linking in an unhappy
destiny with past and present objects occurs next to
death consciousness in a happy destiny with a past
object.
139. [From unhappy to happy destiny.] In the case of one
in an unhappy destiny who has stored up blameless
kamma all should be understood in the same way,
substituting the bright for the dark side thus: His good
kamma, [according as it has been stored up], or its
sign, comes into focus in the mind door [and
continuing] in the way already stated.
This is how rebirth-linking occurs in a happy destiny
with past and present objects next to death
consciousness in an unhappy destiny with a past
object.
140. [From happy to happy destiny.] In the case of one in
a happy destiny who has stored up blameless kamma,
when he is lying on his death-bed, his blameless
kamma according as it has been stored up, or its sign,
comes into focus in the mind door. For it is said, “Then

1489
[the good deeds he did in the past] … cover him [and
overspread him and envelop him]” (M III 171), and so
on. And that applies only in the case of one who has
stored up blameless sense-sphere kamma. [550] But in
the case of one who has stored up kamma of the
exalted spheres only the sign of the kamma comes into
focus. Then next to the cognitive series of impulsions
ending in registration, or of simple impulsions, that
arose contingent upon that [kamma or its sign], death
consciousness arises making the life-continuum’s
objective field its object. When it has ceased, rebirth-
linking consciousness arises contingent upon that
same kamma or sign of kamma that had come into
focus, and it does so located in the happy destiny,
being driven there by the force of defilements that
have not been cut off. This is the kind of rebirth-
linking that has a past or a not-so-classifiable object and
comes next to death consciousness with a past object.
141. In another’s case, owing to blameless sense-
sphere kamma, there comes into focus in the mind
door at the time of death the sign of a happy destiny,
in other words, the appearance of the mother’s
womb[24] in the case of the human world or the
appearance of pleasure groves, divine palaces,
wishing trees, etc., in the case of the divine world. His
rebirth-linking consciousness arises next to the death
consciousness in the order shown for the sign of an

1490
unhappy destiny. This is the kind of rebirth-linking
that has a present object and comes next to death
consciousness with a past object.
142. In another’s case, relatives present [objects to
him] at the five sense doors, such as a visible datum as
object, perhaps flowers, garlands, flags, banners, etc.,
saying, “This is being offered to the Blessed One for
your sake, dear, set your mind at rest”; or a sound as
object, perhaps, preaching of the Dhamma, offerings
of music, etc.; or an odour as object, perhaps incense,
scents, perfumes, etc.; or a taste as object, perhaps
honey, molasses, etc., saying, “Taste this, dear, it is a
gift to be given for your sake”; or a tangible datum as
object, perhaps Chinese silk, silk of Somāra, saying,
“Touch this, dear, it is a gift to be given for your sake.”
Now, when that visible datum, or whatever it may be,
as object has come into focus for him and the
consciousnesses ending in determining have arisen in
due succession, there arise in him impulsions
numbering five because of slowing down due to the
nearness of death, and two registrations; after that,
one death consciousness, making the life-continuum’s
objective field its object. At the end of that, having that
same object, which lasts only a single conscious
moment, rebirth-linking consciousness arises. This
also is the kind of rebirth-linking with a present object
and comes next to a death consciousness with a past

1491
object.
143. But in the case of another who is in a happy
destiny and has obtained exalted [consciousness]
through earth-kasiṇa jhāna, etc., at the time of his
death there comes into focus at the mind door the
sense-sphere profitable kamma or the sign of the
kamma or the sign of the destiny, or else the sign of
the earth kasiṇa, etc., or else the exalted consciousness,
[551] or else there comes into focus a superior object of
the eye or ear that is a cause for profitable rebirth.
When the consciousnesses ending in determining have
arisen in due succession, there arise in him impulsions
numbering five because of slowing down due to the
nearness of death. But in those who belong to an
exalted destiny there is no registration. So the one
death consciousness arises next to the impulsion and
making the life-continuum’s objective field its object.
At the end of that, rebirth-linking consciousness arises
located in one of the happy destinies of the sense
sphere or exalted sphere, and having as its object
whichever one among the aforesaid objects has
appeared. This is the kind of rebirth-linking with a
past, present, or not-so-classifiable object next to death
consciousness in a happy destiny with a not-so-
classifiable object.
144. Rebirth-linking next to immaterial-sphere death
should be understood in this way too. This is how

1492
rebirth-linking occurs with a past, present, or not-so-
classifiable object next to death consciousness in a
happy destiny with a past or not-so-classifiable object.
145. [From unhappy to unhappy destiny.] In the case of
one in an unhappy destiny who is an evil-doer, that
kamma, or its sign, or the sign of the destiny, comes
into focus in the mind door, or in the five doors, as the
object that is the cause for the unprofitable rebirth.
Then his rebirth-linking consciousness arises in due
succession at the end of the death consciousness and
located in the unhappy destiny and with one of those
objects as its object. This is how rebirth-linking occurs
with a past or present object next to death in an
unhappy destiny with a past object.

[How Kamma is a Condition]

146. Up to this point there has been shown the

occurrence of the nineteenfold consciousness as
rebirth-linking. Also all this [is further classified; for]
While it occurs in linking thus,
It has a double class beside
Through kamma, and as mixed and not,
And is still further classified.
147. When this nineteenfold kamma-resultant
consciousness occurs thus in rebirth-linking, it does so

1493
by means of kamma in two ways; for according to the
way in which the kamma that generates it occurs, the
kamma can be its condition both as kamma condition
acting from a different time and as decisive-support
condition, since this is said: “Profitable … [and]
unprofitable kamma is a condition, as decisive-
support condition, for [its] result” (Paṭṭh I 167, 169).
148. It should be understood that when it occurs thus,
its double class, etc., is mixed and not, and it is still further
classified.
For example: though this [type of consciousness]
occurs in one way only as rebirth-linking, still it is
twofold as divided into mixed and unmixed with
materiality; [552] it is threefold as divided according to
sense-desire, fine-material, and immaterial becoming
(M I 50); it is fourfold as egg-born, womb-born,
putrescence- (moisture-) born, and of apparitional
generation (M I 73); it is fivefold according to destiny
(M I 73); it is sevenfold according to the stations of
consciousness (D III 253), and it is eightfold according
to the abodes of beings [excluding non-percipient
beings] (see D III 263).
149. Herein:
The mixed is double, sexed and not,
And that with sex is double too;
The least decads the first has got

1494
 Respectively are three and two.
150. The mixed is double, sexed and not: that rebirth-
linking consciousness, which, leaving aside the
immaterial becoming, arises here mixed with
materiality, is twofold as “with sex” and “without
sex,”[25] because it arises in the fine-material sphere
without the sex called femininity faculty and
masculinity faculty, and because—leaving aside the
rebirth-linking of one born as a eunuch—it arises in
the sense-sphere becoming together with that
[twofold] sex.
And that with sex is double too: there also that with
sex is twofold because it arises in association with
either the female or the male sex.
151. The least decads the first has got respectively are three
or two: together with the rebirth-linking consciousness
that is mixed with materiality and comes first in the
pair “mixed and unmixed,” there arise, at the least, the
two decads (see 18.5f.) of physical basis and body, or
else the three decads of physical basis, body, and sex.
There is no reducing the materiality below that.
152. But when that minimal amount arises in the two
kinds of generation termed egg-born and womb-born,
it amounts to no more than a drop of cream of ghee on
a single fibre of new-born [kid’s] wool, and it is
known as the “embryo in the first stage” (S I 206).

1495
153. Herein, how the different kinds of generation
come about may be understood according to the kind
of destiny. For as regards these:
No first three generations are
In hell, or with the deities,
Save those of earth; all four are found
In the three other destinies.
154. Herein, by the words with deities it should be
understood that, as in hell and among deities—
excepting earth deities—so also among the ghosts
consumed with thirst, the first three kinds of
generation are not found; for they are apparitional
only. But in the remaining three kinds of destiny, in
other words, among animals, ghosts and human
beings, and among the earth deities excepted above,
there are all four kinds of generation.
155. Now:
The fine material gods have thirty-nine;
The apparitional and moisture-born
Have seventy material instances
At most, and they have thirty at the least.
156. Firstly, among the fine-material Brahmās of
apparitional generation there arise together with
rebirth-linking consciousness thirty and also nine
material instances [553] with the four groups, namely,
the decads of the eye, ear, and physical basis, and the

1496
ennead of life. But leaving the fine-material Brahmās
aside, among the others of apparitional generation and
those of the moisture-born generation there are
seventy instances of materiality at the most with the
decads of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, physical
basis and sex. And these are invariably to be found
among deities [of the sense sphere]. Now, the group of
material states comprising the ten material instances,
namely, colour, odour, flavour, nutritive essence, and
the four primary elements, with eye sensitivity and
life, are called the “eye decad.” The remaining [groups
of material states] should be understood in the same
way.
157. At the least, thirty material instances arise with
the decads of the tongue, body, and physical basis, in
those who are blind from birth, deaf, noseless,[26] and
sexless. Between the most and the least, the allotment
should be understood according as appropriate.
158. After knowing this, again:
One ought to consider the [pair] death and birth
Under aggregates, object, cause, destiny, feeling,
Happiness, and then thinking applied and
sustained,
Distinguishing them by unlikeness and likeness.
159. The meaning is this: there is rebirth-linking that
is twofold as mixed and unmixed [with materiality],

1497
and there is the death consciousness next before it, and
their unlikeness and likeness according to these
aggregates, etc., must be known. How?
160. Sometimes, next to a four-aggregate immaterial
death there is a four-aggregate rebirth-linking having
a like object; sometimes there is an exalted rebirth-
linking with an internal object next to an unexalted
death with an external object. This, firstly, is the
method in the case of the immaterial planes.
Sometimes there is a five-aggregate sense-sphere
rebirth-linking next to a four-aggregate immaterial
death. Sometimes there is a four-aggregate immaterial
rebirth-linking next to a five-aggregate sense-sphere
death or fine-material-sphere death.
Thus there is rebirth-linking with a present object[27]
next to a death with a past object, there is rebirth-
linking in a certain unhappy destiny next to death in a
certain happy destiny, there is rebirth-linking with
root-cause next to root-causeless death, there is triple-
root-cause rebirth-linking next to double-root-cause
death, there is rebirth-linking accompanied by joy next
to death accompanied by equanimity, there is rebirth-
linking with happiness next to death without
happiness, there is rebirth-linking with applied
thought next to death without applied thought, there
is rebirth-linking with sustained thought next to death

1498
without sustained thought, there is rebirth-linking
with applied and sustained thought next to death
without applied and sustained thought.
In this way they can be coupled together by opposites
as appropriate.
161. A mere state that has got its conditions
Ushers in the ensuing existence;
While it does not migrate from the past,
With no cause in the past it is not.
162. So it is a mere material and immaterial state,
arising when it has obtained its conditions, that is
spoken of, saying that it comes into the next becoming;
it is not a lasting being, [554] not a soul. And it has
neither transmigrated from the past becoming nor yet
is it manifested here without cause from that.
163. We shall explain this by the normal process of
human death and rebirth-linking. When in the past
becoming a man near to a natural or violent death is
unable to bear the onset of the unbearable daggers of
the [painful] feelings that end in death as they sever
the ligatures of the joints in all the limbs, his body
gradually withers like a green palm leaf lying in the
glare of the sun, and when the faculties of the eye, etc.,
have ceased and the body faculty, mind faculty, and
life faculty remain on in the heart-basis alone, then
consciousness, which has as its support the heart-basis

1499
still remaining at that moment, either occurs
contingent upon some kamma classed as “weighty,”
“repeated,” performed “near” [to death] or
previously,[28] in other words, the formation that has
obtained the remaining conditions, or contingent upon
the objective field made to appear by that kamma, in
other words, the sign of the kamma or sign of the
destiny.[29] And while it is occurring thus, because
craving and ignorance have not been abandoned,
craving pushes it and the conascent formations fling it
forward[30] on to that objective field, the dangers in
which are concealed by ignorance. And while, as a
continuous process,[31] it is being pushed by craving
and flung forward by formations, it abandons its
former support, like a man who crosses a river by
hanging on to a rope tied to a tree on the near bank,
and, whether or not it gets a further support
originated by kamma, it occurs by means of the
conditions consisting only in object condition, and so
on.
164. The former of these [two states of consciousness]
is called “death” (cuti) because of falling (cavana), and
the latter is called “rebirth-linking” (paṭisandhi)
because of linking (paṭisandhāna) across the gap
separating the beginning of the next becoming. But it
should be understood that it has neither come here

1500
from the previous becoming nor has it become
manifest without the kamma, the formations, the
pushing, the objective field, etc., as cause.
165. An echo, or its like, supplies
The figures here; connectedness
By continuity denies
Identity and otherness.
166. And here let the illustration of this consciousness
be such things as an echo, a light, a seal impression, a
looking-glass image, for the fact of its not coming here
from the previous becoming and for the fact that it
arises owing to causes that are included in past
becomings. For just as an echo, a light, a seal
impression, and a shadow have respectively sound,
etc., as their cause and come into being without going
elsewhere, so also this consciousness.
167. And with a stream of continuity there is neither
identity nor otherness. For if there were absolute
identity in a stream of continuity, there would be no
forming of curd from milk. And yet if there were
absolute otherness, the curd would not be derived
from the milk. And so too with all causally arisen
things. And if that were so there would be an end to
all worldly usage, which is hardly desirable. So
neither absolute identity nor absolute otherness
should be assumed here. [555]

1501
168. Here it might be asked: “If no transmigration is
manifested, then after the cessation of the aggregates
in this human person, that fruit could be another
person’s or due to other [kamma], since the kamma
that is the condition for the fruit does not pass on there
[to where the fruit is]? And whose is the fruit since
there is no experiencer? Therefore this formulation
seems to be unsatisfactory.”
169. Here is the reply:
In continuity the fruit
Is neither of nor from another;
Seed’s forming processes will suit
To show the purport of this matter.
170. When a fruit arises in a single continuity, it is
neither another’s nor from other [kamma] because
absolute identity and absolute otherness are
excluded[32] there. The formative processes of seeds
establish the meaning of this. For once the formative
processes of a mango seed, etc., have been set afoot,
when the particular fruit arises in the continuity of the
seed’s [growth], later on owing to the obtaining of
conditions, it does so neither as the fruit of other seeds
nor from other formative processes as condition; and
those seeds or formative processes do not themselves
pass on to the place where the fruit is. This is the
analogy here. And the meaning can also be

1502
understood from the fact that the arts, crafts, medicine,
etc., learnt in youth give their fruit later on in
maturity.
171. Now, it was also asked, “Whose is the fruit, since
there is no experiencer?” Herein:
“Experiencer” is a convention
For mere arising of the fruit;
They say “It fruits” as a convention,
When on a tree appears its fruit.
172. Just as it is simply owing to the arising of tree
fruits, which are one part of the phenomena called a
tree, that it is said “The tree fruits” or “The tree has
fruited,” so it is simply owing to the arising of the fruit
consisting of the pleasure and pain called experience,
which is one part of the aggregates called “deities”
and “human beings,” that it is said “A deity or a
human being experiences or feels pleasure or pain.”
There is therefore no need at all here for a superfluous
experiencer.
173. But it may be said: “That may be so; but then
these formations must be the conditions for the fruit
either when they are present or when they are not
present, and if it is when they are present, their result
must come about only at the moment of their
occurrence; but if it is when they are not present, they
must bear fruit constantly both before and after their

1503
occurrence.” It can be replied:
They are conditions when performed;
They bear fruit once, but not again;
The agent and such similes
Will serve to make the meaning plain.
174. Formations are conditions for their own fruit
because they have been performed, not because of
presence or non-presence, according as it is said: [556]
“Due to profitable kamma of the sense sphere having
been performed, stored up [in the past], resultant eye-
consciousness arises [in the present]” (Dhs §431), and
so on. Having become conditions for their own fruit
according to their capacity, they do not again bear
fruit since the result has already ripened. And in
explaining the meaning of this the analogy of the
agent, etc., should be understood. For just as in the
world when someone becomes an agent with the aim
of completing some business or other, and he buys
goods, say, or obtains a loan, it is simply the fact of his
performing the transaction that is the condition for
completing that business, not the transaction’s actual
presence or non-presence; and after the completion of
the business he has no further liability. Why not?
Because the business has been completed. So it is
because they have been performed that formations are
conditions for their own fruit, and they do not bear
fruit after they have already given fruit according to

1504
their capacity.
Up to this point the occurrence, with formations as
condition, of rebirth-linking consciousness that occurs
in the two ways as mixed and unmixed [with
materiality] has been illustrated.

[(3) How Formations are a Condition for

Consciousness]

175. Now, in order to eliminate confusion about all

these thirty-two kinds of resultant consciousness:
One should of these formations see
For which and how they are conditions
In birth and life in all the three
Kinds of becoming and the rest.
176. Herein, the three kinds of becoming, the four
kinds of generation, the five kinds of destiny, the
seven stations of consciousness, and the nine abodes
of beings are what are called “The kinds of becoming
and the rest.” The meaning is that it should be
recognized for what kinds of resultant consciousness
these [formations] are conditions in rebirth-linking
and in the course of an individual existence, and in
what way they are conditions in the various kinds of
becoming and so on.
177. Herein, firstly as regard the formation of merit: the

1505
formation of merit comprising the eight volitions of
the sense sphere ((1)–(8)) is a condition in two ways, as
kamma condition acting from a different time and as
decisive-support condition, equally for all the nine
kinds of resultant consciousness ((41)–(49)) in rebirth-
linking in a happy destiny in the sense-sphere
becoming. That formation comprising the five
profitable volitions of the fine-material sphere ((9)–
(13)) [is a condition] in like manner for the five kinds
of rebirth-linking in the fine-material becoming ((57)–
(61)).
178. That of the sense sphere divided up as aforesaid
is a condition in two ways, as aforesaid, for seven
kinds of limited [-sphere] resultant consciousness
((34)–(40))—excluding the root-causeless mind-
consciousness element accompanied by equanimity
(41)—in the course of an existence, but not in rebirth-
linking, in the happy destinies in the sense-sphere
becoming. And that same formation is a condition
likewise for five kinds of resultant consciousness ((34),
(35), (39)–(41)) in the course of an existence, not in
rebirth-linking, in the fine-material becoming. It is a
condition likewise for eight kinds of limited [-sphere]
resultant consciousness ((34)–(41)) in the course of
existence, not in rebirth-linking, in the unhappy
destinies in the sense-sphere becoming. [557] For then
it is a condition [for such profitable-resultant

1506
consciousness occurring] in hell encountering a
desirable object [on such occasions] as the Elder Mahā
Moggallāna’s visits to hell, and so on. But among
animals and powerful ghosts too a desirable object is
obtained [through the same condition].
179. This eightfold formation of merit is also a
condition likewise for sixteen kinds of profitable-
resultant consciousness in the course of an existence
((34)–(41)) and in rebirth-linking ((42)–(49)) in the
happy destinies in the sense-sphere becoming. It is
also a condition equally for all ten kinds of resultant
consciousness in the course of an existence ((34), (35),
(39)–(41)) and in rebirth-linking ((57)–(61)) in the fine-
material becoming.
180. The formation of demerit, comprising the twelve
unprofitable volitions ((22)–(33)), is a condition
likewise in the unhappy destinies in the sense-sphere
becoming for one kind of consciousness in rebirth-
linking (56), not in the course of an existence; also for
six kinds in the course of an existence ((50)–(55)), not
in rebirth-linking; and for all the seven kinds partly in
the course of an existence and partly in rebirth-linking.
And in the happy destinies in the sense-sphere
becoming it is a condition likewise for those same
seven kinds in the course of an existence, not in
rebirth-linking. In the fine-material becoming it is a
condition likewise for four kinds of resultant

1507
consciousness ((50)–(51), (55), (56)) in the course of an
existence, not in rebirth-linking. Then it is a condition
for [Brahmās’] seeing undesirable visible data and
hearing undesirable sounds that are in the sense
sphere: there are no undesirable visible data, etc., in
the Brahmā-world itself; and likewise in the divine
world of the sense sphere.[33]
181. The formation of the imperturbable is a condition
likewise for four kinds of resultant consciousness
((62)–(65)) in the course of an existence and in rebirth-
linking in the immaterial becoming.
This, firstly, is how it should be understood what
kinds of resultant consciousness these formations are
conditions for in rebirth-linking and in the [three]
kinds of becoming, and in what way they are
conditions. And it should also be understood in the
same way of the kinds of generation and so on.
182. Here is a statement of the bare headings starting
from the beginning. Of these [three kinds of]
formations, firstly the formation of merit, when giving
rebirth-linking, produces the whole of its result in two
of the kinds of becoming; likewise in the four kinds of
generation beginning with the egg-born, in two of the
kinds of destiny, in other words, the divine and the
human; in four of the stations of consciousness, [the
human, and the planes of the first, second and third

1508
jhānas,] described thus, “Different in body and
different in perception … different in body and same
in perception … same in body and different in
perception … same in body and same in perception
…;” (D III 253) and in only four of the abodes of
beings, because in the abode of non-percipient beings
it only forms materiality. Therefore it is a condition in
the way already stated for twenty-one kinds of
resultant consciousness in these two kinds of
becoming, four kinds of generation, two kinds of
destiny, four stations of consciousness, and four
abodes of beings according as they are produced in
rebirth-linking ((41)–(49), (57)–(61)) [558] and the
course of an existence ((34)–(41)), as appropriate.
183. The formation of demerit as rebirth-linking
ripens in the sense-sphere becoming only, in the four
kinds of generation, in the remaining three destinies,
in the one station of consciousness described thus
“different in body and same in perception” (D III 253),
and in the one corresponding abode of beings.
Therefore it is a condition in the way already stated
for seven kinds of resultant consciousness in one kind
of becoming, in four kinds of generation, in three
kinds of destiny, in one station of consciousness, and
in one abode of beings, both in rebirth-linking (56) and
in the course of an existence ((50)–(56)).
184. The formation of the imperturbable as rebirth-

1509
linking ripens in the immaterial becoming, in the
apparitional kind of generation only, in the divine
destiny only, in the three stations of consciousness
beginning with the base consisting of boundless space,
and in the four abodes of beings beginning with the
base consisting of boundless space ((62)–(65)).
Therefore it is a condition in the way already stated
for the four kinds of consciousness in one kind of
becoming, in one kind of generation, in one kind of
destiny, in three stations of consciousness, and in four
abodes of beings, both in rebirth-linking and in the
course of becoming.[34]
185. This is how:
One should of these formations see
For which and how they are conditions
In birth and life and the three
Kinds of becoming and the rest.
This is the detailed explanation of the clause, “With
formations as condition, consciousness.”

[(iv) Mentality-Materiality]

186. For the clause, “With consciousness as condition,

mentality-materiality”:

1510
 (1) By analysis of mind and matter,
(2) Occurrence in becoming, etc.,
(3) Inclusion, and (4) manner of condition,
The exposition should be known.
187. 1. By analysis of mind and matter: here “mind”
(nāma—mentality) is the three aggregates, that is,
feeling, perception, and formations, because of their
bending (namana) on to the object. “Matter” (rūpa—
materiality) is the four great primary elements and the
materiality derived [by clinging] from the four great
primaries. Their analysis is given in the Description of
the Aggregates (XIV.34f., 125f.). This, in the first place,
is how the exposition of mentality-materiality should
be known “by analysis.”
188. 2. By occurrence in becoming, et cetera: excepting
one abode of beings, [that is, the non-percipient,]
mentality occurs in all the kinds of becoming,
generation, destiny, and station of consciousness, and
in the remaining abodes of beings. Materiality occurs
in two kinds of becoming, four kinds of generation,
five destinies, the first four stations of consciousness,
and the first five abodes of beings.
189. Now, when this mentality-materiality occurs
thus, [559] then in the case of sexless embryos and the
egg-born, at the moment of their rebirth-linking there
are manifested as materiality two organic continuities,

1511
that is, the two decads of physical basis and body, and
also the three immaterial aggregates. So in their case
there are in detail these twenty-three states, namely,
twenty states as concrete matter and three immaterial
aggregates, which should be understood as
“mentality-materiality with consciousness as
condition.” But omitting repetitions,[35] and so
cancelling nine material instances (see 11.88) from one
of the organic continuities, fourteen states remain.
By adding the sex decad for those possessed of sex
[before making the above cancellation] there are
thirty-three. And omitting repetitions and so
cancelling eighteen material instances [nine each] from
two of the organic continuities, in this case fifteen
states remain.
190. At the moment of rebirth-linking of those of
Brahmā’s Retinue, among apparitionally born beings,
four organic continuities are manifested as materiality,
that is, the decads of eye, ear, and physical basis, and
the ennead of the life faculty, and three immaterial
aggregates. So in their case in detail these forty-two
states, namely, thirty-nine states as concrete
materiality and three immaterial aggregates, should be
understood as “mentality-materiality with
consciousness as condition.” But omitting repetitions
and so cancelling twenty-seven instances of
materiality [nine each] from three of the organic

1512
continuities, fifteen states remain.
191. In the sense-sphere becoming, seven organic
continuities are manifested as materiality, and also
three immaterial aggregates at the moment of rebirth-
linking of the remaining kinds of apparitionally born
or of the moisture-born possessing sex and matured
sense bases. So in their case in detail these seventy-
three states, namely, seventy instances of concrete
materiality and three immaterial aggregates, should be
understood as “mentality-materiality with formations
as condition.” But omitting repetitions and so
cancelling fifty-four material instances [nine each]
from six of the organic continuities, nineteen states
remain.
This is the maximum. But at minimum the
computation of “mentality-materiality with
consciousness as condition” in the rebirth-linking of
those who lack such and such an organic continuity
can be understood in brief and detail by reducing it
appropriately. [The blind, for instance, lack the eye
decad.]
192. For mentality-materiality immaterial beings have
only the three [mental] aggregates; while non-
percipient beings have only the life-faculty ennead,
and that represents materiality.
193. In the course of an existence, in all places where

1513
materiality occurs there is manifested the temperature-
originated bare [material] octad, which is due
[initially] to the temperature that occurred together
with the rebirth-linking consciousness at the moment
of its presence.[36] Rebirth-linking consciousness does
not originate materiality. For, just as a man who is
falling into a chasm cannot support another, so it, too,
is unable to originate materiality because of its
weakness, which is due to the weakness of the
physical basis. But from the first life-continuum after
the rebirth-linking consciousness onwards, [560] the
bare octad originated by consciousness appears. And
at the time when sound becomes manifest there is the
sound ennead due both to temperature occurring after
the moment of rebirth-linking and to consciousness.
194. The bare octad originated by nutriment appears
in beings in the womb who live on matter consisting
of physical nutriment as soon as their body is suffused
by nutriment swallowed by the mother; for it is said:
And so it is that when his mother
Eats, consuming food and drink,
One hidden in his mother’s womb
Thereby obtains his nourishment (S I 206).
And it appears in apparitionally born beings as soon
as they first swallow the spittle that has come into
their own mouths.

1514
So, with the twenty-six [material instances] consisting
of the bare octad originated by nutriment, and of the,
at most, two [sound] enneads originated respectively
by temperature and consciousness, and also with the
already-mentioned seventy kamma-originated
instances (§191) that arise three times in each
conscious moment [at the instants of arising, presence,
and dissolution], there are thus ninety-six material
instances; and with the three immaterial aggregates
there is thus a total of ninety-nine states.
195. Or because sound is not regularly present since it
is only sometimes manifested, subtracting it therefore
as twofold [being temperature-originated and
consciousness-originated], there are these ninety-
seven states to be understood as “mentality-
materiality with consciousness as condition” in all
beings, according as it happens to be produced. For
whether these beings are sleeping or idling or eating
or drinking, these states keep on occurring in them
day and night with consciousness as condition. And
we shall explain later how they have consciousness as
their condition (see §200ff.).
196. Now, although this kamma-born materiality is
the first to find a footing in the several kinds of
becoming, generation, destiny, station of
consciousness, and abode of beings, it is nevertheless
unable to carry on without being consolidated by

1515
materiality of triple origination [by consciousness,
temperature, and nutriment], nor can that of triple
origination do so without being consolidated by the
former. But when they thus give consolidating
support to each other, they can stand up without
falling, like sheaves of reeds propped together on all
four sides, even though battered by the wind, and like
[boats with] broken floats[37] that have found a
support, even though battered by waves somewhere
in mid-ocean, and they can last one year, two years …
a hundred years, until those beings’ life span or their
merit is exhausted.
This is how the exposition should be understood here
“by occurrence in becoming, etc.”
197. 3. By inclusion: now there is (a) the simple
mentality with consciousness as condition in both the
course of an existence and rebirth-linking in the
immaterial sphere, and in the course of an existence in
the five-constituent becoming, and (b) the simple
materiality with consciousness as condition in both
cases among the non-percipient, and in the course of
an existence in the five-constituent becoming, and (c)
the [combined] mentality-materiality [561] with
consciousness as condition in both cases in the five-
constituent becoming. All that mentality and
materiality and mentality-materiality should be
understood as “mentality-materiality with

1516
consciousness as condition,” including them under
mentality-materiality according to the method that
allows any one part to represent any remaining one of
its kind.[38]
198. Is this correct in view of the absence of
consciousness in non-percipient beings?—It is not
incorrect. For:
This consciousness, as cause of mind
And matter, is twice reckoned:
Result, and also not-result.
Wherefore this is correctly said.
199. The consciousness that is the cause of mentality-
materiality is reckoned to be twofold classed as
resultant and not resultant. And since in the case of
non-percipient beings materiality is originated by
kamma, it has as its condition kamma-formation
consciousness that occurred in the five-constituent
becoming. This applies also to the kamma-originated
materiality arising in the course of an existence in the
five-constituent becoming at the moment of profitable
or any other consciousness. So this is correct.
This is how the exposition can also be known here “by
inclusion.”
200. 4. By manner of condition: here:
Resultant-consciousness conditions

1517
 Mentality first in nine ways,
Then basis matter in nine ways,
And other matter in eight ways;
Formation-consciousness conditions
This matter in a single way.
The rest of consciousness conditions
This matter as the case may be.
201. Rebirth-linking or some other kind of resultant
consciousness is a condition in nine ways, as
conascence, mutuality, support, association, kamma-
result, nutriment, faculty, presence, and non-
disappearance conditions, either at rebirth-linking or
in the course of an existence, for that mentality called
resultant, whether mixed with materiality or not. At
rebirth-linking it is a condition in nine ways, as
conascence, mutuality, support, kamma-result,
nutriment, faculty, dissociation, presence, and non-
disappearance conditions, for the materiality of the
physical [heart-] basis. It is a condition in eight ways,
namely, as the above conditions omitting the
mutuality condition, for materiality other than the
materiality of the physical basis.
Kamma-formation consciousness is a condition in one
way only, as decisive-support condition, for the
materiality of non-percipient beings, or for the
kamma-born materiality in the five-constituent

1518
becoming, according to the Suttanta method.
All the remaining kinds of consciousness from the
time of the first life-continuum [consciousness
following rebirth-linking] onwards should be
understood as a condition for some kind of mentality-
materiality as appropriate. But since the whole
contents of the Paṭṭhāna must be cited in order to
show how it acts in detail, we do not undertake that.
202. Here it may be asked: “But how is it to be known
[562] that the mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking
has consciousness as its condition?” From the suttas
and from logic. For in the suttas it is established in
many places that feeling, etc., have consciousness as
condition in the way beginning, “States with parallel
occurrence through consciousness” (Dhs §1522). But as
to logic:
From matter seen here to be born
Of consciousness a man can tell
That consciousness is a condition
For matter when unseen as well.
Whether consciousness likes it or not, [certain]
material instances are seen to arise in conformity with
it. And the unseen is inferred from the seen. So it can
be known, by means of the consciousness-born
materiality that is seen, that consciousness is also a
condition for the unseen materiality of rebirth-linking.

1519
For it is said in the Paṭṭhāna that, like the
consciousness-originated, also the kamma-originated
has consciousness as its condition (see Paṭṭh I 172–73).
This is how the exposition should be known “by
manner of condition.”
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
consciousness as condition, mentality-materiality.”

[(v) The Sixfold Base]

203. As to the clause “With mentality-materiality as

condition, the sixfold base”:
Three aggregates are “mind”; the basis,
Primaries, and the rest are “matter”:
And while all that conditions this
A part can represent the rest.
204. In the case of the mentality-materiality that is
here a condition for the sixfold base, mentality is the
three aggregates beginning with feeling, while
materiality should be understood as that included in
one’s own continuity stated thus “primaries and the
rest are ’matter’,” that is to say, the four primaries, six
physical bases, and life faculty, [since they are
conditioning factors] invariably. But this mentality

1520
and this materiality and this mentality-materiality,
each one representing the rest as “mentality-
materiality,” should be understood as a condition for
the sixfold base consisting of the sixth base and the
sixfold base each one representing the rest as the
“sixfold base.” Why? Because in the immaterial
becoming there is only mentality as a condition, and
that is a condition only for the sixth base, [namely, the
mind base,] not for any other. For it is said in the
Vibhaṅga, “With mentality as condition, the sixth
base” (Vibh 179).
205. Here it may be asked: “But how is it to be known
that mentality-materiality is a condition for the sixfold
base?” Because the latter exists when mentality-
materiality exists. For a given base exists when a given
kind of mentality and materiality exists, not otherwise.
But the way in which the one comes to exist when the
other does will be explained below in the section
dealing with how it is a condition. [563] Therefore:
A wise man should contrive to tell
Which one conditions which, and how,
At rebirth and in life as well;
[The explanation follows now.]
206. Herein what follows illustrates the meaning.

[(1) Mentality as Condition]

1521
 In immaterial rebirth
And life the mind alone will come
In seven ways and six to be
Condition at the minimum.
207. How? In rebirth-linking, firstly, mentality is a
condition in seven ways at the minimum, as
conascence, mutuality, support, association, kamma-
result, presence, and non-disappearance conditions,
for the sixth base. Some mentality, however, is a
condition, as root-cause condition [that is, greed, etc.,]
and some as nutriment condition [that is, contact and
mental volition]. So it is also a condition in other ways.
It is by the [two latter] that the maximum and
minimum should be understood. In the course of an
existence, too, resultant mentality is a condition as
already stated. But the other [non-resultant] kind is a
condition in six ways at minimum, as the aforesaid
conditions except for kamma-result condition. Some,
however, are a condition, as root-cause condition, and
some as nutriment condition. So it is also a condition
in other ways. It is by these that the maximum and
minimum should be understood.
208. In five-constituent becoming
At rebirth, mind in the same ways
Acts as condition for the sixth,
And for the others in six ways.

1522
209. Besides the immaterial states, also in the five-
constituent becoming that resultant mentality, in
association with the heart-basis, is a condition in seven
ways at the minimum for the sixth, the mind base, in
the same way as was said with respect to the
immaterial states. But in association with the four
primary elements, it is a condition in six ways, as
conascence, support, kamma-result, dissociation,
presence, and non-disappearance conditions, for the
other five beginning with the eye base. Some,
however, are a condition as root-cause condition, and
some as nutriment condition. It is by these that the
maximum and minimum should be understood.
210. Result is for result condition
During a life in the same ways;
While non-result the non-resultant
Sixth conditions in six ways.
211. For, as in rebirth-linking, so also in the course of
an existence in the five-constituent becoming,
resultant mentality is a condition in the seven ways at
minimum for the resultant sixth base. But non-
resultant mentality is a condition in six ways at
minimum for the non-resultant sixth base, leaving out
kamma-result condition. The maximum and minimum
should be understood in the way already stated.
212. And during life, result conditions

1523
 The other five in fourfold way;
The non-resultant kind can be
Explained in the aforesaid way. [564]
213. Again, in the course of an existence, the other
resultant mentality, which has as its physical basis the
eye sensitivity, etc., is a condition in four ways, as
postnascence, dissociation, presence, and non-
disappearance conditions, for the rest of the five
beginning with the eye base. And as the resultant, so
also the non-resultant is explained; therefore [the
mentality] classed as profitable, etc., should be
understood as their condition in four ways.
This, firstly, is how it should be understood what
bases mentality alone is a condition for in rebirth-
linking and in the course of an existence, and how it is
a condition.
214. [(2) Materiality as Condition]
Not even for a single base
In immaterial becoming
Is matter a condition here.
But in five-aggregate becoming
Basis as matter is condition
At rebirth in a sixfold way
For the sixth base; the primaries
Are for the five in fourfold way.

1524
215. As to matter, the materiality of the physical
[heart-] basis is a condition in rebirth-linking in six
ways, as conascence, mutuality, support, dissociation,
presence, and non-disappearance conditions, for the
sixth, the mind base. But the four primaries are in
general, that is to say, in rebirth-linking and in the
course of an existence, conditions in four ways, as
conascence, support, presence, and non-disappearance
conditions, for any of the five bases beginning with the
eye, whenever they arise.
216. Life and in lifetime food as well.
Conditions five in threefold way;
These five, the sixth in sixfold way;
Basis, the sixth in fivefold way.
217. But in rebirth-linking and in the course of an
existence the material life [faculty] is a condition in
three ways, as presence, non-disappearance, and
faculty conditions, for these five beginning with the
eye. Nutriment too is a condition in three ways, as
presence, non-disappearance, and nutriment
conditions, and that is so in the course of an existence,
not in rebirth-linking, and applies when the bodies of
beings subsisting on nutriment are suffused with the
nutriment. In the course of an existence, not in rebirth-
linking, those five bases beginning with the eye are
conditions in six ways, as support, prenascence,
faculty, dissociation, presence and non-disappearance

1525
conditions, for [that part of] the sixth, the mind base,
comprising eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-
consciousness. But in the course of an existence, not at
rebirth-linking, the materiality of the [heart-] basis is a
condition in five ways, as support, prenascence,
dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance
conditions, for the remaining mind base apart from
the five consciousnesses. This is how it should be
understood what bases materiality alone is a condition
for in rebirth-linking and in the course of an existence,
and how it is a condition. [565]

[(3) Mentality-Materiality as Condition]

218. Which mind-cum-matter combination

Is a condition for which kind
And how it is so in each case,
A wise man should now seek to find.
219. For example, firstly, in rebirth-linking in the five-
constituent becoming, the mentality-materiality, in
other words, the trio of aggregates with the materiality
of the [heart-] basis, is a condition, as conascence,
mutuality, support, kamma-result, association,
dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance
conditions, etc., for the sixth, the mind base. This is
merely the heading; but since it can all be construed in
the way already stated, the detail is not given here.

1526
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
mentality-materiality as condition, the sixfold base.”

[(vi) Contact]

220. As to the clause “With the sixfold base as

condition, contact”:
Contact is briefly of six kinds
With eye-contact and others too;
According to each consciousness
It is in detail thirty-two.
221. Briefly, with the clause “With the sixfold base as
condition, contact,” there are only the six kinds
beginning with eye-contact, that is to say, eye-contact,
ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-
contact, and mind-contact. But in detail the five
profitable resultant and the five unprofitable resultant
beginning with eye-contact make ten; the rest, which
are associated with the twenty-two kinds of mundane
resultant consciousness, make twenty-two. So all these
come to thirty-two ((34)–(65)), like the consciousness
with formations as condition given above.
222. But as to the sixfold base that is a condition for
this thirty-twofold contact. Herein:

1527
 Some wise men take the sixfold base
To be the five internal bases
With the sixth; but others count
These plus the six external bases.
223. Herein, firstly, there are those who take this to be
an exposition of the occurrence of what is clung to,
[that is, kammically-acquired aggregates,] and they
maintain that the conditioning [bases] and the
conditionally-arisen [contact] are only what is
included in one’s own continuity. They take any one
part to represent any remaining one of its kind, since
the condition for contact in the immaterial states is the
sixth base [only], according to the text “With the sixth
base as condition, contact” (Vibh 179), and elsewhere
it is the sixfold base inclusively. So they have it that
“sixfold base” means the internal [five] beginning with
the eye plus the sixth (mind) base. For that sixth base
and that sixfold base are styled “sixfold base.” But
there are those who maintain that it is only the
conditionally-arisen [contact] that is contained in a
single continuity, while the conditioning [bases] are
contained in separate [that is, past] continuities as
well. They maintain that all and any such bases are a
condition for contact, and they include also the [six]
external ones. So they have it that “sixfold base”
means the same internal [five] plus the sixth plus the
external ones beginning with visible data. For that

1528
sixth base and that [partial] sixfold base and the
sixfold base along with these [external ones] each
representing the rest [566] are styled sixfold base too.
224. Here it may be asked: “One kind of contact does
not derive from all the bases, nor all the kinds of
contact from one base. And yet ’With the sixfold base
as condition, contact’ is said in the singular. Why is
that?”
225. Here is the answer: It is true that neither is one
derived from all nor all from one. However, one is
derived from many. For eye-contact is derived from
the eye base, from the visible-data base, from the mind
base reckoned as eye-consciousness, and from the
mental-datum base consisting of the remaining
associated states. And each case should be construed
as appropriate in this way. Therefore:
Though stated in the singular,
He shows therewith in all such cases
That this contact, though only one,
Is yet derived from several bases.
Though stated in the singular: the meaning is, by this
statement in the singular that “With the sixfold base as
condition, contact,” it is pointed out by the Blessed
One (Tādin) that contact, which is of one kind, comes
into being from many bases.

1529
[How the Sixfold Base is a Condition for Contact]

226. But as regards these bases:

Five in six ways; and after that
One in nine ways; the external six
As contact’s conditionality
According to each case we fix.
227. Here is the explanation: firstly, the five consisting
of the eye base, etc., are conditions in six ways, as
support, prenascence, faculty, dissociation, presence,
and non-disappearance conditions, for contact classed
in five ways as eye-contact, and so on. After that, the
single resultant mind base is a condition in nine ways,
as conascence, mutuality, support, result, nutriment,
faculty, association, presence, and non-disappearance
conditions, for the variously-classed resultant mind
contact. But in the case of the external bases, the
visible-data base is a condition in four ways, as object,
prenascence, presence, and non-disappearance
conditions, for eye-contact. Likewise the sound base,
etc., respectively for ear-contact, and so on. But these
and mental data as object are conditions likewise, and
as object condition too, for mind-contact, so “the
external six as contact’s conditionality according to
each case we fix.”
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With the
sixfold base as condition, contact.”

1530
 [(vii) Feeling]

228. As to the clause “With contact as condition,

feeling”:
Feelings, when named by way of door
“Eye-contact-born” and all the rest,
Are only six; but then they are
At nine and eighty sorts assessed.
229. In the analysis of this clause [in the Vibhaṅga]
only six kinds of feeling according to door are given
thus, “Eye-contact-born feeling, ear-, nose-, tongue-,
body-, mind-contact-born feeling” (Vibh 136). [567]
Still, when classed according to association with the
eighty-nine kinds of consciousness, they are “at nine
and eighty sorts assessed.”
230. But from the nine and eighty feelings
Thirty-two, no more, appear
Associated with result,
And only those are mentioned here.
Herein, contact in the five doors
Conditions five in eightfold way,
And single way the rest; it acts
In the mind door in the same way.
231. Herein, in the five doors contact beginning with
eye-contact is a condition in eight ways, as conascence,

1531
mutuality, support, result, nutriment, association,
presence, and non-disappearance conditions, for the
five kinds of feeling that have respectively eye
sensitivity, etc., as their physical basis. But that contact
beginning with eye-contact is a condition in one way
only, as decisive-support condition, for the rest of
resultant feeling in the sense sphere occurring in each
door as receiving, investigation and registration.
232. In the mind door in the same way: the contact called
conascent mind-contact is also a condition in the same
eight ways for sense-sphere resultant feeling occurring
as registration in the mind door, and so also for the
kinds of resultant feeling in the three planes occurring
with rebirth-linking, life-continuum and death. But the
mind-contact associated with mind-door adverting is a
condition in one way only, as decisive-support
condition, for the kinds of feeling that occur in the
mind door as registration in the sense sphere.
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
contact as condition, feeling.”

[(viii) Craving]

233. As regards the clause “With feeling as condition,

craving”:

1532
 Six cravings, for things visible
and all the rest, are treated here;
And each of these, when it occurs,
Can in one of three modes appear.
234. Six kinds of craving are shown in the analysis of
this clause [in the Vibhaṅga] as “visible-data craving,
sound, odour, flavour, tangible-data, and mental-data
craving” (Vibh 136), called after their objects, as a son
is called after his father “banker’s son,” “brahman’s
son.” Each of these six kinds of craving is reckoned
threefold according to its mode of occurrence as
craving for sense desires, craving for becoming, or
craving for non-becoming.
235. When visible-data craving occurs enjoying with
sense-desire enjoyment a visible datum as object that
has come into the focus of the eye, it is called craving
for sense desires. But when [that same visible-data
craving] occurs along with the eternity view that
assumes that same object to be lasting and eternal,
[568] it is called craving for becoming; for it is the
greed accompanying the eternity view that is called
craving for becoming. When it occurs along with the
annihilation view that assumes that same object to
break up and be destroyed, it is called craving for non-
becoming; for it is the greed accompanying the
annihilation view that is called craving for non-
becoming. So also in the case of craving for sounds,

1533
and so on.
These amount to eighteen kinds of craving. The
eighteen with respect to one’s own visible data (one’s
own appearance), etc., and eighteen with respect to
external [visible data (another’s appearance), etc.,]
together make thirty-six kinds. Thirty-six in the past,
thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six in the present,
make one-hundred-and-eight kinds of craving. When
these are reduced again, they should be understood to
amount to the six kinds only with visible data, etc., as
object; and these, to three only, as craving for sense
desires, and so on.
236. Out of selfish affection for feeling after taking
pleasure in it when it arises through a visible datum as
object, etc., these beings accord much honour to
painters, musicians, perfumers, cooks, weavers,
distillers of elixirs,[39] physicians, etc., who furnish
respectively visible data as object, etc., just as out of
affection for a child they reward the child’s nurse after
taking pleasure in the child. That is why it should be
understood that these three kinds of craving have
feeling as their condition.
237. What is intended here is but
Resultant pleasant feeling; hence
’Tis a condition in one way
For all this craving’s occurrence.

1534
In one way: it is a condition as decisive-support
condition only.
238. Or alternatively:
A man in pain for pleasure longs,
And finding pleasure, longs for more;
The peace of equanimity
Is counted pleasure too; therefore
The Greatest Sage announced the law
“With feeling as condition, craving,”
Since all three feelings thus can be
Conditions for all kinds of craving.
Though feeling is condition, still
Without inherent tendency
No craving can arise, and so
From this the perfect saint is free.[40]
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
feeling as condition, craving.”

[(ix) Clinging]

239. As regards the clause “With craving as condition,

clinging”:
Four clingings need to be explained

1535
 (1) As to analysis of meaning,
(2) As to the brief and full account
Of states, (3) and also as to order. [569]
240. Herein, this is the explanation: firstly, there are
these four kinds of clinging here, namely, sense-desire
clinging, [false-] view clinging, rules-and-vows
clinging, and self-doctrine clinging.
241. 1. The analysis of meaning is this: it clings to the
kind of sense-desire called sense-desire’s physical
object (see Ch. IV, n. 24), thus it is sense-desire
clinging. Also, it is sense-desire and it is clinging, thus
it is sense-desire clinging. Clinging (upādāna) is firm
grasping; for here the prefix upa has the sense of
firmness, as in upāyāsa (great misery—see §48) and
upakuṭṭha (great pox),[41] and so on. Likewise, it is
[false] view and it is clinging, thus it is [false-] view
clinging; or, it clings to [false] view, thus it is [false-]
view clinging; for in [the case of the false view] “The
world and self are eternal” (D I 14), etc., it is the latter
kind of view that clings to the former. Likewise, it
clings to rite and ritual, thus it is rules-and-vows
clinging; also, it is rite and ritual and it is clinging,
thus it is rules-and-vows clinging; for ox asceticism, ox
vows, etc. (see M I 387f.), are themselves kinds of
clinging, too, because of the misinterpretation
(insistence) that purification comes about in this way.
Likewise, they indoctrinate by means of that, thus that

1536
is doctrine; they cling by means of that, thus that is
clinging. What do they indoctrinate with? What do
they cling to? Self. The clinging to doctrines of self is
self-doctrine clinging. Or by means of that they cling
to a self that is a mere doctrine of self; thus that is self-
doctrine clinging. This, firstly, is the “analysis of
meaning.”
242. 2. But as regards the brief and full account of states,
firstly, in brief sense-desire clinging is called “firmness
of craving” since it is said: “Herein, what is sense-
desire clinging? That which in the case of sense desires
is lust for sense desires, greed for sense desires,
delight in sense desires, craving for sense desires,
fever of sense desires, infatuation with sense desires,
committal to sense desires: that is called sense-desire
clinging” (Dhs §1214). “Firmness of craving” is a name
for the subsequent craving itself, which has become
firm by the influence of previous craving, which acts
as its decisive-support condition. But some have said:
Craving is the aspiring to an object that one has not
yet reached, like a thief’s stretching out his hand in the
dark; clinging is the grasping of an object that one has
reached, like the thief’s grasping his objective. These
states oppose fewness of wishes and contentment and
so they are the roots of the suffering due to seeking
and guarding (see D II 58f.). The remaining three
kinds of clinging are in brief simply [false] view.

1537
243. In detail, however, sense-desire clinging is the
firm state of the craving described above as of one-
hundred-and-eight kinds with respect to visible data
and so on. [False-] view clinging is the ten-based
wrong view, according as it is said: “Herein what is
[false-] view clinging? There is no giving, no offering,
… [no good and virtuous ascetics and brahmans who
have themselves] realized by direct-knowledge and
declare this world and the other world: such view as
this … such perverse assumption is called [false-]view
clinging” (Vibh 375; Dhs §1215). Rules-and-vows
clinging is the adherence [to the view that]
purification comes through rules and vows, according
as it is said: “Herein, what is rules-and-vows clinging?
… That purification comes through a rite, that
purification comes through a ritual, [570] that
purification comes through a rite and ritual: such view
as this … such perverse assumption is called rules-
and-vows clinging” (Dhs §1216). Self-doctrine clinging
is the twenty-based [false] view of individuality,
according as it is said: “Herein, what is self-doctrine
clinging? Here the untaught ordinary man …
untrained in good men’s Dhamma, sees materiality as
self … such perverse assumption is called self-doctrine
clinging” (Dhs §1217). This is the “brief and full
account of states.”
244. 3. As to order: here order is threefold (see

1538
XIV.211), that is to say, order of arising, order of
abandoning, and order of teaching. Herein, order of
arising of defilements is not meant literally because
there is no first arising of defilements in the
beginningless round of rebirths. But in a relative sense
it is this: usually in a single becoming the
misinterpretation of (insistence on) eternity and
annihilation are preceded by the assumption of a self.
After that, when a man assumes that this self is
eternal, rules-and-vows clinging arises in him for the
purpose of purifying the self. And when a man
assumes that it breaks up, thus disregarding the next
world, sense-desire clinging arises in him. So self-
doctrine clinging arises first, and after that, [false-]
view clinging, and rules-and-vows clinging or sense-
desire clinging. This, then, is their order of arising in
one becoming.
245. And here [false-] view clinging, etc., are
abandoned first because they are eliminated by the
path of stream-entry. Sense-desire clinging is
abandoned later because it is eliminated by the path of
Arahantship. This is the order of their abandoning.
246. Sense-desire clinging, however, is taught first
among them because of the breadth of its objective
field and because of its obviousness. For it has a broad
objective field because it is associated with eight kinds
of consciousness ((22)–(29)). The others have a narrow

1539
objective field because they are associated with four
kinds of consciousness ((22), (23), (26) and (27)). And
usually it is sense-desire clinging that is obvious
because of this generation’s love of attachment (see M
I 167), not so the other kinds. One possessed of sense-
desire clinging is much given to display and ceremony
(see M I 265) for the purpose of attaining sense desires.
[False-] view clinging comes next to the [sense-desire
clinging] since that [display and ceremony] is a [false-]
view of his.[42] And that is then divided in two as
rules-and-vows clinging and self-doctrine clinging.
And of these two, rules-and-vows clinging is taught
first, being gross, because it can be recognized on
seeing [it in the forms of] ox practice and dog practice.
And self-doctrine clinging is taught last because of its
subtlety. This is the “order of teaching.”

[How Craving is a Condition for Clinging]

247. For the first in a single way;

But for the three remaining kinds
In sevenfold or eightfold way.
248. As regards the four kinds of clinging taught in
this way, craving for sense desires is a condition in
one way, as decisive-support, for the first kind,
namely, sense-desire clinging, because it arises in
relation to the objective field in which craving

1540
delights. But it is a condition in seven ways, as
conascence, mutuality, support, association, presence,
non-disappearance, and root-cause, or in eight ways,
as [those and] decisive-support as well, for the
remaining three kinds. And when it is a condition as
decisive-support, then it is never conascent.
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
craving as condition, clinging.” [571]

[(x) Becoming]

249. As to the clause “With clinging as condition,

becoming”:
(1) As to meaning, (2) as to state,
(3) Purpose, (4) analysis, (5) synthesis,
(6) And which for which becomes condition,
The exposition should be known.
250. 1. As to meaning: Herein, it becomes (bhavati), thus
it is becoming (bhava). That is twofold as kamma-
process becoming and rebirth-process becoming,
according as it is said: “Becoming in two ways: there is
kamma-process becoming and there is rebirth-process
becoming” (Vibh 137). Herein, the kamma process
itself as becoming is “kamma-process becoming”;
likewise the rebirth process itself as becoming is

1541
“rebirth-process becoming.” And here, rebirth is
becoming since it becomes; but just as “The arising of
Buddhas is bliss” (Dhp 194) is said because it causes
bliss, so too kamma should be understood as
“becoming,” using for it the ordinary term for its fruit,
since it causes becoming. This, firstly, is how the
exposition should be known here “as to meaning.”
251. 2. As to state: firstly, kamma-process becoming in
brief is both volition and the states of covetousness,
etc., associated with the volition and reckoned as
kamma too, according as it is said: “Herein, what is
kamma-process becoming? The formation of merit, the
formation of demerit, the formation of the
imperturbable, either with a small (limited) plane or
with a large (exalted) plane: that is called kamma-
process becoming. Also all kamma that leads to
becoming is called kamma-process becoming” (Vibh
137).
252. Here the formation of merit is, in terms of states,
the thirteen kinds of volition ((1)–(13)), the formation
of demerit is the twelve kinds ((22)–(33)), and the
formation of the imperturbable is the four kinds ((14)–
(17)). So with the words either with a small (limited)
plane or with a large (exalted) plane the insignificance or
magnitude of these same volitions’ result is expressed
here. But with the words also all kamma that leads to
becoming the covetousness, etc., associated with

1542
volition are expressed.
253. Rebirth-process becoming briefly is aggregates
generated by kamma. It is of nine kinds, according as
it is said: “Herein, what is rebirth-process becoming?
Sense-desire becoming, fine-material becoming,
immaterial becoming, percipient becoming, non-
percipient becoming, neither-percipient-nor-non-
percipient becoming, one-constituent becoming, [572]
four-constituent becoming, five-constituent becoming:
this is called rebirth-process becoming” (Vibh 17).
254. Herein, the kind of becoming called “having
sense desires” is sense-desire becoming. Similarly with
the fine-material and immaterial kinds of becoming. It is
the becoming of those possessed of perception, or
there is perception here in becoming, thus it is
percipient becoming. The opposite kind is non-percipient
becoming. Owing to the absence of gross perception
and to the presence of subtle perception there is
neither perception nor non-perception in that kind of
becoming, thus it is neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient
becoming. It is becoming constituted out of the
materiality aggregate only, thus it is one-constituent
becoming, or that kind of becoming has only one
constituent, [the materiality aggregate, or dimension,]
thus it is one-constituent becoming. And similarly the
four-constituent [has the four mental aggregates, or
dimensions,] and the five-constituent [has the material

1543
and the four mental aggregates, or dimensions].
255. Herein, sense-desire becoming is five aggregates
acquired through kamma (clung to). Likewise the fine-
material becoming. Immaterial becoming is four.
Percipient becoming is four and five. Non-percipient
becoming is one aggregate that is acquired through
kamma (clung to). Neither-percipient-nor-non-
percipient becoming is four. One-constituent
becoming, etc., are respectively one, four, and five
aggregates as aggregates that are acquired through
kamma (clung to).
This is how the exposition should be known here “as
to state.”
256. 3. As to purpose: although formations of merit,
etc., are of course dealt with in the same way in the
description of becoming and in the description of
formations (see Vibh 135, 137), nevertheless the
repetition has a purpose. For in the former case it was
because it was a condition, as past kamma, for rebirth-
linking here [in this becoming], while in the latter case
it is because it is a condition, as present kamma, for
rebirth-linking in the future [becoming]. Or
alternatively, in the former instance, in the passage
beginning, “Herein, what is the formation of merit? It
is profitable volition of the sense sphere” (Vibh 135), it
was only volitions that were called “formations”; but

1544
here, with the words “All kamma that leads to
becoming” (Vibh 137), the states associated with the
volition are also included. And in the former instance
it was only such kamma as is a condition for
consciousness that was called ’formations’; but now
also that which generates non-percipient becoming is
included.
257. But why so many words? In the clause “With
ignorance as condition there are formations,” only
profitable and unprofitable states are expressed as the
formation of merit, etc.; but in the clause “With
clinging as condition, becoming,” profitable and
unprofitable and also functional states are expressed
because of the inclusion of rebirth-process becoming.
So this repetition has a purpose in each case. This is
how the exposition should be known “as to purpose
here.”
258. 4. As to analysis, synthesis means as to both the
analysis and the synthesis of becoming that has
clinging as its condition. The kamma with sense-desire
clinging as its condition that is performed and
generates sense-desire becoming is “kamma-process
becoming.” The aggregates generated by that are
“rebirth-process becoming”; similarly in the case of
fine-material and immaterial becoming. So [573] there
are two kinds of sense-desire becoming with sense-
desire clinging as condition, included in which are

1545
percipient becoming and five-constituent becoming.
And there are two kinds of fine-material becoming,
included in which are percipient, non-percipient, one-
constituent, and five-constituent becoming. And there
are two kinds of immaterial becoming, included in
which are percipient becoming, neither-percipient-
nor-non-percipient becoming, and four-constituent
becoming. So, together with what is included by them,
there are six kinds of becoming with sense-desire
clinging as condition. Similarly too with the [three]
remaining kinds of clinging as condition. So, as to
analysis, there are, together with what is included by
them, twenty-four kinds of becoming with clinging as
condition.
259. 5. As to synthesis, however, by uniting kamma-
process becoming and rebirth-process becoming there
is, together with what is included by it, one kind of
sense-desire becoming with sense-desire clinging as its
condition. Similarly with fine-material and immaterial
becoming. So there are three kinds of becoming. And
similarly with the remaining [three] kinds of clinging
as condition. So by synthesis, there are, together with
what is included by them, twelve kinds of becoming
with clinging as condition.
260. Furthermore, without distinction the kamma
with clinging as its condition that attains sense-desire
becoming is kamma-process becoming. The

1546
aggregates generated by that are rebirth-process
becoming. Similarly in the fine-material and
immaterial becoming. So, together with what is
included by them, there are two kinds of sense-desire
becoming, two kinds of fine-material becoming, and
two kinds of immaterial becoming. So, by synthesis,
there are six kinds of becoming by this other method.
Or again, without making the division into kamma-
process becoming and rebirth-process becoming, there
are, together with what is included by them, three
kinds of becoming as sense-desire becoming, and so
on. Or again, without making the division into sense-
desire becoming, etc., there are, together with what is
included by them, two kinds of becoming, as kamma-
process becoming and rebirth-process becoming. And
also without making the division into kamma process
and rebirth process there is, according to the words
“With clinging as condition, becoming,” only one kind
of becoming.
This is how the exposition of becoming with clinging
as condition should be known here “as to analysis and
synthesis.”
261. 6. Which for which becomes condition means that
here the exposition should be known according to
what kind of clinging is a condition for what [kind of
becoming]. But what is condition for what here? Any
kind is a condition for any kind. For the ordinary man

1547
is like a madman, and without considering “Is this
right or not?” and aspiring by means of any of the
kinds of clinging to any of the kinds of becoming, he
performs any of the kinds of kamma. Therefore when
some say that the fine-material and immaterial kinds
of becoming do not come about through rules-and-
vows clinging, that should not be accepted: what
should be accepted is that all kinds come about
through all kinds.
262. For example, someone thinks in accordance with
hearsay or [false] view that sense desires come to be
fulfilled in the human world among the great warrior
(khattiya) families, etc., and in the six divine worlds of
the sense sphere. [574] Misled by listening to wrong
doctrine, etc., and imagining that “by this kamma
sense desires will come to be fulfilled,” he performs
for the purpose of attaining them acts of bodily
misconduct, etc., through sense-desire clinging. By
fulfilling such misconduct he is reborn in the states of
loss. Or he performs acts of bodily misconduct, etc.,
aspiring to sense desires visible here and now and
protecting those he has already acquired. By fulfilling
such misconduct he is reborn in the states of loss. The
kamma that is the cause of rebirth there is kamma-
process becoming. The aggregates generated by the
kamma are rebirth-process becoming. But percipient
becoming and five-constituent becoming are included

1548
in that, too.
263. Another, however, whose knowledge has been
intensified by listening to good Dhamma and so on,
imagines that “by this kind of kamma sense desires
will come to be fulfilled.” He performs acts of bodily
good conduct, etc., through sense-desire clinging. By
fulfilling such bodily good conduct he is reborn
among deities or human beings. The kamma that is
the cause of his rebirth there is kamma-process
becoming. The aggregates generated by the kamma
are rebirth-process becoming. But percipient becoming
and five-constituent becoming are included in that,
too.
So sense-desire clinging is a condition for sense-desire
becoming with its analysis and its synthesis.
264. Another hears or conjectures that sense desires
come to still greater perfection in the fine-material and
immaterial kinds of becoming, and through sense-
desire clinging he produces the fine-material and
immaterial attainments, and in virtue of his
attainments he is reborn in the fine-material or
immaterial Brahmā-world. The kamma that is the
cause of his rebirth there is kamma-process becoming.
The aggregates generated by the kamma are rebirth-
process becoming. But percipient, non-percipient,
neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient, one-

1549
constituent, four-constituent, and five-constituent
kinds of becoming are included in that, too. Thus
sense-desire clinging is a condition for fine-material
and immaterial becoming with its analysis and its
synthesis.
265. Another clings to the annihilation view thus:
“This self comes to be entirely cut off when it is cut off
in the fortunate states of the sense sphere, or in the
fine-material or immaterial kinds of becoming,” and
he performs kamma to achieve that. His kamma is
kamma-process becoming. The aggregates generated
by the kamma are rebirth-process becoming. But the
percipient, etc., kinds of becoming are included in that
too. So [false-]view clinging is a condition for all three,
namely, for the sense-desire, fine-material, and
immaterial kinds of becoming with their analysis and
their synthesis.
266. Another through self-theory clinging thinks,
“This self comes to be blissful, or comes to be free
from fever, in the becoming in the fortunate states in
the sense sphere or in one or other of the fine-material
and immaterial kinds of becoming,” and he performs
kamma to achieve that. That kamma of his is kamma-
process becoming. The aggregates generated by the
kamma are [575] rebirth-process becoming. But the
percipient, etc., kinds of becoming are included in
that, too. Thus this self-theory clinging is a condition

1550
for all the three, namely, becoming with their analysis
and their synthesis.
267. Another [thinks] through rules-and-vows
clinging, “This rite and ritual leads him who perfects it
to perfect bliss in becoming in the fortunate states of
the sense sphere or in the fine-material or immaterial
kinds of becoming,” and he performs kamma to
achieve that. That kamma of his is kamma-process
becoming. The aggregates generated by the kamma
are rebirth-process becoming. But the percipient, etc.,
kinds of becoming are included in that, too. So rules-
and-vows clinging is a condition for all three, namely,
the sense-desire, fine-material and immaterial kinds of
becoming with their analysis and their synthesis.
This is how the exposition should be known here
according to “which is condition for which.”

[How Clinging is a Condition for Becoming]

268. But which is condition for which kind of

becoming in what way here?
Now, clinging as condition for becoming,
Both fine-material and immaterial,
Is decisive-support; and then conascence
And so on for the sense-desire kind.
269. This clinging, though fourfold, is a condition in

1551
only one way as decisive-support condition for
becoming both fine-material and immaterial, [that is,] for
the profitable kamma in the kamma-process becoming
that takes place in sense-desire becoming and for the
rebirth-process becoming. It is a condition, as
conascence and so on, that is, as conascence, mutuality,
support, association, presence, non-disappearance,
and root-cause conditions, for the unprofitable
kamma-process becoming associated with [the
fourfold clinging] itself in the sense-desire becoming.
But it is a condition, as decisive-support only, for that
which is dissociated.
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
clinging as condition, becoming.”

[(xi)–(xii) Birth, Etc.]

270. As regards the clause “With becoming as

condition, birth,” etc., the definition of birth should be
understood in the way given in the Description of the
Truths (XIV.31ff.)
Only kamma-process becoming is intended here as
“becoming”; for it is that, not rebirth-process
becoming, which is a condition for birth. But it is a
condition in two ways, as kamma condition and as

1552
decisive-support condition.
271. Here it may be asked: “But how is it to be known
that becoming is a condition for birth?” Because of the
observable difference of inferiority and superiority.
For in spite of equality of external circumstances, such
as father, mother, seed, blood, nutriment, etc., the
difference of inferiority and superiority of beings is
observable even in the case of twins. And that fact is
not causeless, since it is not present always and in all;
[576] nor has it any cause other than kamma-process
becoming since there is no other reason in the internal
continuity of beings generated by it. Consequently, it
has only kamma-process becoming for its cause. And
because kamma is the cause of the difference of
inferiority and superiority among beings the Blessed
One said, “It is kamma that separates beings according
to inferiority and superiority” (M III 203). From that it
can be known that becoming is a condition for birth.
272. And when there is no birth, neither ageing and
death nor the states beginning with sorrow come
about; but when there is birth, then ageing and death
come about, and also the states beginning with
sorrow, which are either bound up with ageing and
death in a fool who is affected by the painful states
called ageing and death, or which are not so bound up
in one who is affected by some painful state or other;
therefore this birth is a condition for ageing and death

1553
and also for sorrow and so on. But it is a condition in
one way, as decisive-support type.
This is the detailed explanation of the clause “With
becoming as condition, birth.”

[Section C. The Wheel of Becoming]

[(i) The Wheel]

273. Now, here at the end sorrow, etc., are stated.

Consequently, the ignorance stated at the beginning of
the Wheel of Becoming thus, “With ignorance as
condition there are formations,” is established by the
sorrow and so on. So it should accordingly be
understood that:
Becoming’s Wheel reveals no known beginning;
No maker, no experiencer there;
Void with a twelvefold voidness, and nowhere
It ever halts; forever it is spinning.
274. But (1) how is ignorance established by sorrow,
etc.? (2) How has this Wheel of Becoming no known
beginning? (3) How is there no maker or experiencer
there? (4) How is it void with twelvefold voidness?
275. 1. Sorrow, grief and despair are inseparable from
ignorance; and lamentation is found in one who is

1554
deluded. So, firstly, when these are established,
ignorance is established. Furthermore, “With the
arising of cankers there is the arising of ignorance” (M
I 54) is said, and with the arising of cankers these
things beginning with sorrow come into being. How?
276. Firstly, sorrow about separation from sense
desires as object has its arising in the canker of sense
desire, according as it is said:
If, desiring and lusting, his desires elude him,
He suffers as though an arrow had pierced him
(Sn 767),
and according as it is said:
“Sorrow springs from sense desires” (Dhp 215).
277. And all these come about with the arising of the
canker of views, according as it is said: “In one who
[577] possesses [the view] ’I am materiality,’ ’my
materiality,’ with the change and transformation of
materiality there arise sorrow and lamentation, pain,
grief and despair” (S III 3).
278. And as with the arising of the canker of views, so
also with the arising of the canker of becoming,
according as it is said: “Then whatever deities there
are, long-lived, beautiful, blissful, long-resident in
grand palaces, when they hear the Perfect One’s
teaching of the Dhamma, they feel fear, anxiety and a

1555
sense of urgency” (S III 85), as in the case of deities
harassed by the fear of death on seeing the five signs.
[43]

279. And as with the arising of the canker of

becoming, so also with the canker of ignorance,
according as it is said: “The fool, bhikkhus,
experiences pain and grief here and now in three
ways” (M III 163).
Now, these states come about with the arising of
cankers, and so when they are established, they
establish the cankers which are the cause of ignorance.
And when the cankers are established, ignorance is
also established because it is present when its
condition is present. This, in the first place, is how
ignorance, etc., should be understood to be established
by sorrow and so on.
280. 2. But when ignorance is established since it is
present when its condition is present, and when “with
ignorance as condition there are formations; with
formations as condition, consciousness,” there is no
end to the succession of cause with fruit in this way.
Consequently, the Wheel of Becoming with its twelve
factors, revolving with the linking of cause and effect,
is established as having “no known beginning.”
281. This being so, are not the words “With ignorance
as condition there are formations,” as an exposition of

1556
a simple beginning, contradicted?—This is not an
exposition of a simple beginning. It is an exposition of
a basic state (see §107). For ignorance is the basic state
for the three rounds (see §298). It is owing to his
seizing ignorance that the fool gets caught in the
round of the remaining defilements, in the rounds of
kamma, etc., just as it is owing to seizing a snake’s
head that the arm gets caught in [the coils of] the rest
of the snake’s body. But when the cutting off of
ignorance is effected, he is liberated from them just as
the arm caught [in the coils] is liberated when the
snake’s head is cut off, according as it is said, “With
the remainderless fading away and cessation of
ignorance” (S II 1), and so on. So this is an exposition
of the basic state whereby there is bondage for him
who grasps it, and liberation for him who lets it go: it
is not an exposition of a simple beginning.
This is how the Wheel of Becoming should be
understood to have no known beginning. [578]
282. 3. This Wheel of Becoming consists in the
occurrence of formations, etc., with ignorance, etc., as
the respective reasons. Therefore it is devoid of a
maker supplementary to that, such as a Brahmā
conjectured thus, “Brahmā the Great, the Highest, the
Creator” (D I 18), to perform the function of maker of
the round of rebirths; and it is devoid of any self as an
experiencer of pleasure and pain conceived thus, “This

1557
self of mine that speaks and feels” (cf. M I 8). This is
how it should be understood to be without any maker
or experiencer.
283. 4. However, ignorance—and likewise the factors
consisting of formations, etc.—is void of lastingness
since its nature is to rise and fall, and it is void of
beauty since it is defiled and causes defilement, and it
is void of pleasure since it is oppressed by rise and
fall, and it is void of any selfhood susceptible to the
wielding of power since it exists in dependence on
conditions. Or ignorance—and likewise the factors
consisting of formations, etc.—is neither self nor self’s
nor in self nor possessed of self. That is why this
Wheel of Becoming should be understood thus, “Void
with a twelvefold voidness.”

[(ii) The Three Times]

284. After knowing this, again:

Its roots are ignorance and craving;
Its times are three as past and so on,
To which there properly belong
Two, eight, and two, from its [twelve] factors.
285. The two things, ignorance and craving, should be
understood as the root of this Wheel of Becoming. Of

1558
the derivation from the past, ignorance is the root and
feeling the end. And of the continuation into the
future, craving is the root and ageing-and-death the
end. It is twofold in this way.
286. Herein, the first applies to one whose
temperament is [false] view, and the second to one
whose temperament is craving. For in the round of
rebirths ignorance leads those whose temperament
favours [false] view, and craving those whose
temperament favours craving. Or the first has the
purpose of eliminating the annihilation view because,
by the evidence of the fruit, it proves that there is no
annihilation of the causes; and the second has the
purpose of eliminating the eternity view because it
proves the ageing and death of whatever has arisen.
Or the first deals with the child in the womb because it
illustrates successive occurrence [of the faculties], and
the second deals with one apparitionally born because
of [their] simultaneous appearance.
287. The past, the present and the future are its three
times. Of these, it should be understood that,
according to what is given as such in the texts, the two
factors ignorance and formations belong to the past
time, the eight beginning with consciousness belong to
the present time, and the two, birth and ageing-and-
death, belong to the future time. [579]

1559
 [(iii) Cause and Fruit]

288. Again, it should be understood thus:

(1) It has three links with cause, fruit, cause,
As first parts; and (2) four different sections;
(3) Its spokes are twenty qualities;
(4) With triple round it spins forever.
289. 1. Herein, between formations and rebirth-
linking consciousness there is one link consisting of
cause-fruit. Between feeling and craving there is one
link consisting of fruit-cause. And between becoming
and birth there is one link consisting of cause-fruit.
This is how it should be understood that it has three
links with cause, fruit, cause, as first parts.
290. 2. But there are four sections, which are
determined by the beginnings and ends of the links,
that is to say, ignorance/ formations is one section;
consciousness/mentality-materiality/ sixfold
base/contact/feeling is the second; craving/clinging/
becoming is the third; and birth/ageing-and-death is
the fourth. This is how it should be understood to
have four different sections.
291. 3. Then:
(a) There were five causes in the past,
(b) And now there is a fivefold fruit;

1560
 (c) There are five causes now as well,
(d) And in the future fivefold fruit.
It is according to these twenty spokes called
“qualities” that the words its spokes are twenty qualities
should be understood.
292. (a) Herein, [as regards the words] There were five
causes in the past, firstly only these two, namely,
ignorance and formations, are mentioned. But one
who is ignorant hankers, and hankering, clings, and
with his clinging as condition there is becoming;
therefore craving, clinging and becoming are included
as well. Hence it is said: “In the previous kamma-
process becoming, there is delusion, which is
ignorance; there is accumulation, which is formations;
there is attachment, which is craving; there is
embracing, which is clinging; there is volition, which is
becoming; thus these five things in the previous
kamma-process becoming are conditions for rebirth-
linking here [in the present becoming]” (Paṭis I 52).
293. Herein, In the previous kamma-process becoming
means in kamma-process becoming done in the
previous birth. There is delusion, which is ignorance
means that the delusion that there then was about
suffering, etc., deluded whereby the man did the
kamma, was ignorance. There is accumulation, which is
formations means the prior volitions arisen in one who

1561
prepares the things necessary for a gift during a
month, perhaps, or a year after he has had the thought
“I shall give a gift.” [580] But it is the volitions of one
who is actually placing the offerings in the recipients’
hands that are called “becoming.” Or alternatively, it
is the volition that is accumulation in six of the
impulsions of a single adverting that is called
“formations,” and the seventh volition is called
“becoming.” Or any kind of volition is called
“becoming” and the accumulations associated
therewith are called “formations.” There is attachment,
which is craving means that in one performing kamma,
whatever attachment and aspiration there is for its
fruit as rebirth-process-becoming is called craving.
There is embracing, which is clinging means that the
embracing, the grasping, the adherence, which is a
condition for kamma-process becoming and occurs
thus, “By doing this I shall preserve, or I shall cut off,
sense desire in such and such a place,” is called
clinging. There is volition, which is becoming means the
kind of volition stated already at the end of the
[sentence dealing with] accumulation is becoming.
This is how the meaning should be understood.
294. (b) And now there is a fivefold fruit (§291) means
what is given in the text beginning with consciousness
and ending with feeling, according as it is said: “Here
[in the present becoming] there is rebirth-linking,

1562
which is consciousness; there is descent [into the
womb], which is mentality-materiality; there is
sensitivity, which is sense base; there is what is
touched, which is contact; there is what is felt, which is
feeling; thus these five things here in the [present]
rebirth-process becoming have their conditions[44] in
kamma done in the past” (Paṭis I 52).
295. Herein, there is rebirth-linking, which is
consciousness means that it is what is called “rebirth-
linking” because it arises linking the next becoming
that is consciousness. There is descent [into the womb],
which is mentality-materiality means that it is what
consists in the descent of the material and immaterial
states into a womb, their arrival and entry as it were,
that is mentality-materiality. There is sensitivity, which
is sense base: this is said of the five bases beginning
with the eye. There is what is touched, which is contact
means that it is what is arisen when an object is
touched or in the touching of it, that is contact. There is
what is felt, which is feeling means that it is what is felt
as results [of kamma] that is arisen together with
rebirth-linking consciousness, or with the contact that
has the sixfold base as its condition, that is feeling.
Thus should the meaning be understood.
296. (c) There are five causes now as well (§291) means
craving, and so on. Craving, clinging and becoming
are given in the text. But when becoming is included,

1563
the formations that precede it or that are associated
with it are included too. And by including craving and
clinging, the ignorance associated with them, deluded
by which a man performs kamma, is included too. So
they are five. Hence it is said: “Here [in the present
becoming], with the maturing of the bases there is
delusion, which is ignorance; there is accumulation,
which is formations; there is attachment, which is
craving; there is embracing, which is clinging; there is
volition, which is becoming; thus these five things here
in the [present] kamma-process becoming are
conditions for rebirth-linking in the future” (Paṭis I
52). [581]
Herein, the words Here [in the present becoming], with
the maturing of the bases point out the delusion existing
at the time of the performance of the kamma in one
whose bases have matured. The rest is clear.
297. (d) And in the future fivefold fruit: the five
beginning with consciousness. These are expressed by
the term “birth.” But “ageing-and-death” is the ageing
and the death of these [five] themselves. Hence it is
said: “In the future there is rebirth-linking, which is
consciousness; there is descent [into the womb], which
is mentality-materiality; there is sensitivity, which is
sense base; there is what is touched, which is contact;
there is what is felt, which is feeling; thus these five
things in the future rebirth-process becoming have

1564
their condition in kamma done here [in the present
becoming]” (Paṭis I 52).
So this [Wheel of Becoming] has twenty spokes with
these qualities.
298. 4. With triple round it spins forever (§288): here
formations and becoming are the round of kamma.
Ignorance, craving and clinging are the round of
defilements. Consciousness, mentality-materiality, the
sixfold base, contact and feeling are the round of result.
So this Wheel of Becoming, having a triple round with
these three rounds, should be understood to spin,
revolving again and again, forever, for the conditions
are not cut off as long as the round of defilements is
not cut off.

[(iv) Various]

299. As it spins thus:

(1) As to the source in the [four] truths,
(2) As to function, (3) prevention, (4) similes,
(5) Kinds of profundity, and (6) methods,
It should be known accordingly.
300. 1. Herein, [as to source in the truths:] profitable and
unprofitable kamma are stated in the Saccavibhaṅga

1565
(Vibh 106f.) without distinction as the origin of
suffering, and so formations due to ignorance [stated
thus] “With ignorance as condition there are
formations” are the second truth with the second truth
as source. Consciousness due to formations is the first
truth with the second truth as source. The states
beginning with mentality-materiality and ending with
resultant feeling, due respectively to consciousness,
etc., are the first truth with the first truth as source.
Craving due to feeling is the second truth with the
first truth as source.
Clinging due to craving is the second truth with the
second truth as source. Becoming due to clinging is
the first and second truths with the second truth as
source. Birth due to becoming is the first truth with the
second truth as source. Ageing-and-death due to birth
is the first truth with the first truth as source. This, in
the first place, is how [the Wheel of Becoming] should
be known “as to … source in the four truths” in
whichever way is appropriate.
301. 2. [As to function:] ignorance confuses beings
about physical objects [of sense desire] and is a
condition for the manifestation of formations; likewise
[kamma-] formations [582] form the formed and are a
condition for consciousness; consciousness recognizes
an object and is a condition for mentality-materiality;
mentality-materiality is mutually consolidating and is

1566
a condition for the sixfold base; the sixfold base occurs
with respect to its own [separate] objective fields and
is a condition for contact; contact touches an object
and is a condition for feeling; feeling experiences the
stimulus of the object and is a condition for craving;
craving lusts after lust-arousing things and is a
condition for clinging; clinging clings to clinging-
arousing things and is a condition for becoming;
becoming flings beings into the various kinds of
destiny and is a condition for birth; birth gives birth to
the aggregates owing to its occurring as their
generation and is a condition for ageing-and-death;
and ageing-and-death ensures the decay and
dissolution of the aggregates and is a condition for the
manifestation of the next becoming because it ensures
sorrow, etc.[45] So this [Wheel of Becoming] should be
known accordingly as occurring in two ways “as to
function” in whichever way is appropriate to each of
its parts.
302. 3. [As to prevention:] the clause “With ignorance as
condition there are formations” prevents seeing a
maker; the clause “With formations as condition,
consciousness” prevents seeing the transmigration of a
self; the clause “With consciousness as condition,
mentality-materiality” prevents perception of
compactness because it shows the analysis of the basis
conjectured to be “self”; and the clauses beginning

1567
“With mentality-materiality as condition, the sixfold
base” prevent seeing any self that sees, etc., cognizes,
touches, feels, craves, clings, becomes, is born, ages
and dies. So this Wheel of Becoming should be known
“as to prevention” of wrong seeing appropriately in
each instance.
303. 4. [As to similes:] ignorance is like a blind man
because there is no seeing states according to their
specific and general characteristics; formations with
ignorance as condition are like the blind man’s
stumbling; consciousness with formations as condition
is like the stumbler’s falling; mentality-materiality
with consciousness as condition is like the appearance
of a tumour on the fallen man; the sixfold base with
mentality-materiality as condition is like a gathering
that makes the tumour burst; contact with the sixfold
base as condition is like hitting the gathering in the
tumour; feeling with contact as condition is like the
pain due to the blow; craving with feeling as condition
is like longing for a remedy; clinging with craving as
condition is like seizing what is unsuitable through
longing for a remedy; [583] becoming with clinging as
condition is like applying the unsuitable remedy
seized; birth with becoming as condition is like the
appearance of a change [for the worse] in the tumour
owing to the application of the unsuitable remedy;
and ageing-and-death with birth as condition is like

1568
the bursting of the tumour after the change.
Or again, ignorance here as “no theory” and “wrong
theory” (see §52) befogs beings as a cataract does the
eyes; the fool befogged by it involves himself in
formations that produce further becoming, as a
cocoon-spinning caterpillar does with the strands of
the cocoon; consciousness guided by formations
establishes itself in the destinies, as a prince guided by
a minister establishes himself on a throne; [death]
consciousness conjecturing about the sign of rebirth
generates mentality-materiality in its various aspects
in rebirth-linking, as a magician does an illusion; the
sixfold base planted in mentality-materiality reaches
growth, increase and fulfilment, as a forest thicket
does planted in good soil; contact is born from the
impingement of the bases, as fire is born from the
rubbing together of fire sticks; feeling is manifested in
one touched by contact, as burning is in one touched
by fire; craving increases in one who feels, as thirst
does in one who drinks salt water; one who is parched
[with craving] conceives longing for the kinds of
becoming, as a thirsty man does for drinks; that is his
clinging; by clinging he clings to becoming as a fish
does to the hook through greed for the bait; when
there is becoming there is birth, as when there is a
seed there is a shoot; and death is certain for one who
is born, as falling down is for a tree that has grown up.

1569
So this Wheel of Becoming should be known thus “as
to similes” too in whichever way is appropriate.
304. 5. [Kinds of profundity:] Now, the Blessed One’s
words, “This dependent origination is profound,
Ānanda, and profound it appears” (D II 55), refer to
profundity (a) of meaning, (b) of law, (c) of teaching,
and (d) of penetration. So this Wheel of Becoming
should be known “as to the kinds of profundity” in
whichever way is appropriate.
305. (a) Herein, the meaning of ageing-and-death
produced and originated with birth as condition is
profound owing to difficulty in understanding its
origin with birth as condition thus: Neither does
ageing-and death not come about from birth, nor,
failing birth, does it come about from something else;
it arises [only] from birth with precisely that nature [of
ageing-and-death]. And the meaning of birth with
becoming as condition … and the meaning of
formations produced and originated with ignorance as
condition are treatable in like manner. That is why this
Wheel of Becoming is profound in meaning. This,
firstly, is the profundity of meaning here. [584] For it is
the fruit of a cause that is called “meaning,” according
as it is said, “Knowledge about the fruit of a cause is
the discrimination of meaning” (Vibh 293).
306. (b) The meaning of ignorance as condition for

1570
formations is profound since it is difficult to
understand in what mode and on what occasion[46]
ignorance is a condition for the several formations …
The meaning of birth as a condition for ageing-and-
death is similarly profound. That is why this Wheel of
Becoming is profound in law. This is the profundity of
law here. For “law” is a name for cause, according as it
is said, “Knowledge about cause is discrimination of
law” (Vibh 293).
307. (c) Then the teaching of this [dependent
origination] is profound since it needs to be given in
various ways for various reasons, and none but
omniscient knowledge gets fully established in it; for
in some places in the suttas it is taught in forward
order, in some in backward order, in some in forward
and backward order, in some in forward or in
backward order starting from the middle, in some in
four sections and three links, in some in three sections
and two links, and in some in two sections and one
link. That is why this Wheel of Becoming is profound
in teaching. This is the profundity of teaching.
308. (d) Then the individual essences of ignorance,
etc., owing to the penetration of which ignorance, etc.,
are rightly penetrated as to their specific characteristic,
are profound since they are difficult to fathom. That is
why this Wheel of Becoming is profound in
penetration. For here the meaning of ignorance as

1571
unknowing and unseeing and non-penetration of the
truth is profound; so is the meaning of formations as
forming and accumulating with and without greed; so
is the meaning of consciousness as void, uninterested,
and manifestation of rebirth-linking without
transmigration; so is the meaning of mentality-
materiality as simultaneous arising, as resolved into
components or not, and as bending [on to an object]
(namana) and being molested (ruppana); so is the
meaning of the sixfold base as predominance, world,
door, field, and possession of objective field; so is the
meaning of contact as touching, impingement,
coincidence, and concurrence; so is the meaning of
feeling as the experiencing of the stimulus of an object,
as pleasure or pain or neutrality, as soulless, and as
what is felt; so is the meaning of craving as a
delighting in, as a committal to, as a current, as a
bindweed, as a river, as the ocean of craving, and as
impossible to fill; so is the meaning of clinging as
grasping, seizing, misinterpreting, adhering, and hard
to get by; so is the meaning of becoming as
accumulating, forming, and flinging into the various
kinds of generation, destiny, station, and abode; so is
the meaning of birth as birth, coming to birth, descent
[into the womb], rebirth, and manifestation; and so is
the meaning of ageing-and-birth as destruction, fall,
break-up and change. This is profundity of penetration.

1572
309. 6. [As to methods:] Then [585] there are four
methods of treating the meaning here. They are (a) the
method of identity, (b) the method of diversity, (c) the
method of uninterest,[47] and (d) the method of
ineluctable regularity. So this Wheel of Becoming
should also be known accordingly “as to the kinds of
method.”[48]
310. (a) Herein, the non-interruption of the continuity
in this way, “With ignorance as condition there are
formations; with formations as condition,
consciousness,” just like a seed’s reaching the state of a
tree through the state of the shoot, etc., is called the
“method of identity.” One who sees this rightly
abandons the annihilation view by understanding the
unbrokenness of the continuity that occurs through
the linking of cause and fruit. And one who sees it
wrongly clings to the eternity view by apprehending
identity in the non-interruption of the continuity that
occurs through the linking of cause and fruit.
311. (b) The defining of the individual characteristic of
ignorance, etc., is called the “method of diversity.”
One who sees this rightly abandons the eternity view
by seeing the arising of each new state. And one who
sees it wrongly clings to the annihilation view by
apprehending individual diversity in the events in a
single continuity as though it were a broken

1573
continuity.
312. (c) The absence of interestedness on the part of
ignorance, such as “Formations must be made to occur
by me,” or on the part of formations, such as
“Consciousness must be made to occur by us,” and so
on, is called the “method of uninterestedness.” One
who sees this rightly abandons the self view by
understanding the absence of a maker. One who sees
it wrongly clings to the moral-inefficacy-of-action
view, because he does not perceive that the causative
function of ignorance, etc., is established as a law by
their respective individual essences.
313. (d) The production of only formations, etc.,
respectively and no others with ignorance, etc., as the
respective reasons, like that of curd, etc., with milk,
etc., as the respective reasons, is called the “method of
ineluctable regularity.” One who sees this rightly
abandons the no-cause view and the moral-inefficacy-
of-action view by understanding how the fruit accords
with its condition. One who sees it wrongly by
apprehending it as non-production of anything from
anything, instead of apprehending the occurrence of
the fruit in accordance with its conditions, clings to the
no-cause view and to the doctrine of fatalism. So this
Wheel of Becoming:
As to source in the [four] truths,

1574
 As to function, prevention, similes,
Kinds of profundity, and methods,
Should be known accordingly.
314. There is no one, even in a dream, who has got out
of the fearful round of rebirths, which is ever
destroying like a thunderbolt, unless he has severed
with the knife of knowledge well whetted on the stone
of sublime concentration, this Wheel of Becoming,
which offers no footing owing to its great profundity
and is hard to get by owing to the maze of many
methods. [586]
And this has been said by the Blessed One: “This
dependent origination is profound, Ānanda, and
profound it appears. And, Ānanda, it is through not
knowing, through not penetrating it, that this
generation has become a tangled skein, a knotted ball
of thread, root-matted as a reed bed, and finds no way
out of the round of rebirths, with its states of loss,
unhappy destinies, … perdition” (D II 55).
Therefore, practicing for his own and others’ benefit
and welfare, and abandoning other duties:
Let a wise man with mindfulness
So practice that he may begin
To find a footing in the deeps
Of the dependent origin.

1575
The seventeenth chapter (concluding)
“The Description of the Soil in which
Understanding Grows” in the Treatise
on the Development of Understanding in
the Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.

1576
Notes for Chapter XVII

“’Subject to destruction’ (khaya-dhamma) means that its

individual essence is the state of being destroyed
(khayana-sabhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 549). The other
expressions are explained in the same way.
Paṭicco as a declinable adjective is not in PED.
Patīyamāna (“when it is arrived at”): “When it is gone
to by direct confrontation (paṭimukhaṃ upeyamāno) by
means of knowledge’s going; when it is penetrated to
(abhisamiyamāna), is the meaning” (Vism-mhṭ 555). The
word paṭicca (due to, depending on) and the word
paccaya (condition) are both gerunds of paṭi + eti or
ayati (to go back to).
“The doctrine of eternalism is that beginning ’The
world and self are eternal’” (D I 14). That of no-cause
is that beginning, ’There is no cause, there is no
condition, for the defilement of beings’ (D I 53). That
of fictitious-cause holds that the world’s occurrence is
due to Primordial Essence (prakṛti), atoms (aṇu), time
(kāla), and so on. That of a power-wielder asserts the
existence of an Overlord (issara), or of a World-soul
(Puruṣa), or of Pajāpati (the Lord of the Race). Also the
doctrines of Nature (sabhāva, Skr. svabhāva =
individual essence), Fate (niyati), and Chance
(yadicchā), should be regarded as included here under

1577
the doctrine of no-cause. Some, however, say that the
doctrine of fictitious-cause is that beginning with ’The
eye is the cause of the eye,’ and that the doctrine of the
power-wielder is that beginning, ’Things occur owing
to their own individual essence’ (see Ch. XVI, n. 23)”
(Vism-mhṭ 557).
“Such terms as ’woman,’ ’man,’ etc., are local forms of
speech (janapada-nirutti) because even wise men,
instead of saying, ’Fetch the five aggregates,’ or ’Let
the mentality-materiality come,’ use the current forms
’woman’ and ’man.’ This is how, in those who have
not fully understood what a physical basis is, there
comes to be the insistence (misinterpretation), ’This is
really a woman, this is really a man.’ But since this is a
mere concept, which depends on states made to occur
in such and such wise, one who sees and knows the
dependent origination does not insist on
(misinterpret) it as the ultimate meaning. ’Current
speech’ is speech current in the world. ’Not overriding’
is not going beyond. For when ’a being’ is said, instead
of making an analysis like this, ’What is the [lasting]
being here? Is it materiality? Or feeling?’ and so on,
one who does not override current usage should
express a worldly meaning in ordinary language as
those in the world do, employing the usage current in
the world” (Vism-mhṭ 557–58). The explanation differs
somewhat from MN 139.

1578
The term “analyzer” (vibhajjavādin) appears at A V 190,
and at M II 197, in this sense, used to describe the
Buddha and his followers, who do not rashly give
unqualified answers to questions that need analyzing
before being answered.
“The ’law’ (dhamma) is the text of the dependent
origination. The “meaning” (attha) is the meaning of
that. Or they are the cause, and the fruit of the cause
here, is what is meant. Or “law” (dhamma) is regularity
(dhammatā). Now some, misinterpreting the meaning
of the sutta passage, ’Whether Perfect Ones arise or do
not arise, there yet remains that element …’ (S II 25),
wrongly describe the regularity of the dependent
origination as a ’permanent dependent origination,’
instead of which it should be described as having the
individual essence of a cause (kāraṇa), defined
according to its own fruit, in the way stated. And
some misinterpret the meaning of the dependent
origination thus, ’Without cessation, without arising’
(anuppādaṃ anirodhaṃ) instead of taking the
unequivocal meaning in the way stated” (Vism-mhṭ
561). The last-mentioned quotation “Without
cessation, without arising” (anuppādaṃ anirodhaṃ),
seems almost certainly to refer to a well-known stanza
in Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamādhyamika Kārikā:
Anirodhaṃ anutpādaṃ anucchedaṃ aśāsrataṃ
Anekarthaṃ anānarthaṃ anāgamaṃ anirgamaṃ

1579
 Yaḥ pratītyasamutpādaṃ prapañcopaśamaṃ śivaṃ
Deśayamāsa sambuddhas taṃ vande vadatāṃ varaṃ.
“Formations ’accumulate,’ work, for the purpose of
rebirth. So that is their function. To accumulate is to
heap up. Consciousness’s function is ’to go before’ since
it precedes mentality-materiality at rebirth-linking.
Mentality’s function is ’to associate’ since it joins with
consciousness in a state of mutuality. ’Inseparability of
its components’ is owing to their having no separate
existence [mentality here being feeling, perception,
and formations]. Materiality is dispersible since it has
in itself nothing [beyond the water element] to hold it
[absolutely] together, so ’its function is to be dispersed’;
that is why, when rice grains, etc., are pounded, they
get scattered and reduced to powder. It is called
’indeterminate’ to distinguish it from mentality, which
is profitable, etc., at different times” (Vism-mhṭ 571).
“’No theory’ is unknowing about suffering, etc., ’wrong
theory’ is perverted perception of what is foul, etc., as
beautiful, etc., or else ’no theory’ is unassociated with
[false] view, and ’wrong theory’ is associated with it”
(Vism-mhṭ 751). This use of the word paṭipatti as
“theory,” rare in Pali but found in Sanskrit, is not in
PED. An alternative rendering for these two terms
might be “agnosticism” and “superstition” (see also
XIV.163, 177).

1580
“’With the nature of result, and so on’: the words ’and so
on’ here include ’neither-trainer-nor-non-trainer,’ (Dhs
2) ’conducive to fetters’ (Dhs 3), and so on. [§54]
’Mundane resultant and so on’: the words ’and so on’
here include ’indeterminate’ (Dhs 2), ’formed’ (Dhs 2),
and so on. ’With root-cause and without root-cause, and so
on’: the words ’and so on’ here include ’prompted,’
’unprompted,’ and so on” (Vism-mhṭ).
“This refers to the teacher Revata” (Vism-mhṭ 582).
“’Which are contingent upon other such states’: because it
is said without distinction of all visible-data bases …
and of all mental-data bases, there is consequently no
dhamma (state) among the formed, unformed, and
conceptual dhammas, classed as sixfold under visible
data, etc., that does not become an object condition”
(Vism-mhṭ 584).
“Proximity and contiguity conditions are not stated in
accordance with the distinction between making occur
and giving opportunity, as the absence and
disappearance conditions are: rather they are stated as
the causes of the regular order of consciousness [in the
cognitive series]” (Vism-mhṭ 585).
“This refers to the Elder Revata too” (Vism-mhṭ 586).
“The state of proximity condition is the ability to cause
arising proximately (without interval) because there is
no interval between the cessation of the preceding and

1581
the arising of the subsequent. The state of contiguity
condition is the ability to cause arising by being quite
proximate (without interval) through approaching, as
it were, identity with itself owing to absence of any
distinction that ’This is below, above, or around that,’
which is because of lack of any such co-presence as in
the case of the [components of the] material groups,
and because of lack of any co-positionality of the
condition and the conditionally arisen. And [in
general], because of the uninterestedness of [all] states
(dhamma), when a given [state] has ceased, or is
present, in a given mode, and [other] states (dhamma)
come to be possessed of that particular mode, it is that
[state’s] mode that must be regarded as what is called
’ability to cause arising’” (Vism-mhṭ 586).
“Reviewing change-of-lineage” (the consciousness
that precedes the path consciousness) applies to
stream-enterers. “Reviewing cleansing” (the
“cleansing” that consists in attaining a higher path
than the first) applies to once-returners and non-
returners (see Vism-mhṭ 589).
“The presence (atthi) condition is not applicable to
Nibbāna. For a presence condition is that which is
unhelpful by its absence of existingness (atthi-
bhāvābhāva) and becomes helpful by obtaining
existingness. And Nibbāna does not, after being
unhelpful by its own absence of existingness to those

1582
states that have Nibbāna as their object, become
helpful to them by obtaining existingness. Or
alternatively, the presence condition, which by its non-
existingness is the opposite of helpfulness to those
states that are associated with arising, etc., is helpful to
them by its existingness. So Nibbāna is not a presence
condition” (Vism-mhṭ 597).
It may be noted that atthi has more than one
use, among which the following two may be
mentioned: (1) atthi (is) = upalabbhaniya (is (a)
“apprehendable,” and (b) not a self-contradictory
impossibility)—“atthi, bhikkhave, ajātaṃ—There is
an unborn’ (Ud 80), and the discussion on the
existence of Nibbāna (XVI.67ff.). (2) Atthi (is) =
uppanna (arisen)—see “Yaṃ, bhikkhave, rūpaṃ
jātaṃ pātubhūtaṃ atthī ti tassa saṅkhā—Of the
materiality that is born, manifested, it is said that
’It is’” (S II 71f.). The atthi-paccaya (presence
condition), being implicitly equated with the
latter, cannot be applied to Nibbāna because
Nibbāna is not subject to arising (A I 152).
“The assertion of a single cause (kāraṇa) is undesirable
because it follows that there would be production of
everything all the time, and because it follows that
there would be a single homogeneous state;” (Vism-
mhṭ 599) cf. XIX.3.

1583
Parihāra-vacana—“explanation”: not in PED in this
sense.
Avi—“a goat or sheep”: not in PED. The Vism text
reads “golomāvilomavisāṇa-dadhitilapiṭṭhādīni ca
dubbāsarabhūtanakādīnaṃ.” Vism-mhṭ explains thus:
“Golomāvilomādī ti ādisu golomāvilomāni dubbāya avī ti
rattā eḷakā veditabbā visāṇaṃ sarassa dadhitilapiṭṭhagūlāni
bhūtiṇakassa sevālaṃ taṇḍuleyyakassa kharavalavā
assatarassā ti evam ādi ādisaddena saṅgahito,” which
renders thus: “As to ’Ox hair and ram’s hair, etc.,’ and
the rest: ox hair and ram’s hair [are conditions for the
unlike] dubbā (dabba) grass—a ram (avi) should be
understood as a red sheep (eḷakā); horn is for reeds
(sara); curds, sesame flour and molasses are for
bhūtiṇaka grass; moss is for the taṇḍuleyyaka plant; a
she donkey is for a mule; and so on in this way as
included by the word ’etc.’” (Vism-mhṭ 601). Except
for the last-mentioned, it seems problematical why
these things, if rightly interpreted, should be
conditions for the things mentioned.
For five-constituent becoming, etc., see §§253–54.
“Unprofitable resultant eye-consciousness, etc.
sometimes arise even in Brahmās when undesirable
visible data, etc., come into focus” (Vism-mhṭ 604); cf.
§180.
This refers to the old Sinhalese commentary no longer

1584
extant.
Vibh-a (Be) adds “suddhāya va javanavīthiyā” here, as in
§140 below in all texts.
“’With the appearance of fire and flames, etc., in the hells’ is
said owing to likeness to that; appearance of hell and
fire does not itself come into focus for him then”
(Vism-mhṭ 607).
The Sammohavinodanī adds more details here: “When
hell appears it does so like a metal cauldron; when the
human world appears, the mother’s womb appears
like a woollen slipper (kambala-yāna—for yāna as
footwear or sandals see M-a III 222); when the
heavenly world appears, wishing trees, divine palaces
and couches, etc., appear.”
Vism-mhṭ remarks here: “By the words ’the
appearance of the mother’s womb,’ etc., only
visual appearance is given as the sign of destiny.
Herein, in the first place it would be logical that
sound has not been given in the Commentaries as
a sign of destiny because it is included in the
happy destinies as not-clung-to, but the reason for
odour, etc., not having been given, will be
inquired into” (Vism-mhṭ 609). This question is in
fact dealt with at length at Vism-mhṭ 611, but the
arguments are not reproduced here. See note 26
below.

1585
Sa-bhāva (with sex) and a-bhāva (without sex) are not to
be confused with sabhāva (individual essence) and
abhāva (absence, non-existence).
Vism-mhṭ (p. 611) has a long discussion here of the
difficulty of speaking of the Brahmā-world (where
there are only the senses of seeing and hearing) in
terms of the decads, which contain the components of
odour and flavour. (§156) It ends by defending the
Visuddhimagga standpoint.
Sammohavinodanī (Be) has “rebirth-linking with a past,
not so-classifiable, and present object next to” and so
on.
See the classification of kamma at XIX.74ff.
“Repeated” (samāsevita) kamma is not mentioned there
as such. Of “near” kamma Vism-mhṭ says, “It is that
performed next to death, or which is conspicuous in
the memory then, whenever it was performed” (Vism-
mhṭ 617).
“’Sign of the kamma’ is the event (vatthu) by means of
which a man accumulates kamma through making it
the object at the time of accumulation. Even if the
kamma was performed as much as a hundred
thousand eons ago, nevertheless at the time of its
ripening it appears as kamma or sign of kamma. The
’sign of the destiny’ is one of the visual scenes in the
place where rebirth is due to take place. It consists in

1586
the visual appearance of flames of fire, etc., to one
ready to be reborn in hell, and so on as already stated”
(Vism-mhṭ 617).
“Owing to craving being unabandoned, and because
the previously-arisen continuity is similarly deflected,
consciousness occurs inclining, leaning and tending
towards the place of rebirth-linking. The ’conascent
formations’ are the volitions conascent with the
impulsion consciousness next to death. Or they are all
those that begin with contact. They fling consciousness
on to that place of rebirth-linking, which is the object
of the kamma and so on. The meaning is that they
occur as the cause for the establishment of
consciousness on the object by rebirth-linking as
though flinging it there” (Vism-mhṭ 617).
“As a continuous process consisting of death, rebirth-
linking, and the adjacent consciousnesses” (Vism-mhṭ
617).
Paṭisiddhattā—“because … excluded”: paṭisiddha is not
in PED. Abhisaṅkhāra here might mean “planting
work,” not “formative processes.”
Vism-mhṭ points out that this is generally but not
always so, since deities see such portents of their death
as the fading of their flowers, etc., which are
undesirable visible data (see note 43).
A Sinhalese text adds the following paragraph: “Also

1587
the bodily formation, when giving rebirth-linking,
gives the whole of its results in the sense-sphere
becoming alone in the four generations, in the five
destinies, in the first two stations of consciousness,
and in two abodes of beings. Therefore it is a condition
in the way already stated for the twenty-three kinds of
consciousness in one kind of becoming, four
generations, five destinies, two stations of
consciousness, and two abodes of beings, both in
rebirth-linking and in the course of an existence. The
same method applies to the verbal formation. But the
mental formation does not fail to ripen anywhere
except in one abode of beings. Therefore it is a
condition in the way already stated for the thirty-two
kinds of resultant consciousness, as appropriate, in the
three kinds of becoming, four generations, five
destinies, seven stations of consciousness, and eight
abodes of beings, both in rebirth-linking and in the
course of an existence. There is no consciousness with
formations as condition in the non-percipient abode of
beings. Furthermore, in the case of non-percipient
beings, the formation of merit is a condition, as
kamma condition acting from a different time, for the
kinds of materiality due to kamma performed.”
Resolve compound agahitagahaṇena as gahitassa a-
gahaṇena, not as a-gahitassa gahaṇena; i.e. it is “by not
taking what is taken,” not “by taking what has not

1588
been taken”; cf. IV.75.
“This means, due to the heat element in the materiality
that arose together with the rebirth-linking
consciousness. It is because the heart-basis is arisen
only at that very moment, that there is weakness of the
physical basis” (Vism-mhṭ 622).
Vāhanika—“having a float”: not in PED. The context
suggests a catamaran, universal in Indian waters.
The expression “ekadesasarūpekasesa” is grammatically
explained at Vism-mhṭ 623; see allied expressions,
“katekasesa” (§204) and “ekasese kate” (§223). Cf. Pāṇini I
2, 64.
Rasāyana—“elixir”: not in PED; cf. D-a 568 and Ud-a
(commentary to Ud 8.5)
“’Though feeling is condition’ is said in order to prevent
a generalization from the preceding words ’With
feeling as condition’ to the effect that craving arises in
the presence of every condition accompanied by
feeling—But is it not impossible to prevent over-
generalization in the absence of any such statements
as ’Feeling accompanied by inherent tendency is a
condition for craving’?—No; for we are dealing with
an exposition of the round of rebirths. Since there is no
round of rebirths without inherent tendencies, so far
as the meaning is concerned it may be taken for
granted that the condition is accompanied by inherent

1589
tendency. Or alternatively, it may be recognized that
this condition is accompanied by inherent tendency
because it follows upon the words ’With ignorance as
condition.’ And with the words ’With feeling as
condition, craving’ the ruling needed is this: ’There is
craving only with feeling as condition,’ and not ’With
feeling as condition there is only craving’” (Vism-
mhṭ). For inherent tendencies see XXII.45, 60; MN 64.
The Arahant has none.
Upakuṭṭha—“great pox” or “great leprosy”: not in
PED; see kuṭṭha.
Ee has “sassatan ti”; Ae has “sā’ssa diṭṭhī ti”; Vibh-a
(Be), “na sassatadiṭṭhī ti.”
Their flowers wither, their clothes get dirty, sweat
comes from their armpits, their bodies become
unsightly, and they get restless (see M-a IV 170).
As regards these four paragraphs from the
Paṭisambhidā (see §§292, 294, 296, and 297), all four
end with the word ’paccayā’ (nom. pl. and abl. s. of
paccaya = condition). In the first and third paragraphs
(§§292 and 296) this is obviously nom. pl. and agrees
with ’ime pañca dhammā’ (these five things). But in the
second and fourth paragraphs the context suggests
vipākā (results) instead of conditions. However, there
is no doubt that the accepted reading is paccayā here
too; for the passage is also quoted in XIX.13, in the

1590
Sammohavinodanī (Paccayākāra-Vibhaṅga commentary
= present context), and at M-a I 53. The
Paramatthamañjūsā and Mūla Ṭīkā do not mention this
point. The Saddhammappakāsinī (Paṭisambhidā
commentary) comments on the first paragraph:
“Purimakammabhavasmin ti atītajātiyā kammabhave
karīyamāne pavattā; idha paṭisandhiyā paccayā ti
paccuppannā paṭisandhiyā paccayabhūtā,” and on the
second paragraph: “Idh’upapattibhavasmiṃ pure katassa
kammassa paccayā ti paccuppanne vipākabhave atītajātiyaṃ
katassa kammassa paccayena pavattī ti attho.” The
Majjhima Nikāya Ṭīkā (M-a I 53) says of the second
paragraph: “Ime paccayā ti ime viññāṇādayo pañca
koṭṭhāsikā dhammā, purimabhave katassa kammassa,
kammavaṭṭassa, paccayā, paccayabhāvato, taṃ paṭicca, idha,
etarahi, upapattibhavasmiṃ upapattibhavabhāvena vā hontī
ti attho.” From these comments it is plain enough that
“paccayā” in the second and fourth paragraphs is taken
as abl. sing. (e.g. avijjā-paccayā saṅkhārā). There is a
parallel ablative construction with genitive at Paṭis II
72, 1.8: “Gatisampattiyā ñāṇasampayutte aṭṭhannaṃ
hetūnaṃ paccayā uppatti hoti.” Perhaps the literal
rendering of the second and fourth paragraphs’ final
sentence might be: “Thus there are these five things
here in the [present] rebirth-process becoming with
their condition [consisting] of kamma done in the
past,” and so on. The point is unimportant.

1591
“Sorrow, etc., have already been established as
ignorance; but death consciousness itself is devoid of
ignorance and formations and is not a condition for
the next becoming; that is why ’because it assures
sorrow, etc.’ is said” (Vism-mhṭ 640).
Avatthā—“occasion”: not in PED.
Avyāpāra—“uninterest”: here the equivalent of
anābhoga, see IV.171 and IX.108. The perhaps
unorthodox form “uninterest” has been used to avoid
the “unselfish” sense sometimes implied by
“disinterestedness.” Vyāpāra is clearly intended
throughout this work as “motivated action” in
contrast with “blind action of natural forces.” The
word “interest” has therefore been chosen to bring out
this effect.
The dependent origination, or structure of conditions,
appears as a flexible formula with the intention of
describing the ordinary human situation of a man in
his world (or indeed any conscious event where
ignorance and craving have not entirely ceased). That
situation is always complex, since it is implicit that
consciousness with no object, or being (bhava—
becoming, or however rendered) without
consciousness (of it), is impossible except as an
artificial abstraction. The dependent origination, being
designed to portray the essentials of that situation in

1592
the limited dimensions of words and using only
elements recognizable in experience, is not a logical
proposition (Descartes’ cogito is not a logical
proposition). Nor is it a temporal cause-and-effect
chain: each member has to be examined as to its
nature in order to determine what its relations to the
others are (e.g. whether successive in time or
conascent, positive or negative, etc., etc.). A purely
cause-and-effect chain would not represent the pattern
of a situation that is always complex, always
subjective-objective, static-dynamic, positive-negative,
and so on. Again, there is no evidence of any historical
development in the various forms given within the
limit of the Sutta Piṭaka (leaving aside the
Paṭisambhidāmagga), and historical treatment within
that particular limit is likely to mislead, if it is
hypothesis with no foundation.
Parallels with European thought have been
avoided in this translation. But perhaps an
exception can be made here, with due caution, in
the case of Descartes. The revolution in European
thought started by his formula cogito ergo sum (“I
think, therefore I am”) is not yet ended. Now, it
will perhaps not escape notice that the two
elements, “I think” and “I am,” in what is not a
logical proposition parallel to some extent the two
members of the dependent origination,

1593
consciousness and being (becoming). In other
words, consciousness activated by craving and
clinging as the dynamic factory, guided and
blinkered by ignorance (“I think” or
“consciousness with the conceit ’I am’”),
conditions being (“therefore I am”) in a complex
relationship with other factors relating subject
and object (not accounted for by Descartes). The
parallel should not be pushed too far. In fact it is
only introduced because in Europe the dependent
origination seems to be very largely
misunderstood with many strange interpretations
placed upon it, and because the cogito does seem
to offer some sort of reasonable approach.
In this work, for convenience because of the
special importance attached here to the aspect of
the death-rebirth link, the dependent origination
is considered from only one standpoint, namely,
as applicable to a period embracing a minimum of
three lives. But this is not the only application.
With suitable modifications it is also used in the
Vibhaṅga to describe the structure of the complex
in each one of the 89 single type-consciousnesses
laid down in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī; and
Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa says: “This
structure of conditions is present not only in (a
continuity period consisting of) multiple

1594
consciousnesses but also in each single
consciousness as well” (Vibh-a 199–200). Also the
Paṭisambhidāmagga gives five expositions, four
describing dependent origination in one life, the
fifth being made to present a special inductive
generalization to extend what is observable in this
life (the fact that consciousness is always
preceded by consciousness, cf. this Ch. §83f.—i.e.
that it always has a past and is inconceivable
without one) back beyond birth, and (since
craving and ignorance ensure its expected
continuance) on after death. There are, besides,
various other, differing applications indicated by
the variant forms given in the suttas themselves.

1595
 Chapter XVIII
Purification of View
(Diṭṭhi-visuddhi-niddesa)

1. [587] Now, it was said earlier (XIV.32) that he

“should first fortify his knowledge by learning and
questioning about those things that are the ‘soil’ after
he has perfected the two purifications—purification of
virtue and purification of consciousness—that are the
‘roots.’” Now, of those, purification of virtue is the
quite purified fourfold virtue beginning with
Pātimokkha restraint; and that has already been dealt
with in detail in the Description of Virtue; (Chs. I and
II) and the purification of consciousness, namely, the
eight attainments together with access concentration,
has also been dealt with in detail in all its aspects in
the Description of Concentration, (Chs. III to XIII)
stated under the heading of “consciousness” [in the
introductory verse]. So those two purifications should
be understood in detail as given there.
2. But it was said above (XIV.32) that “The five
purifications, purification of view, purification by
overcoming doubt, purification by knowledge and
vision of what is the path and what is not the path,
purification by knowledge and vision of the way, and

1596
purification by knowledge and vision, are the ‘trunk.’”
Herein, “purification of view” is the correct seeing of
mentality-materiality.[1]

[DEFINING OF MENTALITY-
MATERIALITY]
[(1) DEFINITION BASED ON THE FOUR
PRIMARIES]

[(a) Starting with Mentality]

3. One who wants to accomplish this, if, firstly, his
vehicle is serenity,[2] should emerge from any fine-
material or immaterial jhāna, except the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception,[3]
and he should discern, according to characteristic,
function, etc., the jhāna factors consisting of applied
thought, etc., and the states associated with them, [that
is, feeling, perception, and so on]. When he has done
so, all that should be defined as “mentality” (nāma) in
the sense of bending (namana)[4] because of its bending
on to the object.
4. Then, just as a man, by following a snake that he
has seen in his house, finds its abode, so too this
meditator scrutinizes that mentality, he seeks to find

1597
out what its occurrence is supported by and he sees
that it is supported [588] by the matter of the heart.
After that, he discerns as materiality the primary
elements, which are the heart’s support, and the
remaining, derived kinds of materiality that have the
elements as their support. He defines all that as
“materiality” (rūpa) because it is “molested” (ruppana)
[by cold, etc.]. After that he defines in brief as
“mentality-materiality” (nāma-rūpa) the mentality that
has the characteristic of “bending” and the materiality
that has the characteristic of “being molested.”
[(b) Starting with Materiality]
5. But one whose vehicle is pure insight, or that same
aforesaid one whose vehicle is serenity, discerns the
four elements in brief or in detail in one of the various
ways given in the chapter on the definition of the four
elements (XI.27ff.). Then, when the elements have
become clear in their correct essential characteristics,
firstly, in the case of head hair originated by kamma
there become plain ten instances of materiality (rūpāni)
with the body decad thus: the four elements, colour,
odour, flavour, nutritive essence, and life, and body
sensitivity. And because the sex decad is present there
too there are another ten [that is, the same nine with
sex instead of body sensitivity]. And since the octad-
with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth [that is, the four
elements and colour, odour, flavour, and nutritive

1598
essence,] originated by nutriment, and that originated
by temperature, and that originated by consciousness
are present there too, there are another twenty-four. So
there is a total of forty-four instances of materiality in
the case of each of the twenty-four bodily parts of
fourfold origination. But in the case of the four,
namely, sweat, tears, spittle, and snot,[5] which are
originated by temperature and by consciousness, there
are sixteen instances of materiality with the two
octads-with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth in each. In the
case of the four, namely, gorge, dung, pus, and urine,
which are originated by temperature, eight instances
of materiality become plain in each with the octad-
with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth in what is originated
only by temperature. This, in the first place, is the
method in the case of the thirty-two bodily aspects.
6. But there are ten more aspects[6] that become clear
when those thirty-two aspects have become clear. And
as regards these, firstly, nine instances of materiality,
that is, the octad-with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth plus
life, become plain in the case of the kamma-born part
of heat (fire) that digests what is eaten, etc., and
likewise nine [instances of materiality], that is, the
octad-with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth plus sound, in
the case of the consciousness-born part [of air
consisting] of in-breaths and out-breaths; and thirty-
three instances of materiality, that is, the [kamma-

1599
born] life-ennead and the three octads-with-nutritive-
essence-as-eighth in the case of each of the remaining
eight [parts] that are of fourfold origination.
7. And when these instances of materiality derived
[by clinging] from the primaries have thus become
plain in detail in the case of these forty-two aspects,
[that is, thirty-two parts of the body, four modes of
fire, and six modes of air,] another sixty instances of
materiality become plain with the physical [heart-]
basis and the [five] sense doors, that is, with the heart-
basis decad and the five decads beginning with the
eye decad.
Taking all these together under the characteristic of
“being molested,” he sees them as “materiality.”
8. When he has discerned materiality thus, the
immaterial states become plain to him in accordance
with the sense doors, that is to say, the eighty-one
kinds[7] of mundane consciousness consisting of the
two sets of five consciousnesses ((34)–(38) and (50)–
(54)), the three kinds of mind element ((39), (55) and
(70)) and the sixty-eight [589] kinds of mind-
consciousness element; and then seven consciousness-
concomitants, that is, (i) contact, feeling, perception,
(ii) volition, (vii) life, (viii) steadiness of consciousness,
and (xxx) attention, which are invariably conascent
with all these consciousnesses. The supramundane

1600
kinds of consciousness, however, are not discernible
either by one who is practicing pure insight or by one
whose vehicle is serenity because they are out of their
reach. Taking all these immaterial states together
under the characteristic of “bending,” he sees them as
“mentality.”
This is how one [meditator] defines mentality-
materiality in detail through the method of defining
the four elements.

[(2) DEFINITION BASED ON THE

EIGHTEEN ELEMENTS]

9. Another does it by means of the eighteen elements.

How? Here a bhikkhu considers the elements thus:
“There are in this person the eye element, … the mind-
consciousness element.” Instead of taking the piece of
flesh variegated with white and black circles, having
length and breath, and fastened in the eye socket with
a string of sinew, which the world terms “an eye,” he
defines as “eye element” the eye sensitivity of the kind
described among the kinds of derived materiality in
the Description of the Aggregates (XIV.47).
10. But he does not define as “eye element” the
remaining instances of materiality, which total fifty-

1601
three, that is, the nine conascent instances of
materiality consisting of the four primary elements,
which are its support, the four concomitant instances
of materiality, namely, colour, odour, flavour, and
nutritive essence, and the sustaining life faculty; and
also the twenty kamma-born instances of materiality
that are there too, consisting of the body decad and
sex decad; and the twenty-four unclung-to instances of
materiality consisting of the three octads-with-
nutritive-essence-as-eighth, which are originated by
nutriment and so on. The same method applies to the
ear element and the rest. But in the case of the body
element the remaining instances of materiality total
forty-three, though some say forty-five by adding
sound and making nine each for the temperature-born
and consciousness-born [sound].
11. So these five sensitivities, and their five respective
objective fields, that is, visible data, sounds, odours,
flavours, and tangible data, make ten instances of
materiality, which are ten [of the eighteen] elements.
The remaining instances of materiality are the mental-
data element only.
The consciousness that occurs with the eye as its
support and contingent upon a visible datum is called
“eye-consciousness element” [and likewise with the
ear and so on]. In this way the two sets of five
consciousnesses are the five “consciousness elements.”

1602
The three kinds of consciousness consisting of mind
element ((39), (55) and (70)) are the single “mind
element.” The sixty-eight kinds of mind-consciousness
element are the “mind-consciousness element.” So all
the eighty-one kinds of mundane consciousness make
up seven kinds of consciousness element; and the
contact, etc., associated therewith are the mental-data
element.
So ten-and-a-half elements are materiality and
seven-and-a-half elements [590] are mentality. This is
how one [meditator] defines mentality-materiality by
means of the eighteen elements.

[(3) DEFINITION BASED ON THE TWELVE

BASES]

12. Another does it by means of the twelve bases.

How? He defines as “eye base” the sensitivity only,
leaving out the fifty-three remaining instances of
materiality, in the way described for the eye element.
And in the way described there [he also defines] the
elements of the ear, nose, tongue, and body, as “ear
base, nose base, tongue base, body base.” He defines
five states that are their respective objective fields as
“visible-data base, sound base, odour base, flavour

1603
base, tangible-data base.” He defines the seven
mundane consciousness elements as “mind base.” He
defines the contact, etc., associated there with and also
the remaining instances of materiality as “mental-data
base.” So here ten-and-a-half bases are materiality and
one-and-a-half bases are mentality. This is how one
[meditator] defines mentality-materiality by means of
the twelve bases.

[(4) DEFINITION BASED ON THE FIVE

AGGREGATES]

13. Another defines it more briefly than that by means

of the aggregates. How? Here a bhikkhu defines as
“the materiality aggregate” all the following twenty-
seven instances of materiality, that is, the seventeen
instances of materiality consisting of the four
primaries of fourfold origination in this body and
dependent colour, odour, flavour, and nutritive
essence, and the five sensitivities beginning with the
eye sensitivity, and the materiality of the physical
[heart-]basis, sex, life faculty, and sound of twofold
origination, which seventeen instances of materiality
are suitable for comprehension since they are
produced and are instances of concrete materiality;
and then the ten instances of materiality, that is, bodily

1604
intimation, verbal intimation, the space element, and
the lightness, malleability, wieldiness, growth,
continuity, aging, and impermanence of materiality,
which ten instances of materiality are, however, not
suitable for comprehension since they are merely the
mode-alteration and the limitation-of-interval; they
are not produced and are not concrete materiality, but
they are reckoned as materiality because they are
mode-alterations, and limitation-of-interval, of various
instances of materiality. So he defines all these twenty-
seven instances of materiality as the “the materiality
aggregate.” He defines the feeling that arises together
with the eighty-one kinds of mundane consciousness
as the “feeling aggregate,” the perception associated
therewith as the “perception aggregate,” the
formations associated therewith as the “formations
aggregate,” and the consciousness as the
“consciousness aggregate.” So by defining the
materiality aggregate as “materiality” and the four
immaterial aggregates as “mentality,” he defines
mentality-materiality by means of the five aggregates.

[(5) BRIEF DEFINITION BASED ON THE

FOUR PRIMARIES]

14. Another discerns “materiality” in his person

1605
briefly thus: “Any kind of materiality whatever all
consists of the four primary elements and the
materiality derived from the four primary elements”
(M I 222), and he likewise discerns the mind base and
a part of the mental data base as “mentality.” Then he
defines mentality-materiality in brief thus: “This
mentality and this materiality are called ‘mentality-
materiality.’”[8]

[IF THE IMMATERIAL FAILS TO BECOME

EVIDENT]

15. [591] But if he has discerned materiality in one of

these ways, and while he is trying to discern the
immaterial it does not become evident to him owing to
its subtlety, then he should not give up but should
again and again comprehend, give attention to,
discern, and define materiality only. For in proportion
as materiality becomes quite definite, disentangled
and quite clear to him, so the immaterial states that
have that [materiality] as their object become plain of
themselves too.
16. Just as, when a man with eyes looks for the
reflection of his face in a dirty looking-glass and sees
no reflection, he does not throw the looking-glass

1606
away because the reflection does not appear; on the
contrary, he polishes it again and again, and then the
reflection becomes plain of itself when the looking-
glass is clean—and just as, when a man needing oil
puts sesame flour in a basin and wets it with water
and no oil comes out with only one or two pressings,
he does not throw the sesame flour away; but on the
contrary, he wets it again and again with hot water
and squeezes and presses it, and as he does so clear
sesame oil comes out—or just as, when a man wanting
to clarify water has taken a katuka nut and put his
hand inside the pot and rubbed it once or twice but
the water does not come clear, he does not throw the
katuka nut away; on the contrary, he rubs it again and
again, and as he does so the fine mud subsides and the
water becomes transparent and clear—so too, the
bhikkhu should not give up, but he should again and
again comprehend, give attention to, discern and
define materiality only.
17. For in proportion as materiality becomes quite
definite, disentangled and quite clear to him, so the
defilements that are opposing him subside, his
consciousness becomes clear like the water above the
[precipitated] mud, and the immaterial states that
have that [materiality] as their object become plain of
themselves too. And this meaning can also be
explained in this way by other analogies such as the

1607
[pressing of] sugarcane, [the beating of] criminals [to
make them confess], [the taming of] an ox, the
churning of curds [to produce butter], and [the
cooking of] fish.

[HOW THE IMMATERIAL STATES BECOME

EVIDENT]

18. When he has quite cleared up his discerning of

materiality, then the immaterial states become evident
to him through one of three aspects, that is, through
contact, through feeling, or through consciousness.
How?
19. 1. (a) When he discerns the [four primary]
elements in the way beginning, “The earth element
has the characteristic of hardness” (XI.93), contact
becomes evident to him as the first conjunction. Then
the feeling associated with that as the feeling
aggregate, the associated perception as the perception
aggregate, the associated volition together with the
aforesaid contact as the formations aggregate, and the
associated consciousness as the consciousness
aggregate.
1. (b) [592] Likewise [when he has discerned them in
this way,] “In the head hair it is the earth element that

1608
has the characteristic of hardness … in the in-breaths
and out-breaths it is the earth element that has the
characteristic of hardness” (XI.31), contact becomes
evident as the first conjunction. Then the feeling
associated with it as the feeling aggregate, … the
associated consciousness as the consciousness
aggregate.
This is how immaterial states become evident
through contact.
20. 2. (a) To another [who discerns the four primary
elements in the way beginning] “The earth element
has the characteristic of hardness,” the feeling that has
that as its object and experiences its stimulus [as
pleasant, etc.,] becomes evident as the feeling
aggregate, the perception associated with that as the
perception aggregate, the contact and the volition
associated with that as the formations aggregate, and
the consciousness associated with that as the
consciousness aggregate.
2. (b) Likewise [to one who discerns them in this way]
“In the head hair it is the earth element that has the
characteristic of hardness … in the in-breaths and out-
breaths it is the earth element that has the
characteristic of hardness,” the feeling that has that as
its object and experiences its stimulus becomes evident
as the feeling aggregate … and the consciousness

1609
associated with that as the consciousness aggregate.
This is how the immaterial states become evident
through feeling.
21. 3. (a) To another [who discerns the four primary
elements in the way beginning] “The earth element
has the characteristic of hardness,” the consciousness
that cognizes the object becomes evident as the
consciousness aggregate, the feeling associated with it
as the feeling aggregate, the associated perception as
the perception aggregate, and the associated contact
and volition as the formations aggregate.
3. (b) Likewise [to one who discerns them in this way]
“In the head hair it is the earth element that has the
characteristic of hardness … in the in-breaths and out-
breaths it is the earth element that has the
characteristic of hardness,” the consciousness that
cognizes the object becomes evident as the
consciousness aggregate … and the associated contact
and volition as the formations aggregate.
This is how the immaterial states become evident
through consciousness.
22. In the case of [the ways of discerning materiality
as consisting of] the forty-two aspects of the elements
beginning with the head hairs [that is, thirty-two
aspects of the body, four aspects of the fire element
and six aspects of the air element,] either by these

1610
same means given above or by means of the method
beginning, “In the kamma-originated head hairs it is
the earth element that has the characteristic of
hardness—and also in the case of the methods of
discerning materiality as consisting of the eye, etc.—
by means of the four primary elements in each, the
construing should be done by working out all the
differences in each method.
23. Now, it is only when he has become quite sure
about discerning materiality in this way that
immaterial states become quite evident to him in the
three aspects. Therefore he should only undertake the
task of discerning the immaterial states after he has
completed that, not otherwise. If he leaves off
discerning materiality when, say, one or two material
states have become evident in order to begin
discerning the immaterial, then he falls from his
meditation subject like the mountain cow already
described under the Development of the Earth Kasiṇa
(IV.130). [593] But if he undertakes the task of
discerning the immaterial after he is already quite sure
about discerning materiality thus, then his meditation
subject comes to growth, increase and perfection.

[NO BEING APART FROM MENTALITY-

MATERIALITY]

1611
24. He defines the four immaterial aggregates that
have thus become evident through contact, etc., as
“mentality.” And he defines their objects, namely, the
four primaries and the materiality derived from the
four primaries, as “materiality.” So, as one who opens
a box with a knife, as one who splits a twin palmyra
bulb in two, he defines all states of the three planes,[9]
the eighteen elements, twelve bases, five aggregates,
in the double way as “mentality-materiality,” and he
concludes that over and above mere mentality-
materiality there is nothing else that is a being or a
person or a deity or a Brahmā.
25. After defining mentality-materiality thus
according to its true nature, then in order to abandon
this worldly designation of “a being” and “a person”
more thoroughly, to surmount confusion about beings
and to establish his mind on the plane of non-
confusion, he makes sure that the meaning defined,
namely, “This is mere mentality-materiality, there is
no being, no person” is confirmed by a number of
suttas. For this has been said:
As with the assembly of parts
The word “chariot” is countenanced,
So, when the aggregates are present,
“A being” is said in common usage (S I 135).
26. Again, this has been said: “Just as when a space is

1612
enclosed with timber and creepers and grass and clay,
there comes to be the term ‘house,’ so too, when a
space is enclosed with bones and sinews and flesh and
skin, there comes to be the term ‘material form’ (rūpa)”
(M I 190).
27. And again this has been said:
It is ill alone that rises,
Ill that remains, ill that departs.
Nothing rises else than ill,
And nothing ceases else than ill (S I 135).
28. So in many hundred suttas it is only mentality-
materiality that is illustrated, not a being, not a person.
Therefore, just as when the component parts such as
axles, wheels, frame poles, etc., are arranged in a
certain way, there comes to be the mere term of
common usage “chariot,” yet in the ultimate sense
when each part is examined there is no chariot—and
just as when the component parts of a house such as
wattles, etc., are placed so that they enclose a space in
a certain way, there comes to be the mere term of
common usage “house,” yet in the ultimate sense
there is no house—and just as when the fingers,
thumb, etc., are placed in a certain way, there comes to
be the mere term of common usage [594] “fist,”—with
body and strings, “lute”; with elephants, horses, etc.,
“army”; with surrounding walls, houses, states, etc.,

1613
“city”—just as when trunk, branches, foliage, etc., are
placed in a certain way, there comes to be the mere
term of common usage “tree,” yet in the ultimate
sense, when each component is examined, there is no
tree—so too, when there are the five aggregates [as
objects] of clinging, there comes to be the mere term of
common usage “a being,” “a person,” yet in the
ultimate sense, when each component is examined,
there is no being as a basis for the assumption “I am”
or “I”; in the ultimate sense there is only mentality-
materiality. The vision of one who sees in this way is
called correct vision.
29. But when a man rejects this correct vision and
assumes that a [permanent] being exists, he has to
conclude either that it comes to be annihilated or that
it does not. If he concludes that it does not come to be
annihilated, he falls into the eternity [view]. If he
concludes that it does come to be annihilated, he falls
into the annihilation [view]. Why? Because [the
assumption] precludes any gradual change like that of
milk into curd. So he either holds back, concluding
that the assumed being is eternal, or he overreaches,
concluding that it comes to be annihilated.
30. Hence the Blessed One said: “There are two kinds
of view, bhikkhus, and when deities and human
beings are obsessed by them, some hold back and
some overreach; only those with eyes see. And how do

1614
some hold back? Deities and human beings love
becoming, delight in becoming, rejoice in becoming.
When Dhamma is taught to them for the ceasing of
becoming, their minds do not enter into it, become
settled, steady and resolute. Thus it is that some hold
back. And how do some overreach? Some are
ashamed, humiliated and disgusted by that same
becoming, they are concerned with non-becoming in
this way: ‘Sirs, when with the breakup of the body this
self is cut off, annihilated, does not become any more
after death, that is peaceful, that is sublime, that is
true.’ Thus it is that some overreach. And how do
those with eyes see? Here a bhikkhu sees what is
become as become. Having seen what is become as
become, he has entered upon the way to dispassion for
it, to the fading away of greed for it, to its cessation.
This is how one with eyes sees” (It 43; Paṭis I 159).
31. Therefore, just as a marionette is void, soulless
and without curiosity, and while it walks and stands
merely through the combination of strings and wood,
[595] yet it seems as if it had curiosity and
interestedness, so too, this mentality-materiality is
void, soulless and without curiosity, and while it
walks and stands merely through the combination of
the two together, yet it seems as if it had curiosity and
interestedness. This is how it should be regarded.
Hence the Ancients said:

1615
 The mental and material are really here,
But here there is no human being to be found,
For it is void and merely fashioned like a doll—
Just suffering piled up like grass and sticks.

[INTERDEPENDENCE OF MENTALITY AND

MATERIALITY]

32. And this should be explained not only by means

of the simile of the marionette, but also by means of
the analogies of the sheaves of reeds and so on. For
just as when two sheaves of reeds are propped one
against the other, each one gives the other
consolidating support, and when one falls the other
falls, so too, in the five-constituent becoming
mentality-materiality occurs as an interdependent
state, each of its components giving the other
consolidating support, and when one falls owing to
death, the other falls too. Hence the Ancients said:
The mental and material
Are twins and each supports the other;
When one breaks up they both break up
Through interconditionality.
33. And just as when sound occurs having as its
support a drum that is beaten by the stick, then the

1616
drum is one and the sound another, the drum and the
sound are not mixed up together, the drum is void of
the sound and the sound is void of the drum, so too,
when mentality occurs having as its support the
materiality called the physical basis, the door and the
object, then the materiality is one and the mentality is
another, the mentality and materiality are not mixed
up together, the mentality is void of the materiality
and the materiality is void of the mentality; yet the
mentality occurs due to the materiality as the sound
occurs due to the drum. Hence the Ancients said:
The pentad based on contact comes not from the
eye,
Or from things seen, or something that is in
between;
Due to a cause it comes to be, and formed as well.
Just as the sound that issues from a beaten drum.
The pentad based on contact comes not from the
ear.
Or yet from sound, or something that is in
between;
Due to a cause …
The pentad based on contact comes not from the
nose
Or yet from smells, or something that is in
between;

1617
 Due to a cause …
The pentad based on contact comes not from the
tongue,
Or yet from tastes, or something that is in
between; [596]
Due to a cause …
The pentad based on contact comes not from the
body,
Or yet from touch, or something that is in
between;
Due to a cause …
Being formed, it does not come from the material
basis.
Nor does it issue from the mental-datum base;
Due to a cause it comes to be, and formed as well.
Just as the sound that issues from a beaten drum.
34. Furthermore, mentality has no efficient power, it
cannot occur by its own efficient power. It does not
eat, it does not drink, it does not speak, it does not
adopt postures. And materiality is without efficient
power; it cannot occur by its own efficient power. For
it has no desire to eat, it has no desire to drink, it has
no desire to speak, it has no desire to adopt postures.
But rather it is when supported by materiality that
mentality occurs; and it is when supported by
mentality that materiality occurs. When mentality has

1618
the desire to eat, the desire to drink, the desire to
speak, the desire to adopt a posture, it is materiality
that eats, drinks, speaks, and adopts a posture.
35. But for the purpose of explaining this meaning
they gave this simile as an example: a man born blind
and a stool-crawling cripple wanted to go somewhere.
The blind man said to the cripple, “Look, I can do
what should be done by legs, but I have no eyes with
which to see what is rough and smooth.” The cripple
said, “Look, I can do what should be done by eyes, but
I have no legs with which to go and come.” The blind
man was delighted, and he made the cripple climb up
on his shoulder. Sitting on the blind man’s shoulder
the cripple spoke thus, “Leave the left, take the right;
leave the right, take the left.”
Herein, the blind man has no efficient power; he is
impotent; he cannot travel by his own efficient power,
by his own strength. And the cripple has no efficient
power; he is impotent; he cannot travel by his own
efficient power, by his own strength. But there is
nothing to prevent their going when they support
each other. So too, mentality has no efficient power; it
does not arise or occur in such and such functions by
its own efficient power. And materiality has no
efficient power; it does not arise or occur in such and
such functions by its own efficient power.

1619
 But there is nothing to prevent their occurrence
when they support each other.
36. Hence this is said:
They cannot come to be by their own strength,
Or yet maintain themselves by their own strength;
Relying for support on other states,
Weak in themselves, and formed, they come to
be; [597]
They come to be with others as condition.
They are aroused by others as their objects,
They are produced by object and condition,
And each by something other than itself.
And just as men depend upon
A boat for traversing the sea.
So does the mental body need
The matter-body for occurrence.
And as the boat depends upon
The men for traversing the sea.
So does the matter-body need
The mental body for occurrence.
Depending each upon the other
The boat and men go on the sea.
And so do mind and matter both
Depend the one upon the other.
37. The correct vision of mentality and materiality,

1620
which, after defining mentality-materiality by these
various methods, has been established on the plane of
non-confusion by overcoming the perception of a
being, is what should be understood as purification of
view. Other terms for it are “defining of mentality-
materiality” and “delimitation of formations.”

The eighteenth chapter called “The

Description of Purification of View” in
the Treatise on the Development of
Understanding in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1621
Notes for Chapter XVIII

1. “Mentality should be taken here as the four

aggregates beginning with feeling and belonging
to the three planes, not omitting consciousness as
in the case of ‘With consciousness as condition,
mentality-materiality’ and not including the
supramundane aggregates associated with
Nibbāna” (Vism-mhṭ 744 (Be)).
2. Serenity (samatha) is a general term for
concentration, as the complement of insight
(vipassanā), which is roughly the equivalent of
understanding (paññā).
3. “One who is beginning this work has difficulty in
discerning the highest form of becoming, that is,
the base consisting of neither perception nor non-
perception” (Vism-mhṭ 744). This is owing to the
diminished perception (see M III 28).
4. See S II 23f. “Bending in the direction of the object
means that there is no occurrence without an
object; it is in the sense of that sort of bending, or
it is in the sense of bestowing a name (nāma-
karaṇa)” (Vism-mhṭ 744). “Name-and-form” has
many advantages over “mentality-materiality” if
only because it preserves the integrity of nāma

1622
 and excludes any metaphysical assumption of
matter existing as a substance behind apparent
forms.
5. “Because sweat, etc., arise owing to heat, fatigue,
etc., and owing to mental perturbation, they are
called ‘originated by temperature and by
consciousness’” (Vism-mhṭ 745). There are seven
kinds of decads: those of the physical basis of
mind (heart), sex, living, physical eye, ear, nose,
tongue, and body. The first nine components of a
decad are the same in all instances, and by
themselves they are called the “life ennead.” The
first eight components by themselves are called
the “octad-with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth.” This
octad plus sound is called the “sound ennead.” In
general these are called “material groups” (rūpa-
kalāpa). But this kind of group (kalāpa) has nothing
to do with the “comprehension by groups”
(kalāpa-sammasana) of Ch. XX, which is simply
generalization (from one’s own particular
experience to each of the five aggregates as past,
etc., i.e. as a “group”). The “material groups” are
not in the Piṭakas.
6. The ten are four aspects of the fire element and six
aspects of the air element; what heats, what
consumes, what burns up, what digests; up-going
winds (or forces), down-going winds, winds in

1623
 the stomach, winds in the bowels, winds in the
limbs, breath. See XI.37, 82.
7. “The exalted consciousness of the fine-material
and immaterial spheres is only quite plain to one
who has attained the attainments” (Vism-mhṭ
746).
8. “As well as by means of the elements, etc.,
materiality can also be discerned through the
faculties, the truths, and the dependent
origination. How?
“Firstly, through the faculties. These seven,
namely, the five beginning with the eye plus
femininity and masculinity are materiality; the
eleven consisting of the mind faculty, the five
feeling faculties, and the five beginning with faith,
are mentality; the life faculty is both mentality
and materiality. The last three, being
supramundane, are not intended here. The truth
of suffering is both mentality and materiality; the
truth of origin is mentality; the other two are not
intended here because they are supramundane.
“In the structure of conditions, the first three
members are mentality; the fourth and fifth are
mentality and materiality; the sixth, seventh,
eighth, and ninth are mentality; the tenth is both
mentality and materiality; the last two are each

1624
 mentality and materiality” (Vism-mhṭ 747f.).
9. “‘All states of the three planes’ is said all-inclusively
owing to the necessity not to omit anything
suitable for comprehension. For it must be fully
understood without any exception, and greed
must be made to fade away absolutely so that the
mind may be liberated by the fading away of
greed. That is why the Blessed One said:
‘Bhikkhus, without directly knowing, without
fully understanding all, without causing the
fading away of greed for it, without abandoning
it, the mind is incapable of the destruction of
suffering. Bhikkhus, it is by directly knowing, by
fully understanding all, by causing the fading
away of greed for it, by abandoning it, that the
mind is capable of the destruction of suffering’ (S
IV 17). If all the states of the three planes are taken
as mentality-materiality without exception, then
how should one deal with what has been
conceived by those outside the Dispensation as
verbal meanings, such as the Primordial Essence
(pakati), etc. [e.g. of the Sāṃkhya], the substance
(drabya), etc. [e.g. of the Vaiśeṣika], the soul (jīva),
etc., and the body (kāya), etc. [?] Since these are
like the hallucination of lunatics and are taught by
the not fully enlightened, what other way of
dealing with them is there than to ignore them?

1625
Or alternatively, their existence or non-existence
can be understood as established by their
inclusion within mentality-materiality” (Vism-
mhṭ 751f.). There follows a long paragraph
showing how the concepts of these systems are to
be assimilated into mentality-materiality whereby
they lose their significance and are shown to be
impermanent and formed. Vism-mhṭ concludes
by saying, “Wherever the verbal meaning of self
is expressed by some such metaphor as world-
soul (purisa), self (attā, ātman), soul (jīva), etc.,
these being themselves conceived in their various
ways on the basis of mere mentality-materiality,
are mere mentality-materiality, too” (Vism-mhṭ
754f.).

1626
 Chapter XIX
Purification by Overcoming Doubt
(Kaṅkhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi-niddesa)

1. [598] Knowledge established by overcoming doubt

about the three divisions of time by means of
discerning the conditions of that same mentality-
materiality is called “purification by overcoming
doubt.”

[WAYS OF DISCERNING CAUSE AND

CONDITION]

2. The bhikkhu who wants to accomplish this sets

about seeking the cause and condition for that
mentality-materiality; just as when a skilled physician
encounters a disease he seeks its origin, or just as
when a compassionate man sees a tender little child
lying on its back in the road he wonders who its
parents are.

[NEITHER CREATED BY A CREATOR NOR

CAUSELESS]
1627
3. To begin with, he considers thus: “Firstly this
mentality-materiality is not causeless, because if that
were so, it would follow that [having no causes to
differentiate it,] it would be identical everywhere
always and for all. It has no Overlord, etc., because of
the non-existence of any Overlord, etc. (XVI.85), over
and above mentality-materiality. And because, if
people then argue that mentality-materiality itself is
its Overlord, etc., then it follows that their mentality-
materiality, which they call the Overlord, etc., would
itself be causeless. Consequently there must be a cause
and a condition for it. What are they?”
4. Having thus directed his attention to mentality-
materiality’s cause and condition, he first discerns the
cause and condition for the material body in this way:
“When this body is born it is not born inside a blue,
red or white lotus or water-lily, etc., or inside a store
of jewels or pearls, etc.; on the contrary, like a worm in
rotting flesh, in a rotting corpse, in rotting dough, in a
drain, in a cesspool, etc., it is born in between the
receptacle for undigested food and the receptacle for
digested food, behind the belly lining, in front of the
backbone, surrounded by the bowel and the entrails,
in a place that is stinking, disgusting, repulsive, and
extremely cramped, being itself stinking, disgusting,
and repulsive. When it is born thus, its causes (root-

1628
causes) are the four things, namely, ignorance,
craving, clinging, and kamma, [599] since it is they
that bring about its birth; and nutriment is its
condition, since it is that that consolidates it. So five
things constitute its cause and condition. And of these,
the three beginning with ignorance are the decisive-
support for this body, as the mother is for her infant,
and kamma begets it, as the father does the child; and
nutriment sustains it, as the wet-nurse does the
infant.”

[ITS OCCURANCE IS ALWAYS DUE TO

CONDITIONS]

5. After discerning the material body’s conditions in

this way, he again discerns the mental body in the way
beginning: “Due to eye and to visible object eye-
consciousness arises” (S II 72; M I 111). When he has
thus seen that the occurrence of mentality-materiality
is due to conditions, then he sees that, as now, so in
the past too its occurrence was due to conditions, and
in the future too its occurrence will be due to
conditions.
6. When he sees it in this way, all his uncertainty is
abandoned, that is to say, the five kinds of uncertainty

1629
about the past stated thus: “Was I in the past? Was I
not in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in
the past? Having been what, what was I in the past?”
(M I 8), and also the five kinds of uncertainty about
the future stated thus: “Shall I be in the future? Shall I
not be in the future? What shall I be in the future?
How shall I be in the future? Having been what, what
shall I be in the future?” (M I 8); and also the six kinds
of uncertainty about the present stated thus: “Am I?
Am I not? What am I? How am I? Whence will this
being have come? Whither will it be bound?” (M I 8).

[GENERAL AND PARTICULAR

CONDITIONS]

7. Another sees the conditions for mentality as two-

fold, according to what is common to all and to what
is not common to all, and that for materiality as
fourfold, according to kamma, and so on.
8. The condition for mentality is twofold, as that
which is common to all and that which is not common
to all. Herein, the six doors beginning with the eye and
the six objects beginning with visible data are a
condition-common-to-all for mentality because the
occurrence of all kinds [of mentality] classified as

1630
profitable, etc., is due to that [condition]. But attention,
etc., are not common to all; for wise attention, hearing
the Good Dhamma, etc., are a condition only for the
profitable, [600] while the opposite kinds are a
condition for the unprofitable. Kamma, etc., are a
condition for the resultant mentality; and the life-
continuum, etc., are a condition for the functional.
9. Kamma, consciousness, temperature, and
nutriment constitute this fourfold condition for
materiality beginning with kamma. Herein it is only
when it is past that kamma is a condition for kamma-
originated materiality; consciousness is a condition,
when it is arising, for consciousness-originated
materiality. Temperature and nutriment are conditions
at the instant (moment) of their presence for
temperature-originated and nutriment-originated
materiality.[1]
This is how one man discerns the conditions for
mentality-materiality.
10. When he has seen that the occurrence of
mentality-materiality is due to conditions in this way,
he sees also that, as now, so too in the past its
occurrence was due to conditions, and in the future its
occurrence will be due to conditions. When he sees it
in this way, his uncertainty about the three periods of
time is abandoned in the way already stated.

1631
 [DEPENDENT ORIGINATION IN REVERSE
ORDER]

11. Another, when he has seen that the formations

called mentality-materiality arrive at aging and that
those that have aged dissolve, discerns mentality-
materiality’s conditions by means of dependent
origination in reverse order in this way: “This is called
aging-and-death of formations; it comes to be when
there is birth, and birth when there is becoming, and
becoming when there is clinging, and clinging when
there is craving, and craving when there is feeling, and
feeling when there is contact, and contact when there
is the sixfold base, and the sixfold base when there is
mentality-materiality, and mentality-materiality when
there is consciousness, and consciousness when there
are formations, and formations when there is
ignorance.” Then his uncertainty is abandoned in the
way already stated.

[DEPENDENT ORIGINATION IN DIRECT

ORDER]

12. Another discerns mentality-materiality’s

conditions by means of dependent origination in

1632
direct order as already shown (XVII.29) in detail,
doing so in this way: “So, with ignorance as condition
there are formations” (M I 261). Then his uncertainty is
abandoned in the way already stated.

[KAMMA AND KAMMA-RESULT]

13. Another discerns mentality-materiality’s

conditions by means of the round of kamma and the
round of kamma-result in this way:
“In the previous kamma-process becoming there is
delusion, which is ignorance; there is accumulation,
which is formations; there is attachment, which is
craving; there is embracing, which is clinging; there is
volition, which is becoming; thus these five things in
the previous kamma-process becoming are conditions
for rebirth-linking here [in the present becoming].
“Here [in the present becoming] there is rebirth-
linking, which is consciousness; there is descent [into
the womb], which is mentality-materiality; there is
sensitivity, which is sense base; there is what is
touched, which is contact; there is what is felt, which is
feeling; thus these five things here in the [present]
rebirth-process becoming have their conditions in
kamma done in the past.

1633
 “Here [in the present becoming] with the maturing
of the bases there is delusion, which is ignorance;
there is accumulation, which is formations; there is
attachment, which is craving; there is embracing,
which is clinging; there is volition, which is becoming;
thus these five things here in the [present] kamma-
process becoming are conditions for rebirth-linking in
the future.
“In the future there is rebirth-linking, which is
consciousness; there is descent [into the womb], which
is mentality-materiality; there is sensitivity, which is
sense base; there is what is touched, which is contact;
there is what is felt, which is feeling; thus these five
things in the future rebirth-process becoming have
their conditions in kamma done here [in the present
becoming]” (Paṭis I 52). [601]
14. Herein, kamma is fourfold: to be experienced here
and now, to be experienced on rebirth, to be
experienced in some subsequent becoming, and
lapsed kamma.[2]
Of these, (i) the volition, either profitable or
unprofitable, of the first of the seven impulsion
consciousnesses in a single cognitive series of
impulsions is called kamma to be experienced here
and now: it gives its result in this same selfhood. But if
it cannot do so, it is called (iv) lapsed kamma (ahosi-

1634
kamma), according to the triad described thus, “There
has been (ahosi) kamma, there has been no kamma-
result, there will be no kamma-result” (see Paṭis II 78).
(ii) The volition of the seventh impulsion that
accomplishes its purpose is called kamma to be
experienced on rebirth: it gives its result in the next
selfhood. If it cannot do so, it is called (iv) lapsed
kamma in the way already described. (iii) The volition
of the five impulsions between these two is called
kamma to be experienced in some subsequent becoming: it
gives its result in the future when it gets the
opportunity, and however long the round of rebirths
continues it never becomes lapsed kamma.
15. Another fourfold classification of kamma is this:
weighty, habitual, death-threshold, and kamma
[stored up] by being performed.[3]
Herein, (v) when there is weighty and unweighty
kamma, the weightier, whether profitable or
unprofitable, whether kamma consisting in matricide
or kamma of the exalted spheres, takes precedence in
ripening. (vi) Likewise, when there is habitual and
unhabitual kamma, the more habitual, whether
consisting in good or bad conduct, takes precedence in
ripening. (vii) Death-threshold kamma is that
remembered at the time of death; for when a man near
death can remember [kamma], he is born according to
that. (viii) Kamma not included in the foregoing three

1635
kinds that has been often repeated is called kamma
[stored up] by being performed. This brings about rebirth-
linking if other kinds fail.
16. Another fourfold classification of kamma is this:
productive, consolidating, frustrating, and
supplanting.[4]
Herein, (ix) what is called productive is both
profitable and unprofitable. It produces the material
and immaterial aggregates both at rebirth-linking and
during the course of an existence. (x) Consolidating
kamma cannot produce result, but when result has
already been produced in the provision of rebirth-
linking by other kamma, it consolidates the pleasure
or pain that arises and makes it last. (xi) And when
result has already been produced in the provision of
rebirth-linking by other kamma, frustrating kamma
frustrates and obstructs the pleasure or pain that arises
and does not allow it to last. (xii) Supplanting kamma
is itself both profitable and unprofitable; [602] and it
supplants other, weaker kamma, prevents its resulting
and usurps that kamma’s opportunity in order to
cause its own result. But when the opportunity has
thus been furnished by the [other] kamma, it is that
[supplanting kamma’s] result that is called arisen.[5]
17. The succession of kamma and its result in the
twelve classes of kamma is clear in its true nature only

1636
to the Buddhas’ “knowledge of kamma and its result,”
which knowledge is not shared by disciples.[6] But the
succession of kamma and its result can be known in
part by one practicing insight. That is why this
explanation of difference in kamma shows only the
mere headings.
This is how one man discerns mentality-materiality
by means of the round of kamma and the round of
kamma-result, applying this twelve-fold kamma
classification to the round of kamma.
18. When he has thus seen by means of the round of
kamma and the round of kamma-result how
mentality-materiality’s occurrence is due to a
condition, he sees that as now, so in the past, its
occurrence was due to a condition by means of the
round of kamma and the round of kamma-result, and
that in the future its occurrence will be due to a
condition by means of the round of kamma and the
round of kamma-result. This is kamma and kamma-
result, the round of kamma and the round of kamma-
result, the occurrence of kamma and the occurrence of
kamma-result, the continuity of kamma and the
continuity of kamma-result, action and the fruit of
action:
Kamma-result proceeds from kamma,
Result has kamma for its source,

1637
 Future becoming springs from kamma,
And this is how the world goes round.
19. When he sees thus, he abandons all his
uncertainty, that is to say, the sixteen kinds described
in the way beginning, “Was I in the past?” [see §6].

[No Doer Apart from Kamma and

Result]

In all kinds of becoming, generation, destiny,

station, and abode there appears only mentality-
materiality, which occurs by means of linking of cause
with fruit. He sees no doer over and above the doing,
no experiencer of the result over and above the
occurrence of the result. But he sees clearly with right
understanding that the wise say “doer” when there is
doing and “experiencer” when there is experiencing
simply as a mode of common usage.
20. Hence the Ancients said:
There is no doer of a deed
Or one who reaps the deed’s result;
Phenomena alone flow on—
No other view than this is right.
And so, while kamma and result

1638
Thus causally maintain their round,
As seed and tree succeed in turn,
No first beginning can be shown.
Nor in the future round of births
Can they be shown not to occur:
Sectarians, not knowing this,
Have failed to gain self-mastery. [603]
They assume a being, see it as
Eternal or annihilated.
Adopt the sixty-two wrong views,
Each contradicting one another.
The stream of craving bears them on
Caught in the meshes of their views:
And as the stream thus bears them on
They are not freed from suffering.
A monk, disciple of the Buddha,
With direct knowledge of this fact
Can penetrate this deep and subtle
Void conditionality.
There is no kamma in result,
Nor does result exist in kamma;
Though they are void of one another,
There is no fruit without the kamma.
As fire does not exist inside
The sun, a gem, cow-dung, nor yet

1639
 Outside them, but is brought to be
By means of its component parts,
So neither can result be found
Within the kamma, nor without;
Nor does the kamma still persist
[In the result it has produced].
The kamma of its fruit is void;
No fruit exists yet in the kamma;
And still the fruit is born from it,
Wholly depending on the kamma.
For here there is no Brahmā God,
Creator of the round of births,
Phenomena alone flow on—
Cause and component their condition.

[Full-Understanding of the Known]

21. When he has discerned the conditions of

mentality-materiality in this way by means of the
round of kamma and the round of kamma-result, and
has abandoned uncertainty about the three periods of
time, then all past, future and present states are
understood by him in accordance with death and
rebirth-linking. This is his full-understanding of the
known (see XX.3).

1640
22. He understands thus: “Aggregates produced in
the past with kamma as condition ceased there too.
But other aggregates are produced in this becoming
with past kamma as their condition, although there is
no single thing that has come over from the past
becoming to this becoming. And aggregates produced
in this becoming with kamma as their condition will
cease. And in the future becoming other aggregates
will be produced, although no single thing will go
over from this becoming to the future becoming.
“Furthermore, just as, while the recitation from the
teacher’s mouth does not enter into the pupil’s mouth,
yet recitation does not because of that fail to take place
in the pupil’s mouth—and while the potion drunk by
the proxy does not enter the sick man’s stomach, yet
the sickness does not because of that fail to be cured—
and while the arrangement of the ornaments on the
face does not pass over to the reflection of the face in
the looking glass, yet the arrangement of the
ornaments does not because of that fail to appear—
and while the flame of a lamp does not move over
from one wick to another, yet the flame does not
because of that fail to be produced—so too, while
nothing whatever moves over from the past becoming
to this becoming, or from this to the future becoming,
[604] yet aggregates, bases, and elements do not fail to
be produced here with aggregates, §bases, and

1641
elements in the past becoming as their condition, or in
the future becoming with aggregates, bases, and
elements here as their condition.”
23. Just as eye-consciousness comes next
Following on mind element,
Which, though it does not come from that,
Yet fails not next to be produced,
So too, in rebirth-linking, conscious
Continuity takes place:
The prior consciousness breaks up,
The subsequent is born from that.
They have no interval between,
Nor gap [that separates the two];
While naught whatever passes over,
Still rebirth-linking comes about.
24. When all states are understood by him thus in
accordance with death and rebirth-linking, his
knowledge of discerning the conditions of mentality-
materiality is sound in all its aspects and the sixteen
kinds of doubt are more effectively abandoned. And
not only that, but the eight kinds of doubt that occur
in the way beginning thus, “He is doubtful about the
Master” (A III 248; Dhs §1004) are abandoned too, and
the sixty-two kinds of views are suppressed (See DN 1
and MN 102).
25. The knowledge that has been established by the

1642
overcoming of doubt about the three periods of time
by discerning the conditions of mentality-materiality
according to the various methods should be
understood as “purification by overcoming doubt.”
Other terms for it are “knowledge of the relations of
states” and “correct knowledge” and “right vision.”
26. For this is said: “Understanding of discernment of
conditions thus, ’Ignorance is a condition, formations
are conditionally arisen, and both these states are
conditionally arisen,’ is knowledge of the causal
relationship of states” (Paṭis I 50). And:
“When he brings to mind as impermanent, what
states does he correctly know and see? How is there
right seeing? How, by inference from that, are all
formations clearly seen as impermanent? Wherein is
doubt abandoned? When he brings to mind as painful
… When he brings to mind as not-self, what states
does he correctly know and see? … Wherein is doubt
abandoned?
“When he brings to mind as impermanent, he
correctly knows and sees the sign. Hence ’right seeing’
is said. Thus, by inference from that, all formations are
clearly seen as impermanent. Herein doubt is
abandoned. When he brings to mind as painful, he
correctly knows and sees occurrence. Hence … When
he brings to mind as not-self, he correctly knows and

1643
sees the sign and occurrence. Hence ’right seeing’ is
said. Thus, by inference from that, all states are clearly
seen as not-self. Herein doubt is abandoned.
“Correct knowledge and right seeing and
overcoming of doubt [605]—are these things different
in meaning and different in the letter or are they one
in meaning and only the letter is different? Correct
knowledge and right seeing and overcoming of doubt
—these things are one in meaning and only the letter
is different” (Paṭis II 62f.).
27. When a man practicing insight has become
possessed of this knowledge, he has found comfort in
the Buddhas’ Dispensation, he has found a foothold,
he is certain of his destiny, he is called a “lesser
stream-enterer.”
So would a bhikkhu overcome
His doubts, then ever mindfully
Let him discern conditions both
Of mind and matter thoroughly.

The nineteenth chapter called “The

Description of Purification by
Overcoming Doubt” in the Treatise on
the Development of Understanding in
the Path of Purification composed for the

1644
purpose of gladdening good people.

1645
Notes for Chapter XIX

1. “If the fruit were to arise from present kamma,

the fruit would have arisen in the same moment
in which the kamma was being accumulated; and
that is not seen, nor is it desirable. For in the
world (i.e. among non-Buddhists) kamma has
never been shown to give fruit while it is actually
being effected; nor is there any text to that effect—
But is it not also the fact that no fruit has ever
been shown to come from a vanished cause
either? Or even a cock to crow because of that?—
Certainly it has not been shown where the
connectedness of material things is broken off.
But the simile does not apply because there is
connectedness of immaterial things here. For
when the fruit arises from kamma that is actually
past it does so because of kamma having been
performed and because of storage. For this is said:
’Because profitable sense-sphere kamma has been
performed, stored up, there comes to be eye-
consciousness’ (Dhs §431).
“Since consciousness has efficient power only
at the instant of its arising, with the acquisition of
a proximity condition, etc., it therefore only gives
rise to materiality while it is arising. But since

1646
 materiality has efficient power at the instant of its
presence, with the acquisition of a postnascence
condition, etc., it is therefore said that
’temperature and nutriment are conditions at the
instant of their presence for temperature-
originated and nutriment-originated materiality.’
Temperature and nutriment give rise to
materiality at the instant of their own presence by
acquiring outside temperature and nutriment as
their condition, is the meaning” (Vism-mhṭ 768).
2. “To be experienced here and now” means kamma
whose fruit is to be experienced in this present
selfhood. “To be experienced on rebirth” means
kamma whose fruit is to be experienced [in the
becoming] next to the present becoming. “To be
experienced in some subsequent existence” means
kamma whose fruit is to be experienced in some
successive selfhood other than either that here
and now or next to that here and now. “Lapsed
kamma” is kamma of which it has to be said,
“There has been kamma, but there has not been, is
not, and will not be kamma-result.”
“The volition of the first impulsion, which has
efficient power by not being prevented by
opposition and by having acquired the distinction
of a condition, and which has definitely occurred
as a prior kamma-formation of the appropriate

1647
 kind, giving its fruit in this same selfhood, is
called ’to be experienced here and now.’ For while
that first-impulsion volition, being effective in the
way stated, is helpful to what is associated with
its special qualities in the impulsion continuity,
yet because it wields little power over aspects and
because it has little result owing to lack of
repetition, it is not, like the other two kinds,
kamma that looks beyond the occurring
continuity and looks to obtain an opportunity; it
gives its fruit here only as mere result during the
course of becoming, like a mere flower. ’But if it
cannot do so’: kamma’s giving of result comes
about only through the due concurrence of
conditions consisting of (suitable) essentials of
becoming, means, etc., failing which it is unable to
give its result in that selfhood. ’That accomplishes
its purpose’: that fulfils its purpose consisting in
giving, etc., and in killing, etc. For the seventh
impulsion to which this refers is the final
impulsion in the series, and when it has acquired
distinction in the way already stated and has
acquired the service of repetition by the previous
impulsions, it gives its result in the next selfhood
and is called ’to be experienced on rebirth’”
(Vism-mhṭ 769).
3. “’Weighty’ kamma is very reprehensible

1648
unprofitable kamma and very powerful profitable
kamma. ’Habitual’ kamma is what is habitually,
continually done and repeated. ’Death-threshold’
kamma is what is remembered with great
vividness at the time next before death; what is
meant is that there is no question about what is
done at the time of death. ’That has been often
repeated’: he draws a distinction between this
kind of kamma as stated and the ’habitual’ kind
and he likewise excludes kamma to be
experienced here and now from it because the
bringing on of rebirth-linking is admitted; for the
tetrad beginning with the ’weighty’ is stated as
productive of rebirth-linking.
“Herein, the weighty ripens first of all and that
is why it is so called. When weighty kamma is
lacking, what has been much done ripens. When
that is lacking, death-threshold kamma ripens.
When that too is lacking, then kamma done in
previous births, which is called ’kamma [stored
up] by being performed,’ ripens. And the last
three when produced can be strong or weak”
(Vism-mhṭ 769ff.). Vism-mhṭ then cites various
Birth Stories and MN 136 in order to show how,
for various reasons, the result of one kind of
kamma may be delayed or displaced by the result
of another. Vism-mhṭ concludes: “This is the

1649
 province of the Tathāgata’s Knowledge of the
Great Exposition of Kamma, in other words, the
mastery of the order of ripening of such and such
kamma for such and such reasons.”
4. “’Productive’ kamma is what produces resultant
continuity by providing rebirth-linking and so on.
’Consolidating’ kamma prolongs the occurrence
of the continuity of pleasure or pain, or the
endurance of materiality. ’Frustrating’ kamma
slowly diminishes the endurance of pleasure or
pain when they occur. It cuts off the result of
other kamma without giving any result of its
own. ’Supplanting’ kamma, however, cuts off
weak kamma and makes its own result arise. This
is their difference” (Vism-mhṭ 771).
5. See the various meanings of “arisen” given in
XXII.81f.
“Another method is this: when some kamma
has been done and there is, either in rebirth-
linking or in the course of an existence, the arising
of material instances due to the result of kamma
performed, that kamma is ’productive.’ When
some kamma has been performed and the
desirable or undesirable fruit generated by other
kamma has its production facilitated and its
endurance aided and lengthened by the

1650
 suppression of conditions that would interfere
with it and by the arousing of conditions that
would strengthen it, that kamma is ’supporting.’
When some kamma has been performed and
profitable fruit or unprofitable fruit generated by
productive kamma is obstructed by it respectively
in the form of sickness or of disquieting of
elements, that is ’frustrating’ kamma. But when
some kamma has been done by which the fruit of
other kamma is ruined and cut off by being
supplanted by what cuts it off although it was fit
for longer endurance because of the efficacy of the
kamma that was producing it, that kamma is
’supplanting’” (Vism-mhṭ 772).
6. “Because it is a speciality of the Buddha and
because it is the province of the knowledge that is
not shared by disciples (see Paṭis I 121f.), it is
called ’not shared by disciples.’ That is why only a
part can be known; it cannot all be known
because it is not the province of such knowledge”
(Vism-mhṭ 772).

1651
 Chapter XX
Purification by Knowledge
and Vision of What is the Path
and What is Not the Path
(Maggāmagga-ñāṇadassana-visuddhi-
niddesa)

1. [606] The knowledge established by getting to

know the path and the not-path thus, “This is the path,
this is not the path,” is called “purification by
knowledge and vision of what is the path and what is
not the path.”
2. One who desires to accomplish this should first of
all apply himself to the inductive insight called
“comprehension by groups.[1]” Why? Because
knowledge of what is the path and what is not the
path appears in connection with the appearance of
illumination, etc. (XX.105f.) in one who has begun
insight. For it is after illumination, etc., have appeared
in one who has already begun insight that there comes
to be knowledge of what is the path and what is not
the path. And comprehension by groups is the
beginning of insight. That is why it is set forth next to
the overcoming of doubt. Besides, knowledge of what

1652
is the path and what is not the path arises when “full-
understanding as investigation” is occurring, and full-
understanding as investigation comes next to full-
understanding as the known (see XIX.21). So this is
also a reason why one who desires to accomplish this
purification by knowledge and vision of what is the
path and what is not the path should first of all apply
himself to comprehension by groups.

[THE THREE KINDS OF FULL-

UNDERSTANDING]

3. Here is the exposition: there are three kinds of

mundane full-understanding, that is, full-
understanding as the known, full-understanding as
investigation, and full-understanding as abandoning,
with reference to which it was said: “Understanding
that is direct-knowledge is knowledge in the sense of
being known. Understanding that is full-
understanding is knowledge in the sense of
investigating. Understanding that is abandoning is
knowledge in the sense of giving up” (Paṭis I 87).
Herein, the understanding that occurs by observing
the specific characteristics of such and such states
thus, “Materiality (rūpa) has the characteristic of being

1653
molested (ruppana); feeling has the characteristic of
being felt,” is called full-understanding as the known.
The understanding consisting in insight with the
general characteristics as its object that occurs in
attributing a general characteristic to those same states
in the way beginning, “Materiality is impermanent,
[607] feeling is impermanent” is called full-
understanding as investigation.[2] The understanding
consisting in insight with the characteristics as its
object that occurs as the abandoning of the perception
of permanence, etc., in those same states is called full-
understanding as abandoning.
4. Herein, the plane of full-understanding as the known
extends from the delimitation of formations (Ch.
XVIII) up to the discernment of conditions (Ch. XIX);
for in this interval the penetration of the specific
characteristics of states predominates. The plane of
full-understanding as investigation extends from
comprehension by groups up to contemplation of rise
and fall (XXI.3f.); for in this interval the penetration of
the general characteristics predominates. The plane of
full-understanding as abandoning extends from
contemplation of dissolution onwards (XXI.10); for
from there onwards the seven contemplations that
effect the abandoning of the perception of
permanence, etc., predominate thus:
(1) Contemplating [formations] as impermanent,

1654
 a man abandons the perception of
permanence.
(2) Contemplating [them] as painful, he
abandons the perception of pleasure.
(3) Contemplating [them] as not-self, he
abandons the perception of self.
(4) Becoming dispassionate, he abandons
delighting.
(5) Causing fading away, he abandons greed.
(6) Causing cessation, he abandons originating.
(7) Relinquishing, he abandons grasping (Paṭis I
58).[3]

5. So, of these three kinds of full-understanding, only

full-understanding as the known has been attained by
this meditator as yet, which is because the delimitation
of formations and the discernment of conditions have
already been accomplished; the other two still remain
to be attained. Hence it was said above: “Besides,
knowledge of what is the path and what is not the
path arises when full-understanding as investigation
is occurring, and full-understanding as investigation
comes next to full-understanding as the known. So
this is also a reason why one who desires to
accomplish this purification by knowledge and vision

1655
of what is the path and what is not the path should
first of all apply himself to comprehension by groups”
(§2).

[INSIGHT: COMPREHENSION BY GROUPS]

6. Here is the text:

“How is it that understanding of defining past,
future and present states by summarization is
knowledge of comprehension?
“Any materiality whatever, whether past, future or
present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or
superior, far or near—he defines all materiality as
impermanent: this is one kind of comprehension. He
defines it as painful: this is one kind of
comprehension. He defines it as not-self: this is one
kind of comprehension. Any feeling whatever … Any
perception whatever … Any formations whatever …
Any consciousness whatever … He defines all
consciousness as impermanent: … He defines it as not-
self: this is one kind of comprehension. The eye …
(etc.) … ageing-and-death, whether past, future or
present, he defines it as impermanent: this is one kind
of comprehension. He defines it as painful: this is one
kind of comprehension. He defines it as not-self: this is

1656
one kind of comprehension.
“Understanding of defining by summarization thus,
’Materiality, whether past, future, or present, is
impermanent in the sense of destruction, painful in the
sense of terror, not-self in the sense of having no core,’
is knowledge of comprehension. Understanding of
defining by generalization thus, ’Feeling … [608] (etc.)
… Consciousness … Eye … (etc.) … Ageing-and-
death, whether past …’ is knowledge of
comprehension.
“Understanding of defining by summarization thus,
’Materiality, whether past, future, or present, is
impermanent, formed, dependently arisen, subject to
destruction, subject to fall, subject to fading away,
subject to cessation,’ is knowledge of comprehension.
Understanding of defining by generalization thus,
’Feeling … (etc.) … Consciousness … Eye … (etc.) …
Ageing-and-death, whether past, future, or present, is
impermanent, formed, dependently arisen, subject to
destruction, subject to fall, subject to fading away,
subject to cessation’ is knowledge of comprehension.
“Understanding of defining by summarization thus,
’With birth as condition there is ageing-and-death;
without birth as condition there is no ageing-and-
death,’ is knowledge of comprehension.
Understanding of defining by generalization thus, ’In

1657
the past and in the future with birth as condition there
is ageing-and-death; without birth as condition there
is no ageing-and-death,’ is knowledge of
comprehension. Understanding of defining by
generalization thus, ’With becoming as condition there
is birth … With ignorance as condition there are
formations; without ignorance as condition there are
no formations,’ is knowledge of comprehension.
Understanding of defining by generalization thus, ’In
the past and in the future with ignorance as condition
there are formations; without ignorance as condition
there are no formations’ is knowledge of
comprehension.
“Knowledge is in the sense of that being known and
understanding is in the sense of the act of
understanding that. Hence it was said:
’Understanding of defining past, future, and present
states by summarization is knowledge of
comprehension’” (Paṭis I 53f.).
9. Herein, the abbreviation, “The eye … (etc.) …
Ageing-and-death,” should be understood to
represent the following sets of things elided:
1. The states that occur in the doors [of
consciousness] together with the doors and
the objects.
2. The five aggregates.

1658
3. The six doors.
4. The six objects.
5. The six kinds of consciousness.
6. The six kinds of contact.
7. The six kinds of feeling.
8. The six kinds of perception.
9. The six kinds of volition.
10. The six kinds of craving.
11. The six kinds of applied thought.
12. The six kinds of sustained thought.
13. The six elements.
14. The ten kasiṇas.
15. The thirty-two bodily aspects.
16. The twelve bases.
17. The eighteen elements.
18. The twenty-two faculties.
19. The three elements.
20. The nine kinds of becoming.
21. The four jhānas.
22. The four measureless states.

1659
 23. The four [immaterial] attainments.
24. The twelve members of the dependent
origination.

10. For this is said in the Paṭisambhidā in the

description of what is to be directly known:
“Bhikkhus, all is to be directly known. And what is all
that is to be directly known? [609] (1) Eye is to be
directly known; visible objects are to be directly
known; eye-consciousness … eye-contact … feeling,
pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant,
that arises due to eye-contact is also to be directly
known. Ear … Mind … feeling, pleasant or painful or
neither-painful-nor-pleasant, that arises due to mind-
contact is also to be directly known.
11. “(2) Materiality is to be directly known …
consciousness is to be directly known. (3) Eye … mind
… (4) Visible objects … mental objects … (5) Eye-
consciousness … mind-consciousness … (6) Eye-
contact … mind-contact … (7) Eye-contact-born feeling
… mind-contact-born feeling … (8) Perception of
visible objects … perception of mental objects … (9)
Volition regarding visible objects … volition regarding
mental objects … (10) Craving for visible objects …
craving for mental objects … (11) Applied thought
about visible objects … applied thought about mental
objects … (12) Sustained thought about visible objects

1660
… sustained thought about mental objects … (13) The
earth element … the consciousness element … (14) The
earth kasiṇa … the consciousness kasiṇa … (15) Head
hairs … brain … (16) The eye base … the mental object
base … (17) The eye element … the mind-
consciousness element … (18) The eye faculty … the
final-knower faculty … (19) The sense-desire element
… the fine-material element … the immaterial element
… (20) Sense-desire becoming … fine-material
becoming … immaterial becoming … percipient
becoming … non-percipient becoming … neither
percipient nor non-percipient becoming … one-
constituent becoming … four-constituent becoming …
five-constituent becoming … (21) The first jhāna … the
fourth jhāna … (22) The mind-deliverance of loving-
kindness … the mind-deliverance of equanimity …
(23) The attainment of the base consisting of boundless
space … the attainment of the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception … (24)
Ignorance is to be directly known … ageing-and-death
is to be directly known” (Paṭis I 5f.).
12. Since all this detail is given there it has been
abbreviated here. But what is thus abbreviated
includes the supramundane states. These should not
be dealt with at this stage because they are not
amenable to comprehension. And as regards those
that are amenable to comprehension a beginning

1661
should be made by comprehending those among them
that are obvious to and easily discernible by the
individual [meditator].

[COMPREHENSION BY GROUPS—
APPLICATION OF TEXT]

13. Here is the application of the directions dealing

with the aggregates: “Any materiality whatever, (i–iii)
whether past, future, or present, (iv–v) internal or
external, (vi–vii) gross or subtle, (viii–ix) inferior or
superior, (x-xi) far or near—he defines all materiality
as impermanent: this is one kind of comprehension.
He defines it as painful: [610] this is one kind of
comprehension. He defines it as not-self: this is one
kind of comprehension” (see §6). At this point this
bhikkhu [takes] all materiality, which is described
without specifying as “any materiality whatever,” and
having delimited it in the eleven instances, namely,
with the past triad and with the four dyads beginning
with the internal dyad, he “defines all materiality as
impermanent,” he comprehends that it is impermanent.
How? In the way stated next. For this is said:
“Materiality, whether past, future or present, is
impermanent in the sense of destruction.”

1662
14. Accordingly, he comprehends the materiality that
is past as “impermanent in the sense of destruction”
because it was destroyed in the past and did not reach
this becoming; and he comprehends the materiality
that is future as “impermanent in the sense of destruction”
since it will be produced in the next becoming, will be
destroyed there too, and will not pass on to a further
becoming; and he comprehends the materiality that is
present as “impermanent in the sense of destruction”
since it is destroyed here and does not pass beyond.
And he comprehends the materiality that is internal as
“impermanent in the sense of destruction” since it is
destroyed as internal and does not pass on to the
external state. And he comprehends the materiality
that is external … gross … subtle … inferior …
superior … far … And he comprehends the materiality
that is near as “impermanent in the sense of destruction”
since it is destroyed there and does not pass on to the
far state. And all this is impermanent in the sense of
destruction. Accordingly, there is “one kind of
comprehension” in this way; but it is effected in eleven
ways.
15. And all that [materiality] is “painful in the sense of
terror.” In the sense of terror because of its
terrifyingness; for what is impermanent brings terror,
as it does to the deities in the Sīhopama Sutta (S III 84).
So this is also painful in the sense of terror.

1663
Accordingly, there is one kind of comprehension in
this way too; but it is effected in eleven ways.
16. And just as it is painful, so too all that [materiality]
is “not-self in the sense of having no core.” In the sense of
having no core because of the absence of any core of
self conceived as a self, an abider, a doer, an
experiencer, one who is his own master; for what is
impermanent is painful (S III 82), and it is impossible
to escape the impermanence, or the rise and fall and
oppression, of self, so how could it have the state of a
doer, and so on? Hence it is said, “Bhikkhus, were
materiality self, it would not lead to affliction” (S III
66), and so on. So this is also not-self in the sense of
having no core. Accordingly, there is one kind of
comprehension in this way too, but it is effected in
eleven ways. [611] The same method applies to
feeling, and so on.
17. But what is impermanent is necessarily classed as
formed, etc., and so in order to show the synonyms for
that [impermanence], or in order to show how the
attention given to it occurs in different ways, it is
restated in the text thus: “Materiality, whether past,
future, or present, is impermanent, formed,
dependently arisen, subject to destruction, subject to
fall, subject to fading away, subject to cessation” (§7).
The same method applies to feeling, and so on.

1664
 [STRENGTHENING OF COMPREHENSION
IN FORTY WAYS]

18. Now, when the Blessed One was expounding

conformity knowledge, he [asked the question]: “By
means of what forty aspects does he acquire liking
that is in conformity? By means of what forty aspects
does he enter into the certainty of rightness?” (P’8).[4]
In the answer to it comprehension of impermanence,
etc., is set forth by him analytically in the way
beginning: “[Seeing] the five aggregates as
impermanent, as painful, as a disease, a boil, a dart, a
calamity, an affliction, as alien, as disintegrating, as a
plague, a disaster, a terror, a menace, as fickle,
perishable, unenduring, as no protection, no shelter,
no refuge, as empty, vain, void, not-self, as a danger,
as subject to change, as having no core, as the root of
calamity, as murderous, as due to be annihilated, as
subject to cankers, as formed, as Māra’s bait, as subject
to birth, subject to ageing, subject to illness, subject to
death, subject to sorrow, subject to lamentation,
subject to despair, subject to defilement. Seeing the
five aggregates as impermanent, he acquires liking
that is in conformity. And seeing that the cessation of
the five aggregates is the permanent Nibbāna, he
enters into the certainty of rightness” (Paṭis II 238). So

1665
in order to strengthen that same comprehension of
impermanence, pain, and not-self in the five
aggregates, this [meditator] also comprehends these
five aggregates by means of that [kind of
comprehension].
19. How does he do it? He does it by means of
comprehension as impermanent, etc., stated
specifically as follows: He comprehends each
aggregate as impermanent because of non-endlessness,
and because of possession of a beginning and an end;
as painful because of oppression by rise and fall, and
because of being the basis for pain; as a disease because
of having to be maintained by conditions, and because
of being the root of disease; as a boil because of being
consequent upon impalement by suffering, because of
oozing with the filth of defilements, and because of
being swollen by arising, ripened by ageing, and burst
by dissolution; as a dart because of producing
oppression, because of penetrating inside, and because
of being hard to extract; as a calamity because of
having to be condemned, because of bringing loss, and
[612] because of being the basis for calamity; as an
affliction because of restricting freedom, and because of
being the foundation for affliction; as alien because of
inability to have mastery exercised over them, and
because of intractability; as disintegrating because of
crumbling through sickness, ageing and death; as a

1666
plague because of bringing various kinds of ruin; as a
disaster because of bringing unforeseen and plentiful
adversity, and because of being the basis for all kinds
of terror, and because of being the opposite of the
supreme comfort called the stilling of all suffering; as
a menace because of being bound up with many kinds
of adversity, because of being menaced[5] by ills, and
because of unfitness, as a menace, to be entertained; as
fickle because of fickle insecurity due to sickness,
ageing and death, and to the worldly states of gain,
etc.;[6] as perishable because of having the nature of
perishing both by violence and naturally; as
unenduring because of collapsing on every occasion[7]
and because of lack of solidity; as no protection because
of not protecting, and because of affording no safety;
as no shelter because of unfitness to give shelter,[8] and
because of not performing the function of a shelter for
the unsheltered;[9] as no refuge because of failure to
disperse fear[10] in those who depend on them; as
empty because of their emptiness of the lastingness,
beauty, pleasure and self that are conceived about
them; as vain because of their emptiness, or because of
their triviality; for what is trivial is called “vain” in the
world; as void because devoid of the state of being an
owner, abider, doer, experiencer, director; as not-self
because of itself having no owner, etc.; as danger
because of the suffering in the process of becoming,

1667
and because of the danger in suffering or,
alternatively, as danger (ādīnava) because of
resemblance to misery (ādīna)[11] since “danger”
(ādīnava) means that it is towards misery (ādīna) that it
moves (vāti), goes, advances, this being a term for a
wretched man, and the aggregates are wretched too;
as subject to change because of having the nature of
change in two ways, that is, through ageing and
through death; as having no core because of feebleness,
and because of decaying soon like sapwood; as the root
of calamity because of being the cause of calamity; as
murderous because of breaking faith like an enemy
posing as a friend; as due to be annihilated because their
becoming disappears, and because their non-
becoming comes about; as subject to cankers because of
being the proximate cause for cankers; as formed
because of being formed by causes and conditions; as
Māra’s bait because of being the bait [laid] by the Māra
of death and the Māra of defilement; as subject to birth,
to ageing, to illness, and to death because of having birth,
ageing, illness and death as their nature; as subject to
sorrow, to lamentation and to despair because of being
the cause of sorrow, lamentation and despair; as
subject to defilement because of being the objective field
of the defilements of craving, views and misconduct.
20. Now, there are [613] fifty kinds of contemplation
of impermanence here by taking the following ten in

1668
the case of each aggregate: as impermanent, as
disintegrating, as fickle, as perishable, as unenduring,
as subject to change, as having no core, as due to be
annihilated, as formed, as subject to death. There are
twenty-five kinds of contemplation of not-self by
taking the following five in the case of each aggregate:
as alien, as empty, as vain, as void, as not-self. There
are one hundred and twenty-five kinds of
contemplation of pain by taking the rest beginning
with “as painful, as a disease” in the case of each
aggregate.
So when a man comprehends the five aggregates by
means of this comprehending as impermanent, etc., in
its two hundred aspects, his comprehending as
impermanent, painful and not-self, which is called
“inductive insight,” is strengthened. These in the first
place are the directions for undertaking
comprehension here in accordance with the method
given in the texts.

[NINE WAYS OF SHARPENING THE

FACULTIES, ETC.

21. While thus engaged in inductive insight, however,

if it does not succeed, he should sharpen his faculties

1669
[of faith, etc.,] in the nine ways stated thus: “The
faculties become sharp in nine ways: (1) he sees only
the destruction of arisen formations; (2) and in that
[occupation] he makes sure of working carefully, (3)
he makes sure of working perseveringly, (4) he makes
sure of working suitably, and (5) by apprehending the
sign of concentration and (6) by balancing the
enlightenment factors (7) he establishes disregard of
body and life, (8) wherein he overcomes [pain] by
renunciation and (9) by not stopping halfway.[12] He
should avoid the seven unsuitable things in the way
stated in the Description of the Earth Kasiṇa (IV.34)
and cultivate the seven suitable things, and he should
comprehend the material at one time and the
immaterial at another.

[COMPREHENSION OF THE MATERIAL]

22. While comprehending materiality he should see

how materiality is generated,[13] that is to say, how
this materiality is generated by the four causes
beginning with kamma. Herein, when materiality is
being generated in any being, it is first generated from
kamma. For at the actual moment of rebirth-linking of
a child in the womb, first thirty instances of

1670
materiality are generated in the triple continuity, in
other words, the decads of physical [heart-]basis,
body, and sex. And those are generated at the actual
instant of the rebirth-linking consciousness’s arising.
And as at the instant of its arising, so too at the instant
of its presence and at the instant of its dissolution.[14]
23. Herein, the cessation of materiality is slow and its
transformation ponderous, while the cessation of
consciousness is swift and its transformation quick
(light); hence it is said, “Bhikkhus, I see no other one
thing that is so quickly transformed as [614] the mind”
(A I 10).
24. For the life-continuum consciousness arises and
ceases sixteen times while one material instant
endures. With consciousness the instant of arising,
instant of presence, and instant of dissolution are
equal; but with materiality only the instants of arising
and dissolution are quick like those [of consciousness],
while the instant of its presence is long and lasts while
sixteen consciousnesses arise and cease.
25. The second life-continuum arises with the
prenascent physical [heart-]basis as its support, which
has already reached presence and arose at the rebirth-
linking consciousness’s instant of arising. The third
life-continuum arises with the prenascent physical
basis as its support, which has already reached

1671
presence and arose together with that [second life-
continuum consciousness]. The occurrence of
consciousness can be understood to happen in this
way throughout life. But in one who is facing death
sixteen consciousnesses arise with a single prenascent
physical [heart-]basis as their support, which has
already reached presence.
26. The materiality that arose at the instant of arising
of the rebirth-linking consciousness ceases along with
the sixteenth consciousness after the rebirth-linking
consciousness. That arisen at the instant of presence of
the rebirth-linking consciousness ceases together with
the instant of arising of the seventeenth. That arisen at
the instant of its dissolution ceases on arriving at the
instant of presence of the seventeenth.[15] It goes on
occurring thus for as long as the recurrence [of births]
continues.
Also seventy instances of materiality occur in the
same way with the sevenfold continuity [beginning
with the eye decad] of those apparitionally born.

[(a) KAMMA-BORN MATERIALITY]

27. Herein, [as regards kamma-born materiality] the

analysis should be understood thus: (1) kamma, (2)

1672
what is originated by kamma, (3) what has kamma as
its condition, (4) what is originated by consciousness
that has kamma as its condition, (5) what is originated
by nutriment that has kamma as its condition, (6) what
is originated by temperature that has kamma as its
condition (XI.111–14).
28. Herein, (1) kamma is profitable and unprofitable
volition. (2) What is originated by kamma is the kamma-
resultant aggregates and the seventy instances of
materiality beginning with the eye decad. (3) What has
kamma as its condition is the same [as the last] since
kamma is the condition that upholds what is
originated by kamma.
29. (4) What is originated by consciousness that has
kamma as its condition is materiality originated by
kamma-resultant consciousness. (5) What is originated
by nutriment that has kamma as its condition is so
called since the nutritive essence that has reached
presence in the instances of materiality originated by
kamma originates a further octad-with-nutritive-
essence-as-eighth, and the nutritive essence there that
has reached presence also originates a further one, and
so it links up four or five occurrences of octads. (6)
What is originated by temperature that has kamma as
its condition is so called since the kamma-born fire
element that has reached presence originates an octad-
with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth, which is

1673
temperature-originated, and the temperature in that
originates a further octad-with-nutritive-essence-as
eighth, and so it links up four or five occurrences of
octads.
This is how the generation of kamma-born
materiality in the first place should be seen. [615]

[(b) CONSCIOUSNESS-BORN
MATERIALITY]

30. Also as regards the consciousness-born kinds, the

analysis should be understood thus: (1) consciousness,
(2) what is originated by consciousness, (3) what has
consciousness as its condition, (4) what is originated
by nutriment that has consciousness as its condition,
(5) what is originated by temperature that has
consciousness as its condition.
31. Herein, (1) consciousness is the eighty-nine kinds of
consciousness. Among these:
Consciousnesses thirty-two,
And twenty-six, and nineteen too,
Are reckoned to give birth to matter,
Postures, also intimation;
Sixteen kinds of consciousness

1674
 Are reckoned to give birth to none.
As regards the sense sphere, thirty-two
consciousnesses, namely, the eight profitable
consciousnesses ((1)–(8)), the twelve unprofitable
((22)–(33)), the ten functional excluding the mind
element ((71)–(80)), and the two direct-knowledge
consciousnesses as profitable and functional, give rise
to materiality, to postures, and to intimation. The
twenty-six consciousnesses, namely, the ten of the
fine-material sphere ((9)–(13), (81)–(85)) and the eight
of the immaterial sphere ((14)–(17), (86)–(89))
excluding the resultant [in both cases], and the eight
supramundane ((18)–(21), (66)–(69)), give rise to
materiality, to postures but not to intimation. The
nineteen consciousnesses, namely, the ten life-
continuum consciousnesses in the sense sphere ((41)–
(49), (56)), the five in the fine-material sphere ((57)–
(61)), the three mind elements ((39), (55), (70)), and the
one resultant mind-consciousness element without
root-cause and accompanied by joy (40), give rise to
materiality only, not to postures or to intimation. The
sixteen consciousnesses, namely, the two sets of five
consciousnesses ((34)–(38), (50)–(54)), the rebirth-
linking consciousness of all beings, the death
consciousness of those whose cankers are destroyed,
and the four immaterial resultant consciousnesses
((62)–(65)) do not give rise to materiality or to postures

1675
or to intimation. And those herein that do give rise to
materiality do not do so at the instant of their presence
or at the instant of their dissolution, for consciousness
is weak then. But it is strong at the instant of arising.
Consequently it originates materiality then with the
prenascent physical basis as its support.
32. (2) What is originated by consciousness is the three
other immaterial aggregates and the seventeenfold
materiality, namely, the sound ennead, bodily
intimation, verbal intimation, the space element,
lightness, malleability, wieldiness, growth, and
continuity.
(3) What has consciousness as its condition is the
materiality of fourfold origination stated thus:
“Postnascent states of consciousness and
consciousness-concomitants are a condition, as
postnascence condition, for this prenascent body”
(Paṭṭh I 5).
33. (4) What is originated by nutriment that has
consciousness as its condition: the nutritive essence that
has reached presence in consciousness-originated
material instances originates a further octad-with-
nutritive-essence-as-eighth, and thus links up two or
three occurrences of octads.
34. (5) What is originated by temperature that has
consciousness as its condition: the consciousness-

1676
originated temperature that has [616] reached
presence originates a further octad-with-nutritive-
essence-as-eighth, and thus links up two or three
occurrences.
This is how the generation of consciousness-born
materiality should be seen.

[(c) NUTRIMENT-BORN MATERIALITY]

35. Also as regards the nutriment-born kinds, the

analysis should be understood thus: (1) nutriment, (2)
what is originated by nutriment, (3) what has
nutriment as its condition, (4) what is originated by
nutriment that has nutriment as its condition, (5) what
is originated by temperature that has nutriment as its
condition.
36. Herein, (1) nutriment is physical nutriment. (2)
What is originated by nutriment is the fourteenfold
materiality, namely, (i–viii) that of the octad-with-
nutritive-essence-as-eighth originated by nutritive
essence that has reached presence by obtaining as its
condition kamma-born materiality that is clung to
(kammically acquired) and basing itself on that,[16]
and (ix) space element, (x–xiv) lightness, malleability,
wieldiness, growth, and continuity.

1677
 (3) What has nutriment as its condition is the
materiality of fourfold origination stated thus:
“Physical nutriment is a condition, as nutriment
condition, for this body” (Paṭṭh I 5).
37. (4) What is originated by nutriment that has nutriment
as its condition: the nutritive essence that has reached
presence in nutriment-originated material instances
originates a further octad-with-nutritive-essence-as-
eighth and the nutritive essence in that octad
originates a further octad, and thus links up the
occurrence of octads ten or twelve times. Nutriment
taken on one day sustains for as long as seven days;
but divine nutritive essence sustains for as long as one
or two months. The nutriment taken by a mother
originates materiality by pervading the body of the
child [in gestation]. Also nutriment smeared on the
body originates materiality. Kamma-born nutriment is
a name for nutriment that is clung to. That also
originates materiality when it has reached presence.
And the nutritive essence in it originates a further
octad. Thus it links up four or five occurrences.
38. (5) What is originated by temperature that has
nutriment as its condition: nutriment-originated fire
element that has reached presence originates an octad-
with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth that is thus
temperature-originated. Here this nutriment is a
condition for nutriment-originated material instances

1678
as their progenitor. It is a condition for the rest as
support, nutriment, presence, and non-disappearance.
This is how the generation of nutriment-born
materiality should be seen.

[(d) TEMPERATURE-BORN
MATERIALITY]

39. Also as regards the temperature-born kinds, the

analysis should be understood thus: (1) temperature,
(2) what is originated by temperature, (3) what has
temperature as its condition, (4) what is originated by
temperature that has temperature as its condition, (5)
what is originated by nutriment that has temperature
as its condition.
40. Herein, (1) temperature is the fire element of
fourfold origination; but it is twofold as hot
temperature and cold temperature. (2) What is
originated by temperature: the temperature of fourfold
origination that has reached presence by obtaining a
clung-to condition originates materiality in the body.
[617] That materiality is fifteenfold, namely, sound
ennead, space element, lightness, malleability,
wieldiness, growth, continuity. (3) What has
temperature as its condition is so called since

1679
temperature is a condition for the occurrence and for
the destruction of materiality of fourfold origination.
41. (4) What is originated by temperature that has
temperature as its condition: the temperature-originated
fire element that has reached presence originates a
further octad-with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth, and the
temperature in that octad originates a further octad.
Thus temperature-originated materiality both goes on
occurring for a long period and also maintains itself as
well in what is not clung to.[17]
42. (5) What is originated by nutriment that has
temperature as its condition: the temperature-originated
nutritive essence that has reached presence originates
a further octad-with-nutritive-essence-as-eighth, and
the nutritive essence in that originates a further one,
thus it links up ten or twelve occurrences of octads.
Herein, this temperature is a condition for
temperature-originated material instances as their
progenitor. It is a condition for the rest as support,
presence, and non-disappearance.
This is how the generation of temperature-born
materiality should be seen.
One who sees the generation of materiality thus is
said to “comprehend the material at one time” (§21).
[18]

1680
 [COMPREHENSION OF THE IMMATERIAL]

43. And just as one who is comprehending the

material should see the generation of the material, so
too one who is comprehending the immaterial should
see the generation of the immaterial. And that is
through the eighty-one mundane arisings of
consciousness, that is to say, it is by kamma
accumulated in a previous becoming that this
immaterial [mentality] is generated. And in the first
place it is generated as [one of] the nineteen kinds of
arisings of consciousness as rebirth-linking (XVII.130).
But the modes in which it is generated should be
understood according to the method given in the
Description of the Dependent Origination (XVII.134f.).
That same [nineteenfold arising of consciousness is
generated] as life-continuum as well, starting from the
consciousness next to rebirth-linking consciousness,
and as death consciousness at the termination of the
life span. And when it is of the sense sphere, and the
object in the six doors is a vivid one, it is also
generated as registration.
44. In the course of an existence, eye-consciousness,
together with its associated states, supported by light
and caused by attention is generated because the eye
is intact and because visible data have come into focus.

1681
For it is actually when a visible datum has reached
presence that it impinges on the eye at the instant of
the eye-sensitivity’s presence. When it has done so, the
life-continuum arises and ceases twice. Next to arise is
the functional mind element with that same object,
accomplishing the function of adverting. Next to that,
eye-consciousness, which is the result of profitable or
of unprofitable [kamma] and sees that same visible
datum. [618] Next, the resultant mind element, which
receives that same visible datum. Next, the resultant
root-causeless mind-consciousness element, which
investigates that same visible datum. Next, the
functional mind-consciousness element without root-
cause and accompanied by equanimity, which
determines that same visible datum. Next, [it is
generated either] as one from among the profitable
((l)–(8)), unprofitable ((22)–(33)), or functional ((71)
and (73)–(80)) kinds of consciousness belonging to the
sense sphere, either as consciousness accompanied by
equanimity and without root-cause (71),[19] or as five
or seven impulsions. Next, in the case of sense-sphere
beings, [it is generated] as any of the eleven kinds of
registration consciousness conforming [as to object]
with the impulsions. The same applies to the
remaining doors. But in the case of the mind door-
exalted consciousnesses also arise.
This is how the generation of the immaterial should

1682
be seen in the case of the six doors.
One who sees the generation of the immaterial thus
is said to “comprehend the immaterial at another
time” (§21).
45. This is how one [meditator] accomplishes the
development of understanding, progressing gradually
by comprehending at one time the material and at
another time the immaterial, by attributing the three
characteristics to them.

[THE MATERIAL SEPTAD]

Another comprehends formations by attributing the

three characteristics to them through the medium of
the material septad and the immaterial septad.
46. Herein, one who comprehends [them] by
attributing [the characteristics] in the following seven
ways is said to comprehend by attributing through the
medium of the material septad, that is to say, (1) as
taking up and putting down, (2) as disappearance of
what grows old in each stage, (3) as arising from
nutriment, (4) as arising from temperature, (5) as
kamma-born, (6) as consciousness-originated, and (7)
as natural materiality. Hence the Ancients said:

1683
 “(1) As taking up and putting down,
(2) As growth and decline in every stage,
(3) As nutriment, (4) as temperature,
(5) As kamma, and (6) as consciousness,
(7) As natural materiality—
He sees with seven detailed insights.”
47. 1. Herein, taking up is rebirth-linking. Putting down
is death. So the meditator allots one hundred years for
this “taking up” and “putting down” and he attributes
the three characteristics to formations. How? All
formations between these limits are impermanent.
Why? Because of the occurrence of rise and fall,
because of change, because of temporariness, and
because of preclusion of permanence. But since arisen
formations have arrived at presence, and when
present are afflicted by ageing, and on arriving at
ageing are bound to dissolve, they are therefore
painful because of continual oppression, because of
being hard to bear, because of being the basis of
suffering, and because of precluding pleasure. And
since no one has any power over arisen formations in
the three instances, “Let them not reach presence”,
“Let those that have reached presence not age,” and
“Let those that have reached ageing not dissolve,” and
they are void of the possibility of any power being
exercised over them, they are therefore not-self
because void, because ownerless, because

1684
unsusceptible to the wielding of power, and because
of precluding a self.[20] [619]
48. 2. (a) Having attributed the three characteristics to
materiality allotted one hundred years for the “taking
up” and “putting down” thus, he next attributes them
according to disappearance of what grows old in each
stage. Herein, “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” is a name for the disappearance of the
materiality that has grown old during a stage [of life].
The meaning is that he attributes the three
characteristics by means of that.
49. How? He divides that same hundred years up into
three stages, that is, the first stage, the middle stage,
and the last stage. Herein, the first thirty-three years
are called the first stage, the next thirty-four years are
called the middle stage, and the next thirty-three years
are called the last stage. So after dividing it up into
these three stages, [he attributes the three
characteristics thus:] The materiality occurring in the
first stage ceased there without reaching the middle
stage: therefore it is impermanent; what is
impermanent is painful; what is painful is not-self.
Also the materiality occurring in the middle stage
ceased there without reaching the last stage: therefore
it is impermanent too and painful and not-self. Also
there is no materiality occurring in the thirty-three
years of the last stage that is capable of out-lasting

1685
death: therefore that is impermanent too and painful
and not-self. This is how he attributes the three
characteristics.
50. 2. (b) Having attributed the three characteristics
according to “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” thus by means of the first stage, etc., he
again attributes the three characteristics according to
“disappearance of what grows old in each stage” by
means of the following ten decades: the tender decade,
the sport decade, the beauty decade, the strength
decade, the understanding decade, the decline decade,
the stooping decade, the bent decade, the dotage
decade, and the prone decade.
51. Herein, as to these decades: in the first place, the
first ten years of a person with a hundred years’ life
are called the tender decade; for then he is a tender
unsteady child. The next ten years are called the sport
decade; for he is very fond of sport then. The next ten
years are called the beauty decade; for his beauty
reaches its full extent then. The next ten years are
called the strength decade; for his strength and power
reach their full extent then. The next ten years are
called the understanding decade; for his understanding
is well established by then. Even in one naturally
weak in understanding some understanding, it seems,
arises at that time. The next ten years are called the
decline decade; for his fondness for sport and his

1686
beauty, strength, and understanding decline then. The
next ten years are called the stooping decade; for his
figure [620] stoops forward then. The next ten years
are called the bent decade; for his figure becomes bent
like the end of a plough then. The next ten years are
called the dotage decade; for he is doting then and
forgets what he does. The next ten years are called the
prone decade; for a centenarian mostly lies prone.
52. Herein, in order to attribute the three
characteristics according to “disappearance of what
grows old in each stage” by means of these decades,
the meditator considers thus: The materiality
occurring in the first decade ceases there without
reaching the second decade: therefore it is
impermanent, painful, not-self. The materiality
occurring in the second decade … the materiality
occurring in the ninth decade ceases there without
reaching the tenth decade; the materiality occurring in
the tenth decade ceases there without reaching the
next becoming: therefore it is impermanent, painful,
not-self. That is how he attributes the three
characteristics.
53. 2. (c) Having attributed the three characteristics
according to “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” thus by means of the decades, he again
attributes the three characteristics according to
“disappearance of what grows old in each stage” by

1687
taking that same hundred years in twenty parts of five
years each.
54. How? He considers thus: The materiality
occurring in the first five years ceases there without
reaching the second five years: therefore it is
impermanent, painful, not-self. The materiality
occurring in the second five years … in the third … in
the nineteenth five years ceases there without reaching
the twentieth five years. There is no materiality
occurring in the twentieth five years that is capable of
outlasting death; therefore that is impermanent too,
painful, not-self.
55. 2. (d) Having attributed the three characteristics
according to “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” thus by means of the twenty parts, he
again attributes the three characteristics according to
“disappearance of what grows old in each stage” by
taking twenty-five parts of four years each. (e) Next,
by taking thirty-three parts of three years each, (f) by
taking fifty parts of two years each, (g) by taking a
hundred parts of one year each.
2. (h) Next he attributes the three characteristics
according to “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” by means of each of the three seasons,
taking each year in three parts.
56. How? The materiality occurring in the four

1688
months of the rains (vassāna) ceases there without
reaching the winter (hemanta). The materiality
occurring in the winter ceases there without reaching
the summer (gimha). The materiality occurring in the
summer ceases there without reaching the rains again:
therefore it is impermanent, [621] painful, not-self.
57. 2. (i) Having attributed them thus, he again takes
one year in six parts and attributes the three
characteristics to this materiality according to
“disappearance of what grows old in each stage” thus:
The materiality occurring in the two months of the
rains (vassāna) ceases there without reaching the
autumn (sarada). The materiality occurring in the
autumn … in the winter (hemanta) … in the cool (sisira)
… in the spring (vasanta) … the materiality occurring
in the summer (gimha) ceases there without reaching
the rains again: therefore it is impermanent too,
painful, not-self.
58. 2. (j) Having attributed them thus, he next
attributes the characteristics by means of the dark and
bright halves of the moon thus: The materiality
occurring in the dark half of the moon ceases there
without reaching the bright half; the materiality
occurring in the bright half ceases there without
reaching the dark half: therefore it is impermanent,
painful, not-self.

1689
59. 2. (k) Next he attributes the three characteristics by
means of night and day thus: The materiality
occurring in the night ceases there without reaching
the day; the materiality occurring in the day ceases
there without reaching the night: therefore it is
impermanent, painful, not-self.
60. 2. (l) Next he attributes the three characteristics by
taking that same day in six parts beginning with the
morning thus: The materiality occurring in the
morning ceased there without reaching the noon; the
materiality occurring in the noon … without reaching
the evening; the materiality occurring in the evening
… the first watch; the materiality occurring in the first
watch … the middle watch; the materiality occurring
in the middle watch ceased there without reaching the
last watch; the materiality occurring in the last watch
ceased there without reaching the morning again:
therefore it is impermanent, painful, not-self.
61. 2. (m) Having attributed them thus, he again
attributes the three characteristics to that same
materiality by means of moving forward and moving
backward, looking toward and looking away, bending
and stretching, thus: The materiality occurring in the
moving forward ceases there without reaching the
moving backward; the materiality occurring in the
moving backward … the looking toward; the
materiality occurring in the looking toward … the

1690
looking away; the materiality occurring in the looking
away … the bending; the materiality occurring in the
bending ceases there without reaching the stretching:
therefore it is impermanent, painful, not-self (cf. M-a I
260).
62. 2. (n) Next he divides a single footstep into six
parts as “lifting up,” “shifting forward,” “shifting
sideways,” “lowering down,” “placing down,” and
“fixing down[21].”
63. Herein, lifting up is raising the foot from the
ground. Shifting forward is shifting it to the front.
Shifting sideways is moving the foot to one side or the
other in seeing a thorn, stump, snake, and so on.
Lowering down is letting the foot down. [622] Placing
down is putting the foot on the ground. Fixing down is
pressing the foot on the ground while the other foot is
being lifted up.
64. Herein, in the lifting up two elements, the earth
element and the water element, are subordinate[22]
and sluggish while the other two are predominant and
strong. Likewise in the shifting forward and shifting
sideways. In the lowering down two elements, the fire
element and the air element, are subordinate and
sluggish while the other two are predominant and
strong. Likewise in the placing down and fixing down.
He attributes the three characteristics to materiality

1691
according to “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” by means of these six parts into which he
has thus divided it.
65. How? He considers thus: The elements and the
kinds of derived materiality occurring in the lifting up
all ceased there without reaching the shifting forward:
therefore they are impermanent, painful, not-self.
Likewise those occurring in the shifting forward … the
shifting sideways; those occurring in the shifting
sideways … the lowering down; those occurring in the
lowering down … the placing down; those occurring
in the placing down cease there without reaching the
fixing down; thus formations keep breaking up, like
crackling sesame seeds put into a hot pan; wherever
they arise, there they cease stage by stage, section by
section, term by term, each without reaching the next
part: therefore they are impermanent, painful, not-self.
66. When he sees formations stage by stage with
insight thus, his comprehension of materiality has
become subtle. Here is a simile for its subtlety. A
border dweller, it seems, who was familiar with
torches of wood and grass, etc., but had never seen a
lamp before, came to a city. Seeing a lamp burning in
the market, he asked a man, “I say, what is that lovely
thing called?”—“What is lovely about that? It is called
a lamp. Where it goes to when its oil and wick are
used up no one knows.” Another told him, “That is

1692
crudely put; for the flame in each third portion of the
wick as it gradually burns up ceases there without
reaching the other parts.” Other told him, “That is
crudely put too; for the flame in each inch, in each
half-inch, in each thread, in each strand, will cease
without reaching the other strands; but the flame
cannot appear without a strand.”
67. [623] Herein, the meditator’s attribution of the
three characteristics to materiality delimited by the
hundred years as “taking up” and “putting down” is
like the man’s knowledge stated thus, “Where it goes
when its oil and wick are used up no one knows.” The
meditator’s attribution of the three characteristics
according to “disappearance of what grows old in
each stage” to the materiality delimited by the third
part of the hundred years is like the man’s knowledge
stated thus, “The flame in each third portion of the
wick ceases without reaching the other parts.” The
meditator’s attribution of the three characteristics to
materiality delimited by the periods of ten, five, four,
three, two years, one year, is like the man’s knowledge
stated thus, “The flame in each inch will cease without
reaching the others.” The meditator’s attribution of the
three characteristics to materiality delimited by the
four-month and two-month periods by classing the
year as threefold and sixfold respectively according to
the seasons is like the man’s knowledge stated thus,

1693
“The flame in each half-inch will cease without
reaching the others.” The meditator’s attribution of the
three characteristics to materiality delimited by means
of the dark and bright halves of the moon, by means of
night and day, and by means of morning, etc., taking
one night and day in six parts, is like the man’s
knowledge stated thus, “The flame in each thread will
cease without reaching the others.” The meditator’s
attribution of the three characteristics to materiality
delimited by means of each part, namely, “moving
forward,” etc., and “lifting up,” etc., is like the man’s
knowledge stated thus, “The flame in each strand will
cease without reaching the others.”
68. 3–6. Having in various ways thus attributed the
three characteristics to materiality according to
“disappearance of what grows old in each stage,” he
analyzes that same materiality and divides it into four
portions as “arising from nutriment,” etc., and he
again attributes the three characteristics to each
portion.
3. Herein, materiality arising from nutriment becomes
evident to him through hunger and its satisfaction. For
materiality that is originated when one is hungry is
parched and stale, and it is as ugly and disfigured as a
parched stump, as a crow perching in a charcoal pit.
That originated when hunger is satisfied is plump,
fresh, tender, smooth and soft to touch. Discerning

1694
that, he attributes the three characteristics to it thus:
The materiality occurring when hunger is satisfied
ceases there without reaching the time when one is
hungry; therefore it is impermanent, painful, not-self.
69. 4. That arising from temperature becomes evident
through cool and heat. For materiality that is
originated when it is hot is parched, stale and ugly.
[624] Materiality originated by cool temperature is
plump, fresh, tender, smooth, and soft to touch.
Discerning that, he attributes the three characteristics
to it thus: The materiality occurring when it is hot
ceases there without reaching the time when it is cool.
The materiality occurring when it is cool ceases there
without reaching the time when it is hot: therefore it is
impermanent, painful, not-self.
70. 5. The kamma-born becomes evident through the
sense doors, that is, the base [of consciousness]. For in
the case of the eye door there are thirty material
instances with decads of the eye, the body, and sex;
but with the twenty-four instances originated by
temperature, consciousness, and nutriment, [that is to
say, three bare octads,] which are their support, there
are fifty-four. Likewise in the case of the doors of the
ear, nose, and tongue. In the case of the body door
there are forty-four with the decads of body and sex
and the instances originated by temperature, and so
on. In the case of the mind door there are fifty-four,

1695
too, with the decads of the heart-basis, the body, and
sex, and those instances originated by the
temperature, and so on. Discerning all that materiality,
he attributes the three characteristics to it thus: The
materiality occurring in the eye door ceases there
without reaching the ear door; the materiality
occurring in the ear door … the nose door; the
materiality occurring in the nose door … the tongue
door; the materiality occurring in the tongue door …
the body door; the materiality occurring in the body
door ceases there without reaching the mind door:
therefore it is impermanent, painful, not-self.
71. 6. The consciousness-originated becomes evident
through [the behaviour of] one who is joyful or
grieved. For the materiality arisen at the time when he
is joyful is smooth, tender, fresh and soft to touch.
That arisen at the time when he is grieved is parched,
stale and ugly. Discerning that, he attributes the three
characteristics to it thus: The materiality occurring at
the time when one is joyful ceases there without
reaching the time when one is grieved; the materiality
occurring at the time when one is grieved ceases there
without reaching the time when one is joyful:
therefore it is impermanent, painful, not-self.
72. When he discerns consciousness-originated
materiality and attributes the three characteristics to it
in this way, this meaning becomes evident to him:

1696
 Life, person, pleasure, pain just these alone
Join in one conscious moment that flicks by.
Gods, though they live for four-and-eighty
thousand
Eons, are not the same for two such moments.
[625]
Ceased aggregates of those dead or alive
Are all alike, gone never to return;
And those that break up meanwhile, and in
future,
Have traits no different from those ceased before.
No [world is] born if [consciousness is] not
Produced; when that is present, then it lives;
When consciousness dissolves, the world is dead:
The highest sense this concept will allow.
No store of broken states, no future stock;
Those born balance like seeds on needle points.
Breakup of states is foredoomed at their birth;
Those present decay, unmingled with those past.
They come from nowhere, break up, nowhere go;
Flash in and out, as lightning in the sky[23] (Nidd
I 42).
73. 7. Having attributed the three characteristics to
that arising from nutriment, etc., he again attributes
the three characteristics to natural materiality. Natural
materiality is a name for external materiality that is not

1697
bound up with faculties and arises along with the eon
of world expansion, for example, iron, copper, tin,
lead, gold, silver, pearl, gem, beryl, conch shell,
marble, coral, ruby, opal, soil, stone, rock, grass, tree,
creeper, and so on (see Vibh 83). That becomes evident
to him by means of an asoka-tree shoot.
74. For that to begin with is pale pink; then in two or
three days it becomes dense red, again in two or three
days it becomes dull red, next [brown,] the colour of a
tender [mango] shoot; next, the colour of a growing
shoot; next, the colour of pale leaves; next, the colour
of dark green leaves. After it has become the colour of
dark green leaves, as it follows out the successive
stages of such material continuity, it eventually
becomes withered foliage, and at the end of the year it
breaks loose from its stem and falls off.
75. Discerning that, he attributes the three
characteristics to it thus: The materiality occurring
when it is pale pink ceases there without reaching the
time when it is dense red; the materiality occurring
when it is dense red … dull red; the materiality
occurring when it is dull red … the colour of a tender
[mango] shoot; the materiality occurring when it is the
colour of a tender [mango] shoot … the colour of a
growing shoot; the materiality occurring when it is the
colour of a growing shoot … the colour of pale green
leaves; the materiality occurring when it is the colour

1698
of pale green leaves … the colour of dark green leaves;
the materiality occurring when it is the colour of dark
green leaves … the time when it is withered foliage;
the materiality occurring when it is withered foliage
ceases there without [626] reaching the time when it
breaks loose from its stem and falls off: therefore it is
impermanent, painful, not-self.
He comprehends all natural materiality in this way.
This is how, firstly, he comprehends formations by
attributing the three characteristics to them by means
of the material septad.

[THE IMMATERIAL SEPTAD]

76. The headings of what was called above “the

immaterial septad” are these: (1) by groups, (2) by
pairs, (3) by moments, (4) by series, (5) by removal of
[false] view, (6) by abolition of conceit, (7) by ending
of attachment.
77. 1. Herein, by groups means the states belonging to
the contact pentad.[24] How? Here, “he comprehends
by groups” [means that] a bhikkhu considers thus:
The states belonging to the contact pentad arising in
the comprehending of head hairs as “impermanent,

1699
painful, not-self”; the states belonging to the contact
pentad arising in the comprehending of body hairs as
… in the contemplation of brain as “impermanent,
painful, not-self”—all these states disintegrate section
by section, term by term, like crackling sesame seeds
put into a hot pan, each without reaching the next:
therefore they are impermanent, painful, not-self. This,
firstly, is the method according to the Discourse on
Purification.[25]
78. According to the Discourse on the Noble Ones’
Heritages, however, he is said to “comprehend by
groups” when by means of a subsequent
consciousness he comprehends as “impermanent,
painful, not-self” that consciousness which occurred
[comprehending] materiality as “impermanent,
painful, not-self” in the seven instances of the material
septad given above. As this method is more suitable
we shall therefore confine ourselves to it in explaining
the rest.
79. 2. By pairs: after the bhikkhu has comprehended as
“impermanent, painful, not-self” the materiality of the
“taking up and putting down” (§46f.), he
comprehends that consciousness [with which he was
comprehending the materiality] too as “impermanent,
painful, not-self” by means of a subsequent
consciousness. After he has comprehended as
“impermanent, painful, not-self” the materiality of the

1700
“disappearance of what grows old in each stage” and
that “arising from nutriment,” “arising from
temperature,” “kamma-born,” “consciousness-
originated” and “natural,” he comprehends that
consciousness too as “impermanent, painful, not-self”
by means of a subsequent consciousness. In this way
he is said to comprehend by pairs.
80. 3. By moments: after the bhikkhu has
comprehended as “impermanent, painful, not-self”
the materiality of the “taking up and putting down,”
he comprehends that first consciousness [with which
he was comprehending the materiality] as
“impermanent, painful, not-self” by means of a second
consciousness, and that second consciousness by
means of a third, and the third by means of a fourth,
and the fourth by means of a fifth, and that too he
comprehends as “impermanent, painful, not-self.”
After he has comprehended as “impermanent, painful,
not-self” the materiality of “disappearance of what
grows old in each stage” and that “arising from
nutriment,” “arising from temperature,” [627]
“kamma-born,” “consciousness-originated” and
“natural,” he comprehends that first consciousness as
“impermanent, painful, not-self” by means of a second
consciousness, and that second consciousness by
means of a third, and the third by means of a fourth,
and the fourth by means of a fifth, and that too he

1701
comprehends as “impermanent, painful, not-self.”
Comprehending thus four [consciousnesses] from
each discerning of materiality he is said to
comprehend by moments.
81. 4. By series: after he has comprehended as
“impermanent, painful, not-self” the materiality of the
“taking up and putting down,” he comprehends that
first consciousness as “impermanent, painful, not-self”
by means of a second consciousness, and the second
by means of a third, and the third by means of a fourth
… and the tenth by means of an eleventh, and that too
he comprehends as “impermanent, painful, not-self.”
After he has comprehended as “impermanent, painful,
not-self” the materiality of the “disappearance of what
grows old in each stage” and that “arising from
nutriment,” “arising from temperature,” “kamma-
born,” “consciousness-originated” and “natural,” he
comprehends that consciousness as “impermanent,
painful, not-self” by means of a second consciousness,
and the second by means of a third, … and the tenth
by means of an eleventh, and that too he comprehends
as “impermanent, painful, not-self.” It would be
possible to go on comprehending it in this way with
serial insight even for a whole day. But both the
material meditation subject and the immaterial
meditation subject become familiar when the
comprehending is taken as far as the tenth

1702
consciousness. That is why it is said[26] that it can be
stopped at the tenth. It is when he comprehends in
this way that he is said to comprehend by series.
82. 5. By removal of [false] view, 6. by abolition of conceit,
7. by ending of attachment: there is no individual
method for any of these three. But when he has
discerned this materiality as described above and this
immateriality as described here, then he sees that there
is no living being over and above the material and the
immaterial. As soon as he no longer sees a being, the
perception of a being is removed. When he discerns
formations with consciousness from which perception
of a being has been removed, then [false] view does
not arise in him. When [false] view does not arise in
him, then [false] view is said to be removed.
When he discerns formations with consciousness
from which [false] view has been removed, then
conceit does not arise in him. When conceit does not
arise, conceit is said to be abolished. When he discerns
formations with consciousness from which conceit has
been abolished, then craving does not arise in him.
When craving does not arise in him, attachment is said
to be ended. This firstly is what is said in the
Discourse on Purification.
83. But in the Discourse on the Noble Ones’ Heritages,
after setting forth the headings thus: “As removal of

1703
[false] view, as abolition of conceit, as ending of
attachment,” the following method is set forth: “There
is no removal of [false] view in one who takes it thus,
’I see with insight, my insight’; [628] there is removal
of [false] view in one who takes it thus, ’Only
formations see formations with insight, comprehend,
define, discern, and delimit them.’ There is no
abolition of conceit in one who takes it thus, ’I see
thoroughly with insight, I see well with insight’; there
is abolition of conceit in one who takes it thus, ’Only
formations see formations with insight, comprehend,
define, discern, and delimit them.’ There is no ending
of attachment in one who is pleased with insight thus,
’I am able to see with insight’; there is ending of
attachment in one who takes it thus, ’Only formations
see formations with insight, comprehend, define,
discern, and delimit them.’
84. “There is removal of [false] view in one who sees
thus: ’If formations were self, it would be right to take
them as self; but being not-self they are taken as self.
Therefore they are not-self in the sense of no power
being exercisable over them; they are impermanent in
the sense of non-existence after having come to be;
they are painful in the sense of oppression by rise and
fall.’
85. “There is abolition of conceit in one who sees thus:
’If formations were permanent, it would be right to

1704
take them as permanent; but being impermanent they
are taken as permanent. Therefore they are
impermanent in the sense of non-existence after
having come to be; they are painful in the sense of
oppression by rise and fall; they are not-self in the
sense of no power being exercisable over them.’
86. “There is ending of attachment in one who sees
thus: ’If formations were pleasant, it would be right to
take them as pleasant; but being painful they are taken
as pleasant. Therefore they are painful in the sense of
oppression by rise and fall; they are impermanent in
the sense of non-existence after having come to be;
they are not-self in the sense of no power being
exercisable over them.’
“Thus there comes to be the removal of [false] view
in one who sees formations as not-self; there comes to
be the abolishing of conceit in one who sees them as
impermanent; there comes to be the ending of
attachment in one who sees them as painful. So this
insight is valid in each instance.”
88. This is how he comprehends formations by
attributing the three characteristics to them by means
of the immaterial septad.
At this stage both the material meditation subject
and the immaterial meditation subject have become
familiar to him.

1705
 [THE EIGHTEEN PRINCIPAL INSIGHTS]

89. Having thus become familiar with the material

and immaterial meditation subjects, and so having
penetrated here already a part of those eighteen
principal insights[27] which are later on to be attained
in all their aspects by means of full-understanding as
abandoning starting with contemplation of
dissolution, he consequently abandons things opposed
[to what he has already penetrated].
90. Eighteen principal insights is a term for
understanding that consists in the kinds of insight
beginning with contemplation of impermanence.
Now, as regards these: (1) One who develops the
contemplation of impermanence abandons the
perception of permanence, (2) one who develops the
contemplation of pain [629] abandons the perception
of pleasure, (3) one who develops the contemplation
of not-self abandons the perception of self, (4) one who
develops the contemplation of dispassion abandons
delighting, (5) one who develops the contemplation of
fading away abandons greed, (6) one who develops
the contemplation of cessation abandons origination,
(7) one who develops the contemplation of
relinquishment abandons grasping, (8) one who
develops the contemplation of destruction abandons

1706
the perception of compactness, (9) one who develops
the contemplation of fall [of formations] abandons
accumulation [of kamma], (10) one who develops the
contemplation of change abandons the perception of
lastingness, (11) one who develops the contemplation
of the signless abandons the sign, (12) one who
develops the contemplation of the desireless abandons
desire, (13) one who develops the contemplation of
voidness abandons misinterpreting (insistence), (14)
one who develops the insight into states that is higher
understanding abandons misinterpreting (insistence)
due to grasping at a core, (15) one who develops
correct knowledge and vision abandons
misinterpreting (insistence) due to confusion, (16) one
who develops the contemplation of danger abandons
misinterpreting (insistence) due to reliance, (17) one
who develops the contemplation of reflection
abandons non-reflection, (18) one who develops the
contemplation of turning away abandons
misinterpreting (insistence) due to bondage (see Paṭis I
32f.).[28]
91. Now the meditator has seen formations by means
of the three characteristics beginning with
impermanence, and so he has therefore already
penetrated among these eighteen insights the
contemplations of impermanence, pain, and not-self.
And then (1) the contemplation of impermanence and

1707
(11) the contemplation of the signless are one in
meaning and different only in the letter, and so are (2)
the contemplation of pain and (12) the contemplation
of the desireless, and so are (3) the contemplation of
not-self and (13) the contemplation of voidness (see
Paṭis II 63). Consequently these have been penetrated
by him as well. But (14) insight into states that is
higher understanding is all kinds of insight, and (15)
correct knowledge and vision is included in
purification by overcoming doubt (Ch. XIX).
Consequently, these two have been penetrated by him
as well. As to the remaining kinds of insight, some
have been penetrated and some not. We shall deal
with them below.[29]
92. For it was with reference only to what has already
been penetrated that it was said above: “having thus
become familiar with the material and immaterial
meditation subjects, and so having penetrated here
already a part of those eighteen principal insights,
which are later on to be attained in all their aspects by
means of full understanding as abandoning starting
with contemplation of dissolution, he consequently
abandons things opposed [to what he has already
penetrated]” (§89).

[KNOWLEDGE OF RISE AND FALL—I]

1708
93. Having purified his knowledge in this way by
abandoning the perceptions of permanence, etc.,
which oppose the contemplations of impermanence,
etc., he passes on from comprehension knowledge and
begins the task of attaining that of contemplation of
rise and fall, which is expressed thus: “Understanding
[630] of contemplating present states’ change is
knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall” (Paṭis I
1), and which comes next after comprehension
knowledge.
94. When he does so, he does it first in brief. Here is
the text: “How is it that understanding of
contemplating present states’ change is knowledge of
contemplation of rise and fall? Present materiality is
born [materiality]; the characteristic of its generation is
rise, the characteristic of its change is fall, the
contemplation is knowledge. Present feeling …
perception … formations … consciousness … eye …
(etc.) … Present becoming is born [becoming]; the
characteristic of its generation is rise, the characteristic
of its change is fall, the contemplation is knowledge”
(Paṭis I 54).[30]
95. In accordance with the method of this text he sees
the characteristic of generation, the birth, the arising,
the aspect of renewal, of born materiality, as “rise,”
and he sees its characteristic of change, its destruction,
its dissolution, as “fall.”

1709
96. He understands thus: “There is no heap or store of
unarisen mentality-materiality [existing] prior to its
arising. When it arises, it does not come from any heap
or store; and when it ceases, it does not go in any
direction. There is nowhere any depository in the way
of a heap or store or hoard of what has ceased. But just
as there is no store, prior to its arising, of the sound
that arises when a lute is played, nor does it come
from any store when it arises, nor does it go in any
direction when it ceases, nor does it persist as a store
when it has ceased (cf. S IV 197), but on the contrary,
not having been, it is brought into being owing to the
lute, the lute’s neck, and the man’s appropriate effort,
and having been, it vanishes—so too all material and
immaterial states, not having been, are brought into
being, and having been, they vanish.”
97. Having given attention to rise and fall in brief
thus, he again [does so in detail according to condition
and instant by seeing those characteristics] as given in
the exposition of that same knowledge of rise and fall
thus: “(1) He sees the rise of the materiality aggregate
in the sense of conditioned arising thus: With the
arising of ignorance there is the arising of materiality;
(2) … with the arising of craving … (3) … with the
arising of kamma … (4) he sees the rise of the
materiality aggregate in the sense of conditioned
arising thus: With the arising of nutriment there is the

1710
arising of materiality; (5) one who sees the
characteristic of generation sees the rise of the
materiality aggregate. One who sees the rise of the
materiality aggregate sees these five characteristics.
“(1) He sees the fall of the materiality aggregate in
the sense of conditioned cessation thus: With the
cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of
materiality; (2) … with the cessation of craving … (3)
… with the cessation of kamma … (4) he sees the fall
of the materiality aggregate in the sense of
conditioned cessation thus: With the cessation of
nutriment there is the cessation of materiality; [631] (5)
one who sees the characteristic of change sees the fall
of the materiality aggregate. One who sees the fall of
the materiality aggregate sees these five
characteristics” (Paṭis I 55f.).
Likewise: “(1) He sees the rise of the feeling
aggregate in the sense of conditioned arising thus:
With the arising of ignorance there is the arising of
feeling; (2) … with the arising of craving … (3) … with
the arising of kamma … (4) he sees the rise of the
feeling aggregate in the sense of conditioned arising
thus: With the arising of contact there is the arising of
feeling; (5) one who sees the characteristic of
generation sees the rise of the feeling aggregate. One
who sees the rise of the feeling aggregate sees those
five characteristics.

1711
 “(1) He sees the fall of the feeling aggregate in the
sense of conditioned cessation thus: With the cessation
of ignorance there is the cessation of feeling; (2) …
with the cessation of craving … (3) … with the
cessation of kamma … (4) he sees the fall of the feeling
aggregate in the sense of conditioned cessation thus:
With the cessation of contact there is the cessation of
feeling; (5) one who sees the characteristic of change
sees the fall of the feeling aggregate. One who sees the
fall of the feeling aggregate sees these five
characteristics” (Paṭis I 55f.).
And as in the case of the feeling aggregate, [that is,
substituting “contact” for the “nutriment” in the case
of materiality,] so for the perception and formations
aggregates. So also for the consciousness aggregate
with this difference, that for the phrases containing
“contact” there are substituted “with the arising of
mentality-materiality” and “with the cessation of
mentality-materiality.”
So there are fifty characteristics stated with the ten
in the case of each aggregate by seeing rise and fall, by
means of which he gives attention in detail according to
condition and according to instant (moment) in this way:
“The rise of materiality is thus; its fall is thus; so it
rises, so it falls.”
98. As he does so his knowledge becomes clearer thus:

1712
“So, it seems, these states, not having been, are
brought into being; having been, they vanish.”
When he thus sees rise and fall in the two ways,
according to condition and according to instant, the
several truths, aspects of the dependent origination,
methods, and characteristics become evident to him.
99. When he sees the arising of aggregates with the
arising of ignorance and the cessation of aggregates
with the cessation of ignorance, this is his seeing of
rise and fall according to condition. When he sees the
rise and fall of aggregates by seeing the characteristic
of generation and the characteristic of change, this is
his seeing of rise and fall according to instant. For it is
only at the instant of arising that there is the
characteristic of generation, and only at the instant of
dissolution that there is the characteristic of change.
100. So when he sees rise and fall in the two ways,
according to condition and according to instant thus,
the truth of origination becomes evident to him
through seeing rise according to condition owing to
his discovery of the progenitor. [632] The truth of
suffering becomes evident to him through seeing rise
according to instant owing to his discovery of the
suffering due to birth. The truth of cessation becomes
evident to him through seeing fall according to
condition owing to his discovery of the non-arising of

1713
things produced by conditions when their conditions
do not arise. The truth of suffering becomes evident to
him too through seeing fall according to instant owing
to his discovery of the suffering due to death. And his
seeing of rise and fall becomes evident to him as the
truth of the path thus: “This is the mundane path”
owing to abolition of confusion about it.
101. The dependent origination in forward order
becomes evident to him through seeing rise according
to condition owing to his discovery that “When this
exists, that comes to be” (M I 262). The dependent
origination in reverse order becomes evident to him
through seeing fall according to condition owing to his
discovery that “When this does not exist, that does not
come to be” (M I 264). Dependently-arisen states
become evident to him through seeing rise and fall
according to instant owing to his discovery of the
characteristic of the formed; for the things possessed
of rise and fall are formed and conditionally arisen.
102. The method of identity becomes evident to him
through seeing rise according to condition owing to
his discovery of unbroken continuity in the connection
of cause with fruit. Then he more thoroughly
abandons the annihilation view. The method of
diversity becomes evident to him through seeing rise
according to instant owing to his discovery that each
[state] is new [as it arises]. Then he more thoroughly

1714
abandons the eternity view. The method of
uninterestedness becomes evident to him through
seeing rise and fall according to condition owing to his
discovery of the inability of states to have mastery
exercised over them. Then he more thoroughly
abandons the self view. The method of ineluctable
regularity becomes evident to him through seeing rise
according to condition owing to his discovery of the
arising of the fruit when the suitable conditions are
there. Then he more thoroughly abandons the moral-
inefficacy-of-action view.
103. The characteristic of not-self becomes evident to
him through seeing rise according to condition owing
to his discovery that states have no curiosity and that
their existence depends upon conditions. The
characteristic of impermanence becomes evident to
him through seeing rise and fall according to instant
owing to his discovery of non-existence after having
been and owing to his discovery that they are
secluded from past and future. The characteristic of
pain becomes evident to him [through that] too owing
to his discovery of oppression by rise and fall. And the
characteristic of individual essence becomes evident to
him [through that] too owing to his discovery of
delimitation [of states] by rise and fall.[31] And in the
characteristic of individual essence the temporariness
of the characteristic of what is formed becomes

1715
evident to him [through that] too owing to his
discovery of the non-existence of fall at the instant of
rise and the non-existence of rise at the instant of fall.
[32]

104. When the several truths, aspects of the

dependent origination, methods, and characteristics
have become evident to him thus, then formations
appear to him as perpetually renewed: “So these
states, it seems, being previously unarisen, critic, and
being arisen, they cease.” [633] And they are not only
perpetually renewed, but they are also short-lived like
dew-drops at sunrise (A IV 137), like a bubble on
water (S III 14 I), like a line drawn on water (A IV 137),
like a mustard seed on an awl’s point (Nidd I 42), like
a lightning flash (Nidd I 43). And they appear without
core, like a conjuring trick (S III 141), like a mirage
(Dhp 46), like a dream (Sn 807), like the circle of a
whirling firebrand (source untraced), like a goblin city
(source untraced), like froth (Dhp 46), like a plantain
trunk (S III 142), and so on.
At this point he has attained tender insight-
knowledge called contemplation of rise and fall, which
has become established by penetrating the fifty
characteristics in this manner: “Only what is subject to
fall arises; and to be arisen necessitates fall.” With the
attainment of this he is known as a “beginner of
insight.”

1716
 [THE TEN IMPERFECTIONS OF INSIGHT]

105. Now, when he is a beginner of insight with this

tender insight, ten imperfections of insight arise in
him. For imperfections of insight do not arise either in
a noble disciple who has reached penetration [of the
truths] or in persons erring in virtue, neglectful of
their meditation subject and idlers. They arise only in
a clansman who keeps to the right course, devotes
himself continuously [to his meditation subject] and is
a beginner of insight. But what are these ten
imperfections? They are: (1) illumination, (2)
knowledge, (3) rapturous happiness, (4) tranquillity,
(5) bliss (pleasure), (6) resolution, (7) exertion, (8)
assurance, (9) equanimity, and (10) attachment.
106. For this is said: “How does the mind come to be
seized by agitation about higher states? When a man is
bringing [formations] to mind as impermanent,
illumination arises in him. He adverts to the
illumination thus, ’Illumination is a [Noble One’s]
state.’[33] The distraction due to that is agitation. When
his mind is seized by that agitation, he does not
understand correctly [their] appearance as
impermanent, he does not understand correctly [their]
appearance as painful, he does not understand
correctly [their] appearance as not-self.

1717
 “Likewise, when he is bringing [formations] to mind
as impermanent, knowledge arises in him …
happiness … tranquillity … bliss … resolution …
exertion … establishment … equanimity …
attachment arises in him. He adverts to the attachment
thus, ’Attachment is a [Noble One’s] state.’ The
distraction due to that is agitation. When his mind is
seized by that agitation, he does not correctly
understand [their] appearance as impermanent, [634]
he does not correctly understand [their] appearance as
painful, he does not correctly understand [their]
appearance as not-self” (Paṭis II 100).
107. 1. Herein, illumination is illumination due to
insight.[34] When it arises, the meditator thinks, “Such
illumination never arose in me before. I have surely
reached the path, reached fruition;” thus he takes what
is not the path to be the path and what is not fruition
to be fruition. When he takes what is not the path to be
the path and what is not fruition to be fruition, the
course of his insight is interrupted. He drops his own
basic meditation subject and sits just enjoying the
illumination.
108. But this illumination arises in one bhikkhu
illuminating only as much as the seat he is sitting on;
in another, the interior of his room; in another, the
exterior of his room; in another the whole monastery
… a quarter league … a half league … a league … two

1718
leagues … three leagues; in another bhikkhu it arises
making a single light from the earth’s surface up to the
Brahmā-world. But in the Blessed One it arose
illuminating the ten-thousandfold world-element.
109. This story illustrates how it varies. Two elders, it
seems, were sitting inside a room with a double wall
at Cittalapabbata. It was the Uposatha of the dark of
the moon that day. All directions were covered by a
blanket of cloud, and at night the four-factored
gloom[35] prevailed. Then one elder said, “Venerable
sir, the flowers of the five colours on the lion table on
the shrine terrace are visible to me now.” The other
said, “What you say is nothing wonderful, friend.
Actually the fishes and turtles in the ocean a league
away are visible to me now.”
110. This imperfection of insight usually arises in one
who has acquired serenity and insight. Because the
defilements suppressed by the attainments do not
manifest themselves, he thinks, “I am an Arahant,”
like the Elder Mahā-Nāga who lived at Uccavālika,
like the Elder Mahā-Datta who lived at Haṅkana, like
the Elder Cūḷa-Sumana who lived in the Nikapenna
meditation house at Cittalapabbata.
111. Here is one story as an illustration. The Elder
Dhammadinna, it seems, who lived at Talaṅgara—one
of the great ones with cankers destroyed who

1719
possessed the categories of discrimination—was the
instructor of a large community of bhikkhus. One day,
as he was sitting in his own daytime quarters, he
wondered, “Has our teacher, the Elder Mahā-Nāga
who lives at Uccavālika, [635] brought his work of
asceticism to its conclusion, or not?” He saw that he
was still an ordinary man, and he knew that if he did
not go to him, he would die an ordinary man. He rose
up into the air with supernormal power and alighted
near the elder, who was sitting in his daytime
quarters. He paid homage to him, doing his duty, and
sat down at one side. To the question, “Why have you
come unexpectedly, friend Dhammadinna?” he
replied, “I have come to ask a question, venerable sir.”
He was told, “Ask, friend. If we know, we shall say.”
He asked a thousand questions.
112. The elder replied without hesitation to each
question. To the remark, “Your knowledge is very
keen, venerable sir; when was this state attained by
you?” he replied, “Sixty years ago, friend.” “Do you
practice concentration, venerable sir?”—“That is not
difficult, friend.”—“Then make an elephant, venerable
sir.” The elder made an elephant all white. “Now,
venerable sir, make that elephant come straight at you
with his ears outstretched, his tail extended, putting
his trunk in his mouth and making a horrible
trumpeting.” The elder did so. Seeing the frightful

1720
aspect of the rapidly approaching elephant, he sprang
up and made to run away. Then the elder with
cankers destroyed put out his hand, and catching him
by the hem of his robe, he said, “Venerable sir, is there
any timidity in one whose cankers are destroyed?”
113. Then he recognized that he was still an ordinary
man. He knelt at Dhammadinna’s feet and said, “Help
me, friend Dhammadinna.”—“Venerable sir, I will
help you; that is why I came. Do not worry.” Then he
expounded a meditation subject to him. The elder took
the meditation subject and went up on to the walk,
and with the third footstep he reached Arahantship.
The elder was a bhikkhu of hating temperament, it
seems. Such bhikkhus waver on account of
illumination.
114. 2. Knowledge is knowledge due to insight. As he is
estimating and judging material and immaterial states
perhaps knowledge that is unerring, keen, incisive,
and very sharp arises in him, like a lightning flash.
115. 3. Rapturous happiness is happiness due to insight.
Perhaps at that time the five kinds of happiness,
namely, minor happiness, momentary happiness,
showering happiness, uplifting happiness, and
pervading (rapturous) happiness arise in him filling
his whole body.
116. 4. Tranquillity is tranquillity due to insight. As he

1721
is sitting at that time in his night or day quarters
perhaps [636] there is no fatigue or heaviness or
rigidity or unwieldiness or sickness or crookedness in
his body and his mind, but rather his body and mind
are tranquillized, light, malleable, wieldy, quite sharp,
and straight. With his body and mind aided by this
tranquillity, etc., he experiences at that time the
superhuman delight with reference to which it is said:
A bhikkhu when his mind is quiet
Retires to an empty place,
And his right insight in the Dhamma
Gives him superhuman delight.
It is because he comprehends
The rise and fall of aggregates
That he finds happiness and joy
And knows it to be deathless (Dhp 373f.).
This is how tranquillity, associated with lightness,
etc., arises in him, bringing about this superhuman
delight.
117. 5. Bliss (pleasure) is bliss due to insight. At that
time perhaps there arises in him exceedingly refined
bliss (pleasure) flooding his whole body.
118. 6. Resolution is faith. For strong faith arises in him
in association with insight in the form of extreme
confidence of consciousness and its concomitants.
119. 7. Exertion is energy. For well-exerted energy,

1722
neither too lax nor too strained, arises in him in
association with insight.
120. 8. Assurance (lit. establishment) is mindfulness.
For well-established (well-assured), well-founded
mindfulness, which is dug in and as immovable as the
king of mountains, arises in him in association with
insight. Whatever subject he adverts to, consciously
reacts to, gives attention to, reviews, appears to him
(he is assured of) owing to mindfulness, which
descends into it,[36] enters into it, just as the other
world does to one who has the divine eye.
121. 9. Equanimity is both equanimity about insight
and equanimity in adverting.[37] For equanimity about
insight, which is neutrality about formations, arises
strongly in him at that time. It is also equanimity in
adverting in the mind door. For whatever the subject
he adverts to, his adverting works as incisively and
sharply as a lightning flash, like a red-hot spear
plunged into a basket of leaves.
122. 10. Attachment is attachment due to insight. For
when his insight is adorned with illumination, etc.,
attachment arises in him, which is subtle and peaceful
in aspect, and it relies on (clings to) that insight; and
he is not able to discern that attachment as a
defilement. [637]
123. And as in the case of illumination, so too in the

1723
case of the other imperfections that may arise, the
meditator thinks thus: “Such knowledge … such
rapturous happiness … tranquillity … bliss …
resolution … exertion … assurance … equanimity …
attachment never arose in me before. I have surely
reached the path, reached fruition.” Thus he takes
what is not the path to be the path and what is not
fruition to be fruition. When he takes what is not the
path to be the path and what is not fruition to be
fruition, the course of his insight is interrupted. He
drops his basic meditation subject and sits just
enjoying the attachment.
124. And here illumination, etc., are called
imperfections because they are the basis for
imperfection, not because they are [kammically]
unprofitable. But attachment is both an imperfection
and the basis for imperfection.
As basis only they amount to ten; but with the
different ways of taking them they come to thirty.
125. How? When a man takes it thus, “illumination
has arisen in me,” his way of taking is due to [false]
view. When he takes it thus, “How agreeable this
illumination that has arisen is,” his way of taking is
due to pride (conceit). When he relishes the
illumination, his way of taking is due to craving. So
there are three ways of taking it in the case of

1724
illumination, that is to say, due to [false] view, to pride
(conceit), and to craving. Likewise with the rest. So
they come to thirty with the three ways of taking
them. Owing to their influence an unskilful, unwary
meditator wavers and gets distracted about
illumination, etc., and he sees each one of them-
illumination and the rest-as “This is mine, this is I, this
is my self” (M I 135). Hence the Ancients said:
He wavers about illumination,
And knowledge, rapturous happiness,
About the tranquilness, the bliss,
Whereby his mind becomes confused;
He wavers about resolution,
Exertion, and assurance, too,
The adverting-equanimity,
And equanimity and attachment (Paṭis II 102).
126. But when illumination, etc., arise, a skilful, wary
meditator who is endowed with discretion either
defines and examines it with understanding thus:
“This illumination has arisen.[38] But it is
impermanent, formed, conditionally arisen, subject to
destruction, subject to fall, subject to fading away,
subject to cessation.” Or he thinks: “If illumination
were self, it would be right to take it as self; but being
not-self, it is taken as self. Therefore it is not-self in the
sense of no power being exercisable over it; it is
impermanent in the sense of non-existence after

1725
having come to be; it is painful in the sense of
oppression by rise and fall,” all of which should be
treated in detail according to the method given under
the immaterial septad (§83). And as in the case of
illumination, so too with the rest.
127. Having investigated it thus, he sees the
illumination as “This is not mine, this is not I, this is
not my self.” [638] He sees knowledge … (etc.) …
attachment as “This is not mine, this is not I, this is not
my self.” Seeing thus, he does not waver or vacillate
about the illumination, and so on. Hence the Ancients
said:
So when a man of understanding has
Examined these ten things and is now skilled
In agitation about higher states
He no more falls a prey to wavering (Paṭis II 102).
128. So he unravels this thirtyfold skein of
imperfections without falling a prey to wavering. He
defines what is the path and what is not the path thus:
“The states consisting in illumination, etc., are not the
path; but it is insight knowledge that is free from
imperfections and keeps to its course that is the path.”
129. The knowledge that is established in him by his
coming to know the path and the not-path thus, “This
is the path, this is not the path,” should he understood
as the purification by knowledge and vision of what is

1726
the path and what is not the path.
130. So at this point the defining of three truths has
been effected by him. How? The defining of the truth
of suffering has been effected with the defining of
mentality-materiality in the purification of view. The
defining of the truth of origination has been effected
with the discerning of conditions in the purification by
overcoming doubt. The defining of the truth of the
path has been effected with the emphasizing of the
right path in this purification by knowledge and
vision of what is the path and what is not the path. So
the defining of three truths has been effected firstly by
means of mundane knowledge only.

The twentieth chapter called “The

Description of Purification by
Knowledge and Vision of What Is the
Path and What is Not the Path” in the
Treatise on the Development of
Understanding in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1727
Notes for Chapter XX

1. “Comprehension by placing together in groups

(totals) the states that are differentiated into past,
future and present is ’comprehension by groups.’
This, it seems, is the term used by the inhabitants
of Jambudīpa (India). However, insight into states
by means of the method beginning, ’Any
materiality whatever’ (M III 16) is ’inductive
insight.’ This, it seems, is the term used by the
inhabitants of Tambapaṇṇidīpa (Sri Lanka). That
is why he said “to inductive insight called
comprehension by groups’” (Vism-mhṭ 778).
2. Tīraṇa could also be rendered by “judging.” On
specific and general characteristics Vism-mhṭ
says: “Hardness, touching, etc., as the respective
characteristics of earth, contact, etc., which are
observable at all three instants [of arising,
presence and dissolution], are apprehended by
their being established as the respective
individual essences of definite materialness. But it
is not so with the characteristics of
impermanence, and so on. These are apprehended
as though they were attributive material instances
because they have to be apprehended under the
respective headings of dissolution and rise and

1728
 fall, of oppression, and of insusceptibility to the
exercise of mastery” (Vism-mhṭ 779). See Ch. XXI,
note 3.
The “planes” given here in §4 are not quite the
same as described in XXII.107.
3. “’Contemplating as impermanent’ is contemplating,
comprehending, formations in the aspect of
impermanence. ’The perception of permanence’ is the
wrong perception that they are permanent,
eternal; the kinds of consciousness associated
with wrong view should be regarded as included
under the heading of ’perception.’ So too with
what follows. ’Becoming dispassionate’ is seeing
formations with dispassion by means of the
contemplation of dispassion induced by the
contemplations of impermanence, and so on.
’Delighting’ is craving accompanied by happiness.
’Causing fading away’ is contemplating in such a
way that greed (rāga) for formations does not
arise owing to the causing of greed to fade
(virajjana) by the contemplation of fading away
(virāgānupassanā); for one who acts thus is said to
abandon greed. ’Causing cessation’ is
contemplating in such a way that, by the
contemplation of cessation, formations cease only,
they do not arise in the future through a new
becoming; since one who acts thus is said to

1729
 abandon the arousing (originating) of formations
because of producing the nature of non-arising.
’Relinquishing’ is relinquishing in such a way that,
by the contemplation of relinquishment,
formations are not grasped anymore; hence he
said, ’He abandons grasping’; or the meaning is that
he relinquishes apprehending [them] as
permanent, and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 780).
4. “’Liking that is in conformity’ is a liking for
knowledge that is in conformity with the
attainment of the path. Actually the knowledge
itself is the ’liking’ (khanti) since it likes (khamati),
it endures, defining by going into the individual
essence of its objective field. The ’certainty of
rightness’ is the noble path; for that is called the
rightness beginning with right view and also the
certainty of an irreversible trend” (Vism-mhṭ 784).
5. Upasaṭṭhatā—“being menaced;” abstr. noun fr. pp.
of upa + saj; not as such in PED.
6. The eight worldly states are: gain and non-gain,
fame and non-fame, blame and praise, and
pleasure and pain (D III 160).
7. Avatthā—“occasion”: not in PED.
8. Allīyituṃ—“to give shelter”: not in PED, but see
leṇa.

1730
9. Allīnānaṃ—“for the unsheltered”: allīna = pp. of ā
+ līyati (see note 8 above), the “un-sheltered.” Not
in PED. Not to be confused with allīna = adherent
(pp. of ā + līyati, to stick, to be contiguous); see
e.g. XIV.46.
10. Vism-mhṭ has “Jāti-ādi-bhayānaṃ hiṃsanaṃ
vidhamanaṃ bhayasāraṇattaṃ,” which suggests the
rendering “because of not being a refuge from
fear.”
11. Ādīna—“misery” or “miserable”: not in PED.
Ādīna—“misery” or “miserable”: not in PED.
12. Abyosāna—“not stopping halfway” (another less
good reading is accosāna): not in PED; but it is a
negative form of vosāna (q.v.), which is used of
Devadatta in the Vinaya Cūḷavagga (= It 85) and
occurs in this sense at M I 193. Not in CPD.
13. “First it has to be seen by inference according to
the texts. Afterwards it gradually comes to be
seen by personal experience when the knowledge
of development gets stronger” (Vism-mhṭ 790).
14. “It is first generated from kamma because the
temperature-born kinds, etc., are rooted in that”
(Vism-mhṭ 790).
15. The relationship of the duration of moments of
matter and moments of consciousness is dealt

1731
 with in greater detail in the Sammohavinodanī
(Vibh-a 25f.). See also Introduction, note 18.
16. “’By obtaining as its condition kamma-born
materiality that is clung-to’: by this he points out
that external un-clung-to nutritive essence does
not perform the function of nourishing
materiality. He said ’and basing itself on that’
meaning that its obtaining of a condition is owing
to its being supported by what is kamma-born.
And ’clung-to’ is specifically mentioned in order
to rule out any question of there being a ’kamma-
born’ method for ’materiality originated by
consciousness that has kamma as its condition’
just because it happens to be rooted in kamma
[There is no such method]” (Vism-mhṭ 793f.).
17. “What is intended is head hair, body hair, nails,
teeth, skin, callosities, warts, etc., which are
separate from the flesh in a living body; otherwise
a corpse, and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 795).
18. “When the generation of materiality is seen its
dissolution also is seen, and so he said, ’One who
sees the generation of materiality thus is said to
comprehend the material at one time’ because of the
brevity of states’ occurrence; for it is not the
seeing of mere generation that is called
comprehension but there must be seeing of rise

1732
 and fall besides. So too the apprehending of
generation in the other instances” (Vism-mhṭ 795).
19. “This refers to determining” (Vism-mhṭ 795).
20. “No one, not even the Blessed One, has such
mastery; for it is impossible for anyone to alter the
three characteristics. The province of supernormal
power is simply the alteration of a state” (Vism-
mhṭ 797).
“’Because of precluding a self’ means because of
precluding the self conceived by those outside the
Dispensation; for the non-existence in dhammas
of any self as conceived by outsiders is stated by
the words, ’because void’; but by this expression [it
is stated] that there is no self because there is no
such individual essence” (Vism-mhṭ 797).
21. Vītiharaṇa—“shifting sideways,” sannikkhepana
—“placing down,” and sannirujjhana—“fixing
down,” are not in PED; cf. M-a I 260.
22. Omatta—“subordinate”: not in PED.
23. This verse is quoted twice in the Mahāniddesa
(Nidd I 42 & 118). For Vism-mhṭ’s comment see
Ch. VIII, note 11. Vism-mhṭ and the Sinhalese
translation have been taken as guides in
rendering this rather difficult verse. There is
another stanza in the Niddesa not quoted here:

1733
 “… this concept will allow.
States happen as their tendencies dictate;
And they are modelled by desire; their
stream
Uninterruptedly flows ever on
Conditioned by the sixfold base of contact.
No store of broken states …”
24. The “contact pentad” (phassa-pañcamaka) is a term
used for the first five things listed in Dhs §1, that
is, contact, feeling, perception, volition, and
consciousness, which are invariably present
whenever there is consciousness.
25. The “Discourse on Purification” (visuddhi-kathā)
and the “Discourse on the Noble Ones’ Heritages”
(ariyavaṃsa-kathā) are presumably names of
chapters in the old Sinhalese commentaries no
longer extant.
26. “Said in the Discourse on the Noble Ones’
Heritages” (Vism-mhṭ 804).
27. The first seven of the eighteen principal insights
are known as the “seven contemplations”; see
20.4. Further descriptions are given in XXII.113f.
28. For Vism-mhṭ’s comments on the first seven see
note 3 to this chapter.
’Contemplation of destruction’ is the

1734
contemplation of the momentary dissolution of
formations. ’Perception of compactness’ is the
assumption of unity in a continuity or mass or
function or object. ’Contemplation of destruction’ is
contemplation of non-existence after having been,
they say. Contemplation of destruction is the
understanding by means of which he resolves the
compact into its elements and sees that it is
impermanent in the sense of destruction. Its
completion starts with contemplation of
dissolution, and so there is abandoning of
perception of compactness then, but before that
there is not, because it has not been completed. (9)
The seeing of the dissolution of formations both
by actual experience and by inference and the
directing of attention to their cessation, in other
words, their dissolution, is contemplation of fall;
through it accumulation [of kamma] is
abandoned; his consciousness does not incline
with craving to the occurrence of that [aggregate-
process of existence] for the purpose of which one
accumulates [kamma]. (10) Seeing change in the
two ways through aging and through death in
what is born, or seeing another essence
subsequent to the delimitation of such and such
[an essence supervening] in what was discerned
by means of the material septad, and so on, is

1735
’contemplation of change’; by its means he abandons
the ’perception of lastingness,’ the assumption of
stability. (11)–(13) The three beginning with
’contemplation of the signless’ are the same as the
three beginning with contemplation of
impermanence. (11) ’The sign’ is the mere
appearance of formations as if graspable entities,
which is due to the individualization of particular
functions and which, owing to perception of unity
in continuity and in mass, is assumed to be
temporarily enduring or permanent. (12) ’Desire’
is longing for pleasure, or it is desire consisting in
greed, and so on; it means inclinationto
formations owing to craving. (13) ’Misinterpreting’
is misinterpreting as self. It is owing to their
opposing the ’sign,’ etc., that the contemplations
of impermanence, etc., are called by the names of
’signless,’ etc.; so they should be regarded as
opposed to the apprehension of a sign, etc., just as
they are to the perception of permanence, and so
on. (14) Insight that occurs by knowing an object
consisting of a visible datum, etc., and by seeing
the dissolution of the consciousness that had that
visible datum, etc., as its object, and by
apprehending voidness through the dissolution
thus, ’Only formations dissolve, there is nothing
beyond the death of formations,’ is the higher

1736
understanding, and that is insight into states, thus
it is ’insight into states that is higher understanding’;
by its means he abandons the view accompanied
by craving that is the misinterpretation occurring
as grasping at a permanent core, and so on. (15)
’Correct knowledge and vision’ is a term for the
seeing of mentality-materiality with its
conditions; by its means he abandons the
’misinterpreting due to confusion’ that begins thus,
’Was I in the past?’ (M I 8) and that begins thus,
’Thus the world is created by an Overlord’ (?).
(16) The knowledge consisting in the seeing of
danger in all kinds of becomings, etc., which has
arisen owing to the appearance of terror is
’contemplation of danger’; by its means he abandons
the craving occurring as ’misinterpreting due to
reliance’ because he does not see any reliance or
support. (17) The knowledge of reflection that is
the means to deliverance from formations is
’contemplation of reflection’; by its means he
abandons the ignorance that is ’non-reflection’ on
impermanence, etc., and is opposed to reflection
on them. (18) Equanimity about formations and
conformity knowledge are ’contemplation of
turning away’; for owing to it the mind retreats
and recoils from all formations, like a water drop
on a lotus leaf, so by its means he abandons the

1737
 ’misinterpretation due to bondage,’ which is the
occurrence of the defilements consisting of the
fetters of sense desire, and so on. (Vism-mh 806f.)
29. See XXII.113f. “When (1) the contemplation of
impermanence is established, then the
contemplations of (6) cessation, (8) destruction, (9)
fall, and (10) change are partly established. When
(2) the contemplation of pain is established, then
the contemplations of (4) dispassion and (16)
danger are partly established. And when (3) the
contemplation of not-self is established, then the
rest are partly established” (Vism-mhṭ 807).
30. “The interpreting of rise and fall must be done on
a state that is present according to continuity or
present according to instant but not on one that is
past or future, which is why ’of present states’ is
said” (Vism-mhṭ 808). “Present materiality is
called born materiality; it is included in the trio of
instants [of arising, presence and dissolution], is
what is meant. But that is hard to discern at the
start, so the interpreting by insight should be
done by means of presence according to
continuity” (Vism-mhṭ 808). For the elision
represented by “… (etc.) …” see XX.9. In this case,
however, the last two members of the dependent
origination are left out. “Although states
possessed of aging-and-death are mentioned

1738
 under the heading of birth and of aging-and-
death in comprehension by groups, etc.,
nevertheless here in the description of knowledge
of rise and fall, if it were said ’present birth is
born; the characteristic of its generation is rise, the
characteristic of its change is fall,’ etc., it would be
tantamount to an affirmation and approval of the
proposition that birth and aging-and-death were
possessed of birth and of aging-and-death. So the
text ends with ’becoming’ in order to avoid that”
(Vism-mhṭ 808).
31. “With the seeing of rise and fall not only the
characteristics of impermanence and pain become
evident, but also the characteristics, in other
words, the individual essences, of earth, contact,
etc., termed hardness, touching, etc., respectively,
become clearly evident and discrete (avacchinna)
in their individual essences” (Vism-mhṭ 814).
32. “The inclusion of only rise and fall here is because
this kind of knowledge occurs as seeing only rise
and fall, not because of non-existence of the
instant of presence” (Vism-mhṭ 814). See
Introduction, note 18.
33. “He adverts to it as Nibbāna or as the path or as
fruition” (Vism-mhṭ 816). “The agitation, the
distraction, that occurs about whether or not the

1739
 illumination, etc., are noble states is ’agitation
about higher states’” (Vism-mhṭ 815). In this
connection Vism-mhṭ quotes the following text:
“Friends, any bhikkhu or bhikkhunī who declares
the attainment of Arahantship in my presence has
always arrived there by four paths or by one of
them. What four? Here, friends, a bhikkhu
develops insight preceded by serenity. While he is
developing insight preceded by serenity the path
is born in him. He cultivates, develops, repeats
that path. As he does so his fetters are abandoned
and his inherent tendencies are brought to an end.
Again, friends, a bhikkhu develops serenity
preceded by insight … He develops serenity and
insight yoked equally. Again, friends, a bhikkhu’s
mind is seized by agitation about highest states.
When that consciousness settles down internally,
becomes steady, unified and concentrated, then
the path is born in him … his inherent tendencies
are brought to an end” (A II 157).
34. “’Illumination due to insight’ is the luminous
materiality originated by insight consciousness,
and that originated by temperature belonging to
his own continuity. Of these, that originated by
insight consciousness is bright and is found only
in the meditator’s body. The other kind is
independent of his body and spreads all round

1740
 over what is capable of being experienced by
knowledge. It becomes manifest to him too, and
he sees anything material in the place touched by
it” (Vism-mhṭ 816).
35. Caturaṅga-samannāgataṃ tamaṃ—“four-factored
gloom” is mentioned also at S-a I 170, M-a V 16 (c.
andhakāra), and Ud-a 66, 304.
36. Okkhandati—“to descend into”: not in PED; see
XXII.34 and M-a I 238.
37. “’Equanimity about insight’ is neutrality in the
investigation of formations owing to the objective
field having been already investigated. But in
meaning, when it occurs thus, it is only neutrality.
The volition associated with mind-door adverting
is called ’equanimity (upekkhā) in adverting’ because
it occurs in adverting as onlooking
(ajjhupekkhana)” (Vism-mhṭ 819).
38. Be Vism-mhṭ reads “ayaṃ kho so” instead of the
“ayaṃ kho me” in the Ee and Ae editions.

1741
 Chapter XXI
Purification by Knowledge
and Vision of the Way
(Paṭipadā-ñāṇadassana-visuddhi-niddesa)

1. [639] Now, insight reaches its culmination with the

eight knowledges, and knowledge in conformity with
truth[1] is ninth; these are what is called purification
by knowledge and vision of the way.
The eight should be understood as follows: (1)
knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall, which is
insight free from imperfections and steady on its
course, (2) knowledge of contemplation of dissolution,
(3) knowledge of appearance as terror, (4) knowledge
of contemplation of danger, (5) knowledge of
contemplation of dispassion, (6) knowledge of desire
for deliverance, (7) knowledge of contemplation of
reflection, and (8) knowledge of equanimity about
formations.[2]
“Knowledge in conformity with truth as ninth” is a
term for conformity.
So one who wants to perfect this should make these
kinds of knowledge his task, starting with knowledge
of rise and fall free from imperfections.

1742
2. But why does he again pursue knowledge of rise
and fall? To observe the [three] characteristics. The
knowledge of rise and fall already dealt with, being
disabled by the ten imperfections, was not capable of
observing the three characteristics in their true nature;
but once freed from imperfections, it is able to do so.
So he should pursue it again here in order to observe
the characteristics. [640]

[INSIGHT: THE EIGHT KNOWLEDGES]

[1. KNOWLEDGE OF RISE AND FALL—II]

3. Now, the characteristics fail to become apparent

when something is not given attention and so
something conceals them. What is that? Firstly, the
characteristic of impermanence does not become
apparent because when rise and fall are not given
attention, it is concealed by continuity. The
characteristic of pain does not become apparent
because, when continuous oppression is not given
attention, it is concealed by the postures. The
characteristic of not-self does not become apparent
because when resolution into the various elements is
not given attention, it is concealed by compactness.
4. However, when continuity is disrupted by

1743
discerning rise and fall, the characteristic of
impermanence becomes apparent in its true nature.
When the postures are exposed by attention to
continuous oppression, the characteristic of pain
becomes apparent in its true nature. When the
resolution of the compact is effected by resolution into
elements, the characteristic of not-self becomes
apparent in its true nature.[3]
5. And here the following differences should be
understood: the impermanent, and the characteristic
of impermanence; the painful, and the characteristic of
pain; the not-self, and the characteristic of not-self.
6. Herein, the five aggregates are impermanent. Why?
Because they rise and fall and change, or because of
their non-existence after having been. Rise and fall and
change are the characteristic of impermanence; or
mode alteration, in other words, non-existence after
having been [is the characteristic of impermanence].[4]
7. Those same five aggregates are painful because of
the words, “What is impermanent is painful” (S III 22).
Why? Because of continuous oppression. The mode of
being continuously oppressed is the characteristic of
pain.
8. Those same five aggregates are not-self because of
the words, “What is painful is not-self” (S III 22).

1744
Why? Because there is no exercising of power over
them. The mode of insusceptibility to the exercise of
power is the characteristic of not-self.
9. The meditator observes all this in its true nature
with the knowledge of the contemplation of rise and
fall, in other words, with insight free from
imperfections and steady on its course.

[2. KNOWLEDGE OF DISSOLUTION]

10. When he repeatedly observes in this way, and

examines and investigates material and immaterial
states, [to see] that they are impermanent, painful, and
not-self, then if his knowledge works keenly,
formations quickly become apparent.[5] Once his
knowledge works keenly and formations quickly
become apparent, he no longer extends his
mindfulness to their arising or presence or occurrence
or sign, but brings it to bear only on their cessation as
destruction, fall and breakup.[6] [641]
11. When insight knowledge has arisen in him in this
way so that he sees how the field of formations,
having arisen thus, ceases thus, it is called
contemplation of dissolution at that stage,[7] with
reference to which it is said:

1745
“Understanding of contemplation of dissolution, after
reflecting on an object—how is this knowledge of
insight?
“Consciousness with materiality as its object arises
and dissolves. Having reflected on that object, he
contemplates the dissolution of that consciousness.
“‘He contemplates’: how does he contemplate? He
contemplates as impermanent, not as permanent; he
contemplates as painful, not as pleasant; he
contemplates as not-self, not as self; he becomes
dispassionate, he does not delight; he causes fading
away of greed, he does not inflame it; he causes
cessation, not origination; he relinquishes, he does not
grasp. Contemplating as impermanent, he abandons
the perception of permanence. Contemplating as
painful, he abandons the perception of pleasure.
Contemplating as not-self, he abandons the perception
of self. Becoming dispassionate, he abandons delight.
Causing fading away, he abandons greed. Causing
cessation, he abandons originating. Relinquishing, he
abandons grasping.
“Consciousness with feeling as its object …
Consciousness with perception as its object … with
formations as its object … with consciousness as its
object … with eye as its object … (etc.—see XX.9) …
with ageing-and-death as its object … Relinquishing,

1746
he abandons grasping.
“The substitution of the object,
The transference of understanding,
The power of adverting—these
Are insight following reflection.
“Defining both to be alike
By inference from that same object,
Intentness on cessation—these
Are insight in the mark of fall.
“Having reflected on the object
Dissolution he contemplates,
Appearance then as empty—this
Is insight of higher understanding.
“Skilled in the three contemplations,
And in the fourfold insight too,
Skilled in the three appearances,
The various views will shake him not.
“Knowledge is in the sense of that being known and
understanding in the sense of the act of understanding
that. Hence it was said: ‘Understanding of
contemplating dissolution, after reflecting on an
object, is knowledge of insight’” (Paṭis I 57f).
12. Herein, after reflecting on an object is having
reflected on, having known, any object; the meaning
is, having seen it as liable to destruction and fall.

1747
Understanding of the contemplation of dissolution: any
understanding of the contemplation of the dissolution
of the knowledge arisen after reflecting on the object
as liable to destruction and fall is called knowledge of
insight. [642] How has the meaning of a question
showing desire to expound.
13. Next, in order to show how that comes about,
consciousness with materiality as its object, etc., is
said. Herein, consciousness with materiality as its
object arises and dissolves: rūpārammaṇaṃ cittaṃ
uppajjitvā bhijjati [is the equivalent of] rūpārammaṇaṃ
cittaṃ uppajjitvā bhijjati; or the meaning is
rūpārammaṇabhāve cittaṃ uppajjitvā bhijjati [alternative
grammatical substitution]. Having reflected on that
object: having reflected on, having known, that object
consisting of materiality; the meaning is, having seen
it as liable to destruction and fall. He contemplates the
dissolution of that consciousness: by means of a
subsequent consciousness he contemplates the
dissolution of that consciousness with which that
object consisting of materiality was seen as liable to
destruction and fall. Hence the Ancients said: “He sees
with insight both the known and the knowledge.”
14. He contemplates (anupassati): he sees always
accordingly (anu anu passati); the meaning is, he sees
again and again in various modes. Hence it is said:
“He contemplates”: how does he contemplate? He

1748
contemplates as impermanent, and so on.
15. Herein, dissolution is the culminating point of
impermanence, and so the meditator contemplating
dissolution contemplates the whole field of formations
as impermanent, not as permanent.[8] Then, because of
the painfulness of what is impermanent and because
of the non-existence of self in what is painful, he
contemplates that same whole field of formations as
painful, not as pleasant, he contemplates it as not-self, not
as self.
16. But what is impermanent, painful, not-self, is not
something to delight in; and what is not something to
delight in is not something to arouse greed for;
consequently, when that field of formations is seen as
impermanent, painful, not-self, in accordance with the
contemplation of dissolution, then he becomes
dispassionate, he does not delight; he causes fading away of
greed, he does not inflame it. When he does not inflame
greed thus, he causes cessation of greed, not its
origination, which happens firstly by means of
mundane knowledge;[9] the meaning is, he does not
cause origination.
17. Or alternatively, having thus caused the fading
away of greed, and caused the cessation of the seen
field of formations, he causes the cessation of the
unseen too by means of inferential knowledge, he

1749
does not originate it. He gives attention only to its
cessation, he sees only its cessation, not its origin, is
the meaning.
18. Progressing in this way, he relinquishes, he does not
grasp. What is meant? [What is meant is that] this
contemplation of impermanence, etc., is also called
both “relinquishment as giving up” and
“relinquishment as entering into” (see Paṭis I 194)
because, by substitution of opposite qualities, it gives
up defilements along with aggregate producing
kamma-formations, and because, by seeing the
unsatisfactoriness of what is formed, [643] it also
enters into, by inclining towards, Nibbāna, which is
the opposite of the formed. Therefore the bhikkhu
who possesses that [contemplation] gives up
defilements and enters into Nibbāna in the way stated,
he does not grasp (cling to) defilements by causing
rebirth, nor does he grasp (cling to) a formed object
through failing to see its unsatisfactoriness. Hence it
was said: he relinquishes, he does not grasp.
19. Now, in order to show which states are
abandoned by these three kinds of knowledge,
contemplating as impermanent, he abandons the perception
of permanence, etc., is said. Herein, delight is craving
accompanied by happiness. The rest is as already
stated.

1750
20. As to the stanzas: the substitution of the object
[means that] after seeing the dissolution of materiality,
there is the substitution of another object for that first
object by seeing the dissolution of the consciousness
by which the dissolution [of materiality] was seen.
Transference of understanding is the abandoning of rise
and the specializing in fall. The power of adverting is the
ability, after seeing the dissolution of materiality, to
advert immediately for the purpose of seeing the
dissolution of the consciousness that had that
dissolution as its object. Are insight following reflection:
this is called contemplation of dissolution after
reflecting on an object.
21. Defining both to be alike by inference from that same
object: the meaning is that by inference, by induction,
from the object seen by actual experience he defines
both [the seen and the unseen] to have a single
individual essence thus, “The field of formations
dissolved in the past, and will break up in the future,
just as it does [in the present].” And this is said by the
Ancients:
“With vision of those present purified
He infers those past and future to be alike;
He infers that all formations disappear,
Like dew-drops when the morning sun comes
up.”

1751
22. Intentness on cessation: after thus giving to both a
single definition based on their dissolution, he thus
becomes intent on cessation, in other words, on that
same dissolution. The meaning is that he attaches
importance to it, inclines, tends, leans towards it. Are
insight in the mark of fall: what is meant is that this is
called insight into the characteristic of fall.
23. Having reflected on the object: having first known the
object consisting of materiality, and so on. Dissolution
he contemplates: having seen the dissolution of that
object, he contemplates the dissolution of the
consciousness that had that as its object. [644]
24. Appearance then as empty: while he is contemplating
dissolution in this way, he succeeds in making
[formations] appear as void thus, “Only formations
breakup; their breakup is death; there is nothing else
at all[10].” Hence the Ancients said:
“Aggregates cease and nothing else exists;
Breakup of aggregates is known as death.
He watches their destruction steadfastly,
As one who with a diamond drills a gem.” [11]
25. Is insight of higher understanding: what is meant is
that the reflection on the object, the contemplation of
dissolution, and the appearance as void are called
insight of higher understanding.

1752
26. Skilled in the three contemplations: a bhikkhu who is
competent in the three beginning with contemplation
of impermanence. And in the fourfold insight too: in the
four kinds of insight beginning with dispassion. Skilled
in the three appearances: and owing to skill in this
threefold appearance, namely, as liable to destruction
and fall, as terror, and as void.[12] The various views will
shake him not: he does not vacillate on account of the
various kinds of views such as the eternity view.
27. When he no longer vacillates and so constantly
bears in mind that the unceased will also cease, the
undissolved will also dissolve, then he disregards the
arising, presence, occurrence and sign of all
formations, which keep on breaking up, like fragile
pottery being smashed, like fine dust being dispersed,
like sesame seeds being roasted, and he sees only their
breakup. Just as a man with eyes standing on the bank
of a pond or on the bank of a river during heavy rain
would see large bubbles appearing on the surface of
the water and breaking up as soon as they appeared,
so too he sees how formations break up all the time.
The Blessed One said of such a meditator:
“And he who looks upon the world
As one who looks upon a bubble,
As one who looks upon a mirage,
Is out of sight of Death the King” (Dhp 170).

1753
28. When he constantly sees that all formations thus
break up all the time, then contemplation of
dissolution grows strong in him, bringing eight
advantages, which are these: abandoning of [false]
view of becoming, giving up attachment to life,
constant application, a purified livelihood, no more
anxiety, absence of fear, acquisition of patience and
gentleness, and conquest of aversion (boredom) and
sensual delight. [645] Hence the Ancients said:
“On seeing these eight perfect qualities
He comprehends formations constantly,
Seeing breakup in order to attain
The Deathless, like the sage with burning turban.”
(see S V 440)
Knowledge of contemplation of dissolution is ended.

[3. KNOWLEDGE OF APPEARANCE AS

TERROR]

29. As he repeats, develops and cultivates in this way

the contemplation of dissolution, the object of which is
cessation consisting in the destruction, fall and
breakup of all formations, then formations classed
according to all kinds of becoming, generation,
destiny, station, or abode of beings, appear to him in

1754
the form of a great terror, as lions, tigers, leopards,
bears, hyenas, spirits, ogres, fierce bulls, savage dogs,
rut-maddened wild elephants, hideous venomous
serpents, thunderbolts, charnel grounds, battlefields,
flaming coal pits, etc., appear to a timid man who
wants to live in peace. When he sees how past
formations have ceased, present ones are ceasing, and
those to be generated in the future will cease in just
the same way, then what is called knowledge of
appearance as terror arises in him at that stage.
30. Here is a simile: a woman’s three sons had offended
against the king, it seems. The king ordered their
heads to be cut off. She went with her sons to the place
of their execution. When they had cut off the eldest
one’s head, they set about cutting off the middle one’s
head. Seeing the eldest one’s head already cut off and
the middle one’s head being cut off, she gave up hope
for the youngest, thinking, “He too will fare like
them.” Now, the meditator’s seeing the cessation of
past formations is like the woman’s seeing the eldest
son’s head cut off. His seeing the cessation of those
present is like her seeing the middle one’s head being
cut off. His seeing the cessation of those in the future,
thinking, “Formations to be generated in the future
will cease too,” is like her giving up hope for the
youngest son, thinking, “He too will fare like them.”
When he sees in this way, knowledge of appearance as

1755
terror arises in him at that stage.
31. Also another simile: a woman with an infected
womb had, it seems, given birth to ten children. [646]
Of these, nine had already died and one was dying in
her hands. There was another in her womb. Seeing
that nine were dead and the tenth was dying, she gave
up hope about the one in her womb, thinking, “It too
will fare just like them.” Herein, the meditator’s seeing
the cessation of past formations is like the woman’s
remembering the death of the nine children. The
meditator’s seeing the cessation of those present is like
her seeing the moribund state of the one in her hands.
His seeing the cessation of those in the future is like
her giving up hope about the one in her womb. When
he sees in this way, knowledge of appearance as terror
arises in him at that stage.
32. But does the knowledge of appearance as terror
[itself] fear or does it not fear? It does not fear. For it is
simply the mere judgment that past formations have
ceased, present ones are ceasing, and future ones will
cease. Just as a man with eyes looking at three
charcoal pits at a city gate is not himself afraid, since
he only forms the mere judgment that all who fall into
them will suffer no little pain;—or just as when a man
with eyes looks at three spikes set in a row, an acacia
spike, an iron spike, and a gold spike, he is not himself
afraid, since he only forms the mere judgment that all

1756
who fall on these spikes will suffer no little pain;—so
too the knowledge of appearance as terror does not
itself fear; it only forms the mere judgment that in the
three kinds of becoming, which resemble the three
charcoal pits and the three spikes, past formations
have ceased, present ones are ceasing, and future ones
will cease.
33. But it is called “appearance as terror” only because
formations in all kinds of becoming, generation,
destiny, station, or abode are fearful in being bound
for destruction and so they appear only as a terror.
Here is the text about its appearance to him as terror:
“When he brings to mind as impermanent, what
appears to him as terror? When he brings to mind as
painful, what appears to him as terror? When he
brings to mind as not-self, what appears to him as
terror? When he brings to mind as impermanent, the
sign appears to him as terror. When he brings to mind
as painful, occurrence appears to him as terror. When
he brings to mind as not-self, the sign and occurrence
appear to him as terror” (Paṭis II 63).
34. Herein, the sign is the sign of formations. This is a
term for past, future and present formations
themselves. [647] He sees only the death of formations
when he brings them to mind as impermanent and so
the sign appears to him as a terror. Occurrence is

1757
occurrence in material and immaterial becoming. He
sees occurrence—though ordinarily reckoned as
pleasure—only as a state of being continuously
oppressed when he brings them to mind as painful,
and so occurrence appears to him as a terror.
He sees both the sign and the occurrence as empty,
vain, void, without power or guide, like an empty
village, a mirage, a goblin city, etc., when he brings
[them] to mind as not-self, and so the sign and
occurrence appear to him as a terror.
Knowledge of appearance as terror is ended.

[4. KNOWLEDGE OF DANGER]

35. As he repeats, develops and cultivates the

knowledge of appearance as terror he finds no
asylum, no shelter, no place to go to, no refuge in any
kind of becoming, generation, destiny, station, or
abode. In all the kinds of becoming, generation,
destiny, station, and abode there is not a single
formation that he can place his hopes in or hold on to.
The three kinds of becoming appear like charcoal pits
full of glowing coals, the four primary elements like
hideous venomous snakes (S IV 174), the five
aggregates like murderers with raised weapons (S IV

1758
174), the six internal bases like an empty village, the
six external bases like village-raiding robbers (S IV
174–75), the seven stations of consciousness and the
nine abodes of beings as though burning, blazing and
glowing with the eleven fires (see S IV 19), and all
formations appear as a huge mass of dangers destitute
of satisfaction or substance, like a tumour, a disease, a
dart, a calamity, an affliction (see M I 436). How?
36. They appear as a forest thicket of seemingly
pleasant aspect but infested with wild beasts, a cave
full of tigers, water haunted by monsters and ogres, an
enemy with raised sword, poisoned food, a road beset
by robbers, a burning coal, a battlefield between
contending armies appear to a timid man who wants
to live in peace. And just as that man is frightened and
horrified and his hair stands up when he comes upon
a thicket infested by wild beasts, etc., and he sees it as
nothing but danger, so too when all formations have
appeared as a terror by contemplation of dissolution,
this meditator sees them as utterly destitute of any
core or any satisfaction and as nothing but danger.
37. “How is it that understanding of appearance as
terror is knowledge of danger? [648]
“(1.a.) Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
‘Arising is terror,’ is knowledge of danger.
Understanding of appearance as terror thus,

1759
‘Occurrence is terror’ … ‘The sign is terror’ …
‘Accumulation is terror’ … ‘Rebirth-linking is terror’
… ‘Destiny is terror’ … ‘Generation is terror’ … ‘Re-
arising is terror’ … ‘Birth is terror’ … ‘Ageing is terror’
… ‘Sickness is terror’ … ‘Death is terror’ … ‘Sorrow is
terror’ … Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
‘Lamentation is terror,’ is knowledge of danger.
Understanding of appearance as terror thus, ‘Despair
is terror,’ is knowledge of danger.
“(1.b.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Non-
arising is safety.’ Knowledge of the state of peace is
this: ‘Non-occurrence is safety’ … (etc.) … Knowledge
of the state of peace is this: ‘Non-despair is safety.’
“(1.c.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Arising
is terror; non-arising is safety.’ Knowledge of the state
of peace is this: ‘Occurrence is terror; non-occurrence
is safety’ … (etc.) … Knowledge of the state of peace is
this: ‘Despair is terror; non-despair is safety.’
“(2.a.) Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
‘Arising is suffering,’ is knowledge of danger.
Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
‘Occurrence is suffering’ … (etc.) … ‘Despair is
suffering’ is knowledge of danger.
“(2.b.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Non-
occurrence is bliss’ … (etc.) … Knowledge of the state
of peace is this: ‘Non-despair is bliss.’

1760
“(2.c.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Arising
is suffering; non-arising is bliss.’ Knowledge of the
state of peace is this: ‘Occurrence is suffering; non-
occurrence is bliss’ … (etc.) … Knowledge of the state
of peace is this: ‘Despair is suffering; non-despair is
bliss.’
“(3.a.) Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
‘Arising is worldly,’ is knowledge of danger.
Understanding of appearance as thus, ‘Occurrence is
worldly’ … (etc.) … ‘Despair is worldly’ is knowledge
of danger.
“(3.b.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Non-
arising is unworldly.’ Knowledge of the state of peace
is this: ‘Non-occurrence is unworldly’ … (etc.) …
Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Non-despair is
unworldly.’
“(3.c.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Arising
is worldly; non-arising is unworldly.’ Knowledge of
the state of peace is this: ‘Occurrence is worldly; non-
occurrence is unworldly’ … (etc.) … Knowledge of the
state of peace is this: ‘Despair is worldly; non-despair
is unworldly.’
“(4.a.) Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
’Arising is formations,’ is knowledge of danger.
Understanding of appearance as terror thus,
Occurrence is formations’ … (etc.) … ‘Despair is

1761
formations’ is knowledge of danger.
“(4.b.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Non-
arising is Nibbāna.” Knowledge of the state of peace is
this: ‘Non-occurrence is Nibbāna’ … (etc.) …
Knowledge of the state of peace is this Non-despair is
Nibbāna.’
“(4.c.) Knowledge of the state of peace is this: ‘Arising
is formations; non-arising is Nibbāna.’ Knowledge of
the state of peace is this: ‘Occurrence is formations;
non-occurrence is Nibbāna’ … (etc.) … Knowledge of
the state of peace is this: ‘Despair is formations; non-
despair is Nibbāna.’ [649]
“He contemplates as suffering
Arising, occurrence, and the sign,
Accumulation, rebirth-linking—
And this his knowledge is of danger.
“He contemplates as bliss no arising,
And no occurrence, and no sign,
No accumulation, no rebirth-linking—
And this his knowledge is of peace.
“This knowledge about danger has
Five sources for its origin;
Knowledge of peace has also five—
Ten knowledges he understands.
“When skilled in these two kinds of knowledge

1762
 The various views will shake him not.
“Knowledge is in the sense of that being known and
understanding is in the sense of the act of
understanding that. Hence it was said:
‘Understanding of appearance as terror is knowledge
of danger’” (Paṭis I 59f).
38. Herein, arising is appearance here [in this
becoming] with previous kamma as condition.
Occurrence is the occurrence of what has arisen in this
way. The sign is the sign of all formations.
Accumulation is the kamma that is the cause of future
rebirth-linking. Rebirth-linking is future appearance.
Destiny is the destiny in which the rebirth-linking
takes place. Generation is the generating of aggregates.
Re-arising is the occurrence of kamma-result stated
thus, “In one who has attained [to it] or in one who
has been reborn [in it]” (Dhs §1282). Birth is birth with
becoming as its condition, itself a condition for ageing
and so on. Ageing, sickness, death, etc., are obvious.
39. And here only the five beginning with arising are
mentioned as actual objects of knowledge of danger;
the rest are synonyms for them. For the pair, generation
and birth, are synonyms both for arising and for rebirth-
linking. The pair, destiny and re-arising, are synonyms
for occurrence. Ageing, etc., are synonyms for the sign.
Hence it was said:

1763
 “He contemplates as suffering
Arising, occurrence, and the sign,
Accumulation, rebirth-linking—
And this his knowledge is of danger.”
And:
“This knowledge about danger has
Five sources for its origin” (§37).
40. Knowledge of the state of peace is this: “Non-arising is
safety,” etc.: this, however, should be understood as
said for the purpose of showing the opposite kind of
knowledge to knowledge of danger. Or when it is
stated in this way, that there is safety without terror
and free from danger, it is for the purpose of
comforting those who are upset in their hearts by
seeing danger through appearance as terror. Or else,
when arising, etc., have clearly appeared to a man as
terror, his mind inclines towards their opposites, and
so this is said [650] for the purpose of showing the
advantages in the knowledge of danger established by
the appearance as terror.
41. And here (1.a.) what is terror is certainly (2.a)
suffering, and what is suffering is purely (3.a.) worldly
since it is not free from the worldliness of the rounds
[of becoming], of the world, and of defilements,[13]
and what is worldly consists solely of (4.a) formations.
Therefore it is said that (2.a) understanding of appearance

1764
as terror thus, “Arising is suffering,” is knowledge of
danger, and so on. And while this is so, still there is a
difference to be understood here in the way these
things [beginning with “arising”] occur, since there is
a difference in their mode with the mode of terror, the
mode of suffering, and the mode of worldliness.
42. Ten knowledges he understands: one who
understands knowledge of danger understands,
penetrates, realizes, ten kinds of knowledge, that is,
the five based on arising, etc., and the five on non-
arising and so on. When skilled in these two kinds of
knowledge: with skill in the two, that is, knowledge of
danger and knowledge of the state of peace. The
various views will shake him not: he does not vacillate
about views that occur such as “The ultimate Nibbāna
is here and now.” The rest is clear.
Knowledge of contemplation of danger is ended.

[5. KNOWLEDGE OF DISPASSION]

43. When he sees all formations in this way as danger,

he becomes dispassionate towards, is dissatisfied with,
takes no delight in the manifold field of formations
belonging to any kind of becoming, destiny, station of
consciousness, or abode of beings. Just as a golden

1765
swan that loves the foothills of Citta Peak finds
delight, not in a filthy puddle at the gate of a village of
outcastes, but only in the seven great lakes (see
XIII.38), so too this meditator swan finds delight, not
in the manifold formations seen clearly as danger, but
only in the seven contemplations, because he delights
in development. And just as the lion, king of beasts,
finds delight, not when put into a gold cage, but only
in Himalaya with its three thousand leagues’ extent,
so too the meditator lion finds delight, not in the triple
becoming of the happy destiny,[14] but only in the
three contemplations. And just as Chaddanta, king of
elephants, all white with sevenfold stance, possessed
of supernormal power, who travels through the air,[15]
finds pleasure, not in the midst of a town, but only in
the Chaddanta Lake and Wood in the Himalaya, [651]
so too this meditator elephant finds delight, not in any
formation, but only in the state of peace seen in the
way beginning “Non-arising is safety,” and his mind
tends, inclines, and leans towards that.
Knowledge of contemplation of dispassion is ended.
44. [Knowledge of contemplation of danger] is the
same as the last two kinds of knowledge in meaning.
Hence the Ancients said: “Knowledge of appearance
as terror while one only has three names: It saw all
formations as terror, thus the name ‘appearance as

1766
terror’ arose; it aroused the [appearance of] danger in
those same formations, thus the name ‘contemplation
of danger’ arose; it arose, becoming dispassionate
towards those same formations, thus the name
‘contemplation of dispassion’ arose.” Also it is said in
the text: “Understanding of appearance as terror,
knowledge of danger, and dispassion: these things are
one in meaning, only the letter is different” (Paṭis II
63).

[6. KNOWLEDGE OF DESIRE FOR

DELIVERANCE]

45. When, owing to this knowledge of dispassion, this

clansman becomes dispassionate towards, is
dissatisfied with, takes no delight in any single one of
all the manifold formations in any kind of becoming,
generation, destiny, station of consciousness, or abode
of beings, his mind no longer sticks fast, cleaves,
fastens on to them, and he becomes desirous of being
delivered from the whole field of formations and
escaping from it. Like what?
46. Just as a fish in a net, a frog in a snake’s jaws, a
jungle fowl shut into a cage, a deer fallen into the
clutches of a strong snare, a snake in the hands of a

1767
snake charmer, an elephant stuck fast in a great bog, a
royal nāga in the mouth of a supaṇṇa, the moon inside
Rāhu’s mouth,[16] a man encircled by enemies, etc.—
just as these are desirous of being delivered, of finding
an escape from these things, so too this meditator’s
mind is desirous of being delivered from the whole
field of formations and escaping from it. Then, when
he thus no longer relies on any formations and is
desirous of being delivered from the whole field of
formations, knowledge of desire for deliverance arises
in him.
Knowledge of desire for deliverance is ended.

[7. KNOWLEDGE OF REFLECTION]

47. Being thus desirous of deliverance from all the

manifold formations in any kind of becoming,
generation, destiny, station, or abode, in order to be
delivered from the whole field of formations [652] he
again discerns those same formations, attributing to
them the three characteristics by knowledge of
contemplation of reflection.
48. He sees all formations as impermanent for the
following reasons: because they are non-continuous,
temporary, limited by rise and fall, disintegrating,

1768
fickle, perishable, unenduring, subject to change,
coreless, due to be annihilated, formed, subject to
death, and so on.
He sees them as painful for the following reasons:
because they are continuously oppressed, hard to
bear, the basis of pain, a disease, a tumour, a dart, a
calamity, an affliction, a plague, a disaster, a terror, a
menace, no protection, no shelter, no refuge, a danger,
the root of calamity, murderous, subject to cankers,
Māra’s bait, subject to birth, subject to ageing, subject
to illness, subject to sorrow, subject to lamentation,
subject to despair, subject to defilement, and so on.
He sees all formations as foul (ugly)—the ancillary
characteristic to that of pain—for the following
reasons: because they are objectionable, stinking,
disgusting, repulsive, unaffected by disguise, hideous,
loathsome, and so on.
He sees all formations as not-self for the following
reasons: because they are alien, empty, vain, void,
ownerless, with no Overlord, with none to wield
power over them, and so on.
It is when he sees formations in this way that he is said
to discern them by attributing to them the three
characteristics.
49. But why does he discern them in this way? In
order to contrive the means to deliverance. Here is a

1769
simile: a man thought to catch a fish, it seems, so he
took a fishing net and cast it in the water. He put his
hand into the mouth of the net under the water and
seized a snake by the neck. He was glad, thinking, “I
have caught a fish.” In the belief that he had caught a
big fish, he lifted it up to see. When he saw three
marks, he perceived that it was a snake and he was
terrified. He saw danger, felt dispassion (revulsion)
for what he had seized, and desired to be delivered
from it. Contriving a means to deliverance, he
unwrapped [the coils from] his hand, starting from the
tip of its tail. Then he raised his arm, and when he had
weakened the snake by swinging it two or three times
round his head, he flung it away, crying “Go, foul
snake.” Then quickly scrambling up on to dry land, he
stood looking back whence he had come, thinking,
“Goodness, I have been delivered from the jaws of a
huge snake!”
50. Herein, the time when the meditator was glad at
the outset to have acquired a person is like the time
when the man was glad to have seized the snake by
the neck. This meditator’s seeing the three
characteristics in formations after effecting resolution
of the compact [into elements] is like the man’s seeing
the three marks on pulling the snake’s head out of the
mouth of the net. [653] The meditator’s knowledge of
appearance as terror is like the time when the man

1770
was frightened. Knowledge of contemplation of
danger is like the man’s thereupon seeing the danger.
Knowledge of contemplation of dispassion is like the
man’s dispassion (revulsion) for what he had seized.
Knowledge of desire for deliverance is like the man’s
deliverance from the snake. The attribution of the
three characteristics to formations by knowledge of
contemplation of reflection is like the man’s contriving
a means to deliverance. For just as the man weakened
the snake by swinging it, keeping it away and
rendering it incapable of biting, and was thus quite
delivered, so too this meditator weakens formations
by swinging them with the attribution of the three
characteristics, rendering them incapable of appearing
again in the modes of permanence, pleasure, beauty,
and self, and is thus quite delivered. That is why it
was said above that he discerns them in this way “in
order to contrive the means to deliverance.”
51. At this point knowledge of reflection has arisen in
him, with reference to which it is said: “When he
brings to mind as impermanent, there arises in him
knowledge after reflecting on what? When he brings
to mind as painful, … as not-self, there arises in him
knowledge after reflecting on what? When he brings
to mind as impermanent, there arises in him
knowledge after reflecting on the sign. When he brings
to mind as painful, there arises in him knowledge after

1771
reflecting on occurrence. When he brings to mind as
not-self, there arises in him knowledge after reflecting
on the sign and occurrence” (Paṭis II 63).
52. As here after reflecting on the sign [means] having
known the sign of formations by means of the
characteristic of impermanence as unlasting and
temporary. Of course, it is not[17] that, first having
known, subsequently knowledge arises; but it is
expressed in this way according to common usage, as
in the passage beginning, “Due to (lit. having
depended upon) mind and mental object, mind-
consciousness arises” (M I 112), and so on. Or
alternatively, it can be understood as expressed thus
according to the method of identity by identifying the
preceding with the subsequent. The meaning of the
remaining two expressions [that is, “occurrence” and
“the sign and occurrence”] should be understood in
the same way.
Knowledge of contemplation of reflection is ended.

[DISCERNING FORMATIONS AS VOID]

53. Having thus discerned by knowledge of

contemplation of reflection that “All formations are
void” (see S III 167), he again discerns voidness in the

1772
double logical relation[18] thus: “This is void of self or
of what belongs to self” (M II 263; Paṭis II 36).
When he has thus seen that there is neither a self nor
any other [thing or being] occupying the position of a
self s property, he again discerns voidness in the
quadruple logical relation as set forth in this [654]
passage: “I am not anywhere anyone’s owning, nor is
there anywhere my owning in anyone (nāhaṃ kvacani
kassaci kiñcanat’ asmiṃ na ca mama kvacani kismiñci
kiñcanat’ atthi)” (M II 263).[19] How?
54. (i) This [meditator, thinking] I … not anywhere
(nāhaṃ kvacani), does not see a self anywhere; (ii)
[Thinking] am … anyone’s owning (kassaci kiñcanat’
asmiṃ), he does not see a self of his own to be inferred
in another’s owning; the meaning is that he does not
see [a self of his own] deducible by conceiving a
brother [to own it] in the case of a brother,[20] a friend
[to own it] in the case of a friend, or a chattel [to own
it] in the case of a chattel; (iii) [As regards the phrase]
nor … anywhere my (na ca mama kvacani), leaving
aside the word my (mama) here for the moment, [the
words] nor anywhere (na ca kvacani) [means that] he
does not[21] see another’s self anywhere; (iv) Now,
bringing in the word my (mama), [we have] is there …
my owning in anyone (mama kismiñci kiñcanat’ atthi):
he does not see thus, “Another’s self exists owing to

1773
some state of my owning[22] [of it]”; the meaning is
that he does not see in any instance another’s self
deducible owing to this fact of his owning a brother in
the case of a brother, a friend in the case of a friend,
chattel in the case of a chattel. So (i) he sees no self
anywhere [of his own]; (ii) nor does he see it as
deducible in the fact of another’s owning; (iii) nor does
he see another’s self; (iv) nor does he see that as
deducible in the fact of his own owning.[23] This is
how he discerns voidness in the quadruple logical
relation.
55. Having discerned voidness in the quadruple
logical relation in this way, he discerns voidness again
in six modes. How? Eye (i) is void of self, (ii) or of the
property of a self, (iii) or of permanence, (iv) or of
lastingness, (v) or of eternalness, (vi) or of non-
subjectness to change; … mind … visible data …
mental data … eye-consciousness … mind-
consciousness … mind-contact … (Nidd II 187 (Se);
Nidd II 279 (Ee); cf. S IV 54) and this should be
continued as far as ageing-and-death (see XX.9).
56. Having discerned voidness in the six modes in this
way, he discerns it again in eight modes, that is to say:
“Materiality has no core, is coreless, without core, as
far as concerns (i) any core of permanence, or (ii) core
of lastingness, or (iii) core of pleasure, or (iv) core of

1774
self, or as far as concerns (v) what is permanent, or (vi)
what is lasting, or (vii) what is eternal, or (viii) what is
not subject to change. Feeling … perception …
formations … consciousness … eye … (etc., see XX.9)
… ageing-and-death has no core, is coreless, without a
core, as far as concerns any core of permanence, or
core of lastingness, or core of pleasure, or core of self,
or as far as concerns what is permanent, or what is
lasting, or what is eternal, or what is not subject to
change. Just as a reed has no core, is coreless, without
core; just as a castor-oil plant, an udumbara (fig) tree, a
setavaccha tree, a pāḷibhaddaka tree, a lump of froth, a
bubble on water, a mirage, a plantain trunk, [655] a
conjuring trick, has no core, is coreless, without core,
so too materiality … (etc) … ageing-and-death has no
core … or what is subject to change” (Nidd II 184–85
(Se); Nidd II 278–89 (Ee)).
57. Having discerned voidness in eight modes in this
way, he discerns it again in ten modes. How? “He sees
materiality as empty, as vain, as not-self, as having no
Overlord, as incapable of being made into what one
wants, as incapable of being had [as one wishes], as
insusceptible to the exercise of mastery, as alien, as
secluded [from past and future]. He sees feeling …
(etc.) … consciousness as empty, … as secluded”[24]
(Nidd II 279 (Ee)).
58. Having discerned voidness in ten modes in this

1775
way, he discerns it again in twelve modes, that is to
say: “Materiality is no living being,[25] no soul, no
human being, no man, no female, no male, no self, no
property of a self, not I, not mine, not another’s, not
anyone’s. Feeling … (etc.) … consciousness … not
anyone’s (Nidd II 186 (Se); Nidd II 280 (Ee)).
59. Having discerned voidness in twelve modes in
this way, he discerns it again in forty-two modes
through full-understanding as investigating. He sees
materiality as impermanent, as painful, as a disease, a
tumour, a dart, a calamity, an affliction, as alien, as
disintegrating, a plague, a disaster, a terror, a menace,
as fickle, perishable, unenduring, as no protection, no
shelter, no refuge, as unfit to be a refuge, as empty,
vain, void, not-self, as without satisfaction,[26] as a
danger, as subject to change, as having no core, as the
root of calamity, as murderous, as due to be
annihilated, as subject to cankers, as formed, as Māra’s
bait, as subject to birth, subject to ageing, subject to
illness, subject to death, subject to sorrow,
lamentation, pain, grief and despair; as arising, as
departing; as danger,[27] as (having an) escape. He
sees feeling … (etc.) … consciousness … as (having an)
escape (cf. Paṭis II 238).
60. And this is said too:[28] “When he sees materiality
as impermanent … as (having an) escape, he looks

1776
upon the world as void. When he sees feeling … (etc.)
… consciousness as impermanent … as (having an)
escape, he looks upon the world as void.” [656]
“Let him look on the world as void:
Thus, Mogharāja, always mindful,
He may escape the clutch of death
By giving up belief in self.
For King Death cannot see the man
That looks in this way on the world”[29]

[8. KNOWLEDGE OF EQUANIMITY ABOUT

FORMATIONS]

61. When he has discerned formations by attributing

the three characteristics to them and seeing them as
void in this way, he abandons both terror and delight,
he becomes indifferent to them and neutral, he neither
takes them as “I” nor as mine,” he is like a man who
has divorced his wife.
62. Suppose a man were married to a lovely,
desirable, charming wife and so deeply in love with
her as to be unable to bear separation from her for a
moment. He would be disturbed and displeased to see
her standing or sitting or talking or laughing with
another man, and would be very unhappy; but later,

1777
when he had found out the woman’s faults, and
wanting to get free, had divorced her, he would no
more take her as “mine”; and thereafter, even though
he saw her doing whatever it might be with
whomsoever it might be, he would not be disturbed or
displeased, but would on the contrary be indifferent
and neutral. So too this [meditator], wanting to get
free from all formations, discerns formations by the
contemplation of reflection; then, seeing nothing to be
taken as “I” or “mine,” he abandons both terror and
delight and becomes indifferent and neutral towards
all formations.
63. When he knows and sees thus, his heart retreats,
retracts and recoils from the three kinds of becoming,
the four kinds of generation, the five kinds of destiny,
the seven stations of consciousness, and the nine
abodes of beings; his heart no longer goes out to them.
Either equanimity or repulsiveness is established. Just
as water drops retreat, retract and recoil on a lotus leaf
that slopes a little and do not spread out, so too his
heart … And just as a fowl’s feather or a shred of
sinew thrown on a fire retreats, retracts and recoils,
and does not spread out, so too his heart retreats,
retracts and recoils from the three kinds of becoming
… Either equanimity or repulsiveness is established.
In this way there arises in him what is called
knowledge of equanimity about formations.

1778
64. But if this [knowledge] sees Nibbāna, the state of
peace, as peaceful, it rejects the occurrence of all
formations and enters only into Nibbāna. If it does not
see Nibbāna as peaceful, [657] it occurs again and
again with formations as its object, like the sailors’
crow.
65. When traders board a ship, it seems, they take
with them what is called a land-finding crow. When
the ship gets blown off its course by gales and goes
adrift with no land in sight, then they release the land-
finding crow. It takes off from the mast-head,[30] and
after exploring all the quarters, if it sees land, it flies
straight in the direction of it; if not, it returns and
alights on the mast-head. So too, if knowledge of
equanimity about formations sees Nibbāna, the state
of peace, as peaceful, it rejects the occurrence of all
formations and enters only into Nibbāna. If it does not
see it, it occurs again and again with formations as its
object.
66. Now, after discerning formations in the various
modes, as though sifting flour on the edge of a tray, as
though carding cotton from which the seeds have been
picked out,[31] and after abandoning terror and
delight, and after becoming neutral in the
investigation of formations, he still persists in the
triple contemplation. And in so doing, this [insight

1779
knowledge] enters upon the state of the triple gateway
to liberation, and it becomes a condition for the
classification of noble persons into seven kinds.

[THE TRIPLE GATEWAY TO LIBERATION]

It enters upon the state of the triple gateway to

liberation now with the predominance of [one of]
three faculties according as the contemplation occurs
in [one of] the three ways.[32]
67. For it is the three contemplations that are called
the three gateways to liberation, according as it is said:
“But these three gateways to liberation lead to the
outlet from the world, [that is to say,] (i) to the seeing
of all formations as limited and circumscribed and to
the entering of consciousness into the signless
element, (ii) to the stirring up of the mind with respect
to all formations and to the entering of consciousness
into the desireless element, (iii) to the seeing of all
things (dhamma) as alien and to the entering of
consciousness into the voidness element. These three
gateways to liberation lead to the outlet from the
world” (Paṭis II 48).[33]
68. Herein, as limited and circumscribed [means] both as
limited by rise and fall and as circumscribed by them;

1780
for contemplation of impermanence limits them thus,
“Formations do not exist previous to their rise,” and in
seeking their destiny, sees them as circumscribed thus,
“They do not go beyond fall, they vanish there.” To the
stirring up of the mind: by giving consciousness a sense
of urgency; for with the contemplation of pain
consciousness acquires a sense of urgency with respect
to formations. [658] To the seeing … as alien: to
contemplating them as not-self thus: “Not I,” “Not
mine.”
69. So these three clauses should be understood to
express the contemplations of impermanence, and so
on. Hence in the answer to the next question [asked in
the Paṭisambhidā] it is said: “When he brings [them] to
mind as impermanent, formations appear as liable to
destruction. When he brings them to mind as painful,
formations appear as a terror. When he brings them to
mind as not-self, formations appear as void” (Paṭis II
48).
70. What are the liberations to which these
contemplations are the gateways? They are these
three, namely, the signless, the desireless, and the
void. For this is said: “When one who has great
resolution brings [formations] to mind as
impermanent, he acquires the signless liberation.
When one who has great tranquillity brings [them] to
mind as painful, he acquires the desireless liberation.

1781
When one who has great wisdom brings [them] to
mind as not-self, he acquires the void liberation” (Paṭis
II 58).
71. And here the signless liberation should be
understood as the noble path that has occurred by
making Nibbāna its object through the signless aspect.
For that path is signless owing to the signless element
having arisen, and it is a liberation owing to
deliverance from defilements.[34] In the same way the
path that has occurred by making Nibbāna its object
through the desireless aspect is desireless. And the path
that has occurred by making Nibbāna its object
through the void aspect is void.
72. But it is said in the Abhidhamma: “On the
occasion when he develops the supramundane jhāna
that is an outlet and leads to dispersal, having
abandoned the field of [false] views with the reaching
of the first grade, secluded from sense desires he
enters upon and dwells in the first jhāna, which is
desireless … is void,” (Dhs §510) thus mentioning only
two liberations. This refers to the way in which insight
arrives [at the path] and is expressed literally.
73. However, in the Paṭisambhidā insight knowledge
is expressed as follows: (i) It is expressed firstly as the
void liberation by its liberating from misinterpreting
[formations]: “Knowledge of contemplation of

1782
impermanence is the void liberation since it liberates
from interpreting [them] as permanent; knowledge of
contemplation of pain is the void liberation since it
liberates from interpreting [them] as pleasant;
knowledge of contemplation of not-self is the void
liberation since it liberates from interpreting [them] as
self” (Paṭis II 67). (ii) Then it is expressed as the
signless liberation by liberating from signs:
“Knowledge of contemplation of impermanence is the
signless liberation since it liberates from the sign [of
formations] as permanent; knowledge of
contemplation of pain is the signless liberation since it
liberates from the sign [of formations] as pleasant;
knowledge of contemplation of not-self is the signless
liberation since it liberates from the sign [of
formations] as self” (Paṭis II 68). [659] (iii) Lastly it is
expressed as the desireless liberation by its liberating
from desire: “Knowledge of contemplation of
impermanence is the desireless liberation since it
liberates from desire [for formations] as permanent;
knowledge of contemplation of pain is the desireless
liberation since it liberates from the desire [for them]
as pleasant; knowledge of contemplation of not-self is
the desireless liberation since it liberates from the
desire [for them] as self” (Paṭis II 68). But although
stated in this way, insight knowledge is not literally
signless because there is no abandoning of the sign of

1783
formations [as formed, here, as distinct from their sign
as impermanent and so on]. It is however literally void
and desireless. And it is at the moment of the noble
path that the liberation is distinguished, and that is
done according to insight knowledge’s way of arrival
at the path.[35] That, it should be understood, is why
only two liberations are stated [in the Abhidhamma],
namely, the desireless and the void.
This, firstly, is the treatise on the liberations here.

[THE SEVEN KINDS OF NOBLE PERSONS]

74. It was said above, “It becomes a condition for the

classification of noble persons into seven kinds.” (§66)
Herein, there are firstly these seven kinds of noble
person: (1) the faith devotee, (2) one liberated by faith,
(3) the body witness, (4) the both-ways liberated, (5)
the Dhamma devotee, (6) one attained to vision, and
(7) one liberated by understanding. This knowledge of
equanimity about formations is a condition for their
being placed as these seven classes.
75. When a man brings [formations] to mind as
impermanent and, having great resolution, acquires
the faith faculty, (1) he becomes a faith devotee at the
moment of the stream-entry path; and in the other

1784
seven instances [that is, in the three higher paths and
the four fruitions] he becomes (2) one liberated by
faith. When a man brings [them] to mind as painful
and, having great tranquillity, acquires the faculty of
concentration, (3) he is called a body witness in all
eight instances. (4) He is called both-ways liberated
when he has reached the highest fruition after also
reaching the immaterial jhānas. When a man brings
[them] to mind as not-self and, having great wisdom,
acquires the faculty of understanding, he becomes (5)
a Dhamma devotee at the moment of the stream-entry
path; (6) in the next six instances he becomes one
attained to vision; and (7) in the case of the highest
fruition he becomes one liberated by understanding.
76. (1) This is said: “When he brings [formations] to
mind as impermanent, the faith faculty is in excess in
him. With the faith faculty in excess he acquires the
stream-entry path. Hence he is called a ’faith devotee’”
(Paṭis II 53). [660] Likewise, (2) “When he brings
[formations] to mind as impermanent, the faith faculty
is in excess in him. With the faith faculty in excess the
fruition of stream-entry is realized. Hence he is called
‘one liberated by faith’” (Paṭis II 53).
77. It is said further: “[At the moment of the first
path:] (2) he has been liberated by having faith
(saddahanto vimutto), thus he is one liberated by faith;
(3) he has realized [Nibbāna] by experiencing, thus he

1785
is a body witness; (6) he has attained [Nibbāna] by
vision, thus he is one attained to vision. [At the
moments of the three remaining paths:] (2) he is
liberated by faith (saddahanto vimuccati), thus he is one
liberated by faith; (3) he first experiences the
experience of jhāna and afterwards realizes cessation,
Nibbāna, thus he is a body witness; (6) it is known,
seen, recognized, realized, and experienced with
understanding, that formations are painful and
cessation is bliss, thus he is one attained to vision”
(Paṭis II 52).
78. As to the remaining four, however, the word
meaning should be understood thus: (1) he follows
(anusarati) faith, thus he is a faith devotee
(saddhānusāri); or he follows, he goes, by means of
faith, thus he is a faith devotee. (5) Likewise, he
follows the Dhamma called understanding, or he
follows by means of the Dhamma, thus he is a
Dhamma devotee. (4) He is liberated in both ways, by
immaterial jhāna and the noble path, thus he is both-
ways liberated. (7) Understanding, he is liberated, thus
he is one liberated by understanding.

[THE LAST THREE KNOWLEDGES ARE

ONE]

1786
79. This [knowledge of equanimity about formations]
is the same in meaning as the two kinds that precede
it. Hence the Ancients said: “This knowledge of
equanimity about formations is one only and has three
names. At the outset it has the name of knowledge of
desire for deliverance. In the middle it has the name
knowledge of reflection. At the end, when it has
reached its culmination, it is called knowledge of
equanimity about formations.”
80. “How is it that understanding of desire for
deliverance, of reflection, and of composure is
knowledge of the kinds of equanimity about
formations? Understanding of desire for deliverance,
of reflection, and composure [occupied with] arising is
knowledge of equanimity about formations.
Understanding of desire for deliverance, of reflection,
and of composure [occupied with] occurrence … the
sign … (etc., see §37) … with despair is knowledge of
equanimity about formations” (Paṭis I 60f.).
81. Herein, the compound muñcitukamyatā-paṭisaṅkhā-
santiṭṭhanā (“consisting in desire for deliverance, in
reflection, and in composure”) should be resolved into
muñcitukamyatā ca sā paṭisaṅkhā ca santiṭṭhanā ca. So
[661] in the first stage it is desire to give up, the desire
to be delivered from, arising, etc., in one who has
become dispassionate by knowledge of dispassion that
is desire for deliverance. It is reflection in the middle

1787
stage for the purpose of finding a means to
deliverance that is reflection. It is equanimous
onlooking in the end stage on being delivered that is
composure. It is said with reference to this: “Arising is
formations; he looks with equanimity on those
formations; thus it is equanimity about formations”
(Paṭis I 61), and so on. So this is only one kind of
knowledge.
82. Furthermore, it may be understood that this is so
from the following text; for this is said: “Desire for
deliverance, and contemplation of reflection, and
equanimity about formations: these things are one in
meaning and only the letter is different” (Paṭis II 64).

[INSIGHT LEADING TO EMERGENCE]

83. Now, when this clansman has reached equanimity

about formations thus, his insight has reached its
culmination and leads to emergence. “Insight that has
reached culmination” or “insight leading to
emergence” are names for the three kinds of
knowledge beginning with equanimity about
formations, [that is, equanimity about formations,
conformity, and change-of-lineage]. It has “reached its
culmination” because it has reached the culminating

1788
final stage. It is called “leading to emergence” because
it goes towards emergence. The path is called
“emergence” because it emerges externally from the
objective basis interpreted as a sign and also internally
from occurrence [of defilement].[36] It goes to that,
thus it leads to emergence; the meaning is that it joins
with the path.
84. Herein, for the purpose of clarification there is this
list of the kinds of emergence classed according to the
manner of interpreting: (1) after interpreting the
internal[37] it emerges from the internal, (2) after
interpreting the internal it emerges from the external,
(3) after interpreting the external it emerges from the
external, (4) after interpreting the external it emerges
from the internal; (5) after interpreting the material it
emerges from the material, (6) after interpreting the
material it emerges from the immaterial, (7) after
interpreting the immaterial it emerges from the
immaterial, (8) after interpreting the immaterial it
emerges from the material; (9) it emerges at one stroke
from the five aggregates; (10) after interpreting as
impermanent it emerges from the impermanent, (11)
after interpreting as impermanent it emerges from the
painful, (12) after interpreting as impermanent it
emerges from the not-self; (13) after interpreting as
painful it emerges from the painful, (14) after
interpreting as painful it emerges from the

1789
impermanent, (15) after interpreting as painful it
emerges from the not-self, (16) after interpreting as
not-self it emerges from the not-self, (17) after
interpreting as not-self it emerges from the
impermanent, (18) after interpreting as not-self it
emerges from the painful. How?
85. Here (1) someone does his interpreting at the start
with his own internal formations. After interpreting
them he sees them. But emergence of the path does not
come about through seeing the bare internal only since
the external must be seen too, so he sees that another’s
aggregates, as well as unclung-to formations
[inanimate things], are impermanent, painful, not-self.
At one time [662] he comprehends the internal and at
another time the external. As he does so, insight joins
with the path while he is comprehending the internal.
It is said of him that “after interpreting the internal it
emerges from the internal.” (2) If his insight joins with
the path at the time when he is comprehending the
external, it is said of him that “after interpreting the
internal it emerges from the external.” (3) Similarly in
the case of “after interpreting the external it emerges
from the external,” and (4) “from the internal.”
86. (5) Another does his interpreting at the start with
materiality. When he has done that, he sees the
materiality of the primaries and the materiality
derived from them all together. But emergence does

1790
not come about through the seeing of bare materiality
only since the immaterial must be seen too, so he sees
as the immaterial [mentality] the feeling, perception,
formations and consciousness that have arisen by
making that materiality their object. At one time he
comprehends the material and at another the
immaterial. As he does so, insight joins with the path
while he is comprehending materiality. It is said of
him that “after interpreting the material it emerges
from the material.” (6) But if his insight joins with the
path at the time when he is comprehending the
immaterial, it is said of him that “after interpreting the
material it emerges from the immaterial.” (7) Similarly
in the case of “after interpreting the immaterial it
emerges from the immaterial,” and (8) “from the
material.”
87. (9) When he has done his interpreting in this way,
“All that is subject to arising is subject to cessation” (M
I 380), and so too at the time of emergence, it is said
that “it emerges at one stroke from the five
aggregates.”
88. (10) One man comprehends formations as
impermanent at the start. But emergence does not
come about through mere comprehending as
impermanent since there must be comprehension of
them as painful and not-self too, so he comprehends
them as painful and not-self. As he does so, emergence

1791
comes about while he is comprehending them as
impermanent. It is said of him that “after interpreting
as impermanent it emerges from the impermanent,”
(11)–(12) But if emergence comes about in him while
he is comprehending them as painful … as not-self,
then it is said that “after interpreting as impermanent
it emerges from the painful … from the not-self.”
Similarly in the cases of emergence after interpreting
(13)–(15) as painful and (16)–(18) as not-self.
89. And whether they have interpreted [at the start] as
impermanent or as painful or as not-self, when the
time of emergence comes, if the emergence takes place
[while contemplating] as impermanent, then all three
persons acquire the faculty of faith since they have
great resolution; they are liberated by the signless
liberation, and so they become faith devotees at the
moment of the first path; and in the remaining seven
stages they are liberated by faith. [663] If the
emergence is from the painful, then the three persons
acquire the faculty of concentration since they have
great tranquillity; they are liberated by the desireless
liberation, and in all eight states they are body
witnesses. Of them, the one who has an immaterial
jhāna as the basis for his insight is, in the case of the
highest fruition, both-ways liberated. And then if the
emergence takes place [while contemplating] as not-
self, the three persons acquire the faculty of

1792
understanding since they have great wisdom; they are
liberated by the void liberation. They become
Dhamma devotees at the moment of the first path. In
the next six instances they become attained to vision.
In the case of the highest fruit they are liberated by
understanding.

[THE TWELVE SIMILES]

90. Now, twelve similes should be understood in

order to explain this insight leading to emergence and
the kinds of knowledge that precede and follow it.
Here is the list:
(1) The fruit bat, (2) the black snake, and (3) the
house,
(4) The oxen, and(5) the ghoul, (6) the child,
(7) Hunger, and (8) thirst, and (9) cold, and (10)
heat,
And (11) darkness, and (12) by poison, too.
A pause can be made to bring in these similes
anywhere among the kinds of knowledge from
appearance as terror onwards. But if they are brought
in here, then all becomes clear from appearance as
terror up to fruition knowledge, which is why it was
said that they should be brought in here.[38]

1793
91. 1. The Fruit Bat. There was a fruit bat, it seems. She
had alighted on a honey tree (madhuka) with five
branches, thinking, “I shall find flowers or fruits here.”
She investigated one branch but saw no flowers or
fruits there worth taking. And as with the first so too
she tried the second, the third, the fourth, and the
fifth, but saw nothing. She thought, “This tree is
barren; there is nothing worth taking here,” so she lost
interest in the tree. She climbed up on a straight
branch, and poking her head through a gap in the
foliage, she looked upwards, flew up into the air and
alighted on another tree.
92. Herein, the meditator should be regarded as like
the fruit bat. The five aggregates as objects of clinging
are like the honey tree with the five branches. The
meditator’s interpreting of the five aggregates is like
the fruit bat’s alighting on the tree. His
comprehending the materiality aggregate and, seeing
nothing there worth taking, comprehending the
remaining aggregates is like her trying each branch
and, seeing nothing there worth taking, trying the rest.
His triple knowledge beginning with desire for
deliverance, after he has become dispassionate
towards the five aggregates [664] through seeing their
characteristic of impermanence, etc., is like her
thinking “This tree is barren; there is nothing worth
taking here” and losing interest. His conformity

1794
knowledge is like her climbing up the straight branch.
His change-of-lineage knowledge is like her poking
her head out and looking upwards. His path
knowledge is like her flying up into the air. His
fruition knowledge is like her alighting on a different
tree.
93. 2. The Black Snake. This simile has already been
given (§49). But the application of the simile here is
this. Change-of-lineage knowledge is like throwing the
snake away. Path knowledge is like the man’s
standing and looking back whence he had come after
getting free from it. Fruition knowledge is like his
standing in a place free from fear after he had got
away. This is the difference.
94. 3. The House. The owner of a house, it seems, ate
his meal in the evening, climbed into his bed and fell
asleep. The house caught fire. When he woke up and
saw the fire, he was frightened. He thought, “It would
be good if I could get out without getting burnt.”
Looking round, he saw a way. Getting out, he quickly
went away to a safe place and stayed there.
95. Herein, the foolish ordinary man’s taking the five
aggregates as “I” and “mine” is like the house-owner’s
falling asleep after he had eaten and climbed into bed.
Knowledge of appearance as terror after entering
upon the right way and seeing the three characteristics

1795
is like the time when the man was frightened on
waking up and seeing the fire. Knowledge of desire
for deliverance is like the man’s looking for a way out.
Conformity knowledge is like the man’s seeing the
way. Change-of-lineage is like the man’s going away
quickly. Fruition knowledge is like his staying in a
safe place.
96. 4. The Oxen. One night, it seems, while a farmer
was sleeping his oxen broke out of their stable and
escaped. When he went there at dawn and looked in,
he found that they had escaped. Going to find them,
he saw the king’s oxen. He thought that they were his
and drove them back. When it got light, he recognized
that they were not his but the king’s oxen. He was
frightened. Thinking, “I shall escape before the king’s
men seize me for a thief and bring me to ruin and
destruction,” he abandoned the oxen. Escaping
quickly, he stopped in a place free from fear.
97. Herein, the foolish ordinary man’s taking the five
aggregates as “I” and “mine” is like the man’s taking
the king’s oxen. The meditator’s recognizing the five
aggregates as impermanent, painful, and not-self by
means of the three characteristics is like the man’s
recognizing the oxen as the king’s when it got light.
Knowledge of appearance as terror is like the time
when the man was frightened. Desire for deliverance
is like the man’s desire to leave them and go away.

1796
Change-of-lineage is like the man’s actual leaving. The
path is like his escaping. Fruition is like the man’s
staying in a place without fear after escaping. [665]
98. 5. The Ghoul. A man went to live with a ghoul, it
seems. At night, thinking he was asleep, she went to
the place where the dead were exposed and ate
human flesh. He wondered where she was going and
followed her. When he saw her eating human flesh, he
knew that she was a non-human being. He was
frightened, and he thought, “I shall escape before she
eats me.” Quickly escaping, he went to a safe place
and stayed there.
99. Herein, taking the aggregates as “I” and “mine” is
like the man’s living with the ghoul. Recognizing the
aggregates as impermanent, etc., by seeing the three
characteristics is like the man’s recognizing that she
was a ghoul on seeing her eating human flesh in the
place for the dead. Appearance as terror is like the
time when the man was frightened. Desire for
deliverance is like his desire to escape. Change-of-
lineage is like his leaving the place for the dead. The
path is like his escaping quickly. Fruition is like his
standing in the place without fear.
100. 6. The Child. A woman was very fond of her son,
it seems. While sitting on an upper floor she heard the
sound of a child in the street. Wondering, “Is someone

1797
hurting my child?,” she hurried down. Mistaking the
child for her own son, she picked up someone else’s
son. Then she recognized that it was someone else’s
son, and she was ashamed and looked about her. She
thought, “Let no one say I am a baby thief” and she
put the child down there and then, and she quickly
returned to the upper floor and sat down.
101. Herein, taking the five aggregates as “I” and
“mine” is like the woman’s mistaking someone else’s
child for her own. The recognition that “This is not I,
not mine” by means of the three characteristics is like
her recognizing it as someone else’s child. Knowledge
of desire for deliverance is like her looking about her.
Conformity knowledge is like her putting the child
down there and then. Change-of-lineage is like the
time when she stood in the street after putting the
child down. The path is like her return to the upper
floor. Fruition is like her sitting down after returning.
102. 7–12. Hunger, Thirst, Cold, Heat, Darkness, and By
Poison. These six similes, however, are given for the
purpose of showing that one with insight that leads to
emergence tends, inclines and leans in the direction of
the supramundane states.
103. 7. Just as a man faint with hunger and famished
longs for delicious food, so too the meditator famished
with the hunger of the round of rebirths longs for the

1798
food consisting of mindfulness occupied with the
body, which tastes of the deathless.
104. 8. Just as a thirsty man whose throat and mouth
are parched longs for a drink with many ingredients,
so too this meditator [666] who is parched with the
thirst of the round of rebirths longs for the noble drink
of the Eightfold Path.
105. 9. Just as a man frozen by cold longs for heat, so
too this meditator frozen by the cold of craving and
[selfish] affection in the round of rebirths longs for the
fire of the path that burns up the defilements.
106. 10. Just as a man faint with heat longs for cold, so
too this meditator scorched by the burning of the
eleven fires (see S IV 19) in the round of rebirths longs
for Nibbāna.
107. 11. Just as a man smothered in darkness longs for
light, so too this meditator wrapped and enveloped in
the darkness of ignorance longs for the light of
knowledge consisting in path development.
108. 12. Just as a man sick with poison longs for an
antidote, so too this meditator sick with the poison of
defilement longs for Nibbāna, the deathless medicine
that destroys the poison of defilement.
109. That is why it was said above: “When he knows
and sees thus, his heart retreats, retracts and recoils

1799
from the three kinds of becoming, the four kinds of
generation, the five kinds of destiny, the seven stations
of consciousness, and the nine abodes of beings; his
heart no longer goes out to them. Just as water drops
retreat, retract and recoil on a lotus leaf that slopes a
little …” (§63), all of which should be given in the way
already stated.
110. But at this point he is called “one who walks
aloof,” with reference to whom it is said:
“When a bhikkhu keeps apart
And cultivates seclusion of the mind,
It will befit him, as they say,
To show himself no more in this becoming” (Sn
810).

[THE DIFFERENCE IN THE NOBLE PATH’S

FACTORS, ETC.]

111. This knowledge of equanimity about formations

governs the fact that the meditator keeps apart. It
furthermore governs the difference in the [number of
the] noble path’s enlightenment factors, path factors,
and jhāna factors, the mode of progress, and the kind
of liberation. For while some elders say that it is the
jhāna used as the basis for insight [leading to

1800
emergence] that governs the difference in the [number
of] enlightenment factors, path factors, and jhāna
factors, and some say that it is the aggregates made
the object of insight that govern it, and some say that it
is the personal bent that governs it,[39] yet it is only
this preliminary insight and insight leading to
emergence that should be understood to govern it in
their doctrine.
112. To deal with these [three theories] in order:
According to governance by insight, the path arisen in
a bare-insight (dry-insight) worker, and the path
arisen in one who possesses a jhāna attainment but
who has not made the jhāna the basis for insight, and
the path made to arise by comprehending unrelated
formations after using the first jhāna as the basis for
insight, are [667] paths of the first jhāna only. In each
case there are seven enlightenment factors, eight path
factors, and five jhāna factors. For while their
preliminary insight can be accompanied by joy and it
can be accompanied by equanimity, when their insight
reaches the state of equanimity about formations at the
time of emergence it is accompanied by joy.
113. When paths are made to arise by using the
second, third, and fourth jhānas in the fivefold
reckoning as the basis for insight, then the jhāna in
those paths has respectively four, three, and two
factors. In each case, however, the path factors number

1801
seven, and in the fourth case there are six
enlightenment factors. This difference is due both to
governance by the basic jhāna and to governance by
insight. For again, while their preliminary insight can
be accompanied by joy and it can be accompanied by
equanimity, their insight leading to emergence is
accompanied by joy only.
114. However, when the path is produced by making
the fifth jhāna the basis for insight, then the jhāna
factors number two, that is, equanimity and
unification of the mind, and there are six
enlightenment factors and seven path factors. This
difference too is due to both kinds of governance. For
in this case the preliminary insight is either
accompanied by joy or accompanied by equanimity,
but that leading to emergence is accompanied by
equanimity only. The same method applies in the case
of the path made to arise by making the immaterial
jhānas the basis for insight.
Also when, after emerging from jhāna made the basis
for insight, the path has been produced by
comprehending no matter what formations [unrelated
to that jhāna], then it is the attainment emerged from
at the point nearest to the path that makes it like itself,
as the colour of the soil does an monitor lizard’s
colour.

1802
115. But in the case of the second elder’s theory the
path is like the attainment, whatever it may be, which
was instrumental in producing the path through the
comprehension of any of its states after emergence
from it. And here governance by insight should be
understood in the same way as before.
116. In the case of the third elder’s theory the path is
like that jhāna, whichever it may be, that suits the
personal bent, which jhāna was instrumental in
producing the path through the comprehension of any
of its states in using it as the basis for insight. But this
is not accomplished by mere bent alone unless the
jhāna has been made the basis for insight or unless the
jhāna has been comprehended; and this meaning
should be illustrated by the Nandakovāda Sutta (see
M III 277, and Commentary). And here too,
governance by insight should be understood in the
same way as before.
This, firstly, is how it should be understood that
equanimity about formations governs the [numbers
of] enlightenment factors, path factors, and jhāna
factors.
117. [Progress.] But if [insight] has from the start only
been able to suppress defilements with difficulty, with
effort and with prompting, then it is called “of difficult
progress.” [668] The opposite kind is called “of easy

1803
progress.” And when the manifestation of the path,
the goal of insight, is slowly effected after defilements
have been suppressed, then it is called “of sluggish
direct-knowledge.” The opposite kind is called “of
swift direct-knowledge.” So this equanimity about
formations stands at the arrival point and gives its
own name to the path in each case, and so the path has
four names [according to the kind of progress] (see D
III 228).
118. For one bhikkhu this progress is different in the
four paths, while for another it is the same. For
Buddhas, however, the four paths are of easy progress
and swift direct-knowledge. Likewise in the case of
the General of the Dhamma [the Elder Sāriputta]. But
in the Elder Mahā Moggallāna’s case the first path was
of easy progress and swift direct-knowledge, but the
others were of difficult progress and sluggish direct-
knowledge.
119. [Predominance.] And as with the kinds of
progress, so also with the kinds of predominance,[40]
which are different in the four paths for one bhikkhu
and the same for another. So it is equanimity about
formations that governs the difference in the progress.
[Liberation.] But it has already been told how it
governs the difference in the liberation [§66f.].
120. Furthermore, the path gets its names for five

1804
reasons, that is to say, (1) owing to its own nature, or
(2) owing to what it opposes, or (3) owing to its own
special quality, or (4) owing to its object, or (5) owing
to the way of arrival.
121. 1. If equanimity about formations induces
emergence by comprehending formations as
impermanent, liberation takes place with the signless
liberation. If it induces emergence by comprehending
them as painful, liberation takes place with the
desireless liberation. If it induces emergence by
comprehending them as not-self, liberation takes place
with the void liberation. This is its name according to
its own nature.
122. 2. When this path is arrived at with the
abandoning of the signs of permanence, lastingness,
and eternalness, by effecting the resolution of the
compact in formations by means of the contemplation
of impermanence, it is then called signless. When it is
arrived at with the drying up of desire and longing, by
abandoning perception of pleasure by means of the
contemplation of pain, it is then called desireless.
When formations are seen as void by abandoning
perception of self, of a living being, of a person, by
means of the contemplation of not-self, it is then called
void. This is its name according to what it opposes.
123. 3. It is void because void of greed, and so on. It is

1805
signless owing either to absence of the sign of
materiality, etc., or to absence only of the sign of
greed, and so on. It is desireless because of absence of
desire as greed, and so on. This is its name according
to its own special quality.
124. 4. It is called void, signless, and desireless, too,
because it makes the void, signless, desireless Nibbāna
its object. This is its name according to its object. [669]
125. 5. The way of arrival is twofold, namely, insight’s
way of arrival applies to the path, and the path’s way
of arrival applies to fruition.
Now, contemplation of not-self is called void and the
path [arrived at] by void insight is [called] void.
Again, contemplation of impermanence is called
signless and the path [arrived at] by signless insight is
[called] signless.
126. But while this name is inadmissible by the
Abhidhamma method,[41] it is admissible by the
Suttanta method; for, they say, by that method
change-of-lineage takes the name “signless” by
making the signless Nibbāna its object, and while itself
remaining at the arrival point, it gives its name to the
path. Hence the path is called signless. And its fruition
can be called signless too according to the path’s way
of arrival.

1806
127. Lastly, contemplation of pain is called desireless
because it arrives [at the path] by drying up desire for
formations. The path [arrived at] by desireless insight
is [called] desireless. The fruition of the desireless path
is [called] desireless.
In this way insight gives its own name to the path, and
the path hands it on to its fruition. This is its name
according to the way of arrival.
This is how equanimity about formations governs the
difference in the liberations.
Equanimity about formations is ended.

[9. CONFORMITY KNOWLEDGE]

128. As he repeats, develops and cultivates that

equanimity about formations, his faith becomes more
resolute, his energy better exerted, his mindfulness
better established, his mind better concentrated, while
his equanimity about formations grows more refined.
129. He thinks, “Now the path will arise.” Equanimity
about formations, after comprehending formations as
impermanent, or as painful, or as not-self, sinks into
the life-continuum. Next to the life-continuum, mind-
door adverting arises making formations its object as

1807
impermanent or as painful or as not-self according to
the way taken by equanimity about formations. Then
next to the functional [adverting] consciousness that
arose displacing the life-continuum, the first
impulsion consciousness arises making formations its
object in the same way, maintaining the continuity of
consciousness.[42] This is called the “preliminary
work.” Next to that a second impulsion consciousness
arises making formations its object in the same way.
This is called the “access.” Next to that [670] a third
impulsion consciousness also arises making
formations its object in the same way. This is called
“conformity.”
130. These are their individual names. But it is
admissible to call all three impulsions “repetition” or
“preliminary-work” or “access” or “conformity”
indiscriminately.
Conformity to what? To what precedes and to what
follows. For it conforms to the functions of truth both
in the eight preceding kinds of insight knowledge and
in the thirty-seven states partaking of enlightenment
that follow.
131. Since its occurrence is contingent upon
formations through [comprehending] the
characteristics of impermanence, etc., it, so to speak,
says, “Knowledge of rise and fall indeed saw the rise

1808
and fall of precisely those states that possess rise and
fall” and “Contemplation of dissolution indeed saw
the dissolution of precisely those states that possess
dissolution” and “It was indeed precisely what was
terrible that appeared as terror to [knowledge of]
appearance as terror” and “Contemplation of danger
indeed saw danger in precisely what was dangerous”
and “Knowledge of dispassion indeed became
dispassionate towards precisely that which should be
regarded with dispassion” and “Knowledge of desire
for deliverance indeed produced desire for
deliverance from precisely what there should be
deliverance from” and “What was reflected upon by
knowledge of reflection was indeed precisely what
should be reflected upon” and “What was looked on
at with equanimity by equanimity about formations
was indeed precisely what should be looked on at
with equanimity.” So it conforms to the functions of
truth both in these eight kinds of knowledge and in
the thirty-seven states partaking of enlightenment
which follow, because they are to be reached by
entering upon it.
132. Just as a righteous king, who sits in the place of
judgement hearing the pronouncements of the judges
while excluding bias and remaining impartial,
conforms both to their pronouncements and to the
ancient royal custom by saying, “So be it,” so it is here

1809
too.
133. Conformity is like the king. The eight kinds of
knowledge are like eight judges. The thirty-seven
states partaking of enlightenment are like the ancient
royal custom. Herein, just as the king conforms by
saying “So be it” both to the judges’ pronouncements
and to the royal custom, so this conformity, which
arises contingent upon formations through
[comprehending] impermanence, etc., conforms to the
function of truth both in the eight kinds of knowledge
and in the thirty-seven states partaking of
enlightenment that follow. Hence it is called
“knowledge in conformity with truth.” [671]
Knowledge of conformity is ended.
134. Though this conformity knowledge is the end of
the insight leading to emergence that has formations
as its object, still change-of-lineage knowledge is the
last of all the kinds of insight leading to emergence.

[SUTTA REFERENCES]

135. Now, the following sutta references should be

understood in order not to be confused about insight
leading to emergence. For this insight leading to

1810
emergence is called “aloofness” (atammayatā)[43] in the
Saḷāyatana-vibhaṅga Sutta thus, “Bhikkhus, by
depending and relying on aloofness abandon,
surmount, equanimity that is unified, based on unity”
(M III 220). In the Alagadda Sutta it is called
“dispassion” (nibbidā) thus, “Being dispassionate his
greed fades away. With the fading away of greed he is
liberated” (M I 139).
In the Susīma Sutta it is called “knowledge of the
relationship of states” (dhammaṭṭhiti-ñāṇa) thus,
“Previously, Susīma, there is knowledge of
relationship of states; subsequently there is knowledge
of Nibbāna” (S II 124). In the Poṭṭhapāda Sutta it is
called the “culmination of perception” (saññagga) thus,
“First, Poṭṭhapāda, the culmination of perception
arises, and afterwards knowledge” (D I 185). In the
Dasuttara Sutta it is called the “principal factor of
purity” (parisuddhi-padhāniyaṅga) thus, “Purification by
knowledge and vision of the way is the principal
factor of purity” (D III 288).
In the Paṭisambhidāmagga it is called by the three
names thus, “Desire for deliverance, and
contemplation of reflection, and equanimity about
formations: these things are one in meaning and only
the letter is different” (Paṭis II 64). In the Paṭṭhāna it is
called by two names thus, “conformity to change-of-

1811
lineage” and “conformity to cleansing”[44] (Paṭṭh 1,
159).
In the Rathavinīta Sutta it is called “purification by
knowledge and vision of the way” thus, “But how,
friend, is it for the purpose of the purification by
knowledge and vision of the way that the life of purity
is lived under the Blessed One?” (M I 147).
136. The Greatest Sage did thus proclaim
This insight stilled and purified,
That to emergence leads beside,
With many a neatly chosen name.
The round of rebirth’s slough of pain
Is vast and terrible; a man
Wisely should strive as best he can,
If he would this emergence gain.

The twenty-first chapter called “The

Description of Purification by
Knowledge and Vision of the Way” in
the Treatise on the Development of
Understanding in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1812
Notes for Chapter XXI

1. “He calls conformity knowledge ‘knowledge in

conformity with truth’ because it is suitable for
penetrating the truths owing to the disappearance
of the grosser darkness of delusion that conceals
the truths” (Vism-mhṭ 822). The term
saccānulomikañāṇa—“knowledge in conformity
with truth,” occurs at Vibh 315. The term
anulomañāṇa—“conformity knowledge,” occurs in
the Paṭṭhāna (Paṭṭh I 159), but not elsewhere in
the Piṭakas apparently.
2. “Knowledge of rise and fall that has become familiar
should be understood as belonging to full-
understanding as abandoning. The contemplation
of only the dissolution of formations is
contemplation of dissolution; that same
contemplation as knowledge is knowledge of
contemplation of dissolution. One who, owing to it,
sees things as they are is terrified, thus it is terror.
The knowledge that seizes the terrifying aspect of
states of the three planes when they appear as
terrifying is knowledge of appearance as terror. One
desires to be delivered, thus it is one desiring
deliverance: that is, either as a consciousness or as
a person. His (its) state is desire for deliverance.

1813
 That itself as knowledge is knowledge of desire for
deliverance. Knowledge that occurs in the mode of
reflecting again is knowledge of contemplation of
reflection. Knowledge that occurs as looking on
(upekkhanā) at formations with indifference
(nirapekkhatā) is knowledge of equanimity
(upekkhā) about formations” (Vism-mhṭ 822–23).
3. Cf. Peṭ 128. In the commentary to the Āyatana-
Vibhaṅga we find: “Impermanence is obvious, as
when a saucer (say) falls and breaks; … pain is
obvious, as when a boil (say) appears in the body;
… the characteristic of not-self is not obvious; …
Whether Perfect Ones arise or do not arise the
characteristics of impermanence and pain are
made known, but unless there is the arising of a
Buddha the characteristic of not-self is not made
known” (Vibh-a 49–50, abridged for clarity).
Again, in the commentary to Majjhima Nikāya
Sutta 22: “Having been, it is not, therefore it is
impermanent; it is impermanent for four reasons,
that is, in the sense of the state of rise and fall, of
change, of temporariness, and of denying
permanence. It is painful on account of the mode
of oppression; it is painful for four reasons, that is,
in the sense of burning, of being hard to bear, of
being the basis for pain, and of opposing pleasure
… It is not-self on account of the mode of

1814
insusceptibility to the exercise of power; it is not-
self for four reasons, that is, in the sense of
voidness, of having no owner-master, of having
no Overlord, and of opposing self (M-a II 113,
abridged for clarity).
Commenting on this Vism paragraph, Vism-
mhṭ says: “‘When continuity is disrupted’ means
when continuity is exposed by observing the
perpetual otherness of states as they go on
occurring in succession. For it is not through the
connectedness of states that the characteristic of
impermanence becomes apparent to one who
rightly observes rise and fall, but rather the
characteristic becomes more thoroughly evident
through their disconnectedness, as if they were
iron darts. ‘When the postures are exposed’ means
when the concealment of the pain that is actually
inherent in the postures is exposed. For when
pain arises in a posture, the next posture adopted
removes the pain, as it were, concealing it. But
once it is correctly known how the pain in any
posture is shifted by substituting another posture
for that one, then the concealment of the pain that
is in them is exposed because it has become
evident that formations are being incessantly
overwhelmed by pain. ‘Resolution of the compact’ is
effected by resolving [what appears compact] in

1815
 this way, ‘The earth element is one, the water
element is another’ etc., distinguishing each one;
and in this way, ‘Contact is one, feeling is
another’ etc., distinguishing each one. ‘When the
resolution of the compact is effected’ means that what
is compact as a mass and what is compact as a
function or as an object has been analyzed. For
when material and immaterial states have arisen
mutually steadying each other, [mentality and
materiality, for example,] then, owing to
misinterpreting that as a unity, compactness of
mass is assumed through failure to subject
formations to pressure. And likewise compactness
of function is assumed when, although definite
differences exist in such and such states’
functions, they are taken as one. And likewise
compactness of object is assumed when, although
differences exist in the ways in which states that
take objects make them their objects, those objects
are taken as one. But when they are seen after
resolving them by means of knowledge into these
elements, they disintegrate like froth subjected to
compression by the hand. They are mere states
(dhamma) occurring due to conditions and void. In
this way the characteristic of not-self becomes
more evident” (Vism-mhṭ 824).
4. “These modes, [that is, the three characteristics,]

1816
 are not included in the aggregates because they
are states without individual essence (asabhāva-
dhammā); and they are not separate from the
aggregates because they are unapprehendable
without the aggregates. But they should be
understood as appropriate conceptual differences
(paññatti-visesā) that are reason for differentiation
in the explaining of dangers in the five
aggregates, and which are allowable by common
usage in respect of the five aggregates” (Vism-
mhṭ 825).
5. “The keenness of knowledge comes about owing
to familiarity with development. And when it is
familiar, development occurs as though it were
absorbed in the object owing to the absence of
distraction” (Vism-mhṭ 825).
6. “‘Arising’ is the alteration consisting in
generation. ‘Presence’ is the arrival at presence:
ageing is what is meant. ‘Occurrence’ is the
occurrence of what is clung to. ‘The sign’ is the
sign of formations; the appearance of formations
like graspable entities, which is due to
compactness of mass, etc., and to
individualization of function, is the sign of
formations” (Vism-mhṭ 826). See also n.12.
“It is momentary cessation that is in other

1817
 words ‘cessation as destruction, fall and breakup’”
(Vism-mhṭ 826).
7. Etasmiṃ khaṇe (or etasmiṃ ṭhāne) seems a better
reading here than ekasmiṃ khaṇe’; cf. parallel
phrases at the end of §29, 30, 31.
8. “‘He contemplates as impermanent’ here not by
inferential knowledge thus, “Impermanent in the
sense of dissolution”, like one who is
comprehending formations by groups (XX.13–14),
nor by seeing fall preceded by apprehension of
rise, like a beginner of insight (XX.93ff.); but
rather it is after rise and fall have become
apparent as actual experience through the
influence of knowledge of rise and fall that he
then leaves rise aside in the way stated and
contemplates formations as impermanent by
seeing only their dissolution. But when he sees
them thus, there is no trace in him of any
apprehension of them as permanent” (Vism-mhṭ
827).
9. “‘Causes cessation’: he causes greed to reach the
cessation of suppression; he suppresses it, is the
meaning. That is why he said ‘by means of mundane
knowledge.’ And since there is suppression, how
can there be arousing? Therefore he said ‘not its
origination’” (Vism-mhṭ 828).

1818
10. “Here in this world there is no self that is
something other than and apart from the
aggregates” (Vism-mhṭ 830). Cf. also: “When any
ascetics or brahmans whatever see self in its
various forms, they all of them see the five
aggregates, or one of them” (S IV 46).
11. “As a skilled man drilling a gem with a tool
watches and keeps in mind only the hole he is
drilling, not the gem’s colour, etc., so too the
meditator wisely keeps in mind only the ceaseless
dissolution of formations, not the formations”
(Vism-mhṭ 830).
12. The Harvard text reads “khayato vayato suññato ti
—as destruction, as fall, as void.” But Vism-mhṭ
says: “‘The three appearances’: in the threefold
appearance as impermanent and so on. For
appearance as destruction and fall is appearance
as impermanent, appearance as terror is
appearance as pain, and appearance as void is
appearance as not-self (Vism-mhṭ 830).
13. Vism-mhṭ defines the three kinds of worldliness
(āmisa) as follows: Worldliness of the round
(vaṭṭāmisa) is that of the threefold round of past,
future and present becoming; worldliness of the
world (lokāmisa) is the five cords of sense desire
(i.e. objects of sense desire including food, etc.)

1819
 because they are accessible to defilements;
worldliness of defilement (kilesāmisa) is the
defilements themselves (see Vism-mhṭ 836).
14. The reference is to the happy destinies of the
sense-desire world (human beings and deities),
the fine-material Brahmā-world, and the
immaterial Brahmā-world.
15. For “ten kinds of elephants” of which the
Chaddanta (Six-toothed) is the “best” see M-a II
25. Cf. also the description of the elephant called
“Uposatha,” one of the seven treasures of the
Wheel-turning Monarch (M II 173). On the
expression “with sevenfold stance” (sattappatiṭṭha)
Vism-mhṭ says “Hatthapāda-vālavatthikosehi
bhūmiphusanehi sattahi patiṭṭhito ti sattapatiṭṭho”
(Vism-mhṭ 838).
16. Rāhu is the name for the eclipse of the sun or
moon, personalized as a demon who takes them
in his mouth (see S I 50–51 and M I 87).
17. The sense seems to require a reading, “Kāmañ ca
na paṭhamaṃ”…
18. Dvikoṭika (“double logical relation”) and catukoṭika
(“quadruple logical relation”): Skr. catuḥkoṭi (cf.
Th. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Logic, pp. 60–61, note
5).

1820
19. There are a number of variant readings to this
sutta passage (which is met with elsewhere as
follows: A I 206; II 177; cf. III 170). There are also
variant readings of the commentary, reproduced
at M-a IV 63–65 and in the commentary to A II
177. The readings adopted are those which a
study of the various contexts has indicated. The
passage is a difficult one.
The sutta passage seems from its various
settings to have been a phrase current among
non-Buddhists, as a sort of slogan for naked
ascetics (A I 206); and it is used to describe the
base consisting of nothingness (M II 263), in
which latter sense it is incorporated in the
Buddha’s teaching as a description that can be
made the basis for right view or wrong view
according as it is treated.
The commentarial interpretation given here is
summed up by Vism-mhṭ as follows: “‘Nāhaṃ
kvacini’: he sees the non-existence of a self of his
own. ‘Na kassaci kiñcanat’asmiṃ’: he sees of his
own self too that it is not the property of another’s
self. ‘Na ca mama’: these words should be
construed as indicated. ‘Atthi’ applies to each
clause. He sees the nonexistence of another’s self
thus, ‘There is no other’s self anywhere.’ He sees
of another that that other is not the property of his

1821
 own self thus, ‘My owning of that other’s self
does not exist.’ So this mere conglomeration of
formations is seen, by discerning it with the
voidness of the quadruple logical relation, as
voidness of self or property of a self in both
internal and external aggregates’” (Vism-mhṭ
840–41 = ṭīkā to MN 106).
20. Bhātiṭṭhāne—“in the case of a brother”: the form
bhāti is not given in PED.
21. Reading “… ṭhapetvā na ca kvacini (:) parassa ca
attānaṃ kvaci na passatī ti ayaṃ attho; idāni …”
with Ce of M-a and A-a
22. M-a Sinhalese (Aluvihāra) ed. has kiñcanabhāvena
here instead of kiñcana-bhāve.
23. Sinhalese eds. of M-a and A-a both read here: “…
upanetabbaṃ passati, na parassa attānaṃ passati,
na parassa attano kiñcanabhāve upanetabbaṃ
passati,” which the sense demands.
24. The cause and the fruit being secluded from each
other (see Vism-mhṭ 842).
25. “A meaning such as ‘what in common usage in
the world is called a being is not materiality’ is
not intended here because it is not implied by
what is said; for the common usage of the world
does not speak of mere materiality as a being.

1822
 What is intended as a being is the self that is
conjectured by outsiders” (Vism-mhṭ 842).
26. “This is not in the text. If it were there would be
forty-three ways” (Vism-mhṭ 842).
27. “Although it has already been described as a
danger in order to show it as such, the word is
used again in order to show that it is opposed to
enjoyment (satisfaction)” (Vism-mhṭ 843).
28. Vism-mhṭ (p. 843) seems to suggest that this is
quoted from the Niddesa, but it is not in Nidd II
in this form. Cf. Nidd II 162 (Be): Atha vā, vedanaṃ
aniccato … dukkhato rogato gaṇḍato sallato aghato
ābādhato … pe … nissaraṇato passanto vedanaṃ
nābhinandati …
29. Sn 1119: Nidd II 190 (Se); Nidd II 278 (Ee)
30. Kūpaka-yaṭṭhi—“mast-head” (?): the word kūpaka
appears in PED, only as an equivalent for kūpa = a
hole. Cf. D I 222 for this simile.
31. Vaṭṭayamāna—“sifting”: not in PED; Vism-mhṭ
glosses with niccoriyamāna, also not in PED.
Nibbaṭṭita—“picked out”: not in PED. Vism-mhṭ
glosses nibbaṭṭita-kappāsaṃ with nibaṭṭita-bīja-
kappāsaṃ.” Vihaṭamāna—“carding”: not in PED;
glossed by Vism-mhṭ with dhūnakena (not in PED)
vihaññamānaṃ viya (Vism-mhṭ 844).

1823
32. When insight reaches its culmination, it settles
down in one of the three contemplations
[impermanence, pain, or not-self] and at this stage
of the development the “seven contemplations”
and the “eighteen contemplations” (or “principal
insights”) are all included by the three (see Vism-
mhṭ 844).
33. “Contemplation of impermanence sees
formations as limited by rise in the beginning and
by fall in the end, and it sees that it is because
they have a beginning and an end that they are
impermanent. ‘Into the signless element’: into the
unformed element, which is given the name
‘signless’ because it is the opposite of the sign of
formations. ‘To the entering of consciousness’: to the
higher consciousness’s completely going into by
means of the state of conformity knowledge, after
delimiting. ‘Into the desireless’: into the unformed
element, which is given the name ‘desireless’
owing to the non-existence of desire due to greed
and so on. ‘Into the void’: into the unformed
element, which is given the name ‘void’ because
of voidness of self” (Vism-mhṭ 845).
34. “One who is pursuing insight by discerning
formations according to their sign by means of the
contemplation of impermanence and resolves
according to the signless aspect thus, ‘Where this

1824
 sign of formations is entirely nonexistent, that is,
the signless Nibbāna’ joins insight leading to
emergence with the path. Then the path realizes
Nibbāna for him as signless. The signless aspect
of Nibbāna is not created by the path or by
insight; on the contrary, it is the establishment of
the individual essence of Nibbāna, and the path is
called signless because it has that as its object.
One who resolves upon the desireless by keeping
desire away by means of the contemplation of
pain, and one who resolves upon the void by
keeping the belief in self away by means of the
contemplation of not-self, should both be
construed in the same way” (Vism-mhṭ 846).
35. “Why is signless insight unable to give its own
name to the path when it has come to the point of
arrival at the path? Of course, signless insight is
mentioned in the suttas thus, ‘Develop the
signless and get rid of the inherent tendency to
conceit’ (Sn 342). Nevertheless, though it
eliminates the signs of permanence, of
lastingness, and of self, it still possesses a sign
itself and is occupied with states that possess a
sign. Again, the Abhidhamma is the teaching in
the ultimate sense, and in the ultimate sense the
cause of a signless path is wanting. For the
signless liberation is stated in accordance with the

1825
contemplation of impermanence, and in that the
faith faculty predominates. But the faith faculty is
not represented by any one of the factors of the
path. And so it cannot give its name to the path
since it forms no part of it. In the case of the other
two, the desireless liberation is due to the
contemplation of pain, and the void liberation is
due to the contemplation of not-self. Now the
concentration faculty predominates in the
desireless liberation and the understanding
faculty in the void liberation. So since these are
factors of the path as well, they can give their own
names to the path; but there is no signless path
because the factor is wanting. So some say. But
there are others who say that there is a signless
path, and that although it does not get its name
from the way insight arrives at it, still it gets its
name from a special quality of its own and from
its object. In their opinion the desireless and void
paths should also get their names from special
qualities of their own and from their objects too.
That is wrong. Why? Because the path gets its
names for two reasons, that is, because of its own
nature and because of what it opposes—the
meaning is, because of its individual essence and
because of what it is contrary to. For the desireless
path is free from desire due to greed, etc., and the

1826
void path is free from greed too, so they both get
their names from their individual essence.
Similarly, the desireless path is the contrary of
desire and the void path is the contrary of
misinterpretation as self, so they get their names
from what they oppose. On the other hand, the
signless path gets its name only from its own
nature owing to the non-existence in it of the
signs of greed, etc., or of the signs of permanence,
etc., but not owing to what it opposes. For it does
not oppose the contemplation of impermanence,
which has as its object the sign of formations [as
formed], but remains in agreement with it. So a
signless path is altogether inadmissible by the
Abhidhamma method. This is why it is said, ‘This
refers to the way in which insight arrives at the
path and is expressed in the literal sense’ (§72).
“However, by the Suttanta method a signless
path is admissible. For according to that, in
whatever way insight leading to emergence (see
§83) effects its comprehending it still leads on to
emergence of the path, and when it is at the point
of arrival it gives its own name to the path
accordingly—when emerging owing to
comprehension as impermanent the path is
signless, when emerging owing to comprehension
as painful it is desireless, and when emerging

1827
 owing to comprehension as not-self it is void.
Taking this as a sutta commentary, therefore,
three liberations are differentiated here. But in the
Paṭisambhidā the deliverance from
misinterpreting, from the sign and from desire,
are taken respectively as the arrival of the three
kinds of comprehension at that deliverance, and
what is described is a corresponding state of void
liberation, etc., respectively in the paths that
follow upon that deliverance. There is no question
of treating that literally, which is why he said,
‘However, in the Paṭisambhidā insight
knowledge’ and so on” (Vism-mhṭ 846–48).
36. “‘From the object interpreted as the sign’: from the
pentad of aggregates as the object of insight; for
that pentad of aggregates is called the ‘object
interpreted’ on account of the interpreting, in
other words, on account of being made the
domain of insight. And although it is included in
one’s own continuity, it is nevertheless called
‘external’ because it is seen as alien to it; it is that
too which in other contexts is spoken of as
‘externally from all signs’ (Paṭis I 71). ‘Internally
from occurrence’: from the occurrence of wrong
view, etc., in one’s own continuity, and from the
defilements and from the aggregates that occur
consequent upon them. For it is stated in this way

1828
 because there is occurrence of defilement in one’s
own continuity and because there is occurrence of
clung-to aggregates produced by that [defilement]
when there is no path development. And
emergence consists both in making these the
object and in producing their non-liability to
future arising” (Vism-mhṭ 853).
37. “‘Emerges from the internal’ is said figuratively
owing to the fact that in this case the insight
leading to emergence has an internal state as its
object. In the literal sense, however, the path
emerges from both” (Vism-mhṭ 853).
38. “Said in the Discourse on Purification (visuddhi-
kathā)” (Vism-mhṭ 855). See XX.77.
39. “The first ‘some’ refers to the Elder Tipiṭaka Cūḷa-
Nāga. The second ‘some’ refers to the Elder Mahā
Datta, dweller at Moravāpi. The third ‘some’
refers to the Elder Tipiṭaka Cūḷa Abhaya” (Vism-
mhṭ 856).
40. The four predominances are those of zeal (desire),
energy, consciousness, and inquiry. Cf. four roads
to power (Dhs §73–74; Vibh 216 and Comy.).
41. “If this is so, then is the path that follows on the
contemplation of impermanence not included in
the Abhidhamma?—That is not so; for it is
included in the method of ‘simple progress’

1829
 (suddhika paṭipadā—see Dhs §§339–340)” (Vism-
mhṭ 861).
42. “‘Maintaining the continuity of consciousness’ by
absence of interruption, in other words, of
occurrence of dissimilar consciousness. For when
the life-continuum [which is mind-consciousness
element] is displaced by the functional mind
element [of five-door adverting (70)], the
occurrence of the functional consciousness makes
an interruption, an interval, between the
occurrence of the resultant consciousness [i.e. the
life-continuum and the consciousness that
follows]. But this is not so with mind-door
adverting (71) [which is mind-consciousness
element]” (Vism-mhṭ 862). See Table V, Cognitive
Series.
43. “Aloofness”—atammayatā: not in PED. See also M
III 43. The word is made up of a + taṃ + maya + tā
= “not-made-of-that-ness.” Its meaning is non-
attachment to any form of being.
44. The word vodāna (“cleansing”) is used, in its loose
sense of “purifying” in general, in I.143. For its
technical Abhidhamma sense here see Ch. XXII
note 7.

1830
 Chapter XXII
Purification by Knowledge and
Vision
(Ñāṇadassana-visuddhi-niddesa)

[I. CHANGE-OF-LINEAGE, PATHS, AND

FRUITS]

1. [672] Change-of-lineage knowledge comes next. Its

position is to advert to the path, and so it belongs
neither to purification by knowledge and vision of the
way nor to purification by knowledge and vision, but
being intermediate, it is unassignable. Still it is
reckoned as insight because it falls in line with insight.
2. Purification by knowledge and vision properly
consists in knowledge of the four paths, that is to say,
the path of stream-entry, the path of once-return, the
path of non-return, and the path of Arahantship.

[THE FIRST PATH—FIRST NOBLE

PERSON]

1831
3. Herein, nothing further needs to be done by one
who wants to achieve, firstly, the knowledge of the
first path. For what he needs to do has already been
done by arousing the insight that ends in conformity
knowledge.
4. As soon as conformity knowledge has arisen in him
in this way, and the thick murk that hides the truths
has been dispelled by the respective force peculiar to
each of the three kinds of conformity (see XXI.129f.),
then his consciousness no longer enters into or settles
down on or resolves upon any field of formations at
all, or clings, cleaves or clutches on to it, but retreats,
retracts and recoils as water does from a lotus leaf, and
every sign as object, every occurrence as object,
appears as an impediment.
5. Then, while every sign and occurrence appears to
him as an impediment, when conformity knowledge’s
repetition has ended, change-of-lineage knowledge
arises in him, which takes as its object the signless,
non-occurrence, non-formation, cessation, Nibbāna,—
which knowledge passes out of the lineage, the
category, the plane, of the ordinary man and enters the
lineage, the category, the plane, of the Noble Ones,—
which, being the first adverting, the first concern, the
first reaction, to Nibbāna as object, fulfils the state of a
condition for the path in six ways, as proximity, [673]
contiguity, repetition, decisive-support, absence, and

1832
disappearance conditions,—which is the culminating
peak of insight,—which is irrevocable,—of which it is
said:
“How is it that understanding of emergence and
turning away from the external[1] is change-of-lineage
knowledge?
“It overcomes arising, thus it is change-of-lineage. It
overcomes occurrence … [the sign … accumulation …
rebirth-linking … destiny … generation … re-arising
… birth … ageing … sickness … death … sorrow …
lamentation … ]. It overcomes despair, thus it is
change-of-lineage. It overcomes the sign of formations
externally, thus it is change-of-lineage.
“It enters into[2] non-arising, thus it is change-of-
lineage. It enters into non-occurrence, thus it is
change-of-lineage … (etc.) … It enters into non-
despair, thus it is change-of-lineage. It enters into
cessation, Nibbāna, thus it is change-of-lineage.
“Having overcome arising, it enters into non-
arising, thus it is change-of-lineage …” (Paṭis I 56) and
so on, all of which should be quoted.
6. Here is a simile that illustrates how conformity and
change-of-lineage occur with different objects though
occurring in a single cognitive series with a single
adverting. Suppose a man wanted to leap across a

1833
broad stream and establish himself on the opposite
bank, he would run fast, and seizing a rope fastened to
the branch of a tree on the stream’s near bank and
hanging down, or a pole, he would leap with his body
tending, inclining and leaning towards the opposite
bank, and when he had arrived above the opposite
bank, he would let go, fall on to the opposite bank,
staggering first and then steady himself there; so too
this meditator, who wants to establish himself on
Nibbāna, the bank opposite to the kinds of becoming,
generation, destiny, station, and abode, runs fast by
means of the contemplation of rise and fall, etc., and
seizing with conformity’s adverting to impermanence,
pain or not-self the rope of materiality fastened to the
branch of his selfhood and hanging down, or one
among the poles beginning with feeling, he leaps with
the first conformity consciousness without letting go
and with the second he tends, inclines and leans
towards Nibbāna, like the body that was tending,
inclining and leaning towards the opposite bank; then,
being with the third next to Nibbāna, which is now
attainable, like the other’s arriving above the opposite
bank, he lets go that information as object with the
ceasing of that consciousness, and with the change-of-
lineage consciousness he falls on to the unformed
Nibbāna, the bank opposite; but staggering, as the
man did, for lack of [previous] repetition, he is not yet

1834
properly steady on the single object. After that he is
steadied by path knowledge.
7. Herein, conformity is able to dispel the murk of
defilements that conceals the truths, but is unable to
make Nibbāna its object. Change-of-lineage is only
able to make Nibbāna its object, but it is unable to
dispel the murk that conceals the truths.
8. Here is a simile: [674] A man with eyes went out at
night, it seems, to find out the conjunction of the stars,
and he looked up to see the moon. It was invisible
because it was concealed by clouds. Then a wind
sprang up and blew away the thick clouds; another
blew away the medium clouds; and another blew
away the fine clouds as well. Then the man saw the
moon in the sky free from clouds, and he found out
the conjunction of the stars.
9. Herein, the thick, medium and fine kinds of
darkness that conceal the truths are like the three
kinds of cloud. The three kinds of conformity
consciousness are like the three winds. Change-of-
lineage knowledge is like the man with eyes. Nibbāna
is like the moon. The dispelling of the murk that
conceals the truths by each kind of conformity
consciousness is like the successive blowing away of
the clouds by each wind. Change-of-lineage
knowledge’s seeing the clear Nibbāna when the murk

1835
that concealed the truths has disappeared is like the
man’s seeing the clear moon in the sky free from
cloud.
10. Just as the three winds are able only to blow away
the clouds that conceal the moon but cannot see the
moon, so the three kinds of conformity are able only to
dispel the murk that conceals the truths but cannot see
Nibbāna. Just as the man can only see the moon but
cannot blow away the clouds, so change-of-lineage
knowledge can only see Nibbāna but cannot dispel the
defilements. Hence it is called “adverting to the path.”
11. For although it is not adverting, it occupies the
position of adverting; and then, after, as it were,
giving a sign to the path to come into being, it ceases.
And without pausing after the sign given by that the
change-of-lineage knowledge, the path follows upon it
in uninterrupted continuity, and as it comes into being
it pierces and explodes the mass of greed, the mass of
hate, and the mass of delusion never pierced and
exploded before (cf. Paṭis II 20).
12. Here is a simile for this. An archer, it seems, had a
target[3] set up at a distance of eight usabhas (about 100
yards), and wrapping his face in a cloth and arming
himself with an arrow, he stood on a wheel
contrivance (a revolving platform). Another man
turned the wheel contrivance, and when the target

1836
was opposite the archer, he gave him a sign with a
stick. Without pausing after the sign the archer shot
the arrow and hit the target.
13. Herein, change-of-lineage knowledge is like the
sign with the stick. Path knowledge is like the archer.
Path knowledge’s [675] making Nibbāna its object
without pausing after the sign given by change-of-
lineage, and its piercing and exploding the mass of
greed, hate and delusion never pierced and exploded
before, is like the archer’s hitting the target without
pausing after the sign.
14. And not only does it cause the piercing of this
mass of greed, etc., but it also dries up the ocean of
suffering of the round in the beginningless round of
rebirths. It closes all doors to the states of loss. It
provides actual experience of the seven noble
treasures.[4] It abandons the eightfold wrong path. It
allays all enmity and fear.[5] It leads to the state of the
Fully Enlightened One’s breast-born son (see S II 221).
And it leads to the acquisition of many hundred other
blessings. So it is the knowledge associated with the
path of stream-entry, the provider of many hundred
blessings, that is called knowledge of the path of
stream-entry.
The first kind of knowledge is ended.

1837
 [THE FIRST FRUITION—SECOND NOBLE
PERSON]

15. Immediately next to that knowledge, however,

there arise either two or three fruition
consciousnesses, which are its result. For it is owing to
this very fact that supramundane profitable
[consciousness] results immediately that it is said,
“And which he called the concentration with
immediate result” (Sn 226), and “Sluggishly he reaches
what has immediate result for the destruction of the
cankers” (A II 149), and so on.
16. Some, however, say that there are one, two, three,
four, or five fruition consciousnesses. That is
inadmissible. For change-of-lineage knowledge arises
at the end of conformity’s repetition, so at the
minimum there must be two conformity
consciousnesses, since one alone does not act as
repetition condition. And a single series of impulsions
has a maximum of seven [impulsion] consciousnesses.
Consequently, that series which has two conformities
and change-of-lineage as a third and path
consciousness as fourth has three fruition
consciousnesses. That which has three conformities
and change-of-lineage as fourth and path
consciousness as fifth has two fruition

1838
consciousnesses. That is why it was said above, “There
arise either two or three fruition consciousnesses.”
17. Then some say that which has four conformities
and change-of-lineage as fifth and path consciousness
as sixth has one fruition consciousness. But that is
refuted because it is the fourth or fifth [impulsion] that
reaches [the path], not those after that, owing to their
nearness to the life-continuum (see IV.75). So that
cannot be accepted as correct. [676]
18. And at this point this stream-enterer is called the
second noble person. However negligent he may be,
he is bound to make an end of suffering when he has
travelled and traversed the round of rebirths among
deities and human beings for the seventh time.
19. At the end of the fruition his consciousness enters
the life-continuum. After that, it arises as mind-door
adverting interrupting the life-continuum for the
purpose of reviewing the path. When that has ceased,
seven impulsions of path reviewing arise. After re-
entry into the life-continuum, adverting, etc., arise
again in the same way for the purpose of reviewing
fruition, and so on. With the arising of these he
reviews the path, he reviews the fruition, he reviews
the defilements abandoned, he reviews the
defilements still remaining, and he reviews Nibbāna.
20. He reviews the path in this way, “So this is the

1839
path I have come by.” Next he reviews the fruition
after that in this way, “This is the blessing I have
obtained.” Next he reviews the defilements that have
been abandoned, “These are the defilements
abandoned in me.” Next he reviews the defilements
still to be eliminated by the three higher paths, “These
are the defilements still remaining in me.” And lastly
he reviews the deathless Nibbāna in this way, “This is
the state (dhamma) that has been penetrated by me as
object.” So the noble disciple who is a stream-enterer
has five kinds of reviewing.
21. And as in the case of the stream-enterer, so also in
the cases of the once-returner and non-returner. But
the Arahant has no reviewing of remaining
defilements. So all the kinds of reviewing total
nineteen. This is the maximum number. Trainers may
or may not have the reviewing of the defilements
abandoned and those still remaining. In fact it was
owing to the absence of such reviewing that
Mahānāma asked the Blessed One, “What state is
there still unabandoned by me internally owing to
which at times states of greed invade my mind and
remain?” (M I 91) all of which should be quoted.

[THE SECOND PATH—THIRD NOBLE

PERSON]

1840
22. However, after reviewing in this way, either while
sitting in the same session or on another occasion, the
noble disciple who is a stream-enterer makes it his
task to reach the second plane by attenuating both
greed for sense desires and ill-will. He brings to bear
the faculties,[6] the powers, and the enlightenment
factors, and he works over and turns up that same
field of formations, classed as materiality, feeling,
perception, formations, and consciousness, with the
knowledge that they are impermanent, painful, not-
self, and he embarks upon the progressive series of
insights.
23. When he has [677] done so, and when, at the end
of equanimity about formations, conformity and
change-of-lineage[7] knowledge have arisen in a single
adverting in the way already described, then the path
of once-return arises next to change-of-lineage. The
knowledge associated with that is knowledge of the
path of once-return.
The second kind of knowledge is ended.

[THE SECOND FRUITION—FOURTH

NOBLE PERSON]

1841
24. The fruition consciousness should be understood
to follow immediately upon this knowledge in the
same way as before. And at this point this once-
returner is called the fourth noble person. He is bound
to make an end of suffering after returning once to this
world. Next there comes reviewing in the way already
described.

[THE THIRD PATH—FIFTH NOBLE

PERSON]

25. Now, after reviewing in this way, either while

sitting in the same session or on another occasion, this
noble disciple who is a once-returner makes it his task
to reach the third plane by abandoning, without
remainder, both greed for the sense desires and ill-
will. He brings to bear the faculties, the powers, and
the enlightenment factors, and he works over and
turns up that same field of formations with the
knowledge that they are impermanent, painful, not-
self, and he embarks upon the progressive series of
insights.
26. When he has done so, and when, at the end of
equanimity about formations, conformity and change-
of-lineage have arisen in a single adverting in the way

1842
already described, then the path of non-return arises
next to change-of-lineage. The knowledge associated
with that is knowledge of the path of non-return.
The third kind of knowledge is ended.

[THE THIRD FRUITION—SIXTH NOBLE

PERSON]

27. The fruition consciousnesses should be

understood to follow immediately upon this
knowledge in the same way as before. And at this
point this non-returner is called the sixth noble person.
[After death] he reappears apparitionally [elsewhere]
and attains complete extinction there without ever
returning, without ever coming to this world again
through rebirth-linking. Next there comes reviewing
in the way already described.

[THE FOURTH PATH—SEVENTH NOBLE

PERSON]

28. Now, after reviewing in this way, either while

sitting in the same session or on another occasion, this

1843
noble disciple who is a non-returner makes it his task
to reach the fourth plane by abandoning, without
remainder, greed for the fine-material and immaterial,
conceit (pride), agitation, and ignorance. He brings to
bear the faculties, the powers, and the enlightenment
factors, and he works over [678] and turns up that
same field of formations with the knowledge that they
are impermanent, painful, not-self, and he embarks
upon the progressive series of insights.
29. When he has done so, and when, at the end of
equanimity about formations, conformity and change-
of-lineage have arisen in a single adverting, then the
path of Arahantship arises next to change-of-lineage.
The knowledge associated with that is knowledge of
the path of Arahantship.
The fourth kind of knowledge is ended.

[THE FOURTH FRUITION—EIGHTH NOBLE

PERSON]

30. The fruition consciousness should be understood

to follow immediately upon this knowledge in the
same way as before. And at this point this Arahant is
called the eighth noble person. He is one of the Great
Ones with cankers destroyed, he bears this last body,

1844
he has laid down the burden, reached his goal and
destroyed the fetter of becoming, he is rightly
liberated with [final] knowledge and worthy of the
highest offering of the world with its deities.
31. So when it was said above, “However, purification
by knowledge and vision properly consists in
knowledge of the four paths, that is to say, the path of
stream-entry, the path of once-return, the path of non-
return, and the path of Arahantship” (§2), that
referred to these four kinds of knowledge to be
reached in this order.

[II. THE STATES ASSOCIATED WITH THE

PATH, ETC.]

32. Now, in order to appreciate the value of this same

purification by knowledge and vision with its four
kinds of knowledge:
(1) fulfilment of states sharing in enlightenment,
(2) Emergence, and (3) the coupling of the
powers,
(4) The kinds of states that ought to be
abandoned,
(5) Also the act of their abandoning,

1845
 (6) Functions of full-understanding, and the rest
As stated when truths are penetrated to,
(7) Each one of which ought to be recognized
According to its individual essence.

33. 1. Herein, the fulfilment of states sharing in

enlightenment is the fulfilledness of those states
partaking in enlightenment. For they are the following
thirty-seven states: the four foundations of
mindfulness (MN 10), the four right endeavours (M II
11), the four roads to power (M I 103), the five faculties
(M II 12), the five powers (M II 12), the seven
enlightenment factors (M I 11), and the Noble
Eightfold Path (D II 311f.). And they are called
“partaking of enlightenment” because they take the
part of the Noble Eightfold Path, which is called
“enlightenment” in the sense of enlightening, and they
“take the part” of that because they are helpful.[8]
34. “Foundation” (paṭṭhāna) is because of
establishment (upaṭṭhāna) by going down into, by
descending upon, such and such objects.[9]
Mindfulness itself as foundation (establishment) is
“foundation of mindfulness.” It is of four kinds
because it occurs with respect to the body, feeling,
consciousness, and mental objects (dhamma), taking
them as foul, painful, impermanent, and non-self, and

1846
because it accomplishes the function of abandoning
perception of beauty, pleasure, permanence, and self.
[679] That is why “four foundations of mindfulness” is
said.
35. By it they endeavour (padahanti), thus it is
endeavour (padhāna); a good endeavour is a right
(sammā) endeavour. Or alternatively: by its means
people endeavour rightly (sammā padahanti), thus it is
right endeavour (sammappadhāna). Or alternatively: it
is good because of abandoning the unseemliness of
defilement, and it is endeavour because of bringing
about improvement and giving precedence (padhāna-
bhāva-kāraṇa) in the sense of producing well-being and
bliss, thus it is right endeavour. It is a name for
energy. It accomplishes the functions of abandoning
arisen unprofitable things, preventing the arising of
those not yet arisen, arousing unarisen profitable
things, and maintaining those already arisen; thus it is
fourfold. That is why “four right endeavours” is said.
36. Power (iddhi) is in the sense of success (ijjhana) as
already described (XII.44). It is the road (basis—pāda)
to that power (for that success—iddhi) in the sense of
being the precursor of that success which is associated
with it and in the sense of being the prior cause of that
success which is its fruit, thus it is a road to power
(basis for success). It is fourfold as zeal (desire), and so
on. That is why “four roads to power” are spoken of,

1847
according as it is said: “Four roads to power: the road
to power consisting in zeal, the road to power
consisting in energy, the road to power consisting in
[natural purity of] consciousness, the road to power
consisting in inquiry” (Vibh 223). These are
supramundane only. But because of the words “If a
bhikkhu obtains concentration, obtains mental
unification by making zeal predominant, this is called
concentration through zeal” (Vibh 216), etc., they are
also mundane as states acquired by predominance of
zeal, etc., respectively.
37. “Faculty” is in the sense of predominance, in other
words, of overcoming, because [these states, as
faculties] respectively overcome faithlessness,
idleness, negligence, distraction, and confusion.
“Power” is in the sense of unwaveringness because
[these states, as powers] are incapable of being
overcome respectively by faithlessness, and so on.
Both are fivefold as consisting in faith, [energy,
mindfulness, concentration, and understanding]. That
is why “five faculties” and “five powers” is said.
38. Mindfulness, [investigation-of-states, energy,
happiness, tranquillity concentration, and
equanimity,] as factors in a being who is becoming
enlightened, are the “seven enlightenment factors.”
And right view, [right thinking, right speech, right

1848
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,
and right concentration,] are the eight “path factors”
in the sense of being an outlet. Hence, “seven
enlightenment factors” and “the Noble Eightfold
Path” is said.
39. So there are these thirty-seven states partaking of
enlightenment.
Now, in the prior stage when mundane insight is
occurring, they are found in a plurality of
consciousnesses as follows: the foundation of
mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the body
[is found] in one discerning the body in the fourteen
ways;[10] the foundation of mindfulness consisting in
contemplation of feeling, in one discerning feeling in
the nine ways; the foundation of mindfulness
consisting in the contemplation of mind, in one
discerning the [manner of] consciousness in sixteen
ways; [680] the foundation of mindfulness consisting
in contemplation of mental objects, in one discerning
mental objects in the five ways. And at the time when,
on seeing an unprofitable state arisen in someone else,
which has not yet arisen in his own person, he strives
for its non-arising thus, “I shall not behave as he has
done in whom this is now arisen, and so this will not
arise in me,” then he has the first right endeavour;
when, seeing something unprofitable in his own
behaviour, he strives to abandon it, then he has the

1849
second; when he strives to arouse jhāna or insight so
far unarisen in this person, he has the third; and when
he arouses again and again what has already arisen so
that it shall not diminish, he has the fourth. And at the
time of arousing a profitable state with zeal as the
motive force, there is the road to power consisting in
zeal, [and so on with the remaining three roads to
power]. And at the time of abstaining from wrong
speech there is right speech, [and so on with
abstaining from wrong action and wrong livelihood].
[11]

At the time of arising of [any one of] the four kinds

of [path] knowledge, [all these states] are found in a
single consciousness. In the moment of fruition the
thirty-three excepting the four right endeavours are
found.
40. When these are found in a single consciousness in
this way, it is the one kind of mindfulness whose
object is Nibbāna that is called “the four foundations
of mindfulness” because it accomplishes the function
of abandoning the [four] perceptions of beauty, etc., in
the [four things] beginning with the body. And also
the one kind of energy is called “four right
endeavours” because it accomplishes the [four]
functions beginning with preventing the arising of the
unarisen [unprofitable]. But there is no decrease or
increase with the rest.

1850
41. Furthermore it is said of them:
Nine in one way, one in two ways,
Then in four ways, and in five ways,
In eight ways, and in nine ways, too—
So in six ways they come to be.
42. (i) Nine in one way: these nine are zeal,
consciousness, happiness, tranquillity, equanimity,
thinking, speech, action, and livelihood, and they are
found “in one way” as road to power consisting in
zeal, etc., since they do not belong to any other group.
(ii) One in two ways: faith is found “in two ways,” as a
faculty and as a power. (iii) Then in four ways, and (iv)
in five ways: the meaning is that another one is found
in four ways and another in five. Herein,
concentration is the “one in four ways” since it is a
faculty, a power, an enlightenment factor, and a path
factor; understanding is the “one in five ways” since it
is these four and also a road to power. (v) In eight
ways, and (vi) in nine ways, too: the meaning is that
another one is found in eight ways and another in nine
ways. Mindfulness is one “in eight ways” since it is
the four foundations of mindfulness, a faculty, a
power, an enlightenment factor, and a path factor;
energy is the one “in nine ways” since it is four right
endeavours, a road to power, a faculty, a power, an
enlightenment factor, and a path factor. [681] So:

1851
 43. States sharing in enlightenment
Are fourteen, undistributed;
They total thirty-seven states
Among the groups distributed.
While each performs the proper task
That to its special lot falls due,
They all come into being when
The Noble Eightfold Path comes true.
This is how, firstly, the “fulfilment of states
partaking in enlightenment” should be understood
here.
44. 2. Emergence and 3. coupling of the powers: the
resolution of the compound vuṭṭhānabalasamāyoga is
vuṭṭhānañ c’eva bala-samāyogo ca.
[2. Emergence:] mundane insight induces no emergence
either from occurrence [of defilement internally],
because it does not cut off originating, which is the act
of causing occurrence,[12] or from the sign [of
formations externally], because it has the sign as
object.
Change-of-lineage knowledge does not induce
emergence from occurrence [internally] because it
does not cut off originating, but it does induce
emergence from the sign [externally] because it has
Nibbāna as its object; so there is emergence from one.

1852
Hence it is said, “Understanding of emergence and
turning away from the external is knowledge of
change-of-lineage” (Paṭis I 66). Likewise the whole
passage, “Having turned away from arising, it enters
into non-arising, thus it is change-of-lineage. Having
turned away from occurrence … (etc.—for elision see
Ch. XXI.37) … [Having turned away from the sign of
formations externally, it enters into cessation,
Nibbāna, thus it is change-of-lineage]” (Paṭis I 67),
should be understood here.
These four kinds of [path] knowledge emerge from
the sign because they have the signless as their object,
and also from occurrence because they cut off
origination. So they emerge from both. Hence it is
said:
45. “How is it that understanding of emergence and
turning away from both is knowledge of the path?
“At the moment of the stream-entry path, right view
in the sense of seeing (a) emerges from wrong view,
and it emerges from defilements and from the
aggregates that occur consequent upon that [wrong
view],[13] and (b) externally it emerges from all signs;
hence it was said: Understanding of emergence and
turning away from both is knowledge of the path.
Right thinking in the sense of directing emerges from
wrong thinking … Right speech in the sense of

1853
embracing emerges from wrong speech … Right
action in the sense of originating emerges from wrong
action … Right livelihood in the sense of cleansing
emerges from wrong livelihood … Right effort in the
sense of exerting emerges from wrong effort … Right
mindfulness in the sense of establishment emerges
from wrong mindfulness … Right concentration in the
sense of non-distraction emerges from wrong
concentration and it emerges from defilements and
from the aggregates that occur consequent upon that
[wrong concentration], and externally it emerges from
all signs; hence it was said: Understanding of
emergence and turning away from both is knowledge
of the path.
“At the moment of the once-return path, right view
in the sense of seeing … Right concentration in the
sense of non-distraction (a) emerges from the gross
fetter of greed for sense desires, from the gross fetter
of resentment, from the gross inherent tendency to
greed for sense desires, and from the gross inherent
tendency to resentment, [and it emerges from
defilements and from the aggregates consequent upon
that, and (b) externally it emerges from all signs; hence
it was said: Understanding of emergence and turning
away from both is knowledge of the path].
“At the moment of the non-return path, right view
in the sense of seeing … Right concentration in the

1854
sense of non-distraction (a) emerges [682] from the
residual fetter of greed for sense desires, from the
residual fetter of resentment, from the residual
inherent tendency to greed for sense desires, from the
residual inherent tendency to resentment, [and it
emerges from defilements and from the aggregates
that occur consequent upon that, and (b) externally it
emerges from all signs; hence it was said:
Understanding of emergence and turning away from
both is knowledge of the path].
“At the moment of the Arahant path, right view in
the sense of seeing … Right concentration in the sense
of non-distraction (a) emerges from greed for the fine-
material [existence], from greed for immaterial
[existence], from conceit (pride), from agitation, from
ignorance, from the inherent tendency to conceit
(pride), from the inherent tendency to greed for
becoming, from the inherent tendency to ignorance,
and it emerges from defilements and from the
aggregates that occur consequent upon that, and (b)
externally it emerges from all signs; hence it was said:
Understanding of emergence and turning away from
both is knowledge of the path” (Paṭis I 69f.).
46. [3. Coupling of the powers:] At the time of
developing the eight mundane attainments the
serenity power is in excess, while at the time of
developing the contemplations of impermanence, etc.,

1855
the insight power is in excess. But at the noble path
moment they occur coupled together in the sense that
neither one exceeds the other. So there is coupling of
the powers in the case of each one of these four kinds
of knowledge, according as it is said: “When he
emerges from the defilements associated with
agitation, and from the aggregates, his mental
unification, non-distraction, concentration, has
cessation as its domain. When he emerges from the
defilements associated with ignorance and from the
aggregates, his insight in the sense of contemplation
has cessation as its domain. So serenity and insight
have a single nature in the sense of emergence, they
are coupled together, and neither exceeds the other.
Hence it was said: He develops serenity and insight
coupled together in the sense of emergence” (Paṭis II
98).
“Emergence” and “coupling of the powers” should
be understood here in this way.
47. 4. The kinds of states that ought to be abandoned, 5.
also the act of their abandoning: now which states are to
be abandoned by which kind of knowledge among
these four should be understood, and also the act of
abandoning them. For they each and severally bring
about the act of abandoning of the states called fetters,
defilements, wrongnesses, worldly states, kinds of
avarice, perversions, ties, bad ways, cankers, floods,

1856
bonds, hindrances, adherences, clingings, inherent
tendencies, stains, unprofitable courses of action, and
unprofitable thought-arisings.
48. Herein, the fetters are the ten states beginning with
greed for the fine material, so called because they
fetter aggregates [in this life] to aggregates [of the
next], or kamma to its fruit, or beings to suffering. For
as long as those exist there is no cessation of the
others. And of these fetters, greed for the fine material,
greed for the immaterial, conceit (pride), agitation,
and ignorance are called the five higher fetters because
they fetter beings to aggregates, etc., produced in
higher [forms of becoming], [683] while false view of
individuality, uncertainty, adherence to rules and
vows, greed for sense desires, and resentment are
called the five lower fetters because they fetter beings
to aggregates, etc., produced in the lower [forms of
becoming].
49. The defilements are the ten states, namely, greed,
hate, delusion, conceit (pride), [false] view,
uncertainty, stiffness [of mind], agitation,
consciencelessness, shamelessness. They are so called
because they are themselves defiled and because they
defile their associated states.
50. The wrongnesses are the eight states, namely,
wrong view, wrong thinking, wrong speech, wrong

1857
action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong
mindfulness, wrong concentration, which with wrong
knowledge and wrong deliverance,[14] come to ten.
They are so called because they occur wrongly.
51. The worldly states are the eight, namely, gain, loss,
fame, disgrace, pleasure, pain, blame, and praise. They
are so called because they continually succeed each
other as long as the world persists. But when the
worldly states are included, then by the metaphorical
use of the cause’s name [for its fruit], the approval that
has the gain, etc., as its object and the resentment that
has the loss, etc., as its object should also be
understood as included.
52. The kinds of avarice are the five, namely, avarice
about dwellings, families, gain, Dhamma, and praise,
which occur as inability to bear sharing with others
any of these things beginning with dwellings.
53. The perversions are the three, namely, perversions
of perception, of consciousness, and of view, which
occur apprehending objects that are impermanent,
painful, not-self, and foul (ugly), as permanent,
pleasant, self, and beautiful.
54. The ties are the four beginning with covetousness,
so called because they tie the mental body and the
material body. They are described as “the bodily tie of
covetousness, the bodily tie of ill will, the bodily tie of

1858
adherence to rules and vows, and the bodily tie of
insisting (misinterpreting) that ‘This [only] is the
truth’” (Vibh 374).
55. Bad ways is a term for doing what ought not to be
done and not doing what ought to be done, out of zeal
(desire), hate, delusion, and fear. They are called “bad
ways” because they are ways not to be travelled by
Noble Ones.
56. Cankers (āsava): as far as (ā) change-of-lineage [in
the case of states of consciousness] and as far as (ā) the
acme of becoming [in the case of the kinds of
becoming, that is to say, the fourth immaterial state,]
there are exudations (savana) owing to the [formed
nature of the] object. This is a term for greed for sense
desires, greed for becoming, wrong view, and
ignorance, because of the exuding (savana) [of these
defilements] from unguarded sense-doors like water
from cracks in a pot in the sense of constant trickling,
or because of their producing (savana) the suffering of
the round of rebirths.[15] [684]
The floods are so called in the sense of sweeping
away into the ocean of becoming, and in the sense of
being hard to cross.
The bonds are so called because they do not allow
disengagement from an object and disengagement
from suffering. Both “floods” and “bonds” are terms

1859
for the cankers already mentioned.
57. The hindrances are the five, namely, lust, [ill will,
stiffness and torpor, agitation and worry, and
uncertainty,] in the sense of obstructing and hindering
and concealing [reality] from consciousness (IV.86).
58. Adherence (misapprehension—parāmāsa) is a term for
wrong view, because it occurs in the aspect of missing
the individual essence of a given state (dhamma) and
apprehending (āmasana) elsewhere (parato) an unactual
individual essence.
59. The clingings are the four beginning with sense-
desire clinging described in all their aspects in the
Description of the Dependent Origination (Ch.
XVII.240f.).
60. The inherent tendencies are the seven, namely,
greed for sense desires, etc., in the sense of the
inveterateness, stated thus: the inherent tendency to
greed for sense desires, the inherent tendency to
resentment, conceit (pride), [false] view, uncertainty,
greed for becoming, and ignorance. For it is owing to
their inveteracy that they are called inherent
tendencies (anusaya) since they inhere (anusenti) as
cause for the arising of greed for sense desires, etc.,
again and again.
61. The stains are the three, namely, greed, hate, and
delusion. They are so called because they are

1860
themselves dirty like oil, black, and mud, and because
they dirty other things.
62. The unprofitable courses of action are the ten,
namely, killing living things, taking what is not given,
sexual misconduct; false speech, malicious speech,
harsh speech, gossip; covetousness, ill will, and wrong
view. They are so called since they are both
unprofitable action (kamma) and courses that lead to
unhappy destinies.
63. The unprofitable thought-arisings are the twelve
consisting of the eight rooted in greed, the two rooted
in hate, and the two rooted in delusion (XIV.89f.).
64. So these [four kinds of knowledge] each and
severally abandon these states beginning with the
fetters. How?
The five states eliminated by the first knowledge in
the case of the fetters, firstly, are: false view of
personality, doubt, adherence to rules and vows, and
then greed for sense desires and resentment that are
[strong enough] to lead to states of loss. The remaining
gross greed for sense desires and resentment are
eliminated by the second knowledge. Subtle greed for
sense desires and resentment are eliminated by the
third knowledge. The five beginning with greed for
the fine material are only [actually] eliminated by the
fourth knowledge.

1861
 In what follows, we shall not in every instance
specify the fact with the expression “only [actually]”;
nevertheless, whatever we shall say is eliminated by
one of the [three] higher knowledges should be
understood as only the [residual] state eliminated by
the higher knowledge; for that state will have already
been rendered not conducive to states of loss by the
preceding knowledge.
65. In the case of the defilements, [false] view and
uncertainty are eliminated by the first knowledge.
Hate is eliminated by the third knowledge. Greed,
delusion, conceit (pride), mental stiffness, agitation,
consciencelessness, and shamelessness are eliminated
by the fourth knowledge.
66. In the case of the wrongnesses, wrong view, false
speech, wrong action, and wrong [685] livelihood are
eliminated by the first knowledge. Wrong thinking,
malicious speech, and harsh speech are eliminated by
the third knowledge. And here only volition is to be
understood as speech. Gossip, wrong effort, wrong
mindfulness, wrong concentration, wrong deliverance,
and wrong knowledge are eliminated by the fourth
knowledge.
67. In the case of the worldly states, resentment is
eliminated by the third knowledge, and approval is
eliminated by the fourth knowledge. Some say that

1862
approval of fame and praise is eliminated by the
fourth knowledge.
The kinds of avarice are eliminated by the first
knowledge only.
68. In the case of the perversions, the perversions of
perception, consciousness, and view, which find
permanence in the impermanent and self in the not-
self, and the perversion of view finding pleasure in
pain and beauty in the foul, are eliminated by the first
knowledge. The perversions of perception and
consciousness finding beauty in the foul are
eliminated by the third path. The perversions of
perception and consciousness finding pleasure in the
painful are eliminated by the fourth knowledge.
69. In the case of ties, the bodily ties of adherence to
rules and vows and of the insistence
(misinterpretation) that “This is the truth” are
eliminated by the first knowledge. The bodily tie of ill
will is eliminated by the third knowledge. The
remaining one is eliminated by the fourth path.
The bad ways are eliminated by the first knowledge
only.
70. In the case of the cankers, the canker of view is
eliminated by the first knowledge. The canker of sense
desire is eliminated by the third knowledge. The other
two are eliminated by the fourth knowledge.

1863
 The same thing applies in the case of the floods and
the bonds.
71. In the case of the hindrances, the hindrance of
uncertainty is eliminated by the first knowledge. The
three, namely, lust, ill will, and worry, are eliminated
by the third knowledge. Stiffness and torpor and
agitation are eliminated by the fourth knowledge.
Adherence is eliminated by the first knowledge only.
72. In the case of the clingings, since according to what
is given in the texts all worldly states are sense desires,
that is, sense desires as object (see Nidd I 1–2), and so
greed both for the fine material and the immaterial
falls under sense-desire clinging, consequently that
sense-desire clinging is eliminated by the fourth
knowledge. The rest are eliminated by the first
knowledge.
73. In the case of the inherent tendencies, the inherent
tendencies to [false] view and to uncertainty are
eliminated by the first knowledge. The inherent
tendencies to greed for sense desires and to
resentment are eliminated by the third knowledge.
The inherent tendencies to conceit (pride), to greed for
becoming, and to ignorance are eliminated by the
fourth knowledge.
74. In the case of the stains, the stain of hate is
eliminated by the third knowledge, the others are

1864
eliminated by the fourth knowledge.
75. In the case of the unprofitable courses of action,
killing living things, taking what is not given, sexual
misconduct, false speech, and wrong view are
eliminated by the first knowledge. The three, namely,
malicious speech, harsh speech, and ill will, are
eliminated by the third knowledge. Gossip and
covetousness are eliminated by the fourth knowledge.
76. In the case of the unprofitable thought-arisings, the
four associated with [false] view, and that associated
with uncertainty, making five, are eliminated by the
first knowledge. The two associated with resentment
are eliminated by the third knowledge. The rest are
eliminated by the fourth knowledge.
77. And what is eliminated by any one of them is
abandoned by it. That is why it was said above, “So
these [four kinds of knowledge] each and severally
abandon these states beginning with the fetters.”
78. 5. The act of the abandoning: but how then? Do these
[knowledges] abandon these states when they are
past, or when they are future, or when [686] they are
present? What is the position here? For, firstly, if [they
are said to abandon them] when past or future, it
follows that the effort is fruitless. Why? Because what
has to be abandoned is non-existent. Then if it is when
they are present, it is likewise fruitless because the

1865
things to be abandoned exist simultaneously with the
effort, and it follows that there is development of a
path that has defilement, or it follows that defilements
are dissociated [from consciousness] though there is
no such thing as a present defilement dissociated from
consciousness.[16]
79. That is not an original argument; for in the text
first the question is put: “When a man abandons
defilements, does he abandon past defilements? Does
he abandon future defilements? Does he abandon
present defilements?” Then the objection is put in this
way: “If he abandons past defilements, he destroys
what has already been destroyed, causes to cease what
has already ceased, causes to vanish what has already
vanished, causes to subside what has already
subsided. What is past, which is non-existent, that he
abandons.” But this is denied in this way: “He does
not abandon past defilements.” Then the objection is
put in this way: “If he abandons future defilements, he
abandons what has not been born, he abandons what
has not been generated, he abandons what has not
arisen, he abandons what has not become manifest.
What is future, which is non-existent, that he
abandons.” But this is denied in this way: “He does
not abandon future defilements.” Then the objection is
put in this way: “If he abandons present defilements,
then though inflamed with greed he abandons greed,

1866
though corrupted with hate he abandons hate, though
deluded he abandons delusion, though shackled[17] he
abandons conceit (pride), though misconceiving he
abandons [false] view, though distracted he abandons
agitation, though not having made up his mind he
abandons uncertainty, though not having inveterate
habits he abandons inherent tendency, dark and bright
states occur coupled together, and there is
development of a path that has defilement.” But this is
all denied in this way: “He does not abandon past
defilements, he does not abandon future defilements,
he does not abandon present defilements.” Finally it is
asked: “Then there is no path development, there is no
realization of fruition, there is no abandoning of
defilements, there is no penetration to the Dhamma
(convergence of states)?” Then it is claimed: “There is
path development … there is penetration to the
Dhamma (convergence of states).”
And when it is asked: “In what way?” this is said:
“Suppose there were a young tree with unborn fruit,
and a man cut its root, then the unborn fruits of the
tree would remain unborn and not come to be born,
remain ungenerated and not come to be generated,
remain unarisen and not come to be arisen, remain
unmanifested and not come to be manifested. So too,
arising is a cause, arising is a condition, for the
generation of defilements. Seeing danger in

1867
defilements, consciousness enters into non-arising.
With consciousness’s entering into non-arising the
defilements that would be generated with arising as
their condition remain unborn and do not come to be
born … remain unmanifest and do not come to be
manifested. So with the cessation of the cause there is
the cessation of suffering. [687] Occurrence is a cause
… The sign is a cause … Accumulation is a cause,
accumulation is a condition, for the generation of
defilements. Seeing danger in accumulation,
consciousness enters into non-accumulation. With
consciousness’s entering into non-accumulation the
defilements that would be generated with
accumulation as their condition remain unborn and do
not come to be born … remain unmanifest and do not
come to be manifested. So with the cessation of the
cause there is cessation of suffering. So there is path
development, there is realization of fruition, there is
abandoning of defilements, and there is penetrating to
the Dhamma” (Paṭis II 217–19).
80. What does that show? It shows abandoning of
defilements that have soil [to grow in]. But are
defilements that have soil [to grow in] past, future or
present? They are simply those described as “arisen by
having soil [to grow in].”
81. Now, there are various meanings of “arisen,” that
is to say, (i) arisen as “actually occurring,” (ii) arisen as

1868
“been and gone,” (iii) arisen “by opportunity,” and
(iv) arisen “by having [soil to grow in].”
Herein, (i) all that is reckoned to possess [the three
moments of] arising, ageing, [that is, presence] and
dissolution, is called arisen as actually occurring.
(ii) Profitable and unprofitable [kamma-result]
experienced as the stimulus of an object and ceased-
reckoned as “experienced and gone” (anubhūtāpagata)
—, and also anything formed, when it has reached the
three instants beginning with arising and has ceased-
reckoned as `been and gone’ (hutvāpagata)—, are called
arisen as been and gone (bhūtāpagata).
(iii) Kamma described in the way beginning, “Deeds
that he did in the past” (M III 164), even when actually
past, is called arisen by opportunity made because it
reaches presence by inhibiting other [ripening] kamma
and making that the opportunity for its own result
(see XIX.16.) And kamma-result that has its
opportunity made in this way, even when as yet
unarisen, is called “arisen by opportunity made,” too,
because it is sure to arise when an opportunity for it
has been made in this way.
(iv) While unprofitable [kamma] is still unabolished
in any given soil (plane)[18] it is called arisen by having
soil [to grow in].

1869
82. And here the difference between the soil and what
has soil should be understood. For “soil” (plane)
means the five aggregates in the three planes of
becoming, which are the object of insight.[19] “What
has soil” is an expression for defilements capable of
arising with respect to those aggregates. Those
defilements have that soil (plane). That is why “by
having soil [to grow in]” is said.
83. And that is not meant objectively. For defilements
occupied with an object arise with respect to any
aggregates including past or future ones as well [as
present], and also with respect to the [subjectively]
fully-understood aggregates in someone [else] whose
cankers are destroyed, like those that arose in the rich
man Soreyya with respect to the aggregates in Mahā
Kaccāna (Dhp-a I 325) and in the brahman student
Nanda with respect to Uppalavaṇṇā (Dhp-a II 49), and
so on. And if that were what is called “arisen by
having soil [to grow in]” no one could abandon the
root of becoming because it would be unabandonable.
But “arisen by having soil [to grow in]” should be
understood [subjectively] with respect to the basis [for
them in oneself].[20] For the defilements that are the
root of the round are inherent in [one’s own]
aggregates not fully understood by insight from the
instant those aggregates arise. And that is what should
be understood as “arisen by having the soil [to grow

1870
in],” in the sense of its being unabandoned. [688]
84. Now, when defilements are inherent, in the sense
of being unabandoned, in someone’s aggregates, it is
only those aggregates of his that are the basis for those
defilements, not aggregates belonging to another. And
only past aggregates, not others, are the basis for
defilements that inhere unabandoned in past
aggregates. Likewise in the case of future aggregates,
and so on. Similarly too only sense-sphere aggregates,
not others, are the basis for defilements that inhere
unabandoned in sense-sphere aggregates. Likewise in
the case of the fine material and immaterial.
85. But in the case of the stream-enterer, etc., when a
given defilement, which is a root of the round, has
been abandoned by means of a given path in a given
noble person’s aggregates, then his aggregates are no
longer called “soil” for such defilement since they are
no longer a basis for it. But in an ordinary man the
defilements that are the root of the round are not
abandoned at all, and so whatever kamma he
performs is always either profitable or unprofitable. So
for him the round goes on revolving with kamma and
defilements as its condition.
86. But while it is thus the root of the round it cannot
be said that it is only in his materiality aggregate, and
not in his other aggregates beginning with feeling …

1871
that it is only in his consciousness aggregate, and not
in his other aggregates beginning with materiality.
Why? Because it is inherent in all five aggregates
indiscriminately. How? Like the juice of humus, etc.,
in a tree.
87. For when a great tree is growing on the earth’s
surface supported by the essences of humus and water
and, with that as condition, increases its roots, trunks,
branches, twigs, shoots, foliage, flowers, and fruit, till
it fills the sky, and continues the tree’s lineage through
the succession of the seed up till the end of the eon, it
cannot be said that the essence of humus, etc., are
found only in its root and not in the trunk, etc., … that
they are only in the fruit and not in the root, etc.,
Why? Because they spread indiscriminately through
the whole of it from the root onwards.
88. But some man who felt revulsion for that same
tree’s flowers, fruits, etc., might puncture it on four
sides with the poison thorn called “maṇḍūka thorn,”
and then the tree, being poisoned, would be no more
able to prolong its continuity since it would have
become barren with the contamination of the essences
of humus and water.
So too the clansman who feels revulsion
(dispassion) for the occurrence of the aggregates,
undertakes to develop the four paths in his own

1872
continuity which is like the man’s application of
poison to the tree on all four sides. Then the continuity
of his aggregates is rendered incapable of prolonging
the continuity to a subsequent becoming. It is now
unproductive of future becoming since all kinds of
kamma beginning with bodily kamma are now merely
functional: for the effect of the four paths’ poison has
entirely exterminated the defilements that are the root
of the round. [689] Being without clinging, he
inevitably attains with the cessation of the last
consciousness the complete extinction [of Nibbāna],
like a fire with no more fuel. This is how the difference
between the soil and what has soil should be
understood.
89. Besides these there are four other ways of classing
“arisen,” namely, (v) arisen as happening, (vi) arisen
with apprehension of an object, (vii) arisen through
non-suppression, (viii) arisen through non-abolition.
Herein, (v) arisen as happening is the same as (i)
“arisen as actually occurring.”
(vi) When an object has at some previous time come
into focus in the eye, etc., and defilement did not arise
then but arose in full force later on simply because the
object had been apprehended, then that defilement is
called arisen with apprehension of an object. Like the
defilement that arose in the Elder Mahā-Tissa after

1873
seeing the form of a person of the opposite sex while
wandering for alms in the village of Kalyāna (cf. M-a I
66 and A-a to A I 4).
(vii) As long as a defilement is not suppressed by
either serenity or insight, though it may not have
actually entered the conscious continuity, it is
nevertheless called arisen through non-suppression
because there is no cause to prevent its arising [if
suitable conditions combine]. (viii) But even when
they are suppressed by serenity or insight they are still
called arisen through non-abolition because the necessity
for their arising has not been transcended unless they
have been cut off by the path. Like the elder who had
obtained the eight attainments, and the defilements
that arose in him while he was going through the air
on his hearing the sound of a woman singing with a
sweet voice as she was gathering flowers in a grove of
blossoming trees.
90. And the three kinds, namely, (vi) arisen with
apprehension of an object, (vii) arisen through non-
suppression, and (vii) arisen through non-abolition,
should be understood as included by (iv) arisen by
having soil [to grow in].
91. So as regard the kinds of “arisen” stated, the four
kinds, namely, (i) as actually occurring, (ii) as been
and gone, (iii) by opportunity made, and (v) as

1874
happening, cannot be abandoned by any [of these four
kinds of] knowledge because they cannot be
eliminated by the paths. But the four kinds of “arisen,”
namely, (iv) by having soil [to grow in], (vi) with
apprehension of an object, (vii) through non-
suppression, and (viii) through non-abolition, can all
be abandoned because a given mundane or
supramundane knowledge, when it arises, nullifies a
given one of these modes of being arisen.
So here “the kinds of states that ought to be
abandoned, also the act of their abandoning” (§32)
should be known in this way.

[THE FOUR FUNCTIONS]

92. (6) Functions of full-understanding and the

rest
As stated when truths are penetrated to,
(7) Each one of which ought to be recognized
According to its individual essence. (§32)

[THE FOUR FUNCTIONS IN A SINGLE

MOMENT]

1875
 6. Now, at the times of penetrating to the truths each
one of the four [path] knowledges is said to exercise
four functions in a single moment. These are full-
understanding, abandoning, realizing, and
developing; and each one of them ought to be
recognized according to its individual essence. [690]
For this is said by the Ancients: “Just as a lamp
performs the four functions simultaneously in a single
moment—it burns the wick, dispels darkness, makes
light appear, and uses up the oil—, so too, path
knowledge penetrates to the four truths
simultaneously in a single moment—it penetrates to
suffering by penetrating to it with full-understanding,
penetrates to origination by penetrating to it with
abandoning, penetrates to the path by penetrating to it
with developing, and penetrates cessation by
penetrating to it with realizing” (see Peṭ 134). What is
meant? By making cessation its object it reaches, sees
and pierces the four truths.”
93. For this is said: “Bhikkhus, he who sees suffering
sees also the origin of suffering, sees also the cessation
of suffering, sees also the way leading to the cessation
of suffering” (S V 437), etc., and so it should be
understood [for all the other three truths]. And further
it is said: “The knowledge of one who possesses the
path is knowledge of suffering and it is knowledge of
the origin of suffering and it is knowledge of the

1876
cessation of suffering and it is knowledge of the way
leading to the cessation of suffering” (Paṭis I 119).
94. As the lamp burns the wick, so his path
knowledge fully understands suffering; as the lamp
dispels the darkness, so the knowledge abandons
origin; as the lamp makes the light appear, so the
knowledge [as right view] develops the path, in other
words, the states consisting in right thinking, etc., [by
acting] as conascence, etc., for them; and as the lamp
uses up the oil, so the knowledge realizes cessation,
which brings defilements to an end. This is how the
application of the simile should be understood.
95. Another method: as the sun, when it rises,
performs four functions simultaneously with its
appearance—it illuminates visible objects, dispels
darkness, causes light to be seen, and allays cold—, so
too, path knowledge … penetrates to cessation by
penetrating to it with realizing. And here also, as the
sun illuminates visible objects, so path knowledge
fully understands suffering; as the sun dispels
darkness, so path knowledge abandons origin; as the
sun causes light to be seen, so path knowledge [as
right view] develops the [other] path [factors] by
acting as [their] conascence condition, etc.; as the sun
allays cold, so path knowledge realizes the cessation,
which is the tranquilizing of defilements. This is how
the application of the simile should be understood.

1877
96. Another method: as a boat performs four
functions simultaneously in a single moment—it
leaves the hither shore, it cleaves the stream, it carries
its cargo, [691] and it approaches the further shore—,
so too, path knowledge … penetrates to cessation by
penetrating to it with realizing. And here, as the boat
leaves the hither shore, so path knowledge fully
understands suffering; as the boat cleaves the stream,
so path knowledge abandons origin; as the boat
carries its cargo, so path knowledge develops the
[other] path [factors] by acting as [their] conascence
condition, etc.; as the boat approaches the further
shore, so path knowledge realizes cessation, which is
the further shore. This is how the application of the
simile should be understood.
97. So when his knowledge occurs with the four
functions in a single moment at the time of penetrating
the four truths, then the four truths have a single
penetration in the sense of trueness (reality) in sixteen
ways, as it is said: “How is there single penetration of
the four truths in the sense of trueness? There is single
penetration of the four truths in the sense of trueness
in sixteen aspects: suffering has the meaning of
oppressing, meaning of being formed, meaning of
burning (torment), meaning of change, as its meaning
of trueness; origin has the meaning of accumulation,
meaning of source, meaning of bondage, meaning of

1878
impediment, as its meaning of trueness; cessation has
the meaning of escape, meaning of seclusion, meaning
of being not formed, meaning of deathlessness, as its
meaning of trueness; the path has the meaning of
outlet, meaning of cause, meaning of seeing, meaning
of dominance, as its meaning of trueness. The four
truths in these sixteen ways are included as one. What
is included as one is unity. Unity is penetrated by a
single knowledge. Thus the four truths have a single
penetration” (Paṭis II 107).
98. Here it may be asked: “Since there are other
meanings of suffering, etc., too, such as ‘a disease, a
tumour’ (Paṭis II 238; M I 435), etc., why then are only
four mentioned for each?” We answer that in this
context it is better because of what is evident through
seeing the other [three truths in each case].
Firstly, in the passage beginning, “Herein, what is
knowledge of suffering? It is the understanding, the
act of understanding … that arises contingent upon
suffering” (Paṭis I 119), knowledge of the truths is
presented as having a single truth as its object
[individually]. But in the passage beginning,
“Bhikkhus, he who sees suffering also sees its origin”
(S V 437), it is presented as accomplishing its function
with respect to the other three truths simultaneously
with its making one of them its object.

1879
99. As regards these [two contexts], when, firstly,
knowledge makes each truth its object singly, then
[when suffering is made the object], suffering has the
characteristic of oppressing as its individual essence,
but its sense of being formed becomes evident through
seeing origin because that suffering is accumulated,
formed, agglomerated, by the origin, which has the
characteristic of accumulating. Then the cooling path
removes the burning of the defilements, [692] and so
suffering’s sense of burning becomes evident through
seeing the path, as the beauty’s (Sundarī’s) ugliness
did to the venerable Nanda through seeing the
celestial nymphs (see Ud 23). But its sense of changing
becomes evident through seeing cessation as not
subject to change, which needs no explaining.
100. Likewise, [when origin is made the object,] origin
has the characteristic of accumulating as its individual
essence; but its sense of source becomes evident through
seeing suffering, just as the fact that unsuitable food is
the source of a sickness, becomes evident through
seeing how a sickness arises owing to such food. Its
sense of bondage becomes evident through seeing
cessation, which has no bonds. And its sense of
impediment becomes evident through seeing the path,
which is the outlet.
101. Likewise, [when cessation is made the object,]
cessation has the characteristic of an escape. But its

1880
sense of seclusion becomes evident through seeing
origin as unsecluded. Its sense of being not formed
becomes evident through seeing the path; for the path
has never been seen by him before in the
beginningless round of rebirths, and yet even that is
formed since it has conditions, and so the
unformedness of the conditionless becomes quite
clear. But its sense of being deathless becomes evident
through seeing suffering; for suffering is poison and
Nibbāna is deathless.
102. Likewise, [when the path is made the object,] the
path has the characteristic of the outlet. But its sense of
cause becomes evident through seeing origin thus,
“That is not the cause, [but on the contrary] this is the
cause, for the attaining of Nibbāna.” Its sense of seeing
becomes evident through seeing cessation, as the eye’s
clearness becomes evident to one who sees very subtle
visible objects and thinks, “How clear my eye is!” Its
sense of dominance becomes evident through seeing
suffering, just as the superiority of lordly people
becomes evident through seeing wretched people
afflicted with many diseases.
103. So in that [first] context four senses are stated for
each truth because in the case of each truth
[individually] one sense becomes evident as the
specific characteristic, while the other three become
evident through seeing the remaining three truths.

1881
 At the path moment, however, all these senses are
penetrated simultaneously by a single knowledge that
has four functions with respect to suffering and the
rest. But about those who would have it that [the
different truths] are penetrated to separately, more is
said in the Abhidhamma in the Kathāvatthu (Kv 212–
20).

[THE FOUR FUNCTIONS DESCRIBED

SEPARATELY]

104. 7. Now, as to those four functions beginning with

full-understanding, which were mentioned above
(§92):
(a) Full-understanding is threefold;
So too (b) abandoning, and (c) realizing,
And (d) two developings are reckoned—
Thus should be known the exposition.
105. (a) Full-understanding is threefold, that is, (i) full
understanding as the known, (ii) full-understanding as
investigating (judging), and (iii) full-understanding as
abandoning (see XX.3).
106. (i) Herein, full-understanding as the known [693] is
summarized thus: “Understanding that is direct-

1882
knowledge is knowledge in the sense of the known”
(Paṭis I 87). It is briefly stated thus: “Whatever states
are directly known are known” (Paṭis I 87). It is given
in detail in the way beginning: “Bhikkhus, all is to be
directly known. And what is all that is to be directly
known? Eye is to be directly known …” (Paṭis I 5). Its
particular plane is the direct knowing of mentality-
materiality with its conditions.
107. (ii) Full-understanding as investigating (judging) is
summarized thus: “Understanding that is full-
understanding is knowledge in the sense of
investigation (judging)” (Paṭis I 87). It is briefly stated
thus: “Whatever states are fully understood are
investigated (judged)” (Paṭis I 87). It is given in detail
in the way beginning: “Bhikkhus, all is to be fully
understood. And what is all that is to be fully
understood? The eye is to be fully understood …”
(Paṭis I 22) Its particular plane starts with
comprehension by groups, and occurring as
investigation of impermanence, suffering, and not-self,
it extends as far as conformity (cf. XX.4).
108. (iii) Full-understanding as abandoning is
summarized thus: “Understanding that is abandoning
is knowledge in the sense of giving up” (Paṭis I 87). It
is stated in detail thus: Whatever states are abandoned
are given up” (Paṭis I 87). It occurs in the way
beginning: “Through the contemplation of

1883
impermanence he abandons the perception of
permanence …” (cf. Paṭis I 58). Its plane extends from
the contemplation of dissolution up to path
knowledge. This is what is intended here.
109. Or alternatively, full-understanding as the
known and full-understanding as investigating have
that [third kind] as their aim, too, and whatever states
a man abandons are certainly known and investigated,
and so all three kinds of full-understanding can be
understood in this way as the function of path
knowledge.
110. (b) So too abandoning: abandoning is threefold too,
like full-understanding, that is, (i) abandoning by
suppressing, (ii) abandoning by substitution of
opposites, and (iii) abandoning by cutting off.
111. (i) Herein, when any of the mundane kinds of
concentration suppresses opposing states such as the
hindrances, that act of suppressing, which is like the
pressing down of water-weed by placing a porous pot
on weed-filled water, is called abandoning by
suppressing. But the suppression of only the hindrances
is given in the text thus: “And there is abandoning of
the hindrances by suppression in one who develops
the first jhāna” (Paṭis I 27). However, that should be
understood as so stated because of the obviousness [of
the suppression then]. For even before and after the

1884
jhāna as well hindrances do not invade consciousness
suddenly; but applied thought, etc., [are suppressed]
only at the moment of actual absorption [in the second
jhāna, etc.,] and so the suppression of the hindrances
then is obvious.
112. (ii) But what is called abandoning by substitution of
opposites is the abandoning of any given state that
ought to be abandoned through the means of a
particular factor of knowledge, which as a constituent
of insight is opposed to it, like the abandoning of
darkness at night through the means of a light. [694] It
is in fact the abandoning firstly of the [false] view of
individuality through the means of delimitation of
mentality-materiality; the abandoning of both the no-
cause view and the fictitious-cause view and also of
the stain of doubt through the means of discerning
conditions; the abandoning of apprehension of a
conglomeration as “I” and “mine” through the means
of comprehension by groups; the abandoning of
perception of the path in what is not the path through
the means of the definition of what is the path and
what is not the path; the abandoning of the
annihilation view through the means of seeing rise;
the abandoning of the eternity view through the
means of seeing fall; the abandoning of the perception
of non-terror in what is terror through the means of
appearance as terror; the abandoning of the perception

1885
of enjoyment through the means of seeing danger; the
abandoning of the perception of delight through the
means of the contemplation of dispassion (revulsion);
the abandoning of lack of desire for deliverance
through the means of desire for deliverance; the
abandoning of non-reflection through the means of
reflection; the abandoning of not looking on equably
through the means of equanimity; the abandoning of
apprehension contrary to truth through the means of
conformity.
113. And also in the case of the eighteen principal
insights the abandoning by substitution of opposites
is: (1) the abandoning of the perception of the
perception of permanence, through the means of the
contemplation of impermanence; (2) of the perception
of pleasure, through the means of the contemplation
of pain; (3) of the perception of self, through the
means of the contemplation of not-self; (4) of delight,
through the means of the contemplation of dispassion
(revulsion); (5) of greed, through the means of the
contemplation of fading away; (6) of originating,
through the means of the contemplation of cessation;
(7) of grasping, through the means of the
contemplation of relinquishment; (8) of the perception
of compactness, through the means of the
contemplation of destruction; (9) of accumulation,
through the means of the contemplation of fall; (10) of

1886
the perception of lastingness, through the means of the
contemplation of change; (11) of the sign, through the
means of the contemplation of the signless; (12) of
desire, through the means of the contemplation of the
desireless; (13) of misinterpreting (insisting), through
the means of the contemplation of voidness; (14) of
misinterpreting (insisting) due to grasping at a core,
through the means of insight into states that is higher
understanding; (15) of misinterpreting (insisting) due
to confusion, through the means of correct knowledge
and vision; (16) of misinterpreting (insisting) due to
reliance [on formations], through the means of the
contemplation of danger [in them]; (17) of non-
reflection, through the means of the contemplation of
reflection; (18) of misinterpreting (insisting) due to
bondage, through means of contemplation of turning
away (cf. Paṭis I 47).
114. Herein, (1)–(7) the way in which the abandoning
of the perception of permanence, etc., takes place
through the means of the seven contemplations
beginning with that of impermanence has already
been explained under the contemplation of dissolution
(Ch. XXI.15f.).
(8) Contemplation of destruction, however, is the
knowledge in one who effects the resolution of the
compact and so sees destruction as “impermanent in
the sense of destruction.” Through the means of that

1887
knowledge there comes to be the abandoning of the
perception of compactness.
115. (9) Contemplation of fall is stated thus:
“Defining both to be alike
By inference from that same object.
Intentness on cessation—these
Are insight in the mark of fall” (Paṭis I 58).
It is intentness on cessation, in other words, on that
same dissolution, after seeing dissolution of [both seen
and unseen] formations by personal experience and by
inference [respectively]. Through the means of that
contemplation there comes to be the abandoning of
accumulation. When a man sees with insight that “The
things for the sake of which I might accumulate
[kamma] are thus [695] subject to fall,” his
consciousness no longer inclines to accumulation.
116. (10) Contemplation of change is the act of seeing,
according to the material septad, etc., how
[momentary] occurrences [in continuity] take place
differently by [gradually] diverging from any
definition; or it is the act of seeing change in the two
aspects of the ageing and the death of what is arisen.
Through the means of that contemplation the
perception of lastingness is abandoned.
117. (11) Contemplation of the signless is the same as the
contemplation of impermanence. Through its means

1888
the sign of permanence is abandoned.
(12) Contemplation of the desireless is the same as the
contemplation of pain. Through its means desire for
pleasure and hope for pleasure are abandoned.
(13) Contemplation of voidness is the same as the
contemplation of not-self. Through its means the
misinterpreting (insisting) that “a self exists” (see S IV
400) is abandoned.
118. (14) Insight into states that is higher
understanding is stated thus:
“Having reflected on the object,
Dissolution he contemplates,
Appearance then as empty—this
Is insight of higher understanding” (Paṭis I 58).
Insight so described occurs after knowing
materiality, etc., as object, by seeing the dissolution
both of that object and of the consciousness whose
object it was, and by apprehending voidness through
the dissolution in this way: “Only formations break
up. It is the death of formations. There is nothing
else.” Taking that insight as higher understanding and
as insight with respect to states, it is called “insight
into states that is higher understanding.” Through its
means misinterpreting (insisting) due to grasping at a
core is abandoned, because it has been clearly seen
that there is no core of permanence and no core of self.

1889
119. (15) Correct knowledge and vision is the
discernment of mentality-materiality with its
conditions. Through its means misinterpreting
(insisting) due to confusion that occurs in this way,
“Was I in the past?” (M I 8), and in this way, “The
world was created by an Overlord,” are abandoned.
120. (16) Contemplation of danger is knowledge seeing
danger in all kinds of becoming, etc., which as arisen
owing to appearance as terror. Through its means
misinterpreting (insisting) due to reliance is
abandoned, since he does not see any [formation] to be
relied on for shelter.
(17) Contemplation of reflection is the reflection that
effects the means to liberation. Through its means
non-reflection is abandoned.
121. (18) Contemplation of turning away is equanimity
about formations and conformity. For at that point his
mind is said to retreat, retract and recoil from the
whole field of formations, as a water drop does on a
lotus leaf that slopes a little. That is why through its
means misinterpreting (insisting) due to bondage is
abandoned. [696] The meaning is: abandoning of the
occurrence of defilement that consists in
misinterpreting defiled by the bondage of sense
desires, and so on.
Abandoning by substitution of the opposites should

1890
be understood in detail in this way. But in the texts it
is stated in brief thus: “Abandoning of views by
substitution of opposites comes about in one who
develops concentration partaking of penetration”
(Paṭis I 27).
122. (iii) The abandoning of the states beginning with
the fetters by the noble path knowledge in such a way
that they never occur again, like a tree struck by a
thunderbolt, is called abandoning by cutting off. With
reference to this it is said: “Abandoning by cutting off
comes about in one who develops the supramundane
path that leads to the destruction [of defilements]”
(Paṭis I 27).
123. So of these three kinds of abandoning, it is only
abandoning by cutting off that is intended here. But
since that meditator’s previous abandoning by
suppression and by substitution by opposites have
that [third kind] as their aim, too, all three kinds of
abandoning can therefore be understood in this way
as the function of path knowledge. For when a man
has gained an empire by killing off the opposing
kings, what was done by him previous to that is also
called “done by the king.”
124. (c) Realizing is divided into two as (i) mundane
realizing, and (ii) supramundane realizing. And it is
threefold too with the subdivision of the

1891
supramundane into two as seeing and developing.
125. (i) Herein, the touch (phassanā) of the first jhāna,
etc., as given in the way beginning, “I am an obtainer,
a master, of the first jhāna; the first jhāna has been
realized by me” (Vin III 93–94), is called mundane
realizing. “Touch” (phassanā) is the touching (phusanā)
with the contact (phassa) of knowledge by personal
experience on arriving, thus, “This has been arrived at
by me”.[21] With reference to this meaning realization
is summarized thus, “Understanding that is
realization is knowledge in the sense of touch” (Paṭis I
87), after which it is described thus, “Whatever states
are realized are touched” (Paṭis I 87).
126. Also, those states which are not aroused in one’s
own continuity and are known through knowledge
that depends on another are realized; for it is said,
referring to that, “Bhikkhus, all should be realized.
And what is all that should be realized? The eye
should be realized” (Paṭis I 35), and so on. And it is
further said: “One who sees materiality realizes it. One
who sees [697] feeling … perception … formations …
consciousness realizes it. One who sees the eye …
(etc., see XX.9) … ageing and death realizes it. [One
who sees suffering] … (etc.)[22] … One who sees
Nibbāna, which merges in the deathless [in the sense
of the end] realizes it. Whatever states are realized are

1892
touched” (Paṭis I 35).
127. (ii) The seeing of Nibbāna at the moment of the
first path is realizing as seeing. At the other path
moments it is realizing as developing. And it is intended
as twofold here. So realizing of Nibbāna as seeing and
as developing should be understood as a function of
this knowledge.
128. (d) And two developings are reckoned: but
developing is also reckoned as twofold, namely as (i)
mundane developing, and (ii) as supramundane
developing.
(i) Herein, the arousing of mundane virtue,
concentration and understanding, and the influencing
of the continuity by their means, is mundane developing.
And (ii) the arousing of supramundane virtue,
concentration and understanding, and the influencing
of the continuity by them, is supramundane developing.
Of these, it is the supramundane that is intended here.
For this fourfold knowledge arouses supramundane
virtue, etc., since it is their conascence condition, and it
influences the continuity by their means. So it is only
supramundane developing that is a function of it.
Therefore these are the:
Functions of full-understanding, and the rest
As stated when truths are penetrated to,
Each one of which ought to be recognized

1893
 According to its individual essence.

[CONCLUSION]

129. Now, with reference to the stanza:

“When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding” (I.1),
it was said above “After he has perfected the two
purifications that are the ‘roots,’ then he can develop
the five purifications that are the ‘trunk’”(XIV.32).
And at this point the detailed exposition of the system
for developing understanding in the proper way as it
has been handed down is completed. So the question,
“How should it be developed?” (XIV.32) is now
answered.

The twenty-second chapter called “The

Description of Purification by
Knowledge and Vision” in the Treatise
on the Development of Understanding in
the Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.

1894
1895
Notes for Chapter XXII

1. “‘Of emerging and turning away from the external’: it

is the understanding of turning away that is being
effected, which turning away is emergence from
the field of formations; it is termed external
because the unformed element’s existence is
external” (Vism-mhṭ 866). The unformed element
(=Nibbāna) is classed as “external” under the
internal (ajjhattika) triad of the Abhidhamma Mātikā
(see Dhs 2 and p. 241).
2. Pakkhandati—“enters into is glossed there by
anupavisati (enters in Vism-mhṭ (p. 566), which is
the sense required and may be taken as based on
the idiom in the Suttas, “Cittaṃ pakkhandati
pasīdati santiṭṭhati adhimuccati—the mind enters
into [that], becomes settled, steady and resolute”
(M I 186), which is obviously inappropriate here.
3. Phalakasataṃ—“target”: not in PED. Vism-mhṭ
says “Phalakasatan ti asana-sāra-mayaṃ
phalakasataṃ—a “phalakasata” is one made of the
heart (pith) of the asana tree.” The “wheel
contrivance” resembles a potter’s wheel according
to Vism-mhṭ (p.867).
4. The seven (noble) treasures are: faith, virtue,

1896
 conscience, shame, learning, generosity, and
understanding (D III 251).
5. See the five kinds of enmity and fear at S II 68f.
Vism-mhṭ, however, says: “The five kinds of
enmity beginning with killing living things and
the twenty-five great terrors (mahā-bhayāni) are
what constitute ‘all enmity and fear’” (Vism-mhṭ
867).
6. For the use of the expression “brings to bear”—
samodhāneti in this sense see Paṭis I 181.
7. “Here ‘change-of-lineage’ means ‘like change-of-
lineage’; for the knowledge that ushers in the
[first] path is called that in the literal sense
because it overcomes the ordinary man’s lineage
and develops the Noble One’s lineage. But this is
called ‘change-of-lineage’ figuratively because of
its similarity to the other. It is also called
‘cleansing’ (vodāna) because it purifies from
certain defilements and because it makes absolute
purification its object. Hence it is said in the
Paṭṭhāna, ‘Conformity is a condition, as proximity
condition, for cleansing’ (Paṭṭh I 59). But ‘next to
change-of-lineage’ is said here because it is said in
the Paṭisambhidāmagga that for the purpose of
‘overcoming arising,’ etc., ‘eight states of change-
of-lineage arise through concentration’ and ‘ten

1897
 states of change-of-lineage arise through
concentration’ and ‘ten states of change-of-lineage
arise through insight’ (Paṭis I 68–69), and it is
given in the same way in this page” (Vism-mhṭ
869).
8. The four foundations of mindfulness are fully
commented on in the commentary to MN 10 (=
commentary to DN 22). The right endeavours are
fully commented on in the commentary to the
Sammappadhāna Vibhaṅga (cf. M-a II 243ff.; also
A-a commenting on AN 1:II 1). The four roads to
power are briefly commented on at M-a II 69 and
fully in the commentary to the M-a I 82f. and
more fully in the commentary to the Bojjhaṅga
Vibhaṅga. The Noble Eightfold Path is
commented on at M-a I 105 and from a different
angle in the commentary to the Magga Vibhaṅga.
The five faculties and the five powers are not
apparently dealt with in the Nikāya and the
Abhidhamma Commentaries by adding anything
further to what is said here (§37).
9. The Paṭisambhidā (Paṭis I 177) derives satipaṭṭhāna
from sati (mindfulness) and paṭṭhāna (foundation,
establishment). The commentaries prefer to derive
it from sati and upaṭṭhāna (establishment,
appearance, and also waiting upon: see M-a I
238). The readings of the Ee and Ae eds. disagree

1898
 here and that of the former has been followed
though the result is much the same.
10. These figures refer to the numbers of different
contemplations described in the tenth sutta of the
Majjhima Nikāya (= DN 22).
11. These three abstinences are the “prior state” of the
Eightfold Path (see M III 289).
“Only the road to power consisting in zeal,
and right speech, are actually included here; but
when these are mentioned, the remaining roads to
power and remaining two abstinences are implied
in the meaning too. The meaning of this sentence
should be understood according to the ‘category
of characteristics’ (lakkhaṇa-hāra—see
Nettipakaraṇa)” (Vism-mhṭ 872). This Netti rule
says:
“When one thing has been stated, then
those things
That are in characteristic one with it
Are stated too–this is the formulation
Of the category of characteristics” (Netti 3).
12. “Emergence from the sign consists in
relinquishing the sign of formations and making
Nibbāna the object. Emergence from occurrence
consists in entering upon the state of non-liability
to the occurrence of kamma-result in the future by

1899
 causing the cessation of cause” (Vism-mhṭ 874).
13. “It emerges from the defilements of uncertainty,
etc., that occur consequent upon that view, which
is wrong since it leads to states of loss” (Vism-mhṭ
874).
14. “‘Wrong knowledge,’ which is wrong because it
does not occur rightly [i.e. in conformity with the
truth], and is wrong and mistaken owing to
misinterpretations, etc., is just delusion. ‘Wrong
deliverance’ is the wrong notion of liberation that
assumes liberation to take place in a ‘World Apex’
(lokathūpika–see XVI.85), and so on” (Vism-mhṭ
886).
15. The meaning of this paragraph is made clearer by
reference to the Atthasālinī (Dhs-a 48) and Mūla
Ṭīkā (Dhs-ṭ 51), where the use of ā as an adverb in
the sense of “as far as” indirectly with the ablative
(gotrabhuto, etc.) is explained; the abl. properly
belongs to savana (i.e. exudations from). Vism-mhṭ
only says: “‘Exudations’ (savana) because of
occurring [due to], savanato (“because of exuding”)
is because of flowing out as filth of defilement.
Savanato (“because of producing”) the second time is
because of giving out (pasavana)” (Vism-mhṭ 876.
Cf. also M-a I 61).
16. “The intention is: or it follows that there is

1900
 dissociation of defilements from consciousness,
like that of formations according to those who
assert that formations exist dissociated form
consciousness. He said, ‘there is no such thing as
a present defilement dissociated from
consciousness’ in order to show that that is
merely the opinion of those who make the
assertion. For it is when immaterial states are
actually occurring by their having a single basis
and being included in the three instants that they
are present; so how could that be dissociated from
consciousness? Consequently there is no
dissociation from consciousness here” (Vism-mhṭ
878).
17. “‘Shackled’: one whose consciousness is shackled
by conceit (pride)” (Vism-mhṭ 878).
18. “‘In any given plane’ means aggregates as objects
of clinging, reckoned as a human or divine
person” (Vism-mhṭ 879).
19. “By the words ‘which are the object of insight’ he
points out the non-fully-understood state of the
aggregates, not merely the fact that they are the
object of insight, which is proved by his taking
only the three planes. For it is not-fully-
understood aggregates among the aggregates
constituting the [subjective] basis that are

1901
 intended as the ‘soil of defilements’” (Vism-mhṭ
880).
20. “No one would be able to abandon the root of
becoming if it were in another’s continuity. ‘With
respect to the basis [for them in oneself]’ means as the
place of their arising; in that particular becoming
or continuity” (Vism-mhṭ 880).
21. “‘With the contact of knowledge by personal
experience’ means by personal experience of it as
object, which is what the ‘contact of knowledge’ is
called. The words, ‘By personal experience’
exclude taking it as an object by inference. For
what is intended here as the ‘contact of
knowledge’ is knowing by personal experience
through reviewing thus, ‘This is like this’” (Vism-
mhṭ 888).
22. The first elision here—“The eye … ageing-and-
death”—is explained in XX.9. The second elision
—“One who sees suffering … One who sees
Nibbāna, which merges in the deathless in the
sense of end …”—covers all things listed from
Paṭis I 8, line 18 (N.B. the new para in the Paṭis
text should begin with the words “dukkhaṃ
abhiññeyyaṃ” up to p. 22, line 11, amatogadhaṃ
nibbānaṃ pariyosānatthaṃ abhiññeyyaṃ). In this
case, however (Paṭis I 35), sacchikātabba (“to be

1902
realized”), etc., is substituted for abhiññeyya (“to
be directly known”).

1903
 Chapter XXIII
The Benefits In Developing
Understanding
(Paññābhāvanānisaṃsa-niddesa)

1. (vi) WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS IN DEVELOPING

UNDERSTANDING? (See XIV.1) [698]

To that question, which was asked above, we reply

that this development of understanding has many
hundred benefits. But it would be impossible to
explain its benefits in detail, however long a time were
taken over it. Briefly, though, its benefits should be
understood as these: (A) removal of the various
defilements, (B) experience of the taste of the noble
fruit, (C) ability to attain the attainment of cessation,
and (D) achievement of worthiness to receive gifts and
so on.

[A. REMOVAL OF THE DEFILEMENTS]

2. Herein, it should be understood that one of the

benefits of the mundane development of
understanding is the removal of the various

1904
defilements beginning with [mistaken] view of
individuality. This starts with the delimitation of
mentality-materiality. Then one of the benefits of the
supramundane development of understanding is the
removal, at the path moment, of the various
defilements beginning with the fetters.
With dreadful thump the thunderbolt
Annihilates the rock.
The fire whipped by the driving wind
Annihilates the wood.
The radiant orb of solar flame
Annihilates the dark.
Developed understanding, too,
Annihilates inveterate
Defilements’ netted overgrowth,
The source of every woe.
This blessing in this very life
A man himself may know.

[B. THE TASTE OF THE NOBLE FRUIT]

3. Not only the removal of the various defilements but

also the experience of the taste of the noble fruit is a
benefit of the development of understanding. [699] For
it is the fruitions of stream-entry, etc.—the fruits of

1905
asceticism—that are called the “noble fruit.” Its taste is
experienced in two ways, that is to say, in its
occurrence in the cognitive series of the path, and in
its occurrence in the attainment of fruition. Of these,
only its occurrence in the cognitive series of the path
has been shown (XXII.3f.).
4. Furthermore, when people say that the fruit is the
mere abandoning of fetters[1] and nothing more than
that, the following sutta can be cited in order to
convince them that they are wrong: “How is it that
understanding of the tranquilizing of effort is
knowledge of fruit? At the moment of the stream-
entry path right view in the sense of seeing emerges
from wrong view, and it emerges from the defilements
and from the aggregates that occur consequent upon
that [wrong view], and externally it emerges from all
signs. Right view arises because of the tranquilizing of
that effort. This is the fruit of the path” (Paṭis I 71), and
this should be given in detail. Also such passages as,
“The four paths and the four fruits—these states have
a measureless object” (Dhs §1408), and, “An exalted
state is a condition, as proximity condition, for a
measureless state” (Paṭṭh II 227 (Be)), establish the
meaning here.
5. However, in order to show how it occurs in the
attainment of fruition there is the following set of
questions:

1906
 (i) What is fruition attainment?
(ii) Who attains it?
(iii) Who do not attain it?
(iv) Why do they attain it?
(v) How does its attainment come
about?
(vi) How is it made to last?
(vii) How does the emergence from it
come about?
(viii) What is next to fruition?
(ix) What is fruition next to?

6. Herein, (i) What is fruition attainment? It is

absorption in the cessation in which the noble fruition
consists.
(ii) Who attains it? (iii) Who do not attain it? No
ordinary men attain it. Why? Because it is beyond
their reach. But all Noble Ones attain it. Why? Because
it is within their reach. But those who have reached a
higher path do not attain a lower fruition because the
state of each successive person is more tranquilized
than the one below. And those who have only reached
a lower path do not attain a higher fruition because it
is beyond their reach. But each one attains his

1907
appropriate fruition. This is what has been agreed
here.
7. But there are some who say that the stream-enterer
and once-returner do not attain it, and that only the
two above them attain it. The reason they give is that
only these two show achievement in concentration.
But that is no reason, since even the ordinary man
attains such mundane concentration as is within his
reach. But why argue here over what is and what is
not a reason? Is it not said in the texts as follows?
“Which ten states of change-of-lineage arise [700]
through insight?
“For the purpose of obtaining the stream-entry path
it overcomes arising, occurrence … (etc., see XXII.5) …
despair, and externally the sign of formations, thus it
is change-of-lineage.
“For the purpose of attaining the stream-entry
fruition …
“For the purpose of attaining the once-return path
…
“For the purpose of attaining the once-return
fruition …
“For the purpose of attaining the non-return path …
“For the purpose of attaining the non-return fruition

1908
…
“For the purpose of attaining the Arahant path …
“For the purpose of attaining the Arahant fruition
…
“For the purpose of attaining the void abiding …
“For the purpose of attaining the signless abiding it
overcomes arising, occurrence … (etc.) … despair, and
externally the sign of formations, thus it is change-of-
lineage” (Paṭis I 68).[2] From that it must be concluded
that all Noble Ones attain each their own fruit.
8. (iv) Why do they attain it? For the purpose of abiding
in bliss here and now. For just as a king experiences
royal bliss and a deity experiences divine bliss, so too
the Noble Ones think, “We shall experience the noble
supramundane bliss,” and after deciding on the
duration, they attain the attainment of fruition
whenever they choose.[3]
9. (v) How does its attainment come about? (vi) How
is it made to last? (vii) How does the emergence from
it come about?
(v) In the first place its attainment comes about for
two reasons: with not bringing to mind any object
other than Nibbāna, and with bringing Nibbāna to
mind, according as it is said: “Friend, there are two

1909
conditions for the attainment of the signless mind-
deliverance; they are the non-bringing to mind of all
signs, and the bringing to mind of the signless
element” (M I 296).
10. Now, the process of attaining it is as follows. A
noble disciple who seeks the attainment of fruition
should go into solitary retreat. He should see
formations with insight according to rise and fall and
so on. When that insight has progressed [as far as
conformity], then comes change-of-lineage knowledge
with formations as its object.[4] And immediately next
to it consciousness becomes absorbed in cessation with
the attainment of fruition. And here it is only fruition,
not path, that arises even in a trainer, because his
tendency is to fruition attainment.
11. But there are those[5] who say that when a stream-
enterer embarks on insight, thinking, “I shall attain
fruition attainment,” he becomes a once-returner, and
a once-returner, a non-returner. They should be told:
“In that case a non-returner becomes an Arahant and
an Arahant, a Paccekabuddha and a Paccekabuddha, a
Buddha. For that reason, and because it is contradicted
as well by the text quoted above, none of that should
be accepted. Only this should be accepted: fruition
itself, not path, arises also in the trainer. And if the
path he has arrived at had the first jhāna, his fruition

1910
will have the first jhāna too when it arises. If the path
has the second, so will the fruition. And so with the
other jhānas.”
This, firstly, is how attaining comes about. [701]
12. (vi) It is made to last in three ways, because of the
words: “Friend, there are three conditions for the
persistence of the signless mind-deliverance: they are
the non-bringing to mind of all signs, the bringing to
mind of the signless element, and the prior volition” (M
I 296–97). Herein, the prior volition is the
predetermining of the time before attaining;[6] for it is
by determining it thus, “I shall emerge at such a time,”
that it lasts until that time comes. This is how it is
made to last.
13. (vii) Emergence from it comes about in two ways,
because of the words: “Friend, there are two
conditions for the emergence from the signless mind-
deliverance: they are the bringing to mind of all signs,
and the non-bringing to mind of the signless element”
(M I 297). Herein, of all signs means the sign of
materiality, sign of feeling, perception, formations,
and consciousness. Of course, a man does not bring all
those to mind at once, but this is said in order to
include all. So the emergence from the attainment of
fruition comes about in him when he brings to mind
whatever is the object of the life-continuum.[7]

1911
14. (viii) What is next to fruition? (ix) What is fruition
next to? In the first case (viii) either fruition itself is
next to fruition or the life-continuum is next to it. But
(ix) there is fruition that is (a) next to the path, (b)
there is that next to fruition, (c) there is that next to
change-of-lineage, and (d) there is that next to the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception.
Herein, (a) it is next to the path in the cognitive series
of the path. (b) Each one that is subsequent to a
previous one is next to fruition. (c) Each first one in the
attainments of fruition is next to change-of-lineage. And
conformity should be understood here as “change-of-
lineage”; for this is said in the Paṭṭhāna: “In the
Arahant, conformity is a condition, as proximity
condition, for fruition attainment. In trainers,
conformity is a condition, as proximity condition, for
fruition attainment” (Paṭṭh I 159). (d) The fruition by
means of which there is emergence from the
attainment of cessation is next to the base consisting of
neither perception non-perception.
15. Herein, all except the fruition that arises in the
cognitive series of the path occur as fruition
attainment. So whether it arises in the cognitive series
of the path or in fruition attainment:
Asceticism’s fruit sublime,
Which tranquilizes all distress,

1912
 Its beauty from the Deathless draws,
Its calm from lack of worldliness. [702]
Of a sweet purifying bliss
It is the fountainhead besides,
Whose honey-sweet ambrosia
A deathless sustenance provides.
Now, if a wise man cultivates
His understanding, he shall know
This peerless bliss, which is the taste
The noble fruit provides; and so
This is the reason why they call
Experience here and now aright
Of flavour of the noble fruit
A blessing of fulfilled insight.

[C. THE ATTAINMENT OF CESSATION]

16. And not only the experience of the taste of the

noble fruit but also the ability to attain the attainment
of cessation should be understood as a benefit of the
development of understanding.
17. Now, in order to explain the attainment of
cessation there is this set of questions:
(i) What is the attainment of cessation?

1913
 (ii) Who attains it?
(iii) Who do not attain it?
(iv) Where do they attain it?
(v) Why do they attain it?
(vi) How does its attainment come
about?
(vii) How is it made to last?
(viii) How does the emergence from it
come about?
(ix) Towards what does the mind of
one who has emerged tend?
(x) What is the difference between one
who has attained it and one who is
dead?
(xi) Is the attainment of cessation
formed or unformed, mundane or
supramundane, produced or
unproduced?

18. Herein, (i) What is the attainment of cessation? It is

the non-occurrence of consciousness and its
concomitants owing to their progressive cessation.
(ii) Who attains it? (iii) Who do not attain it? No

1914
ordinary men, no stream-enterers or once-returners,
and no non-returners and Arahants who are bare-
insight workers attain it. But both non-returners and
those with cankers destroyed (Arahants) who are
obtainers of the eight attainments attain it. For it is
said: “Understanding that is mastery, owing to
possession of two powers, to the tranquilization of
three formations, to sixteen kinds of exercise of
knowledge, and to nine kinds of exercise of
concentration, is knowledge of the attainment of
cessation” (Paṭis I 97). And these qualifications are not
to be found together in any persons other than non-
returners and those whose cankers are destroyed, who
are obtainers of the eight attainments. That is why
only they and no others attain it.
19. But which are the two powers? And the [three
formations] … and mastery? Here there is no need for
us to say anything; for it has all been said in the
description of the summary [quoted above], according
as it is said:
20. “Of the two powers: of the two powers, the serenity
power and the insight power. [703]
“What is serenity as a power? The unification of the
mind and non-distraction due to renunciation are
serenity as a power. The unification of the mind and
non-distraction due to non-ill will are serenity as a

1915
power. The unification of the mind and non-
distraction due to perception of light … [to non-
distraction … to defining of states (dhamma) … to
knowledge … to gladness … to the eight attainments,
the ten kasiṇas, the ten recollections, the nine charnel-
ground contemplations, and the thirty-two modes of
mindfulness of breathing][8] … the unification of the
mind and non-distraction due to breathing out in one
who is contemplating relinquishment[9] is serenity as a
power.
21. “In what sense is serenity a power? Owing to the
first jhāna it does not waver on account of the
hindrances, thus serenity is a power. Owing to the
second jhāna it does not waver on account of applied
and sustained thought, thus serenity is a power …
(etc.) … Owing to the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception it does not waver on
account of the perception of the base consisting of
nothingness, thus serenity is a power. It does not
waver and vacillate and hesitate on account of
agitation and on account of the defilements and the
aggregates that accompany agitation, thus serenity is a
power. This is the serenity power.
22. “What is insight as a power? Contemplation of
impermanence is insight as a power. Contemplation of
pain … Contemplation of not-self … Contemplation of

1916
dispassion … Contemplation of fading away …
Contemplation of cessation … Contemplation of
relinquishment is insight as a power. Contemplation
of impermanence in materiality … (etc.) …
Contemplation of relinquishment in materiality is
insight as a power. Contemplation of impermanence
in feeling … in perception … in formations … in
consciousness is insight as a power … Contemplation
of relinquishment in consciousness is insight as a
power. Contemplation of impermanence in the eye …
(etc., see XX.9) … Contemplation of impermanence in
ageing-and-death … (etc.) … Contemplation of
relinquishment in ageing-and-death is insight as a
power.
23. “In what sense is insight a power? Owing to the
contemplation of impermanence it does not waver on
account of perception of permanence, thus insight is a
power. Owing to the contemplation of pain it does not
waver on account of perception of pleasure … Owing
to the contemplation of not-self it does not waver on
account of the perception of self … Owing to the
contemplation of dispassion it does not waver on
account of delight … Owing to the contemplation of
fading away it does not waver on account of greed …
Owing to the contemplation of cessation it does not
waver on account of arising … Owing to the
contemplation of relinquishment it does not waver on

1917
account of grasping, thus insight is a power. It does
not waver and vacillate and hesitate on account of
ignorance and on account of the defilements and the
aggregates that accompany ignorance, thus insight is a
power.
24. “Owing to the tranquilization of three formations:
owing to the tranquilization of what three formations?
In one who has attained the second jhāna the verbal
formations consisting in applied and sustained
thought are quite tranquilized. In one who has
attained the fourth jhāna the bodily formations
consisting in in-breaths and out-breaths are quite
tranquilized. In one who has attained cessation of
perception and feeling the mental formations
consisting in feeling and perception are quite
tranquilized. It is owing to the tranquilization of these
three formations.
25. “Owing to sixteen kinds of exercise of knowledge:
owing to what sixteen kinds of exercise of knowledge?
Contemplation of impermanence is a kind of exercise
of knowledge. Contemplation of pain …
Contemplation of not-self … Contemplation of
dispassion … Contemplation of fading away …
Contemplation of cessation … Contemplation of
relinquishment … Contemplation of turning away is a
kind of exercise of knowledge. [704] The stream-entry
path is a kind of exercise of knowledge. The

1918
attainment of the fruition of stream-entry … The once-
return path … The attainment of the fruition of once-
return … The non-return path … The attainment of
the fruition of non-return … The Arahant path … The
attainment of the fruition of Arahantship is a kind of
exercise of knowledge. It is owing to these sixteen
kinds of exercise of knowledge.
26. “Owing to nine kinds of exercise of concentration:
owing to what nine kinds of exercise of concentration?
The first jhāna is a kind of exercise of concentration.
The second jhāna … [The third jhāna … The fourth
jhāna … The attainment of the base consisting of
boundless space … The attainment of the base
consisting of boundless consciousness … The
attainment of the base consisting of nothingness … ].
The attainment of the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception is a kind of exercise of
concentration. And the applied thought and sustained
thought and happiness and bliss and unification of
mind that have the purpose of attaining the first jhāna
… (etc.) … And the applied thought and sustained
thought and happiness and bliss and unification of
mind that have the purpose of attaining the
attainment of the base consisting of neither perception
nor non-perception. It is owing to these nine kinds of
exercise of concentration.[10]
27. “Mastery: there are five kinds of mastery. There is

1919
mastery in adverting, in attaining, in resolving, in
emerging, in reviewing. He adverts to the first jhāna
where, when, and for as long as he wishes, he has no
difficulty in adverting, thus it is mastery in adverting.
He attains the first jhāna where, when, and for as long
as he wishes, he has no difficulty in attaining, thus it is
mastery in attaining. He resolves upon [the duration
of] the first jhāna where, … thus it is mastery in
resolving. He emerges from the first jhāna, … thus it is
mastery in emerging. He reviews the first jhāna where,
when, and for as long as he wishes, he has no
difficulty in reviewing, thus it is mastery in reviewing.
He adverts to the second jhāna … (etc.) … He reviews
the attainment of the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception where, when, and for
as long as he wishes, he has no difficulty in reviewing,
thus it is mastery in reviewing. These are the five
kinds of mastery” (Paṭis I 97–100).
28. And here the words: “Owing to sixteen kinds of
exercise of knowledge” state the maximum. But in a
non-returner the mastery is owing to fourteen kinds of
exercise of knowledge. If that is so, then does it not
come about also in the once-returner owing to twelve?
And in the stream-enterer owing to ten?—It does not.
Because the greed based on the cords of sense desire,
which is an obstacle to concentration, is unabandoned
in them. It is because that is not abandoned in them

1920
that the serenity power is not perfected. Since it is not
perfected they are not, owing to want of power, able
to attain the attainment of cessation, which has to be
attained by the two powers. But it is abandoned in the
non-returner and so his power is perfected. Since his
power is perfected he is able to attain it.
Hence the Blessed One said: “Profitable
[consciousness] of the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception in one emerging from
cessation is a condition, as proximity condition, for the
attainment of fruition” (Paṭṭh I 159). For this is said in
the Great Book of the Paṭṭhāna[11] with reference only
to non-returners’ emerging from cessation. [705]
29. (iv) Where do they attain it? In the five-constituent
becoming. Why? Because of the necessity for the
succession of [all] the attainments (cf. S IV 217). But in
the four-constituent becoming there is no arising of the
first jhāna, etc., and so it is not possible to attain it
there. But some say that is because of the lack of a
physical basis [for the mind there].[12]
30. (v) Why do they attain it? Being wearied by the
occurrence and dissolution of formations, they attain it
thinking, “Let us dwell in bliss by being without
consciousness here and now and reaching the
cessation that is Nibbāna.”[13]

1921
31. (vi) How does its attainment come about? It comes
about in one who performs the preparatory tasks by
striving with serenity and insight and causes the
cessation of [consciousness belonging to] the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception.
One who strives with serenity alone reaches the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception
and remains there, while one who strives with insight
alone reaches the attainment of fruition and remains
there. But it is one who strives with both, and after
performing the preparatory tasks, causes the cessation
of [consciousness belonging to] the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception, who attains it.
This is in brief.
32. But the detail is this. When a bhikkhu who desires
to attain cessation has finished all that has to do with
his meal and has washed his hands and feet well, he
sits down on a well-prepared seat in a secluded place.
Having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect,
established mindfulness in front of him, he attains the
first jhāna, and on emerging he sees the formations in
it with insight as impermanent, painful, not-self.
33. This insight is threefold as insight that discerns
formations, insight for the attainment of fruition, and
insight for the attainment of cessation. Herein, insight
that discerns formations, whether sluggish or keen, is
the proximate cause only for a path. Insight for the

1922
attainment of fruition, which is only valid when keen,
is similar to that for the development of a path. Insight
for the attainment of cessation is only valid when it is
not over-sluggish and not over-keen. Therefore he sees
those formations with insight that is not over-sluggish
and not over-keen.
34. After that, he attains the second jhāna, and on
emerging he sees formations with insight in like
manner. After that, he attains the third jhāna … (etc.)
… After that, he attains the base consisting of
boundless consciousness, and on emerging he sees the
formations in it in like manner. Likewise he attains the
base consisting of nothingness. On emerging from that
he does the fourfold preparatory task, that is to say,
about (a) non-damage to others’ property, (b) the
Community’s waiting, (c) the Master’s summons, and
(d) the limit of the duration. [706]
35. (a) Herein, non-damage to others’ property refers to
what the bhikkhu has about him that is not his
personal property: a robe and bowl, or a bed and
chair, or a living room, or any other kind of requisite
kept by him but the property of various others. It
should be resolved[14] that such property will not be
damaged, will not be destroyed by fire, water, wind,
thieves, rats, and so on. Here is the form of the resolve:
“During these seven days let this and this not be burnt
by fire; let it not be swept off by water; let it not be

1923
spoilt by wind; let it not be stolen by thieves; let it not
be devoured by rats, and so on.” When he has
resolved in this way, they are not in danger during the
seven days.
36. If he does not resolve in this way, they may be
destroyed by fire, etc., as in the case of the Elder Mahā
Nāga. The elder, it seems, went for alms into the
village where his mother, a lay follower, lived. She
gave him rice gruel and seated him in the sitting hall.
The elder sat down and attained cessation. While he
was sitting there the hall caught fire. The other
bhikkhus each picked up their seats and fled. The
villagers gathered together, and seeing the elder, they
said, “What a lazy monk! What a lazy monk!” The fire
burned the grass thatch, the bamboos, and timbers,
and it encircled the elder. People brought water and
put it out. They removed the ashes, did repairs,[15]
scattered flowers, and then stood respectfully waiting.
The elder emerged at the time he had determined.
Seeing them, he said, “I am discovered!,” and he rose
up into the air and went to Piyaṅgu Island. This is
“non-damage to others’ property.”
37. There is no special resolving to be done for what is
his own personal property such as the inner and outer
robes or the seat he is sitting on. He protects all that by
means of the attainment itself, like those of the
venerable Sañjīva. And this is said: “There was success

1924
by intervention of concentration in the venerable
Sañjīva. There was success by intervention of
concentration in the venerable Sāriputta” (Paṭis I 212—
see XII.30).
38. (b) The Community’s waiting is the Community’s
expecting. The meaning is: till this bhikkhu comes
there is no carrying out of acts of the Community. And
here it is not the actual Community’s waiting that is
the preparatory task, but the adverting to the waiting.
So it should be adverted to in this way: “While I am
sitting for seven days in the attainment of cessation, if
the Community wants to enact a resolution, etc., I
shall emerge before any bhikkhu comes to summon
me.” [707] One who attains it after doing this emerges
at exactly that time.
39. But if he does not do so, then perhaps the
Community assembles, and not seeing him, it is asked,
“Where is the bhikkhu so and so?” They reply, “He
has attained cessation.” The Community dispatches a
bhikkhu, telling him, “Go and summon him in the
name of the Community.” Then as soon as the
bhikkhu stands within his hearing and merely says,
“The Community is waiting for you, friend,” he
emerges. Such is the importance of the Community’s
order. So he should attain in such-wise that, by
adverting to it beforehand, he emerges by himself.

1925
40. (c) The Master’s summons: here too it is the
adverting to the Master’s summons that is the
preparatory task. So that also should be adverted to in
this way: “While I am sitting for seven days in the
attainment of cessation, if the Master, after examining
a case, makes known a course of training, or teaches
the Dhamma, the origin of which discourse is some
need that has arisen,[16] I shall emerge before anyone
comes to summon me.” For when he has seated
himself after doing so, he emerges at exactly that time.
41. But if he does not do so, when the Community
assembles, the Master, not seeing him, asks, “Where is
the bhikkhu so and so?” They reply, “He has attained
cessation.” Then he dispatches a bhikkhu, telling him,
“Go and summon him in my name.” As soon as the
bhikkhu stands within his hearing and merely says,
“The Master calls the venerable one,” he emerges.
Such is the importance of the Master’s summons. So
he should attain in such wise that, by adverting to it
beforehand, he emerges himself.
42. (d) The limit of duration is the limit of life’s
duration. For this bhikkhu should be very careful to
determine what the limit of his life’s duration is. He
should attain only after adverting in this way: “Will
my own vital formations go on occurring for seven
days or will they not?” For if he attains it without
adverting when the vital formations are due to cease

1926
within seven days, then since the attainment of
cessation cannot ward off his death because there is no
dying during cessation,[17] he consequently emerges
from the attainment meanwhile. So he should attain
only after adverting to that. For it is said that while it
may be permissible to omit adverting to others, this
must be adverted to.
43. Now, when he has thus attained the base
consisting of nothingness and emerged and done this
preparatory task, he then attains the base consisting of
neither perception nor non-perception. Then after one
or two turns of consciousness have passed, he
becomes without consciousness, he achieves cessation.
But why do consciousnesses not go on occurring in
him after the two consciousnesses? Because the effort
is directed to cessation. For this bhikkhu’s mounting
through the eight attainments, coupling together the
states of serenity and insight, [708] is directed to
successive cessation, not to attaining the base
consisting of neither perception nor non-perception.
So it is because the effort is directed to cessation that
no more than the two consciousnesses occur.
44. But if a bhikkhu emerges from the base consisting
of nothingness without having done this preparatory
task and then attains the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception, he is unable then to
become without consciousness: he returns to the base

1927
consisting of nothingness and settles down there.
45. And here the simile of the man and the road not
previously travelled may be told. A man who had not
previously travelled a certain road came to a ravine
cut by water, or after crossing a deep morass he came
to a rock heated by a fierce sun. Then without
arranging his inner and outer garments, he descended
into the ravine but came up again for fear of wetting
his belongings and remained on the bank, or he
walked up on to the rock but on burning his feet he
returned to the near side and waited there.
46. Herein, just as the man, as soon as he had
descended into the ravine, or walked up on to the hot
rock, turned back and remained on the near side
because he had not seen to the arrangement of his
inner and outer garments, so too as soon as the
meditator has attained the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception, he turns back and
remains in the base consisting of nothingness because
the preparatory task has not been done.
47. Just as when a man who has travelled that road
before comes to that place, he puts his inner garment
on securely, and taking the other in his hand, crosses
over the ravine, or so acts as to tread only lightly on
the hot rock and accordingly gets to the other side, so
too, when the bhikkhu does the preparatory task and

1928
then attains the base consisting of neither perception
nor non-perception, then he achieves cessation, which
is the other side, by becoming without consciousness.
48. (vii) How is it made to last? It lasts as long as the
time predetermined for its duration, unless
interrupted meanwhile by the exhaustion of the life
span, by the waiting of the Community, or by the
Master’s summons.
49. (viii) How does the emergence from it come about? The
emergence comes about in two ways thus: by means of
the fruition of non-return in the case of the non-
returner, or by means of the fruition of Arahantship in
the case of the Arahant.
50. (ix) Towards what does the mind of one who has
emerged tend? It tends towards Nibbāna. For this is
said: “When a bhikkhu has emerged from the
attainment of the cessation of perception and feeling,
friend Visākha, his consciousness inclines to seclusion,
leans to seclusion, tends to seclusion” (M I 302). [709]
51. (x) What is the difference between one who has attained
and one who is dead? This is also given in a sutta,
according as it is said: “When a bhikkhu is dead,
friend, has completed his term, his bodily formations
have ceased and are quite still, his verbal formations
have ceased and are quite still, his mental formations
have ceased and are quite still, his life is exhausted, his

1929
heat has subsided, and his faculties are broken up.
When a bhikkhu has entered upon the cessation of
perception and feeling, his bodily formations have
ceased and are quite still, his verbal formations have
ceased and are quite still, his mental formations have
ceased and are quite still, his life is unexhausted, his
heat has not subsided, his faculties are quite whole”
(M I 296).
52. (xi) As to the question is the attainment of cessation
formed or unformed, etc.? It is not classifiable as formed
or unformed, mundane or supramundane. Why?
Because it has no individual essence. But since it
comes to be attained by one who attains it, it is
therefore permissible to say that it is produced, not
unproduced.[18]
This too is an attainment which
A Noble One may cultivate;
The peace it gives is reckoned as
Nibbāna here and now.
A wise man by developing
The noble understanding can
With it himself endow;
So this ability is called
A boon of understanding, too,
The noble paths allow.

1930
 [D. WORTHINESS TO RECEIVE GIFTS]

53. And not only the ability to attain the attainment of

cessation but also achievement of worthiness to
receive gifts should be understood as a benefit of this
supramundane development of understanding.
54. For, generally speaking, it is because
understanding has been developed in these four ways
that a person who has developed it, is fit for the gifts
of the world with its deities, fit for its hospitality, fit
for its offerings, and fit for its reverential salutation,
and an incomparable field of merit for the world.
55. But in particular, firstly, one who arrives at
development of under-standing of the first path with
sluggish insight and limp faculties is called, “one who
will be reborn seven times at most”; he traverses the
round of rebirths seven times in the happy destinies.
One who arrives with medium insight and medium
faculties is called, “one who goes from noble family to
noble family”; with two or three rebirths in noble
families he makes an end of suffering. One who
arrives with keen insight and keen faculties is called,
“one who germinates only once”; with one rebirth in
the human world he makes an end of suffering (see A
I 133).
By developing understanding of the second path, he

1931
is called a once-returner. He returns once to this world
and makes an end of suffering. [710]
56. By developing understanding of the third path he
is called a non-returner. According to the difference in
his faculties he completes his course in one of five
ways after he has left this world: he becomes “one
who attains Nibbāna early in his next existence” or
“one who attains Nibbāna more than half way
through his next existence” or “one who attains
Nibbāna without prompting” or “one who attains
Nibbāna with prompting” or “one who is going
upstream bound for the Highest Gods” (see D III 237).
57. Herein, one who attains Nibbāna early in his next
existence attains Nibbāna after reappearing anywhere
in the Pure Abodes, without reaching the middle of
his life span there. One who attains Nibbāna more than
half way through his next existence attains Nibbāna after
the middle of his life span there. One who attains
Nibbāna without prompting generates the highest
path without prompting, with little effort. One who
attains Nibbāna with prompting generates the highest
path with prompting, with effort. One who is going
upstream bound for the Highest Gods passes on upwards
from wherever he is reborn [in the Pure Abodes] to the
Highest Gods’ becoming and attains Nibbāna there.
58. By developing understanding of the fourth path

1932
one becomes “liberated by faith,” another “liberated
by understanding,” another “both-ways liberated,”
another “one with the triple clear vision,” another
“one with the six kinds of direct-knowledge,” another
“one of the great ones whose cankers are destroyed
who has reached the categories of discrimination.” It
was about one who has developed the fourth path that
it was said: “But it is at the moment of the path that he
is said to be disentangling that tangle: at the moment
of fruition he has disentangled the tangle and is
worthy of the highest offerings in the world with its
deities” (I.7).
59. The noble understanding, when
Developed, will these blessings win;
Accordingly discerning men
Rejoice exceedingly therein.
60. And at this point the development of
understanding with its benefits, which is shown in the
Path of Purification with its headings of virtue,
concentration, and understanding, in the stanza,
“When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious,
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle” (I.1),
has been fully illustrated.

1933
The twenty-third chapter called “The
Description of the Benefits of
Understanding” in the Path of Purification
composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.

1934
Notes for Chapter XXIII

1. “It is the Andhakas, etc., who maintain this; for

they take the sutta wrongly which says,
‘“Arahantship” is said, friend Sāriputta; what is
Arahantship?—The destruction of greed, the
destruction of hate, the destruction of delusion:
that is what is called Arahantship” (S IV 252),
taking it literally and asserting that nothing exists
called Arahantship and that it is only the
abandoning of defilements that is so called by
common usage. And they deny that there are any
other fruitions” (Vism-mhṭ 891).
2. The quotation in the Vism texts does not quite
agree with the Paṭis text (Ee) where (as the sense
demands) the words “bahiddhā saṅkhāranimittaṃ”
do not follow the four fruitions and the two
abidings but only the four paths.
3. “Although they are resultant states, nevertheless
the states of fruition attainment occur in the noble
person only when he chooses since they do not
arise without the preliminary work and do so
only when they are given predominance” (Vism-
mhṭ 895).
4. “Why does change-of-lineage not have Nibbāna

1935
 as its object here as it does when it precedes the
path? Because states belonging to fruition are not
associated with an outlet [as in the case of the
path]. For this is said: ‘What states are an outlet?
The four unincluded paths’ (Dhs §1592)” (Vism-
mhṭ 895).
5. “Those of the Abhayagiri Monastery in
Anurādhapura” (Vism-mhṭ 895).
6. “The ‘volition’ is attaining after deciding the time
limit in this way, ‘When the moon, or the sun, has
gone so far, I shall emerge,’ which is an act of
volition” (Vism-mhṭ 897).
7. “It is because he is called ‘emerged from
attainment’ as soon as the life-continuum
consciousness has arisen that ‘he brings to mind
that which is the object of the life-continuum’ is said.
Kamma, etc., are called the object of the life-
continuum (see Ch. XVII, §133ff.)” (Vism-mhṭ
897).
8. The list in brackets represents in summarized
form the things listed at Paṭis I 94–95, repeated in
this context in the Paṭisambhidā but left out in the
Vism quotation.
9. The serenity shown here is access concentration
(see Vism-mhṭ 899).

1936
10. The nine are the four fine-material jhānas, the four
immaterial jhānas, and the access concentration
preceding each of the eight attainments, described
in the last sentence and counted as one.
11. “The word ‘profitable’ used in this Paṭṭhāna
passage shows that it app1ies only to non-
returners, otherwise ‘functional’ would have been
said” (Vism-mhṭ 902).
12. “They say so because of absence of heart-basis;
but the meaning is because of absence of basis
called physical body. For if anyone were to attain
cessation in the immaterial worlds he would
become indefinable (appaññattika) owing to the
non-existence of any consciousness or
consciousness concomitant at all, and he would be
as though attained to final Nibbāna without
remainder of results of past clinging; for what
remainder of results of past clinging could be
predicated of him when he had entered into
cessation? So it is because of the lack of the
necessary factors that there is no attaining of the
attainment of cessation in the immaterial worlds”
(Vism-mhṭ 902).
13. “‘Reaching the cessation that is Nibbāna’: as though
reaching Nibbāna without remainder of result of
past clinging. ‘In bliss’ means without suffering”

1937
 (Vism-mhṭ 902).
14. “‘It should be resolved’: the thought should be
aroused. For here the resolve consists in arousing
the thought. In the non-arising of consciousness-
originated materiality, etc., and in the absence of
support by a postnascence condition, etc., the
physical body continues the same only for seven
days; after that it suffers wastage. So he limits the
duration to seven days when he attains cessation,
they say” (Vism-mhṭ 903).
15. Paribhaṇḍa—“repair work”: this meaning is not
given in PED; cf. M-a IV 157 (patching of old
robes), and M-a I 291.
16. The word atthuppatti (“the origin being a need
arisen”) is a technical commentarial term. “There
are four kinds of origins (uppatti) or setting forth
of suttas (sutta-nikkhepa): on account of the
speaker’s own inclination (attajjhāsaya), on
account of another’s inclination (parajjhāsaya), as
the result of a question asked (pucchāvasika), and
on account of a need arisen (atthuppattika)’ (M-a I
15, see also Ch. III.88).
17. “‘Vital formations’ are the same as life span;
though some say that they are the life span, heat
and consciousness. These are the object only of his
normal consciousness. There is no death during

1938
 cessation because dying takes place by means of
the final life-continuum [consciousness]. He
should attain only after adverting thus, ‘Let
sudden death not occur.’ For in the case of sudden
death he would not be able to declare final
knowledge, advise the bhikkhus, and testify to
the Dispensation’s power. And there would be no
reaching the highest path in the case of a non-
returner” (Vism-mhṭ 904).
18. The subtleties of the word nipphanna are best
cleared up by quoting a paragraph from the
Sammohavinodanì (Vibh-a 29): “The five aggregates
are positively-produced (parinipphanna) always,
not un-positively-produced (aparinipphanna); they
are always formed, not unformed. Besides, they
are produced (nipphanna) as well. For among the
dhammas that are individual essences (sabháva-
dhamma) it is only Nibbána that is un-positively-
produced and un-produced (anipphanna).” The
Múla Þìká comments on this: “What is the
difference between the positively-produced and
the produced? A dhamma that is an individual
essence with a beginning and an end in time,
produced by conditions, and marked by the three
characteristics, is positively produced. But besides
this, what is produced [but not positively
produced] is a dhamma with no individual

1939
essence (asabháva-dhamma) when it is produced by
the taking of a name or by attaining [the
attainment of cessation]” (Vibh-a 23). Cf. also
XIV.72 and 77.

1940
 Conclusion
After we quoted this stanza,
“When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle” (I.1),
we then said:
“My task is now to set out the true sense,
Divided into virtue and the rest,
Of this same verse composed by the Great Sage.
There are here in the Victor’s Dispensation
And who although desiring purity
Have no right knowledge of the sure straight way
—
Comprising virtue and the other two,
Right hard to find, that leads to purity—
Who, though they strive, here gain no purity.
To them I shall expound the comforting Path
Of Purification, pure in expositions
Relying on the teaching of the dwellers
In the Great Monastery; let all those
Good men who do desire purity
Listen intently to my exposition.” (I.4)
Now, at this point that has all been expounded. And

1941
herein:
Now, that the exposition as set forth
Is almost free from errors and from flaws
After collating all the expositions
Of all these meanings classed as virtue and so on
Stated in the commentarial system
Of the five Nikāyas—for this reason
Let meditators pure in understanding
Desiring purification duly show
Reverence for this Path of Purification.

* * *

What store of merit has been gained by me
Desiring establishment in this Good Dhamma
In doing this, accepting the suggestion
Of the venerable Saṅghapāla,
One born into the line of famous elders
Dwelling within the Great Monastery,
A true Vibhajjavādin, who is wise,
And lives in pure simplicity, devoted
To discipline’s observance, and to practice,
Whose mind the virtuous qualities of patience,
Mildness, loving kindness, and so on, grace—
By the power of that store of merit
May every being prosper happily.

1942
 And now just as the Path of Purification,
With eight and fifty recitation sections
In the text, has herewith been completed
Without impediment, so may all those
Who in the world depend on what is good
Glad-hearted soon succeed without delay.

[POSTSCRIPT]

This Path of Purification was made by the elder who is

adorned with supreme and pure faith, wisdom and
energy, in whom are gathered a concourse of upright,
gentle, etc., qualities due to the practice of virtue, who
is capable of delving into and fathoming the views of
his own and others’ creeds, who is possessed of
keenness of understanding, who is strong in unerring
knowledge of the Master’s Dispensation as divided
into three Piṭakas with their commentaries, a great
expounder, gifted with sweet and noble speech that
springs from the ease born of perfection of the vocal
instrument, a speaker of what is appropriately said, a
superlative speaker, a great poet, an ornament in the
lineage of the elders who dwell in the Great
Monastery, and who are shining lights in the lineage
of elders with unblemished enlightenment in the
superhuman states that are embellished with the

1943
special qualities of the six kinds of direct-knowledge
and the categories of discrimination, who has
abundant purified wit, who bears the name
Buddhaghosa conferred by the venerable ones, and
who should be called “of Moraṇḍaceṭaka.”
May it continue here to show
The way to purity of virtue, etc.,
For clansmen seeking out the means
To ferry them across the worlds
For just as long as in this world
Shall last that name “Enlightened One,”
By which, thus purified in mind,
Is known the Greatest Sage, World Chief.
[The following verses are only in Sinhalese texts:]
By the performance of such merit
As has been gained by me through this
And any other still in hand
So may I in my next becoming
Behold the joys of Tāvatiṃsā,
Glad in the qualities of virtue
And unattached to sense desires.
By having reached the first fruition,
And having in my last life seen
Metteyya, Lord of Sages, Highest
Of persons in the World, and
Helper Delighting in all beings’ welfare,

1944
 And heard that Holy One proclaim
The Teaching of the Noble Dhamma,
May I grace the Victor’s Dispensation
By realizing its highest fruit.
[The following verses are only in the Burmese texts:]
The exposition of the Path of Purification
Has thus been made for gladdening good people;
But this, by reckoning the Pali text,
Has eight and fifty recitation sections.

End

1945
 Pali-English Glossary
of Some Subjects and Technical Terms

This Glossary only includes (a) some epistemological

and technical terms, and (b) meanings or words not in
the PED, which are marked with an asterisk(*), though
such compounds prefixes as e.g. anukaḍḍhati = to
keep dragging along (III.68) or suffixes as e.g.
vattabbatā = ability to be called (IV.148) and such
verbal substantives as udikkhana from udikkhati are
not always included.
akiriya-diṭṭhi—(moral-) inefficacy-of-action view
akusala—(1) unskilful, (2) (kammically) un-profitable
agati—bad way (the four)
*agaru—aloe wood (spelled agaḷu in PED); VIII.47
aṅga—(l) limb, (2) factor (of path, jhāna, etc.), (3) practice,
etc.
ajjhatta—internally, in oneself
*ajjhottharamāna—also threatening: VI.56
*añcita—outstretched: XX.112
aññā—final knowledge (in the Arahant)
*aññāti—to know (= ājānāti): VII.22 (Paṭis I 122)
aṭṭhaka, aṭṭhamaka—octad
aṭṭhaṅgika-magga—eightfold path

1946
*aṇimā—minuteness: VII.61
*atammayatā—aloofness; XXI.135 (M III 220)
*atippasaṅga—over-generalization (logic): XIV.186
*atisāra—flux (of bowels), diarrhoea: XI.21
atīta-past
*attatā—selfness, oneself: IX.47
attabhāva—person, personality, selfhood, re-birth
attavāda—self-doctrine
attā—self
attānudiṭṭhi—self-view, wrong view as self
*attānuvāda—self-reproach: VII.106
attha—(1) benefit, result, (2) purpose, aim, goal, (3)
meaning
adinnādāna—taking what is not given, stealing
adukkha-m-asukha—neither-painful-nor-pleasant
(feeling)
adosa—non-hate
addhā, addhāna—extent, period
advaya—exclusive, absolute
*adha-r-āraṇi—lower fire-stick: XV.41
*adhikāra—also treatise, heading: III.133 (Dhs-a 58)
*adhikicca—as an integral part of, dependent on
adhicitta—higher consciousness (i.e. jhāna)

1947
adhiṭṭhāna—(1) steadying, (2) resolve
*adhiṭṭhāna—also (3) in terms of: IV.92, (4) habitat: X.24;
XIV.134
adhipaññā—higher understanding (i.e. insight)
adhipati—predominance
adhippāya—intention, purport
adhimokkha—resolution
adhimutti—resolution
adhisīla—higher virtue (i.e. virtue as basis for jhāna and
insight)
anaññātaññassāmī-t-indriya—I-shall-come-to-know-the-
unknown faculty
anattā—not-self
anāgata—future
anāgataṃsa-ñāṇa—knowledge of the future
anāgāmin—non-returner (third stage of realization)
anicca—impermanent
animitta—signless
*anutthunana—brooding: XVI.59
anunaya—approval
anupabandhana—anchoring (of the mind)
anupālana—maintenance
anubodha—idea, ideation

1948
anubhāva—power, influence
anuloma—(1) in conformity with, (2) in forward order, or
as “arising” (of dependent origination), (3) conformity
(stage in development of jhāna or insight)
*anuvattāpana—causing occurrence parallel to: XVI.10 (cf.
Dhs p.5)
anusaya—inherent (underlying) tendency (the 7)
anussati—recollection (the 10)
*aneñja, aneja—unperturbed: XII.55
anesanā—improper search
anottappa—shamelessness
anvaya-ñāṇa—inferential knowledge
apariyāpanna—unincluded (of supramundane states)
*aparisaṇṭhita—turbulent: VI.86
*apavārita—opened up: VI.4
apāya—state of loss
appaṇihita—desireless
appanā—absorption
appamaññā—measureless state (= divine abiding)
appamāṇa—measureless
*appāyati—to satisfy: XI.87
appicchatā—fewness of wishes
*appita—done away with: IV.146 (Vibh 258)

1949
*abbhaṅga—unguent: I.86
*abyābhicārin—without exception (gram. and log.): XIV.25
*abyosāna—not stopping halfway: XX.21
abhāva—absence, non-existence, non-entity
*abhāva—without sex: XVII. 150
*abhigacchati—to rely on: VII.60
abhighāta—impact
abhijjhā—covetousness
abhiññā—direct-knowledge
abhinandanā—delight, delighting
abhinipāta—conjunction, engagement
abhiniropana—directing on to
*abhinivesa—also insistence, interpreting: I.140; XIV.130;
XXI.84f., etc.
*abhinihāra—(1) conveying, (2) guidance: XI.93, 117;
XIII.16, 95 (Paṭis I 17, 61)
abhibhāyatana—base of mastery, base for transcending
(the sense-desire sphere)
*abhisaṃharati—to make (a profit): IX.65
abhisaṅkhāra—(1) volitional formation, kamma-
formation, formation, (2) momentum
abhisamaya—penetration to, convergence upon (the 4
Truths)
amata—deathless (term for Nibbāna)

1950
amoha—non-delusion
*aya—also a reason: XIII.92; XVI.17
arati—aversion, boredom
arahant—arahant (4th and last stage of realization)
*ariṭṭhaka—kind of thorny plant: VIII.83
ariya—noble, noble one (i.e. one who has attained a path)
*ariyati—to be served (CPD has “to approach”): XIV.22
arūpa—immaterial
alobha—non-greed
*allīna—unsheltered (pp. a+līyati): XX.19
*allīyituṃ—to give shelter (not in CPD; inf. ā+līyati; see
leṇa in CPD): (allīyitabba) XXII.120; (allīyana) VII.83
*avakkhaṇḍana—hiatus: II.6
*avagaha—grasping: XVI.104
*avatthā—occasion, position: IV.167; XVII.306; XX.19
*avadhāna—attention: I.32 (Paṭis I 1; M II 175)
*avadhi—limit (= odhi): I.86
avabodha—awareness, discovery
*avarodha—inclusion: XIV.216, 219
*avāsa—eviction: IV.9, 12
*avi—goat or sheep: XVII.110
avikkhepa—non-distraction
avijjā—ignorance

1951
avyākata—(1) (kammically) indeterminate (i.e. neither
profitable nor unprofitable), (2) un-answered (by the
Buddha)
avyāpāda—non-ill-will
asaṅkhata—unformed
asaññin—non-percipient
asammoha—non-confusion, non-delusion
asubha—foulness, foul, ugly
assāsa-passāsa—in-breath and out-breath
asekha—non-trainer (i.e. one who has reached the fruition
of arahantship)
asmi-māna—the conceit “I am”
ahiri—consciencelessness
ahetuka—without root-cause
ahetuka-diṭṭhi—no-cause view
ahosi-kamma—lapsed kamma
ākāra—mode, aspect, structure
ākāra-rūpa—matter as mode (e.g. “mark of the female”)
ākāsa—space
ākiñcañña—nothingness
āghāta—annoyance
ācaya—setting-up (of matter)
ājīva—livelihood

1952
ādāna—grasping, taking
*ādina—wretched: XX.19
ādīnava—danger, disability
*ādhāraṇa—subserving: XIV.60 (M-a II 52)
ānantarika—(kamma) with immediate result (on rebirth)
ānāpāna—breathing
āneñja—imperturbable, the (term for the 4th jhāna)
*āpajjati—also to follow logically: II.79; XVI.68f.
*āpajjana—logical consequence: I.n.19; XV.68
*āpatti—also logical consequent: XVI.72; XIX.3
āpatti—offence
*āpādana—production: II.21
*āpo—water
ābandhana—cohesion
ābhoga—concern
*āyatati—to actuate XV.4
āyatana—base
*āyatana—actuating: XV.4
āyu—life
āyu-saṅkhāra—vital formation
*āyūhana—also accumulation (of kamma)
ārammaṇa—object (of consciousness or its concomitants),
support

1953
āruppa—immaterial state (the 4)
āropeti—also to attribute to: XX.47
ālaya—reliance, thing relied on
āloka—light
āvajjana—adverting (consciousness)
*āvatthika—denoting a period: VII.54
*āviñjana—picking up (see PED āvijjhati): XIV.37
*āsana—also (flower) altar: V.15
*āsava—canker (the 4)
āsevanā—(1) cultivation, (2) repetition
*āhanana—striking at: IV.88
āhāra—nutriment, food
āhāra-samuṭṭhāna—nutriment-originated (matter)
iṭṭha—desirable
*itarathā—otherwise: III.53 (Dhs-a 44)
itthindriya—femininity faculty
idappaccayatā—specific conditionality (term for
dependent origination)
iddhi—power, success, supernormal power
iddhipāda—road to power, basis for success (the 4)
indriya—faculty (the 22)
iriyāpatha—posture, deportment (the 4)
issara—overlord, Lord Creator

1954
īhaka—having curiosity, activity
uggaha—learning
uggaha—nimitta-learning sign
*uggaṇhita (ugghaṭita?)—decayed: VI.42
*ugghāti—removal: III.115
*ugghāta—exhilaration: I.117
uccheda-diṭṭhi—annihilation view
ujukatā—rectitude
utu—1) climate, (2) season, (3) temperature
utu-samuṭṭhāna—temperature-originated (matter)
udaya—rise
udaya-bbaya—rise and fall
*udāhariyati—to be uttered: XV.3
uddhacca—agitation
uddhacca-kukkucca—agitation and worry
upakkilesa—imperfection
upacaya—growth (of matter)
upacāra—(1) approach, neighbourhood, precinct, (2)
access (concentration)
*upacāra—also (3) metaphor. XVI.70; XVII.15; XXII.51
*upaṭṭhāna—also (1) establishment VIII.168: (2)
appearance: XXI.29
*upadhāraṇa—upholding: I.19, 141

1955
*upanaya—inducement, application (log): VII.83
*upanayana—also applying (log.), inducing, leading on:
VII.83; XIV.68
upapatti—reappearance, rebirth
upatthambhana—consolidation, stiffening, supporting
upabrūhana—intensification
*upabrūhayati—to intensify: VIII.121
upabhuñjaka—experiencer, user
*upasaṭṭhatā—menacedness: XX.16
upasama—peace (term for Nibbāna)
upādāna—clinging
upādāna-kkhandha—aggregate (as object) of clinging
upādā-rūpa—derivative (or secondary) materiality
upādiṇṇa, upādiṇṇaka—clung-to, kammically acquired
(matter), organic (matter)
upāya—means
upāyāsa—despair
upekkhā—equanimity, onlooking
uppatti—arising, rebirth
*uppatti—also origin of a sutta (tech. term): III.88; VII.69
uppatti-bhava—rebirth-process becoming, being as result
of action
uppanna—arisen

1956
uppāda—arising
ussada—prominence
ussāha—activity
*ūhana—hitting upon: IV.88
ekaggatā—unification (of consciousness)
ekatta—(1) unity, (2) identity, (3) singleness
*eta-parama—that at most: XIV.216; XVI.28 (M I 339)
evaṃ-dhammatā—ineluctable regularity
esanā—search
okāsa—(1) location, (2) opportunity
*okāseti—to scatter on (not as in PED): XII.85 (S IV 190)
*okkhandhati—to descend into: XX.120; XXII.34
*ogaḷati—to run downwards: VIII.124
ogha—flood (the 4)
ojaṭṭhamaka—material octad with nutritive essence as
eighth
ojā—nutritive essence, metabolism
ottappa—shame
opapātika—apparitionally reborn
*obhagga—looped: VIII.118; XI.64
*obhañjati (or obhuñjati)—to loop, to coil: XI.64
obhāsa—illumination
*omatta—subordinate: XX.64

1957
*oruhati—to come down: IV.64
oḷārika—gross
*ovaṭṭha—showered down: XI.72
kaṅkhā—doubt
kaṭatta—performedness (of kamma), (kamma) performed
*kaṇḍuyati—to be itchy: VIII.127
*kaṇṇika—fungus: VIII.88
*kataka—also a kind of seed (used for clearing water)
kathā-vatthu—(1) name of Abhidhamma book, (2)
instance of talk (the 10)
kappa—eon, age
kabaliṅkārāhāra—physical nutriment
kampana—wavering, shaking
kammaññatā—wieldiness
kamma—(1) kamma, deeds, action, (2) work, (3) (legal)
enactment
kammaṭṭhāna—meditation subject
kamma-patha—course of action, of kamma
kamma-bhava—kamma-process becoming, being as
action
kamma-samuṭṭhāna—kamma-originated (matter)
kammanta—action, work
karaja—physical

1958
karuṇā—compassion
kalāpa—(1) group, (2) material group (term for material
octad, etc.)
kalāpa-sammasana—comprehension by groups (does not
refer to the material octad, etc.)
kalyāṇa-puthujjana—magnanimous ordinary man
kasiṇa—kasiṇa, universal (a contemplation device, and
concept based thereon)
kāma—sense desire, sensual desire
kāma-guṇa—cord of sense-desire (the 5), dimension of
sensual desire
kāma-cchanda—lust, zeal for sense desires
kāma-rāga—greed for sense desires
kāmāvacara—sense-desire sphere, sense sphere
kāmesu micchācāra—sexual misconduct
kāya—(1) body, group, order, (2) the material body, (3) the
mental body (i.e. the 3 nāmakkhandha)
kāyasakkhin—body witness
kāya-saṅkhāra—bodily formation (term for in-breath and
out-breath)
kāraka—doer
kāla—time
kicca—function
*kiñcana—owning, ownership: XXI.53

1959
*kiṇāti—also to combat: VI.8
kiriya—(kammically) functional, inoperative
kilesa—defilement
*kukata—villainy: XIV.174
kukkucca—worry
*kuṇḍika—also a four-footed water pot: V.3
*kuṇapa—also ordure: VIII.121; XI.19, 21
kusala—(1) skilful, (2) profitable (consciousness), (3) good
kuhanā—scheming
*kūṭa—wild, savage: VIII.53 (M-a II 82)
*kūṭāgāra—also (1) catafalque (comy. To A I 150), (2)
palanquin: XII.71 (M-a V 90)
*kūpaka-yaṭṭhi—masthead (?), spar (?): XXI.65
*koṭṭhaṭṭhi—shoulder-blade bone (lit. “flat-bone”; not as
in PED): VIII.101
*koṭṭhalika—flattened: VII.97
*kosa—measure of length (about 1 mile): IV.37
khaṇa—moment, instant
*khaṇati—also to consume: IV.100; XVII.48
khanti—(1) patience, (2) choice
khandha—aggregate
khaya—destruction, exhaustion
khara—harsh

1960
*kharigata—harsh: XI.31 (M I 185)
*khinna—exhausted: IV.100; see khijjana 14, n.2VI.
*gaṇḍuppādaka—also sort of intestinal worm: VIII.121
*gata-paccāgata—(1) duty of going to and returning from
the alms round with the meditation subject, (2) kind of
refuse rag: II.17; XIV.28
gati—(1) destiny, destination (on rebirth), movement
*gadati—to enunciate (see gada in PED) VII.35
gantha—(1) tie (the 4), (2) book
gandha—odour
*gandhayati—to be smelled: XV.3
guṇa—special quality
gocara—resort, domain, scope
gotrabhū—change-of-lineage (consciousness)
*gopa—guardian, IV.190; VIII.153 (M II 180)
ghaṭṭana—impinging, knocking together
ghana—compact
ghana-vinibbhoga—resolution of the compact (into
elements)
ghāna—nose
cakkavāḷa—world-sphere
*cakkhati—to relish: XV.3
cakkhu—eye

1961
catusamuṭṭhāna—(matter) of fourfold origination (i.e. by
consciousness, kamma, temperature and nutriment)
cariya, carita—temperament; behaviour, exercise
cāga—generosity
*cāpalya—also personal vanity: III.95 (this meaning not in
CPD, under acāpalya or acapala)
*cāraka—prison: XIV.221; XVI.18
*cikicchā—wish to think: XIV.177
citta—(manner of) consciousness, consciousness,
cognizance, mind
citta-ṭṭhiti—steadiness of consciousness
citta-vīthi—cognitive series (of consciousnesses)
citta-saṅkhāra—mental formation (term for perception
and feeling)
citta-samuṭṭhāna—consciousness-originated (matter)
cittuppāda—thought, thought-arising
cintā—reasoning
cuti—death
cetanā—volition
cetasika—consciousness concomitant (i.e. feeling,
perception and formations)
ceto—mind, heart, will
cetopariya—penetration of minds
ceto-vimutti—heart-deliverance, mind-d.

1962
chanda—zeal
*jatuka—bat, pipistrelle: III.97; XI.7
*janaka—also father: XVII.271
*jara—fever: XI.36 (A V 100)
jarā—aging, old age
jarā-maraṇa—aging-and-death
javana—(1) speed, (2) impulsion (consciousness)
jāti—(1) birth, (2) sort, kind
jivhā—tongue
jīva—soul
jīvita—life
*juṭṭha—fostered: XVI.4
jhāna—jhāna
ñāṇa—knowledge (in general)
ṭhiti—(1) presence, (2) station, (3) relation, (4) steadiness,
stability, (5) stationariness, stagnation
*tacchati—also to pare: VIII.103 (M I 31)
taṇhā—craving
tatramajjhattatā—specific neutrality
tathāgata—perfect one
tadaṅga—substitution of opposites (function of insight)
*tadārammaṇa—(1) having that (aforesaid thing) as its
object, (2) registration (consciousness): XIV.98; XVII.139

1963
*tanana—range: XV.4
*tāvatva—just so much: XV 18
tādi-bhāva—equipoise
tiracchāna-yoni—animal generation
tilakkhaṇa—three characteristics (of impermanence, pain
and not-self)
*ti-santati-rūpa—materiality of triple continuity (term for
the three decads at moment of rebirth-linking): XI.112;
XX.22
*ti-samuṭṭhāna—materiality of triple origination (by
kamma, temperature and nutriment only): XVII.196
tīraṇa—judgement, investigation
thaddha—stiffened
thīna-middha—stiffness and torpor
*theriya—belonging to the Elders: epil. verse
*dakasītalika—edible white water lily: VIII.119
dasaka—(1) decad (of matter), (2) decade
dassana—(l) seeing (the eye’s function), (2) vision, (3) term
for the first path
dāna—gift, giving
*dāna—gap: II.6
diṭṭha—seen
diṭṭhi—view, (wrong) view, (right) view
diṭṭhi-pāta—one attained to vision

1964
dibba-cakkhu—divine eye
dibba-sotadhātu—divine ear element
dukkha—pain, painful, bodily pain, suffering
dukkha-dukkha—intrinsic suffering
duggati—unhappy destination (on rebirth)
duccarita—misconduct, misbehaviour
*duṭṭhulla—also (1) inertia, (2) irritability: IV.124 (M III
151, 159)
dūra—far
desanā—teaching, instruction
*desantar-uppatti—successive arising in adjacent locations
(description of phenomenon of motion); VII.n.45
domanassa—grief
dosa—(1) hate, (2) flaw, (3) humour (of the body)
*drabya—substance: XVIII.n.8
*drava-fluid: XI.41
dvattiṃsākāra—the thirty-two aspects (of the body)
dvāra—door (i.e. the 6 d. of consciousness by the 6 bases;
also the 3 d. of kamma by body, speech and mind)
dhamma—(1) the Dhamma or Law (as discovered by the
Buddha), (2) dhamma, state, thing, phenomenon, (3)
mental object, mental datum (12th base)
dhamma-ṭṭhiti-ñāṇa—knowledge of relations of states,
knowledge of structure of ideas

1965
dhammatā-rūpa—natural materiality (i.e trees, stones,
etc.)
*dhammani—rat-snake: XI.64
dhamma-vicaya—investigation of states
dhammānusārin—dhamma devotee
dhātu—(l) element, (2) humour (of the body), (3) relic
*dhātu—also (metallic) ore: XI.20; XV.20
dhutaṅga—ascetic practice
*dhura-bhatta—meal given in a principal house (not as in
PED): II.27
dhuva—everlasting
nandi—delight
naya—method
naya-vipassanā—inductive insight
navaka—ennead
*nahanā—tying: I.73
*nāgabalā—kind of plant: XI.17
nāna-kkhaṇika—(kamma) acting from a different time
nānatta—variety, difference
nāma—(1) mentality, (2) name
nāma-kaya—mentality body, mental body (aggregates of
feeling, perception and formations)
nāma-rūpa—mentality-materiality (term for the five
aggregates, or for the four aggregates excluding

1966
 consciousness)
nāma-rūpa-pariccheda—definition of mentality-
materiality
*nāyare—they are known (—ñāyanti): VIII.29; cf. IX.42
(nāyati—ñāyati)
nikanti—attachment, attraction
*nigghāta—depression: XI.117
nicca—permanent
nijjīva—soulless
*nippadesa—comprehensive: XVI.95
*nippharipphanda—inactive: V.4
*nippiṃsati—to scrape, to grind: I.81
*nippuñchati—to wipe off: I.81
*nippesikatā—belittling (not as in PED): I.64 (M III 75)
*nippeseti—to scrape off: I.81
*nipphanna—produced (term for certain kinds of derived
materiality)
*nibbacana—verbal derivative (gram): II.4; XVI.14
nibbatti—generation, production, rebirth
Nibbāna—nirvana, extinction (of greed, hate and
delusion)
*nibbikappa—“without dismay,” without thinking: II.71;
VI.81
nibbidā—dispassion, revulsion

1967
*nibbisa—without poison: XII.115
*nibbedha—penetration
nimitta—sign
niyati-vāda—determinism, fatalism
niyyāna—outlet (from the round of rebirths; term for the
path)
nirutti—language
nirodha—cessation
nissaya—(1) support, (2) the dependence (given by teacher
to pupil)
nissatta—not-a-living-being
nissaraṇa—escape (from defilement by Nibbāna)
nīvaraṇa—hindrance (the 5 or the 7)
*nīharati—also to fix: II.50
nekkhamma—renunciation
*nemittika—(name) signifying (an acquirement): VII.55
*nemittikatā—hinting (not as in PED): I.63 (M III 75)
*pakaṭṭha—distant: VII.81
pakati—(1) nature, natural, normal, (2) Primordial
Essence, Prakṛti
*pakāsa—illumination: XVII.77
pakkhandati—to enter into, to launch out into
pāguññatā—proficiency

1968
paccakkha—personal experience
paccatta—for oneself
paccaya—(1) condition (for what is conditionally arisen),
(2) requisite (the 4 for the bhikkhu)
paccaya-pariggaha—discernment of conditions
paccayākāra—structure of conditions (term for dependent
origination)
paccavekkhaṇa—reviewing
paccuppanna—present, presently arisen
paññatti—(1) making-known, announcement, (2)
appellation, designation, (3) concept, description
paññā—understanding (insight and path)
paññā-vimutta—one liberated by understanding
*paṭatantuka—intestinal worm: VIII.121
*paṭikkamana—refectory: II.28
paṭikkūla—repulsive
paṭigha—resentment, resistance
paṭicca—(indecl. ger. of paṭiyeti) having depended, due
to, dependent on
*paṭicca—(decl. adj.) ought to be arrived at: XVII.16
paṭicca-samuppanna—conditionally arisen, dependently
originated
paṭicca-samuppāda—dependent origination
*paṭiñña—also proposition (log.) XVII.67 (Kv.2)

1969
paṭiñña—claim
paṭinissagga—relinquishment
paṭipatti—way, progress, practice
*paṭipatti—theory: XIV.163, 177; XVII.52, 303
paṭipassaddhi—tranquilization (of defilement by fruition)
*paṭipassanā—looking back: VIII.189, 225
*paṭipātiyāmana—following successively: VIII.69
*paṭipadāna—maintaining (on course): IV.42
paṭibhāga-nimitta—counterpart sign
*paṭiveti—to vanish: XX.96
paṭivedha—penetration (of 4 Truths)
paṭisaṅkhā—reflection
paṭisandhi—rebirth-linking (consciousness)
paṭisambhidā—discrimination (the 4)
*paṭisiddha—excluded, rejected, refuted (log.): XVII.150
*paṭihaññati—to resent (as verb for paṭigha): IX.101 (cf.
Dhs-a 72, Netti 13)
*paṭihita (paṇihita?)—drawn on: VIII.26
paṇidhi—desire, aspiration
paṇīta—superior, sublime
*patati—to gather, to wander for: II.5
*patīyamāna—going back to: XVII.16
*patthanīyatā—famousness: IV.2, 10

1970
pathavī—earth
padhāna—(1) endeavour, effort, (2) basic
*padhāna—Basic Principle, Pradhāna: XVI.85
papañca—(1) obstacle, (2) diffuseness, (2) diversification
(as function of craving, conceit and wrong view; not in
this sense in PED)
*pabbhāra—also overhang of rock: II.61
*pabhāvanā—production: VIII.182 (Paṭis I 184)
*pabhuti—encl.) and so on, etcetera (= ādi in that sense):
VIII.17, 121; X.51, etc.
pabheda—class, category
*pamukha—veranda, forecourt: IV.13; XI.7; XIII.6
paramattha—highest sense, ultimate sense
parāmaṭṭha—misapprehended, adhered-to
parāmāsa—misapprehension, adherence, pre-assumption
parikathā—roundabout talk
*parikappanatā—conjecturing: III.77
parikamma—preliminary work
parikkhāra—(1) equipment, (2) requisite
pariggaha—(1) inclusion, (2) embracing (as definition of
right speech), (3) reinforcement, (4) discerning, etc.
pariccāga—giving up
pariccheda-rūpa—delimiting-materiality (term for space)
pariññā—full-understanding (the 3)

1971
pariṇāma—change
paritta—(1) small, (2) limited (term for the sense-desire
sphere), (3) protection (term for certain discourses
recited for that purpose)
parideva—lamentation
*parinijjhāpana—obsessing, burning up: XVI.48
*parinipphanna—positively produced XXIII. n.18
parinibbāna—attainment of Nibbāna
paripācana—maintaining, maturing, ripening
*paripphandana—also interference, activity: IV.89;
XIV.144
*paribhaṇḍa—also repair: XXIII.36
paribhoga—use
pariyatti—(1) mastery, (2) scripture
pariyāpanna—included
pariyāhanana—threshing, striking on: IV.88
pariyuṭṭhāna—obsession
*pariyonahana—covering, envelope: VIII.115
*pariyosāna—also intensity: VI.49
*pariveṇa—also surroundings of a building, surrounding
walk: IV.127; XI.7; XIII.6
*parissavati—to run away: XI.90
*parihāra-vacana—explanation: XVII.109
palibodha—impediment

1972
pavatta, pavatti—(1) occurrence, (2) course of an existence
(between rebirth-linking and death)
*pavana—draught: XI.19; XVI.37
pavicaya—investigation
paviveka—seclusion
pasāda—sensitivity (of matter)
pasādana—confidence, clarification
passaddhi—tranquillity
pahāna—abandoning
*paheyya—abandonable: XVI.93
*pāṭibhoga—agent (not as in PED): XVII.174; Peṭ 215
pāṇātipāta—killing living things
pāduddhāra—footstep, lifting of foot
*pāpaka—what reaches, causes to reach: XIV.5, 68
*pāpana—reaching XVI.68
*pāpana—denigrating: I.81
pāpicchatā—evilness of wishes
pāramī, pāramitā—perfection
*pārāvata—pigeon (pārāpata in PED): XI.7
*pāvāra—also a cloth, cloth: VIII.117
piṇḍapāta—alms
*piṇḍika—the calf of the leg: VIII.97; XI.11; cf. piṇḍa at
VIII.126

1973
*pidhānī—lid: XI.24
pisuṇa-vācā—malicious speech
pīṇana—act of refreshing
pīti—happiness
puggala—person
puthujjana—ordinary man (i.e. one who has not
reached the path)
*pupphaka—balloon, swelling: VIII.117
purisa—man, male
*purisa—World Soul, Puruṣa: XVII.8
peta—ghost
*pesika—scraper: I.81
pharaṇa—pervasion, intentness upon
pharusa-vācā—harsh speech
phala—(1) fruit of (plants), (2) fruit of cause, (3) fruition
(of path; the 4)
*phalakasata—target: XXII.12
phassa—contact
*phāsu—convenient: IV.1 (D II 99; M I 10)
phoṭṭhabba—tangible datum, t. object
bala—power (the 5; the 10 of a Perfect One)
bahiddhā, bāhira—external, externally
*bālatta—dotage: XVI.45

1974
buddha—enlightened one
buddhi—(l) enlightenment, (2) intellect, discretion,
speculation, (3) sensation
*budha—possessed of wit: IV.66
bojjhaṅga—enlightenment factor
bodhi—enlightenment, awakening
bodhisatta—Bodhisatta, Being Destined to Enlightenment
*byatti—see vyatti
brahmacariya—life of purity, the good life, the life divine
brahma-vihāra—divine abiding (the 4)
brūhana—intensification
bhagavant—Blessed One
bhaṅga—dissolution
*bhattar—employer: IV.121 (cf. M II 123)
*bhanti—they shine (3rd p. pl. of bhāti): VII.36 (M I 328)
bhayat’ upaṭṭhāna—appearance as terror (stage in insight)
bhava—becoming, being, existence
bhavaṅga—life-continuum (consciousness)
*bhāti—brother: XXI.54
bhāva—(1) essence, stateness, (2) sex, (3) verbal
substantive (gram.)
bhāvanā—(1) development (lit. making be’), (2) term for
the 3 higher paths

1975
bhāva-sādhana—formula of establishment by substantive
(gram.): XVII.12
bhikkhu—bhikkhu, Buddhist monk
bhūta—(1) become, been, (2) creature, (3) primary element
(entity) of matter, etc.
bhūtūpādā-rūpa—matter derived upon the (four) primary
elements (the 24 kinds)
bhūmi—(l) ground, soil, (2) plane (of existence; the 4)
*bheda, vacī- —speech utterance: XIV.62 (cf. Dhs-a 90; M I
301)
magga—path
macchariya, macchera—avarice
majjhatta—neutral, central
majjhima—middle, medium
mada—vanity, intoxication
manasikāra—attention, bringing to mind
mano—mind
maraṇa—death, dying
*maru—also cliff: XVII.63
mala—stain (the 3)
mahaggata—exalted (a term for consciousness “exalted”
from the “limited” sense-desire sphere to the fine-
material or immaterial spheres)
*mahacca—great pomp: X.46 (D I 49)

1976
mahā-bhūta—great primary, great entity (the 4)
mahā-vipassanā—principal insight (the 18)
mātikā—(1) schedule of the Abhidhamma, (2) codes of the
Pātimokkha (the 2), (3) schedule, etc.
māna—conceit (pride)
māyā—deceit
micchā—wrong
micchatta—wrongness (the 10)
middha—torpor
*milāpana—withering, causing to wither: XIV.128
muccitukamyatā—desire for deliverance
muta—sensed (i.e. smelled, tasted or touched)
muditā—gladness (at others’ success)
mudutā—malleability
musā-vāda—false speech, lying
mūla—root
mettā—loving-kindness, amity
*mehana—private parts: VII.64
moha—delusion
yathā-kammūpaga-ñāṇa—knowledge of (beings’) faring
according to deeds
yathābhūta—correct
yuganaddha—coupling, yoking (of serenity and insight)

1977
ye-vā-panaka—or-whatever (state) (term for certain
formations)
yoga—bond (the 4)
yoni—(1) womb, (2) generation, (3) cause, reason
yoniso—wise, wisely, with ordered reasoning
rati—delight
rasa—(1) taste, flavour, (2) nature as function or
achievement, (3) stimulus (for feeling), (4) essential
juice, filtrate
*rasati—to taste: XV.3
*rasāyana—elixir. XVII.236
rāga—greed, lust
rūpa—(1) materiality (aggregate), fine materiality of fine-
material Brahmā-world, matter in general, material
form, (2) visible datum, visible object, visible matter,
visible form
rūpa-kāya—material body
rūpa-kkhandha—materiality aggregate
rūpūpādānakkhandha—materiality aggregate (as object)
of clinging
rūpa-rūpa—concrete materiality (term for certain derived
kinds of materiality)
*rūpayati—to be made visible: XV.3
rūpāvacara—fine-material sphere
lakkhaṇa—characteristic

1978
*laghimā—lightness: VII.61
lahutā—lightness
lābha—gain
loka—world
lokiya—mundane (i.e. not associated with the path,
fruition or Nibbāna)
lokiya dhamma—worldly state (the 8)
lokuttara—supramundane (i.e. the 9 states consisting of
the 4 paths, 4 fruitions and Nibbāna, and states
associated with them)
lobha—greed
vaggulī—fruit bat, flying fox; XXI.91
*vacanāvayava—member of a syllogism: XVII.67
*vacī-bheda—speech utterance: XIV.62
vacī-saṅkhāra—verbal formation (i.e. vitakka and vicāra)
vaṭṭa—round (of kamma, etc.; term for the dependent
origination as arising)
vaḍḍhana—extension, increase
vata—vow, duty, ritual
vatta—duty
*vattana—performance of duties: III.71 (Vin I 61)
*vatthika—clothable: VII.79
vatthu—(1) basis, physical basis (term for the six internal
bases), (2) object, (3) instance, example, (4) story, etc.

1979
vaya—(1) fall, (2) stage of life
vāsaṭṭhāna—defining
vasa-vattana—exercise of mastery
*vahanika—catamaran float (?): XVII.196
vācā—speech
vāta—air, wind
*vāna—fastening: VIII.247
vāyāma—effort
vāyo—air
*vikappa—alternative: XI.89 (cf. M-a I 67)
vikampana—shaking, wavering
vikāra—alteration
vikāra-rūpa—materiality as alteration (term for certain of
the 24 kinds of derived materiality, i.e. impermanence,
etc.)
*vikuppati—to be damaged: XXIII.35
vikubbana—(1) versatility (in development of divine
abidings), (2) transformation (by supernormal power)
vikkhambhana—suppression (of defilements by serenity)
vikkhepa—distraction
*vikkhepa—also spreading out: IV.89; gesture: XI.100
vicāra—sustained thought
vicikicchā—uncertainty

1980
*vijambhati—to stretch, yawn: IX.61
vijjamāna—existing, actual
vijjā—(1) clear-vision (the 3 or the 8), (2) science,
knowledge
viññatti—intimation
viññāta—cognized
viññāṇa—consciousness, cognition
viññāṇaṭṭhiti—station of consciousness (the 7)
vitakka—applied thought
*vitthambhana—also distension: XI.37, 84
*vinana—joining together: VIII.247
vinaya—(1) Vinaya Piṭaka or Book of Discipline, (2)
discipline, removal, leading away
*viniddhunana—shaking off: XVI.82
vinipāta—perdition
vinibbhoga—resolution (into elements)
*vippaṭipatti—wrong theory: XVI.85
vipariṇāma—change
vipariṇāma-dukkha—suffering due to change
vipariyesa—perverseness (the 4)
vipallāsa—perversion (the 3)
vipassanā—insight (the vision of what is formed as
impermanent, painful, not-self)

1981
vipassanā-yānika—one whose vehicle is insight
vipāka—(kamma-) result
*vipphandana—also excitement, wrong excitement: VI.42;
VIII.190
*vipphāra—also intervention: IV.89; XII.27; XIV.132
vibhava—(1) non-being, non-becoming, (2) success
vimokkha—liberation (the 3 and the 8)
vimutti—deliverance
*viyojeti—to separate: VIII.95
virati—abstinence (the 3)
viramana—abstaining
*viraha—(subst.) absence: IV.148
virāga—fading away (of greed)
viriya—energy
vivaṭṭa—(1) cessation of the round (of kamma, etc.), the
dependent origination as cessation, (2) turning away, (3)
expansion (of world after contraction)
viveka—seclusion
*visaṅkharoti—to analyze: XX.68
visama-hetu—fictitious cause
visaya—(1) abode, (2) objective field (of consciousness)
*visavitā—majesty: XII.49 (Paṭis I 174; II 205; Dhs-a 109)
*visahati—to suffer: II.38

1982
*visādana—dejection: XVI.59
*visesa—distinction
vihāra—(1) dwelling place, abode, (2) monastery, (3)
mode of abiding
*vihaṭamāna—being carded: XXI.66
vihiṃsā—cruelty
*vītiharaṇa—also shifting sideways: XI.115
vīthi—(1) street, (2) cognitive series (of consciousness)
vīthi-citta—a consciousness of the cognitive series
vīmaṃsā—enquiry
vuṭṭhāna—emergence
vuṭṭhānagāmini-vipassanā—insight leading to emergence
(of the path)
veda—(1) wisdom, (2) joy, inspiration, (3) the Vedas
vedanā—feeling (i.e. of pleasure, pain, or neither)
vedaka—experiencer, one who feels
vedayita—feeling what is felt
veramaṇi—abstention
vokāra—constituent
voṭṭhapana—determining (consciousness)
vodāna—cleansing (term for consciousness preceding
absorption or path)
vohāra—conventional usage, common speech

1983
*vyatti—particular distinction: VIII.72 (M-a I 6)
*vyappita—also gone away: IV.146 (Vibh 258)
vyāpāda—ill will
*vyāpāra—also interest, interestedness: XVII.309; XVIII.31
saṃyoga—bondage
saṃyojana—fetter (the 10)
saṃvaṭṭa—contraction (of world)
*saṃvaṇṇita—also in detail: XIII.14
saṃvara—restraint
saṃvega—sense of urgency
*saṃvedanika—which feels: XIV.213
saṃsāra—round of rebirths
sakadāgāmin—once-returner (term for 2nd stage of
realization)
*sakalika—also scale (of fish): VIII.91
sakkarā—sugar (spelled sakkharā in PED)
sakkāya—individuality
sakkāya-diṭṭhi—false view of individuality (the 20 kinds)
sagga—heaven
saṅkanti—transmigration
saṅkappa—thinking
saṅkamana—transmigrating
*saṅkara—confounding, confusing: XIV.58; epil. verses

1984
 (see CPD asaṅkara)
saṅkilesa—defilement, corruption
*saṅku-patha—also a path set on piles: IX.36
saṅkhata—formed
saṅkhāra—formation, formed thing
saṅkhāra-dukkha—suffering due to formations
saṅkhāra-pariccheda—delimiting of formations
saṅkhārupekkhā—equanimity about formations
saṅgati—coincidence, chance
*saṅgaha—also holding together: XI.93
*saṅgahīta—also held together: XI.90
saṅgha—the Order, the Community
saṅghaṭṭana—knocking together, impingement
sacca—truth
saccānulomika-ñāṇa—knowledge in conformity with
truth
*sacchika—based on realization: VII.55 (Paṭis I 174)
sacchikiriyā—realization
*sañña—restrained: I.158
saññā—(1) perception, (2) sign, signal, label
saññāvedayitanirodha—cessation of perception and
feeling
saṇṭhāna—(1) shape

1985
*saṇṭhāna—also (2) settling down, stationariness: III.22;
VIII.69, (3) co-presence: XVII.76
sati—mindfulness
satta—a being, a living being
*satta—Bright Principle, Sattva: IX.53
satta-saññā—(1) perception of a living being, (2) the seven
perceptions (first of the 18 principal insights)
*sattāvāsa—abode of beings (the 9)
sadda—(1) sound, (2) word, (3) grammar
sadda-lakkhaṇa—etymology
saddhā—faith
saddhā-vimutta—one liberated by faith
saddhānusārin—faith devotee
*saddheyya—inspiring faith: VII.72
sa-nidassana—visible
santati—continuity
santati-sīsa—organic continuity
santāna—continuity
santi-pada—state of peace (term for Nibbāna)
santīraṇa—investigation (consciousness)
*sandhāraṇa—also upholding: XIV.44
*sannikkhepana—also putting down: XX.62
*sanniṭṭheyya—fit to be convinced about: XIV.151

1986
sannipāta—concurrence
*sannirujjhana—also fixing down: IV.91; XII.51; XX.62
*sannissaya—waiting on, dependence: XIV.29
*sappati—to be emitted (pass. of sapati, to swear): XV.3
*sabbhāva—(presence): I.141; II.21; XIV.98; XVI.73
sabhāva—individual essence
*sabhāva—with sex: XVII.150
*sabhāva—Nature, Svabhāva: XVI.85
samatha—serenity (term for jhāna)
samatha-yānika—one whose vehicle is serenity
samaya—period, event, occasion, etc.
*samabbhāhata—also stretched flat: IV.129
*samabbhāhata—also impelled: XI.92
samavāya—inherence
*samaveta—inherent: XVI.91
samādhi—concentration
samāpatti—attainment (the 9)
*samāhata—also brought in: IV.190
samuccheda—cutting off (of defilements by the path)
samuṭṭhāna—origination (4 kinds), moulding
*samuṭṭhāpaya—rousable: IV.51
samudaya—origin
samudīraṇa—moving

1987
sampajañña—full awareness
sampaṭicchana—receiving (consciousness)
*sampaṭipādana—keeping on the track: VI.59
*sampatta-visaya—having a contiguous objective field (i.e.
smell, taste and touch)
*sampasādayati—to make confident: IV.142
*sampiṇḍana—also conjunction (gram.): IV.154
samphappalāpa—gossip, idle chatter
sambojjhaṅga—enlightenment factor (the 7)
*sambhāveti—also to judge: IX.109
*sambhoga—also exploiting: XIV.128; XVII.51
sammatta—rightness (the 10)
sammappadhāna—right endeavour (the 4)
sammā—right
sammā-sambuddha—fully enlightened one
sammuti—convention, conventional
sammuti-sacca—conventional truth (e.g. kasiṇa concept)
*sammussana—forgetting: XVI.82
sammosa—forgetfulness
sammoha—delusion
*sarūpena—also in its own form: XVI.70
salakkhaṇa—specific characteristic (e.g. hardness of earth)
sallakkhaṇa—observation

1988
sallekha—effacement
saḷāyatana—sixfold base (for contact)
savana—hearing
savana—flowing
*savana—exudation: XVII.56
sa-saṅkhāra—prompted
sa-sambhāra-kathā—“accessory locution” (log.)
sassata—eternal
sassata-diṭṭhi—eternity view
*sahaṭṭhāna—co-presence: XIII.116
sāṭheyya—fraud
*sādhika—accomplishing: IV.105
sādhāraṇa—common to, shared with
sāmañña-phala—fruit of asceticism
sāmañña-lakkhaṇa—general characteristic (of what is
formed, i.e. the 3 beginning with impermanence)
sāra—core
sāvaka—disciple, hearer
sāsana—dispensation
sikkhā—training
sikkhāpada—training precept
*siṅga—also foppery: III.95 (Vibh 351)
*siṭṭha—prepared: XVI.4

1989
*sippikā—bag (?): XI.68
*silesa—cement: XI.51
*sīta (?)—measure of area: XII.41
*sīmā—chapter house: IX.66
sīla—(1) virtue, (2) habit, (3) rite
sīlabbata—rules and vows (Ñāṇamoli’s original
translation was “rites and rituals,” but was changed in
accordance with his later translation of this term.)
*sīlaka—good-tempered: III.84
*sīlana—composing: I.19
sukkha-vipassaka—bare- (or dry-) insight worker (one
who attains the path without previously having
attained jhāna)
sukha—pleasure, pleasant, bliss, blissful, bodily pleasure
*sukha—tepid: X.52
*sukhana—act of pleasing: IV.100
sugata—Sublime One (the Buddha)
suñña, suññata—void
suññatā—voidness
suta—heard
*suttaka—intestinal worm: VIII.121
subha—beautiful, beauty
*surabhi—perfume: III.100; VI.90; X.60

1990
*sūcayati—to betray, reveal: XV.3
*sūdana—cleansing: XI.125
sekha—trainer (term for one possessing one of the four
paths or first three fruitions, so with training still to do)
soka—sorrow
sotāpanna—stream enterer (1st stage of realization)
somanassa—joy, mental pleasure
hadaya—heart
hadaya-vatthu—heart-basis (physical basis of mind)
hiri—conscience
hīna—(1) abandoned, (2) inferior
hetu—root-cause, cause
*hetu—also middle term (in syllogism; log.): XVII.67

1991
 Table I.
The Materiality Aggregate [1]

FOUR PRIMARY ELEMENTS OR GREAT ENTITIES (mahā-

bhūta)
Earth (paṭhavī—
*
solidity, hardness)
Together =
Fire (tejo—heat, sensed
* tangible-
maturing) (muta)
datum
Air (vāyo—distension
*
and motion)
Water (āpo—liquidity, cognized (viññāta)
**
cohesion)

TWENTY-FOUR KINDS OF DERIVED MATERIALITY (upādā-

rūpa) [2]
Eye-sensitivity
1
of matter
2 Ear-sensitivity... )
Nose- )
3
sensitivity... ) Sensed (muta)
Tongue- )
4
sensitivity... )
Body-
5
sensitivity...

1992
6 Visible-datum Seen (diṭṭha) through eye
7 Sound Heard (suta) through ear
8 Odour )
9 Flavour ) Sensed (muta) through nose,
tongue, & body
(*)
)
10 Feminity
11 Masculinity
12 Life
13 Heart-basis )
Bodily )
14 )
intimation
Verbal )
15 )
intimation
)
16 Space element
)
(**)
) cognized (viññāta) through
Lightness of
17 mind
matter
)
Malleability of )
18
matter )
Wieldiness of )
19
matter )
Growth of )
20
matter )
Continuity of )
21
matter )

1993
 matter )
22 Ageing of matter
Impermanence
23
of matter
24 Physical food

1994
Notes for Table I

1. (Ch. XIV, §34f., showing the divisions of

materiality and certain of its classifications)
2. Note: Listed in this way the total is 28. But in
other lists (e.g. at M-a II 261) the three primaries,
earth, fire, and air, are included together at (*) as
the tangible-datum, while water is included
separately at (**). The total is then 26 (see e.g. also
Dhs 653, etc.). This is consequent upon the
definition of three elements as apprehendable
through sensing by touch (body-sensitivity) and
the water (cohesion) element as apprehendable
only by cognizing with the mind.
All except the four primary elements are
‘derived’ (upādā). Nos. 1–5 and 10–12 always, and
the others with the four primaries when kamma
born, are ‘clung-to’ ( upādiṇṇa) (see Dhs.596, 653).

1995
 Table II.
The Formations Aggregate [1]

The fifty kinds of formations associated with consciousness

(adapted from Nyanatiloka Mahāthera’s Buddhist
Dictionary)
GENERAL (xxvi) Rectitude of
Five Primary: invariably mental body
present in any (xxvii) Rectitude of
consciousness. consciousness.
(i) Contact Six Secondary: sometimes
(ii) Volition present in beautiful
consciousness.
(vii) Life
(xxxiv) Abstinence from
(viii)
bodily misconduct
Concentration
[2] (xxxv) Abstinence from
(xxx) Attention verbal misconduct

Six Secondary: (xxxvi) Abst. fr. wrong

sometimes present in any livelihood
con-sciousness. (xxxii) Compassion
(iii) Applied- (xxxiii) Gladness
thought
(xv) Non-delusion

1996
 (iv) Sustained- UNPROFITABLE
thought
Four Primary: invariably
(xxix) Resolution present in any unprofitable
(vi) Energy consciousness.

(v) Happiness (xl) Delusion

(xxviii) Zeal (xxxvii)

Consciencelessness
BEAUTIFUL [3]
(xxxviii) Shamelessness
Nineteen Primary:
(xlii) Agitation
invariably present in any
beautiful consciousness Ten Secondary: sometimes
present in unprofitable
(ix) Faith
consciousness
(x) Mindfulness
(xiv) Hate
(xi) Conscience
(xlvi) Envy
(xii) Shame
(xlvii) Avarice
(xiii) Non-greed
(xlviii) Worry
(xiv) Non-hate
(xxxix) Greed
(xxxi) Specific-
(xli) Wrong view
neutrality
(xliv) Conceit (pride)
(xvi) Tranquillity
of mental *(xliii) Stiffness
body *(xliii) Torpor
(xvii) Tranquillity

1997
 of (l) Uncertainty
consciousness
(xviii) Lightness of
mental body
(xix) Lightness of
consciousness
(xx) Malleability
of mental
body
(xxi) Malleability
of
consciousness
(xxii) Wieldiness
of mental
body
(xxiii) Wieldiness
of
consciousness
(xxiv) Proficiency
of mental
body
(xxv) Proficiency
of
consciousness

1998
Notes for Table II.

1. (Ch. XIV, §131ff.)

2. The Roman numbering from (i) to (l) corresponds
to that given in Ch. XIV. The total is 50. However
(viii) concentration and (xlix) steadiness-of-
consciousness are simply different grades of the
same thing, consequently (xlix) steadiness-of-
consciousness is not included in the list above. On
the other hand (xliii) stiffness-and-torpor are
treated as two separate formations and are
therefore included above separately. Thus the
total remains 50. The ‘52 concomitants of
consciousness’ (cetasika) sometimes mentioned
are the 50 above plus feeling and perception.
[Back]
3. Beautiful (sobhana) consciousness includes all
profitable consciousness, resultant consciousness
with root-cause, and functional consciousness
with root-cause. (Table III (1)–(21), (42)–(49), (57)–
(69), (73)–(89).)

1999
 Table III.
Consciousness Aggregate[1]

I. Profitable II. Unprofitable

(1) Accompanied (a) ROOTED

by joy, IN GREED
associated with (22) Acc. by joy,
knowledge, ass. w. 1. Witho
unprompted. views, Cause
(2) Do., do., unprompted (34)–(38
prompted. (23) Do., do.,
(3) Do., dissociated prompted
fm. kn., (24) Do., dissoc.
(4) Do., do., fm. views,
prompted. unprompted.
(39)
(5) Acc. by (25) Do., do.,
equanimity, ass. prompted.
(40)
w. kn., (26) Acc. by
unprompted. equanimity,
(6) Do., do., ass. w. views
prompted. (27) Do., do.,
(7) Do., dissoc. fm. prompted
(41)
kn., (28) Do., dissoc.
unprompted. fm. views,
unprompted.

2000
Sensual (8) Do., do., (29) Do. do.,
Desire prompted. (IMP. prompted.
Sphere Attainment) (b) ROOTED
IN HATE 2. With
(30) Acc. by grief, Cause.
ass. w. (42)–(49
resentment,
unprompted.
(31) Do., do.,
prompted.
(c) ROOTED
IN DELUSION
(32) Acc. by (50)–(54
equan., ass.
w. unc:-.
(33) Do., do., ass.
w. agitation.
(IMP.)
(55)

(56)

(9) 1st jhāna. (57)

(59)
(58)
(10) 2nd jhāna. (61)
(60)
B. Fine
(11) 3rd jhāna.
Material

2001
Material (11) 4th jhāna.
Sphere (11) 5th jhāna.
(IMP.Attainment)

(14) Boundless (62)

(64)
(63)
space.
(65)
(15) Boundless
C. consciousness.
Material (16) Nothingness.
Sphere (17) Neither-
perception-nor-
non-perception.
(IMP.Attainment)
(18) Path moment - (66)
Stream entry.
(19) Path moment -
Once-return. (67)
(20) Path moment -
D. Non-return.
Supra- (21) Path moment - (68)
Mundane Arahantship
(IMP.
Attainment) (69)

2002
 (a) Rebirth-linking (=R.): (41)–(4
(b) Life-continuum (=L.): same
(c) Adverting (=A.): (70)–(71), 2
(d)-(h) Seeing, etc.: 5 profitable
kinds.
(i) Receiving (=REC.): (39) and (
(j) Investigating (=INV.): (40, (4l
(k) Determining (=DET.): (71), o
(l) Impulsion (=IMP.): (1)–(33), (
fivekinds.
(m) Registration (=REG.): (40)–(
(n) Death (=D.): the same ninete
Consciousness-element: (34)–(3
Mind-element: (39), (55), (70), t
Mind-consciousness-element: a

Notes for Table III

1. (Ch. XIV. 81ff. — see Guide to the Abhidhamma

Piṭaka by Nyanatiloka Mahāthera.)

2003
 Table IV.
The Combination of the
Formations Aggregate and
Consciousness Aggregate [1]

Profitable

(1)–(2) 5 primary plus 6 secondary general,

plus 19 primary plus 6 secondary
beautiful =total 36
(3)–(4) 5 prim. + 6 sec. gen., + 19 prim. + 5 sec.
(without non-delusion) btfl. = 35
(5)–(6) 5 p. + 5 s. (without happiness) gen., +
19 p. + 6 s. btfl. = 35
(7)–(8) 5 p. + 5 s. (without happiness) gen., +
19 p. + 5 s. (wt. non-delusion) btfl. = 34
(9) 5 p. + 6 s. gen., + 19 p. + 3 s. (wt. 3
abstinences) btfl. = 33
(10) 5 p. + 5 s. (wt. applied-thought) gen., +
19 p. + 3 s. (wt. 3 abstinences) btfl. = 32
(11) 5 p. + 4 s. (wt. applied-thought &
sustained-thought) gen., + 19 p. + 3 s.
(wt. 3 abstinences) btfl. = 31

2004
 (12) 5 p. + 3 s. (wt. applied-thought,
sustained-thought & happiness) gen., +
19 p. + 3 s. (wt. 3 abstinences) btfl. = 30
(13)—(17) 5 p. + 3 s. (wt. appl.-th., sust.-th., &
hap.) gen., + 19 p. + 1 s. (wt. 3 abst.,
compassion & gladness) btfl. = 28
(18)—(21) Any =(9)--(13) 3 abstinences present;
compassion, gladness absent.
Unprofitable
(22) 5 p. + 6 s. gen., + 4 p. + 2 s. (greed &
wrong-view) unprof. = 17
(23) 5 p. + 6 s. gen., + 4 p. + 4 s. (greed,
wrong-view & sometimes stiffness &
torpor) unprof. = 19
(24) 5 p. + 6 s. gen., + 4 p. + 2 s. (greed &
sometimes conceit) unprof. = 17
(25) 5 p. + 6 s. gen.,+ 4 p. + 4 s. (greed &
sometimes stiffness & torpor & conceit)
unprof. = 19
(26) 5 p. + 5 s. (wt. happiness) gen., + 4 p. +
2 s. (greed & wrong-view) unprof. = 16
(27) 5 p. + 5 s. (wt. happiness) gen., + 4 p. +
4 s. (greed & wrong-view & sometimes
stiffness & torpor) unprof. = 18

2005
 (28) 5 p. + 5 s. (wt. happiness) gen., + 4 p. +
2 s. (greed & sometimes conceit ) un-
prof.=16
(29) 5 p. + 5 s. (wt. happiness) gen., + 4 p. +
4 s. (greed & stiffness & torpor &
conceit) unprof. = 18
(30) 5 p. + 5 s. (wt. happiness, gen., + 4 p. +
4 s. (hate & envy & avarice & worry)
unprof. = 18
(31) 5 As (30) + 2 s. (sometimes stiffness &
torpor) unprof. = 20
(32) 5 p. + 3 s. (wt. happiness, resolution &
zeal-concentration weak) gen., + 4 p. +
1 s. (uncertainty) unprof. = 13
(33) As (32) but + 1 s. gen. (resolution-
concentration strong) & without s.
(uncertainty) unprof. = 13
Indeterminate
(a) Resultant
(34)–(38) 5 primary general (concentration weak)
= 5
(50)–(54)
(39)–(41) 5 p. + 3 s. (appl.-th., sus.-th. &
resolution) gen. = 8

2006
 (55)–(56)
(40) 5 p. + 4 s. (appl.-th., sus.-th., res. &
hap.) gen. = 9
(42)–(49) As (1)–(8) wt. 3 abst. & wt. compassion
& gladness
(57)–(69) As (9)–(21)
(b) Functional
(70) As (39) = 8
(71) 5 p. + 4 s. (as in (40) + energy) gen. = 10
(72) 5 p. + 4 s. (as in (41) + energy) gen. = 9
(73)–(80) As (1)–(8) wt. 3 abst.
(81)–(89) As (9)–(17)

Notes for Table IV

1. See (Ch. XIV. (Adapted from Nyanatiloka

Mahāthera’s Buddhist Dictionary.)

2007
 Table V.
The Cognitive Series in the
Occurrence of Consciousness
(citta-vīthi) as Presented in the
Visuddhimagga and
Commentaries

No. in Mind
Conscious Accompanied
Cog. conscious- Mind-el.
ness el. by
Series ness el.

1 Resultant

2 Resultant

3 Functional Equanimity

Joy (pleasure)

2008
 4 Resultant or grief (pain)
[1]

5 Resultant Equanimity
Joy or
6 Resultant equanimity or
grief

7 Functional Equanimity

8 1. Joy or
9 1. Kamma equanimity or
10 2. Result or grief
11 Funct. only 2. Joy or
12 3. Funct. equanimity
13 Arahants 3. Joy or
14 equanimity

15 Joy or
Resultant
16 equanimity

17 Resultant

Notes for Table IV

2009
1. Mental joy in (34)–(37) and bodily pleasure in (38)
; mental grief in (50)–(53) and bodily pain in (54).
2. The 1st impulsion (as kamma) gives result
(kamma-result) in this same life. The 7th gives
result in the immediately next life, including
rebirth-linking consciousness. The 2nd–6th give
result in lives subsequent to that. Each in the
series possesses arising, presence & dissolution.
One material moment = l6 conscious moments in
duration, its presence being that much longer.

2010
 Table VI.
Dependent Origination (paṭicca-
samuppāda)[1]

Showing conditionality as extending over three

lives (from Nyanatiloka Mahāthera’s Buddhist
Dictionary).
For other applications (e.g., as aplicable to a
single conscious moment) see Ch. XVII note 48.

1. Ignorance Kamma-process
Past becoming: five
2. Formations
causes, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10.

3. Consciousness
4. Mentality-
materiality Rebirth-process
5. Sixfold-base becoming: five
results, 3–7.
6. Contact
Present
7. Feeling

8. Craving Kamma-process
9. Clinging becoming: five
10. Becoming causes, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10.

2011
 11. Birth (as
rebirth) Rebirth-process
Future becoming: five
12. Ageing-and-
results, 3–7
death

Notes for Table VI

1. Ch. XVII.296ff.

2012
Table of Contents
Title page 2
Contents (Detailed, by Topic and Paragraph
5
No.)
Printed Editions of the Visuddhimagga 19
Translations of the Visuddhimagga 19
Other Works 20
List of Abbreviations for Texts Used 22
Other Abbreviations 25
Message from his Holiness the Dalai Lama 27
Publisher’s Foreword to Third Edition 29
Publisher’s Foreword to Fourth Edition 31
Translator’s Preface 31
Introduction 36
Background and Main Facts 36
The Visuddhimagga and its Author 50
The Vimuttimagga 78
Trends in the Development of Theravāda Doctrine 80
The Paramatthamañjusā 84
Some Main Threads in the Visuddhimagga 85
Concerning the Translation 89
Concluding Remarks 98
Chapter I Description of Virtue (Sīla-
113
niddesa)

2013
 [I. Introductory] 113
[II. Virtue] 123
Chapter II The Ascetic Practices (Dhutaṅga-
233
niddesa)
[The 13 kinds of Ascetic Practices] 233
Chapter III Taking a Meditation Subject
287
(Kammaṭṭhāna-gahaṇa-niddesa)
[A. Development in Brief] 298
[B. Development in Detail] 299
Chapter IV The Earth Kasiṇa (Pathavī-
369
kasiṇa-niddesa)
[The Eighteen Faults of a Monastery] 370
[The Five Factors of the Resting Place] 376
[The Lesser Impediments] 377
[Detailed Instructions for Development] 378
[The Earth Kasiṇa] 378
[Making an Earth Kasiṇa] 379
[Starting Contemplation] 381
[The Counterpart Sign] 384
[The Two Kinds of Concentration] 385
[Guarding the Sign] 386
[The Ten Kinds of Skill in Absorption] 389
[The Five Similes] 403
[Absorption in the Cognitive Series] 405
[The First Jhāna] 408
[Extension of the Sign] 434

2014
 [The Second Jhāna] 441
[The Third Jhāna] 448
[The Fourth Jhāna] 460
[The Fivefold Reckoning of Jhāna] 468
Chapter V The Remaining Kasiṇas (Sesa-
490
kasiṇa-niddesa)
[The Water Kasiṇa] 490
[The Fire Kasiṇa] 492
[The Air Kasiṇa] 494
[The Blue Kasiṇa] 495
[The Yellow Kasiṇa] 496
[The Red Kasiṇa] 497
[The White Kasiṇa] 497
[The Light Kasiṇa] 498
[The Limited-Space Kasiṇa] 499
[General] 500
Chapter VI Foulness as a Meditation
507
Subject (Asubha-kammaṭṭhāna-niddesa)
[General Definitions] 507
[The Bloated] 510
[The Livid] 530
[The Festering] 531
[The Cut Up] 531
[The Gnawed] 532
[The Scattered] 532
[The Hacked and Scattered] 533

2015
 [The Bleeding] 533
[The Worm-Infested] 534
[A Skeleton] 534
[General] 537
Chapter VII Six Recollections (Cha-
547
anussati-niddesa)
[(1) Recollection of the Enlightened One] 549
[Accomplished] 550
[Fully Enlightened] 558
[Endowed With Clear Vision and Virtuous
561
Conduct]
[Sublime] 563
[Knower of Worlds] 565
[Incomparable Leader of Men to be Tamed] 572
[Teacher of Gods and Men] 574
[Enlightened] 576
[Blessed] 577
[(2) Recollection of the Dhamma] 586
[Well Proclaimed] 587
[Visible Here and Now] 592
[Not Delayed] 594
[Inviting of Inspection] 595
[Onward-Leading] 596
[Is Directly Experienceable by the Wise] 597
[(3) Recollection of the Saṅgha] 599
[Entered on the Good, Straight, True, Proper Way] 600
[Fit for Gifts] 602

2016
 [Fit for Hospitality] 604
[Fit for Offering] 605
[Fit for Salutation] 605
[As an Incomparable Field of Merit for the World] 605
[(4) Recollection of Virtue] 607
[(5) Recollection of Generosity] 610
[(6) Recollection of Deities] 614
[General] 616
Chapter VIII Other Recollections as
Meditation Subjects (Anussati- 648
kammaṭṭhāna-niddesa)
[(7) Mindfulness of Death] 648
[Definitions] 648
[Development] 650
[Eight Ways of Recollecting Death] 651
[Conclusion] 666
[(8) Mindfulness Occupied with the Body] 668
[Text] 670
[Word Commentary] 671
[Development] 672
[The Sevenfold Skill in Learning] 672
[The Tenfold Skill in Giving Attention] 676
[Starting the Practice] 685
[The Thirty-two Aspects in Detail] 685
[Head Hairs] 686
[Body Hairs] 689

2017
[Nails] 690
[Teeth] 690
[Skin (Taca)] 691
[Flesh] 693
[Sinews] 694
[Bones] 695
[Bone Marrow] 699
[Kidney] 699
[Heart] 700
[Liver] 701
[Midriff] [28] 701
[Spleen] 702
[Lungs] 702
[Bowel] 703
[Entrails (Mesentery)] 703
[Gorge] 704
[Dung] 706
[Brain] 707
[Bile] 707
[Phlegm] 708
[Pus] 709
[Blood] 710
[Sweat] 710
[Fat] 711
[Tears] 712
[Grease] 713
[Spittle] 713

2018
 [Snot] 714
[Oil of the Joints] 715
[Urine] 716
[The Arising of Absorption] 716
[(9) Mindfulness of Breathing] 719
[Text] 720
[Word Commentary] 722
[Word Commentary Continued—First Tetrad] 730
[Method of Development] 743
[Word Commentary Continued—Second
763
Tetrad]
[Word Commentary Continued—Third
766
Tetrad]
[Word Commentary Continued—Fourth
768
Tetrad]
[Conclusion] 771
[(10) Recollection of Peace] 774
Chapter IX The Divine Abidings
811
(Brahmavihāra-niddesa)
[(1) Loving-Kindness] 811
[Getting Rid of Resentment] 816
[The Breaking Down of the Barriers—The
834
Sign]
[Texts and Commentary] 836
[(2) Compassion] 848
[(3) Gladness] 852
[(4) Equanimity] 854

2019
 [General] 856
[Meanings] 856
[Characteristic, Etc.] 857
[Purpose] 858
[The Near and Far Enemies] 859
[The Beginning, Middle and End, Etc.] 861
[The Order in Extension] 861
[The Outcome] 862
[Four Questions] 863
[As Producing Three Jhānas and Four Jhānas] 866
[The Highest Limit of Each] 870
Chapter X The Immaterial States (Āruppa-
882
niddesa)
[(1) The Base Consisting of Boundless Space] 882
[Text and Commentary] 887
[(2) The Base Consisting of Boundless
894
Consciousness]
[Text and Commentary] 895
[(3) The Base Consisting of Nothingness] 898
[Text and Commentary] 900
[(4) The Base Consisting of Neither Perception
902
nor Non-Perception]
[Text and Commentary] 904
[General] 911
Chapter XI Concentration—Conclusion:
Nutriment and the Elements (Samādhi- 921

2020
niddesa)
[Perception of Repulsiveness in Nutriment] 921
[Defining of The Elements: Word Definitions] 934
[Texts and Commentary in Brief] 935
[In Detail] 936
[Method of Development in Brief] 941
[Method of Development in Detail] 944
[(1) With Constituents in Brief] 945
[(2) With Constituents by Analysis] 945
[(3) With Characteristics in Brief] 965
[(4) With Characteristics by Analysis] 966
[Additional Ways of Giving Attention] 967
[Development of Concentration—Conclusion] 984
[The Benefits of Developing Concentration] 984
Chapter XII The Supernormal Powers
1003
(Iddhividha-niddesa)
[The Benefits of Concentration (Continued)] 1003
[(1) The Kinds of Supernormal Power] 1004
Chapter XIII Other Direct-knowledges
1079
(Abhiññā-niddesa)
[(2) The Divine Ear Element] 1079
[(3) Penetration of Minds] 1083
[(4) Recollection of Past Lives] 1088
[(5) The Divine Eye—Knowledge of Passing
1114
Away and Reappearance of Beings]
[General] 1128

2021
Chapter XIV The Aggregates (Khandha- 1150
niddesa)
[A. Understanding] 1150
[B. Description of the Five Aggregates] 1167
[The Materiality Aggregate] 1168
[The Consciousness Aggregate] 1188
[The 89 Kinds of Consciousness—see Table III] 1189
[The 14 Modes of Occurrence of Consciousness] 1202
[The Feeling Aggregate] 1209
[The Perception Aggregate] 1212
[The Formations Aggregate—see Tables II & IV] 1213
[According to Association with Consciousness] 1214
[C. Classification of the Aggregates] 1241
[Materiality] 1242
[Feeling] 1245
[Perception, Formations and Consciousness] 1252
[D. Classes of Knowledge of the Aggregates] 1252
Chapter XV The Bases and Elements
1309
(Āyatana-dhātu-niddesa)
[A. Description of the Bases] 1309
[B. Description of the Elements] 1317
Chapter XVI The Faculties and Truths
1337
(Indriya-sacca-niddesa)
[A. Description of the Faculties] 1337
[B. Description of the Truths] 1343
[The Truth of Suffering] 1353

2022
 [(i) Birth] 1353
[(ii) Ageing] 1359
[(iii) Death] 1361
[(v) Lamentation] 1363
[(vi) Pain] 1364
[(vii) Grief] 1364
[(viii) Despair] 1365
[(ix) Association with the Unloved] 1366
[(x) Separation from the Loved] 1367
[(xi) Not to Get What One Wants] 1367
[(xii) The Five Aggregates] 1368
[The Truth of the Origin of Suffering] 1370
[The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering] 1371
[Discussion on Nibbāna] 1373
[The Truth of the Way] 1379
[General] 1382
Chapter XVII The Soil of Understanding—
Conclusion: Dependent Origination (Paññā- 1411
bhūmi-niddesa)
[Section A. Definition of Dependent Origination] 1411
[Section B. Exposition] 1424
[I. Preamble] 1424
[II. Brief Exposition] 1425
[III. Detailed Exposition] 1441
[(i) Ignorance] 1441
[(ii) Formations] 1443

2023
 [The 24 Conditions] 1447
[How Ignorance is a Condition for
1467
Formations]
[No Single Fruit from Single Cause] 1469
[(iii) Consciousness] 1477
[(1) Kinds of Mundane Resultant
1477
Consciousness]
[(2) The Occurrence of Resultant
1480
Consciousness]
[2. (a) In the Course of an Existence] 1481
[2. (b) At Rebirth-Linking] 1485
[How Kamma is a Condition] 1493
[(3) How Formations are a Condition for
1505
Consciousness]
[(iv) Mentality-Materiality] 1510
[(v) The Sixfold Base] 1520
[(1) Mentality as Condition] 1521
[(3) Mentality-Materiality as Condition] 1526
[(vi) Contact] 1527
[How the Sixfold Base is a Condition for
1530
Contact]
[(vii) Feeling] 1531
[(viii) Craving] 1532
[(ix) Clinging] 1535
[How Craving is a Condition for Clinging] 1540
[(x) Becoming] 1541
[How Clinging is a Condition for Becoming] 1551

2024
 [(xi)–(xii) Birth, Etc.] 1552
[Section C. The Wheel of Becoming] 1554
[(i) The Wheel] 1554
[(ii) The Three Times] 1558
[(iii) Cause and Fruit] 1560
[(iv) Various] 1565
Chapter XVIII Purification of View (Diṭṭhi-
1596
visuddhi-niddesa)
[Defining of Mentality-Materiality] 1597
[(1) Definition Based on the Four Primaries] 1597
[(2) Definition Based on the Eighteen Elements] 1601
[(3) Definition Based on the Twelve Bases] 1603
[(4) Definition Based on the Five Aggregates] 1604
[(5) Brief Definition Based on the Four Primaries] 1605
[If the Immaterial Fails to Become Evident] 1606
[How the Immaterial States Become Evident] 1608
[No Being Apart from Mentality-Materiality] 1611
[Interdependence of Mentality and Materiality] 1616
Chapter XIX Purification by Overcoming
1627
Doubt (Kaṅkhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi-niddesa)
[Ways of Discerning Cause and Condition] 1627
[Neither Created by a Creator nor Causeless] 1627
[Its Occurance is Always Due to Conditions] 1629
[General and Particular Conditions] 1630
[Dependent Origination in Reverse Order] 1632
[Dependent Origination in Direct Order] 1632

2025
 [Kamma and Kamma-Result] 1633
[No Doer Apart from Kamma and Result] 1638
[Full-Understanding of the Known] 1640
Chapter XX Purification by Knowledge and
Vision of What is the Path and What is Not
1652
the Path (Maggāmagga-ñāṇadassana-
visuddhi-niddesa)
[The Three Kinds of Full-Understanding] 1653
[Insight: Comprehension by Groups] 1656
[Comprehension by Groups—Application of Text] 1662
[Strengthening of Comprehension in Forty Ways] 1665
[Nine Ways of Sharpening the Faculties, Etc. 1669
[Comprehension of the Material] 1670
[(a) Kamma-Born Materiality] 1672
[(b) Consciousness-Born Materiality] 1674
[(c) Nutriment-Born Materiality] 1677
[(d) Temperature-Born Materiality] 1679
[Comprehension of the Immaterial] 1681
[The Material Septad] 1683
[The Immaterial Septad] 1699
[The Eighteen Principal Insights] 1706
[Knowledge of Rise and Fall—I] 1708
[The Ten Imperfections of Insight] 1717
Chapter XXI Purification by Knowledge
and Vision of the Way (Paṭipadā- 1742
ñāṇadassana-visuddhi-niddesa)

2026
 [Insight: The Eight Knowledges] 1743
[1. Knowledge of Rise and Fall—II] 1743
[2. Knowledge of Dissolution] 1745
[3. Knowledge of Appearance as Terror] 1754
[4. Knowledge of Danger] 1758
[5. Knowledge of Dispassion] 1765
[6. Knowledge of Desire for Deliverance] 1767
[7. Knowledge of Reflection] 1768
[Discerning Formations as Void] 1772
[8. Knowledge of Equanimity about Formations] 1777
[The Triple Gateway to Liberation] 1780
[The Seven Kinds of Noble Persons] 1784
[The Last Three Knowledges are One] 1786
[Insight Leading to Emergence] 1788
[The Twelve Similes] 1793
[The Difference in the Noble Path’s Factors, Etc.] 1800
[9. Conformity Knowledge] 1807
[Sutta References] 1810
Chapter XXII Purification by Knowledge
1831
and Vision (Ñāṇadassana-visuddhi-niddesa)
[I. Change-of-Lineage, Paths, and Fruits] 1831
[The First Path—First Noble Person] 1831
[The First Fruition—Second Noble Person] 1838
[The Second Path—Third Noble Person] 1840
[The Second Fruition—Fourth Noble Person] 1841
[The Third Path—Fifth Noble Person] 1842

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 [The Third Fruition—Sixth Noble Person] 1843
[The Fourth Path—Seventh Noble Person] 1843
[The Fourth Fruition—Eighth Noble Person] 1844
[II. The States Associated with the Path, Etc.] 1845
[The Four Functions] 1875
[The Four Functions in a Single Moment] 1875
[The Four Functions Described Separately] 1882
[Conclusion] 1894
Chapter XXIII The Benefits In Developing
Understanding (Paññābhāvanānisaṃsa- 1904
niddesa)
[A. Removal of the Defilements] 1904
[B. The Taste of the Noble Fruit] 1905
[C. The Attainment of Cessation] 1913
[D. Worthiness to Receive Gifts] 1931
Conclusion 1941
[Postscript] 1943
Pali-English Glossary of Some Subjects and
1946
Technical Terms
Table I.The Materiality Aggregate [1] 1992
Table II.The Formations Aggregate [1] 1996
Table III. Consciousness Aggregate[1] 2000
Table IV. The Combination of the
Formations Aggregate and Consciousness 2004
Aggregate [1]

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Table V. The Cognitive Series in the
Occurrence of Consciousness (citta-vīthi) as 2008
Presented in the Visuddhimagga and
Commentaries
Table VI.Dependent Origination (paṭicca-
2011
samuppāda)[1]

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