Foundation Structures

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Structures constructed below the ground level are called substructures. They are generally
divided into the following three groups:
• Foundation structures
• Retaining structures
• Other special systems such as tunnels, diaphragm walls, and buried pipes.
In this book, we will deal mostly with the first two groups.
Foundation structures transfer all the loads that come on the superstructure to the ground.
These loads can be either vertical loads such as live and dead loads or horizontal loads such
as wind loads and earthquake loads. Retaining structures are built to retain earth as in the case
of basement of buildings. Foundation structures are themselves divided into the following
subdivisions:
• Shallow foundations
• Deep foundations
• Special foundations
Shallow foundation can be of two types:

• Various types of footings

• Grids and rafts
1
2 Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations

Deep foundation can be of three types (see Chapter 15):

• Piles
• Piers
• Caissons
While piles are flexible members that bend under lateral loads, piers are rigid structures that
undergo rotation under lateral loads. Caissons are usually those piers built under water using
pneumatic pressure devices.
Special foundations are used for special structures such as transmission towers, cooling
towers, and chimneys.
The geotechnical design of foundation (e.g. calculation of bearing capacity of soil, and
also that of piles, and wells) is usually dealt with in books on Soil Mechanics, which is a part
of Foundation Engineering [1]. In this book, we deal mainly with the structural design of
commonly used foundations (e.g. footings, rafts, pile caps, and basement) for supporting
superstructures.

1.2 RIGID AND FLEXIBLE FOUNDATIONS

Structures such as footings can be assumed to settle uniformly under a central concentrated
load. Hence, if we assume that the ground reaction or contact pressure is proportional to
deformation (the Winkler theory), the contact pressure will be uniform under the foundation.
(However, we know that the elastic stress distribution under a rigid footing in clay or sand is
not uniform even though at ultimate stage it tries to even out.) In certain calculations, we often
make the assumption that the shallow foundations are rigid and the contact pressure is, therefore,
uniform.
In reality, the soil pressure under a foundation depends on the rigidity of the foundation
structure itself with respect to the foundation soil and, in many cases, the foundation structure
we use may not be fully rigid. This soil structure interaction can be studied by modern theories
[2], [3]. We will deal with its elementary principles by a study of "beams on elastic foundation"
described in Chapter 22.

1.3 LOADS AND THEIR EFFECTS

The dead and live loads are gravity loads assumed to act vertically down. The effect of wind,
earthquake, earth pressures, etc. is to produce horizontal loads. The effect of these vertical and
horizontal loads can be divided into three groups:
1. Vertical loads that pass through the centre of gravity (CG) of the foundation. These
can be assumed to produce uniform contact pressure under a rigid foundation.
2. Vertical loads that act with eccentricity. These also produce vertical loads and
moments in the foundation and are again balanced by varying vertical reactions on the
base of the foundation. Only vertical loads have to be balanced.
3. Vertical forces with horizontal forces such as wind load producing moments. These
have to be balanced by vertical reactions. In addition, as different from the second
 Foundation Structures 3

case, the horizontal forces have to be balanced or resisted by the corresponding

horizontal reactions such as friction between foundation and ground or by passive
earth pressure.
Thus, foundations of retaining walls and those of tall buildings resisting wind and
earthquakes have to be designed against sliding and stability also. This difference in action
should be clearly understood in our analysis of foundations.

Wind

L-UIijjJ
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.1 Loads and reaction from the ground (ground pressure) under rigid column
footings, (a) Uniform vertical reaction due to a central load, (b) Linearly varying
vertical reaction due to eccentric vertical load producing additional moment,
(c) Linearly varying vertical reaction and also horizontal ground reactions due to
vertical load and horizontal loads such as wind loads.

1.4 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The foundation is to be designed keeping the \/w'
following conditions in mind: -©
1. All the applied vertical and horizontal
loads on the structure should be
resisted by foundation pressure,
-©
which does not exceed the safe
bearing capacity of the soil. -~ZK - -72T

2. The foundation should have adequate

safety against sliding, overturning, or
pull-out under the influence of the
external loads.
3. The total settlement and the Figure 1.2 Tilting of compound walls built in
differential settlement of the structure clay soils due to non-uniform found¬
should be within limits. ation pressure: (?) Property line,
We should be aware that non-uniform (2) Compound wall, (3) Moment
pressure under the foundation in compressible produced by eccentricity of vertical
(clay) soils can lead to the long-term effect of load, and (4) Non-uniform loading
tilting of the foundation in clay soils. Hence it of foundation.
4 Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations

is very common in compound walls built in clayey soils with eccentric load on foundation to
tilt from the vertical after a length of time as shown in Figure 1.2. Thus, it is better to use short
piles and grade beams for compound walls in clayey soils.

1.5 GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN

The problems of safe bearing capacity, total settlement, differential settlement, and so on are
discussed in books on Soil Mechanics f 1]. In this book, we restrict ourselves to structural design.

1.6 EMPIRICAL AND EXACT METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF

FOUNDATIONS
Traditionally, because of the high indeterminacy offoundation problems, foundation analysis
was mostly carried out by elementary or approximate methods of calculations and their design
based on the theory of reinforced concrete. These calculations for analysis and design can be
carried out by simple hand calculators. However, of late, more exact and theoretical methods
of analysis based on soil-structure interaction have been evolved. All of them require not only
correct soil parameters but also use of modern computers. However, a good estimation of the
properties of the varying soils under foundation is rather impossible, and this considerably
limits the application of these theories in real practice. However, such an analysis can give us
a good indication of the nature of soil reaction, which can be used in our design.
The knowledge of the existing empirical methods of analysis, which we will be dealing
in this book, instead of the theoretical soil-structure interaction methods, will be valuable to
foundation engineers in three ways. First, in many simple cases, they can be directly used for
construction. Second, they will serve as quick and good methods for initial estimation of the
cost and comparison of the economy of the different types of foundations for a given
situation. Third, they serve also as simple checks for the complex computer generated
solutions. Such checks are always recommended whenever we use computer methods for
structural solution.
This book principally deals with these approximate methods of analysis and design. More
modern information dealing with soil structure interaction (which should be always used along
with extensive soil investigation to get realistic soil parameters) is available in advanced books
on the subject [2], [3]. Complex foundations can be designed by such methods. These methods
become necessary only when we deal with highly complex situations. Also, as explained in
Sec. 1.8, what we should aim for is a safe and conservative design.

1.7 DESIGN LOADS FOR FOUNDATIONS

Limit state design, according to IS 456-2000, is the method to be followed in India for the
design of reinforced concrete members. According to this method, the structure has to be
designed for different limit states which can be broadly classified into the following two
groups:
 Foundation Structures 5

• Limit state design of serviceability such as settlement and deflection

• Limit state of collapse or failure
The following load combinations are prescribed by Table 18 IS 456-2000 (Table 1.1 given
below) for these two separate limit states. There are four combinations for limit state and three
combinations for limit state of serviceability.
TABLE 1.1 Load Combination for Limit State Design (IS 456, Table 18)

Load combination Limit state of collapse Limit state of serviceability

DL + LL 1.5 (DL + LL) DL + LL
DL + WL 1.5 DL + 1.5 WL DL + WL
0.9 DL + 1.5 WL
DL + LL + WL 1.2(DL + LL) + 1.2 WL DL + 0.8 LL + 0.8 WL

DL— Dead load, LL— Live load, WL— Wind load, EL— Earthquake load
{Note: When considering earthquake loads, we replace WL by EL)

1.8 RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF

FOUNDATIONS
We should always remember that our approach to design of foundation structures should be
much more conservative than that of the design of a superstructure. In many cases of foundation
design, we do not know the exact properties of the soil under the foundation. In most cases we
assume that the structure is rigid and that the ground pressures are uniform. Soil deposits are
never uniform with depth and may vary in the same site from place to place. Thus, many of
the design assumptions that we make may not be true in the field.
Another important consideration is that any defect in a foundation is much more difficult
to rectify than a defect found in the superstructure. Again, the considerations that we should
give for the design of a foundation of a temple or church, which is to last many years, should
be different from those we will give for a residential building. We must always be aware of the
environmental conditions of the foundation and the likelihood of corrosion of steel by chlorides
and deterioration of concrete by sulphates. Proper care should be taken not only for strength but
also for durability. All these will need a conservative approach. In addition to the above general
considerations, there are many other special considerations in detailing of steel in foundation.
As we are not sure of variation of soil conditions and the relative rigidity of our
foundations, it is difficult to be sure about the reversal of moments. Thus, the conventional
placement of steel as in beams and slabs may not provide for reversal of moments that may
happen in foundation structure. Thus, we should always place some steel on both sides of
members in all foundations.
Because of the above and other limitations, we should always check the sizes of members
we get from our theoretical design with respect to the conventional size of members generally
used in practice. Similarly, the amount of steel we get in our design should be checked with
the conventional type of layout used in practice.
6 Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations

This section has been incorporated to draw the attention of designers to the necessity of
giving extra consideration and being conservative in the design of foundation structures. We
should always provide a strong foundation that will never fail. This is especially true nowadays
when earthquake considerations require us to provide for very strong superstructures. Even
though there are a number of case histories of failures of superstructures due to earthquakes,
there have been very few cases of foundation failures due to earthquake, except those where
the soil around failed due to liquefaction or other reasons. There are soil failures and not
structural failures. Our aim should be to build foundations that are always stronger than the
superstructure under all conditions.

1.9 SUMMARY
Many types of foundations are used in civil engineering structures. However, we must realise
that foundations are very important part of a structure, and it is very difficult to rectify
foundation defects once they occur in design or construction. We also know that it is difficult
to estimate the exact soil properties of the foundation soil. Hence, we should always have a
conservative approach in design, detailing and construction of foundation structures. The need
for conservatism in the design of foundations should be always borne in mind.

REFERENCES
[1] Bowles, J.E., Analytical and Computer Methods in Foundation Engineering, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1974.
[2] Bowles, J.E., Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill, New York, 1995.
[3] Varghese, P.C., Foundation Engineering, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2005.