CHAPTER-1

FOUNDATION SYSTEMS

BY sasivaradhan

February, 2024
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 2.1. INTRODUCTION
 A foundation should be sufficiently strong to prevent excessive settlement as well
as unequal settlement.
 Unequal settlement or differential settlement may be caused by:
 Weak sub-soils, such as made up ground,
 Shrinkable and expansive soil (such as clay),
 Frost action,
 Movement of ground water, and uplift pressure
 Excessive vibrations, due to traffic, machinery etc,
 Slow consolidation of saturated clays, and
 Slipping of strata on sloping sites.

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 2.1. INTRODUCTION (CONT . . .)
 Every building consists of two basic parts: The Super-structure and Sub-
structure (foundation).
 Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which the loads are transmitted.
 The function of a foundation is to distribute the load of superstructure
over a larger area, in such a way that;
 Settlements are with in permissible limit and
 The soil does not fail.

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 2.1. INTRODUCTION (CONT. . .)
 In general, foundation engineering applies the knowledge of geology, soil
mechanics , rock mechanics , and structural engineering to the design and
construction of foundations for buildings and other structures.
 The most basic aspect of foundation engineering deals with the selection of
the type of foundation, such as using a shallow or deep foundation system.
Another important aspect of foundation engineering involves the development
of design parameters, such as the bearing capacity or estimated settlement
of the foundation.
 Foundation engineering could also include the actual foundation design, such
as determining the type and Spacing of steel reinforcement in concrete
footings.
 Foundation engineering often involves both geotechnical and structural
engineers, with the geotechnical engineer providing the foundation design
parameters such as the allowable bearing pressure and the structural
engineer performing the actual foundation design.

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 2.1. INTRODUCTION (CONT. . .)
 Foundations are commonly divided into two categories: shallow and deep
foundations.
 In terms of geotechnical aspects, foundation engineering often includes
the following :
 Determining the type of foundation for the structure, including the
depth and dimensions
 Calculating the potential settlement of the foundation.
 Determining design parameters for the foundation, such as the
bearing capacity and allowable soil bearing pressure
 Determining the expansion potential of a site
 Investigating the stability of slopes and their effect on adjacent
foundations.
 Investigating the possibility of foundation movement due to seismic
forces, which would also include the possibility of liquefaction.
 Performing studies and tests to determine the potential for
deterioration of the foundation.

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 2.1. INTRODUCTION (CONT. . .)
 Evaluating possible soil treatment to increase the
foundation bearing capacity
 Determining design parameters for retaining wall
foundations
 Providing recommendations for dewatering and drainage
of excavations needed for the construction of the foundation
 Investigating groundwater and seepage problems and
developing mitigation measures during foundation
construction
 Site preparation, including compaction specifications and
density testing during grading
 Underpinning and field testing of foundations

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 2.1.1.
2.1.1. STRUCTURAL
STRUCTURAL Vs
Vs FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION DESIGN
DESIGN
2.1.1.1. STRUCTURAL DESIGN
 Choice of materials
 Choice of framing system
 Uniform materials , and quality assurance
 Design largely independent of geology , climate, etc.

Figure 2.1

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 2.1.1.
2.1.1. STRUCTURAL
STRUCTURAL Vs
Vs FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION DESIGN(CONT.
DESIGN(CONT. .. .).)

2.1.1.2. FOUNDATION DESIGN

 Cannot specify site materials
 Site is usually predetermined
 Site geology influences foundation choice
 No site the same
 No design the same

 F Figure 2.2
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 2.2. SELECTION OF FOUNDATION TYPE
 The selection of a particular type of foundation is often based
on a number of factors, such as:
1. Adequate depth. The foundation must have an adequate depth
to prevent frost damage. For such foundations as bridge piers,
the depth of the foundation must be sufficient to prevent
undermining by scour.
2. Bearing capacity failure. The foundation must be safe against
a bearing capacity failure.
3. Settlement. The foundation must not settle to such an extent
that it damages the structure.
4. Quality. The foundation must be of adequate quality so that it is
not subjected to deterioration , such as from sulfate attack.
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 2.2.
2.2. SELECTION
SELECTION OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION TYPE
TYPE (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

5. Adequate strength. The foundation must be designed with

sufficient strength that it does not fracture or break apart under
the applied superstructure loads. The foundation must also be
properly constructed in conformance with the design
specifications.
6. Adverse soil changes. The foundation must be able to resist
long-term adverse soil changes. An example is expansive soil,
which could expand or shrink causing movement of the
foundation and damage to the structure.
7. Seismic forces. The foundation must be able to support the
structure during an earthquake without excessive settlement or
lateral movement.

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 2.3. FUNCTION OF FOUNDATION
 Foundations serve the following purposes:
1. Reduction of load intensity: Foundation distribute the loads of
superstructure, to a larger area so that the intensity of the load at its base does
not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil.
2. Even distribution of load: foundations distribute the nonuniform load of the
superstructure evenly to the sub soil.
3. Provision of level surface: foundations provide leveled and hard surface
over which the superstructure can be built.
4. Lateral stability: it anchors the superstructure to the ground, thus imparting
lateral stability to the superstructure.
5. Safety against undermining: it provides safety against scouring due to
burrowing animal and flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements: minimizes the distress on the
superstructure due to expansion or contraction of sub-soil because of
moisture movement in some problematic soil.

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 2.4.
2.4. ESSENTIAL
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS
REQUIREMENTS OF
OF A
A FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION

 Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following

requirements:
1. The foundations shall be constructed to sustain all loads and
transmit them to the sub soil with out causing settlement which
would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structure.
2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements
are minimized, specially for the case when super-imposed loads
are not evenly distributed.
3. Foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the
building against damage or distress caused by swelling or
shrinkage of sub-soil.
4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not
be affected due to any unexpected future influence.

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 2.5.
2.5. SOIL
SOIL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES AND
AND MECHANICS
MECHANICS
 Unit weight of soil
 Allowable soil pressure
 Factored net soil pressure
 Shear resistance
 Backfill pressure
 Cohesion and fricition of soil
 Effect of water
 Settlement
 Rock fracture behavior Figure 2.3

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2.5.
2.5. SOIL
SOIL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES AND
AND MECHANICS
MECHANICS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
 Compressibility
Settlements
 Strength
1. Stability
Shallow foundations
Deep foundations
Slopes and walls
2. Ultimate bearing capacity
3. Allowable bearing capacity

Figure 2.4

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2.5.
2.5. SOIL
SOIL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES AND
AND MECHANICS
MECHANICS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
 Strength , qa

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2.6.SITE
2.6.SITE INVESTIGATION
INVESTIGATION AND
AND SUB-SOIL
SUB-SOIL EXPLORATION
EXPLORATION
 Site investigations consist of determining the profile of the natural soil
deposits at the site, taking the soil samples and determining the
engineering properties of the soils. It also includes in-situ testing of the
soils.
 Since the foundations have to transfer the load to the sub-soil, surface
conditions at any given site must be adequately explored.
 Sub soil investigation is essential to gather information required both for the
design and construction of foundation.
 Sub-soil investigation is done for the following purposes:
2.6.1. FOR NEW STRUCTURES
1. To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure.
2. To determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
3. To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements.
4. To establish the ground water level and to determine the
properties of water.
5. To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and
abutments.
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2.6.
2.6. SITE
SITE INVESTIGATION
INVESTIGATION AND
AND SUB-SOIL
SUB-SOIL EXPLORATION(CONT.
EXPLORATION(CONT. .. .).)

6) To select suitable construction techniques.

7) To predict and to solve potential foundation problems.
8) To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction
material.
9) To investigate the safety of the existing structures and
to suggest the remedial measures.
2.6.2. FOR EXISTING STRUCTURES
1. The investigation of safety of structure
2. The prediction of settlement
3. The determination of remedial measure if the
structure is unsafe.

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 2.7.
2.7. LATERAL
LATERAL EARTH
EARTH PRESSURE
PRESSURE
 The design of the retaining structure requires the determination of the magnitude and
line of action of the lateral earth pressure.
 The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends upon a number of factors, such
as:-
 The mode of the movement of the wall,
 The flexibility of the wall,
 The properties of the soil,
 The drainage conditions.
 It is a soil-Structure interaction problem, as the earth pressure depends upon the
flexibility of wall.
 The earth pressure theories which consider soil-structure interaction are
complicated and require a computer.
 For convenience, the retaining wall is assumed to be rigid and the soil-structure
interaction effect is neglected.
 The lateral earth pressure is usually computed using the classical theories proposed
by Coulomb (1773) and Rankine (1857). The general wedge theory proposed by
Terzaghi (1941) is more general and is an improvement over the earlier theories.

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 2.8.
2.8. DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT TYPES
TYPES OF
OF LATERAL
LATERAL EARTH
EARTH PRESSURE
PRESSURE

 Lateral earth pressure can be grouped into three categories, depending upon
the movement of the retaining wall with respect to the soil retained. The soil
retained is also known as the backfill.
1) At-rest Pressure
2) Active Pressure
3) Passive Pressure
2.8.1. AT-REST PRESSURE
 The lateral earth pressure is called at-rest pressure when the soil mass is not
subjected to any lateral yielding or movement.
 The at-rest condition is also known as the elastic equilibrium, as no part of
soil mass has failed and attained the plastic equilibrium.
2.8.2. ACTIVE PRESSURE
 A state of active pressure occurs when the soil mass yields in such a way
that it tends to stretch horizontally.
 It is a state of plastic equilibrium as the entire soil mass is on the verge of
failure.

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 2.8.
2.8. DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT TYPES
TYPES OF
OF LATERAL
LATERAL EARTH
EARTH PRESSURE
PRESSURE (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

 A retaining wall when moves away from the backfill, there is a

stretching of the soil mass and the active state of earth
pressure exists.
 In Figure 5(b), the active pressure develops on the right-hand
side when the wall moves towards left.
2.8.3. PASSIVE PRESSURE
 A state of passive pressure exists when the movement of the wall
is such that the soil tends to compress horizontally.
 It is another extreme of the limiting equilibrium condition.
 In Figure 5 (b), the passive pressure develops on the left-side of
the wall below the ground level, as the soil in this zone is
compressed when the movement of the wall is towards left.

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 2.8.
2.8. DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT TYPES
TYPES OF
OF LATERAL
LATERAL EARTH
EARTH PRESSURE
PRESSURE (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

Figure 2.5

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 2.7.
2.7. BASIC
BASIC FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION REQUIREMENTS
REQUIREMENTS

 Safe against instability or collapse

 No excessive / damaging settlements
 Consider environment:
 Frost action
 Shrinkage / swelling
 Adjacent structure property lines
 Ground water
 Underground defects
 Earthquake
 Economics

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 2.9.
2.9. GENERALIZED
GENERALIZED DESIGN
DESIGN STEPS
STEPS

1. Calculate Loads
2. Characterize Soil
3. Determine Footing Location and Depth
4. Evaluate Soil Bearing Capacity
5. Determine Footing Size (unfactored loads)
6. Calculate Contact Pressure and Check Stability
7. Estimate Settlements
8. Design Footing Structure (factored loads)

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 2.10.
2.10. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
 Every building consists of two basic Components
 The super structure
 The sub structure (Foundation)
 The basic function of foundation is to transmit
 The Dead Load (weight of walls, partitions, floors, roofs, and other
permanent structures)
 Super imposed load (Live loads) eg. People, furniture, machines etc.
 wind load
 From a building to the soil on which the building rests in such away that

a) Settlements are with in permissible limits, without causing

cracks in the super structure
b) the soil doesn’t fail by the shear failure criterion

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 2.10.
2.10. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
 Generally foundation is therefore, that part of the structure which is in direct
contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted. The foundation
should be sufficiently strong to prevent excessive settlement as well as
differential settlement.
 Differential settlement may be caused by :
i. weak sub soils
ii. Shrinkable and expansive soils (clay)
iii. frost action
iv. movement of ground water and uplift pressure
v. Excessive vibration, slipping of strata on slopping etc.
 Foundations serve the following purposes:
1. Reduction of load intensity
 by increasing the area of contact, so that the total load divided by the
total area (intensity of load) doesn’t exceed the bearing capacity of
the soil.

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 2.10.
2.10. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2. Even distribution of loads
 Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the
sub soil.
3. Provision of level surface
4. Lateral stability
 It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the
super structure.
5. Safety against undermining
 provides structural safety against undermining (scouring) due to burrowing
animals and flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements
 minimizes cracks in the super structure due to expansion or contraction of sub soil
because of moisture movement in some problematic soils.
 Essential Requirements of a good foundation
 sustain the dead and imposed loads
 it should be rigid
 Good location.

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 2.10.
2.10. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
 Types of foundation (as per Terzaghi)

1. Shallow Foundation- Depth is equal to or less than its width

2. Deep Foundation – Depth is greater than its width

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS

2.11.1. Spread footing

 Spread the super-imposed load of column or wall over a larger
area spread footings support either a column or wall.
 Types of spread footings
Single footing
Stepped footing
Sloped footing

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

Types of spread footings

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.11.2. Combined footing
 A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined
footing. The combined footing may be of the following types.
i) Rectangular combined footing
ii) Trapezoidal combined footing
iii) Combined column – wall footings

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.11.2. Combined footing (Cont . . .)

Figure-2.7: Types of combined footings

2.11.3. Strap Footing.
 If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is
called a strap footing.
 It is used when the distance between the columns is so great that a combined
trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In this
case the column is provided with its independent footings and a beam is used
to connect the two footings

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.11.3. Strap Footing (Cont . . . )
 The strap beam doesn’t remain in contact with soil, and thus doesn’t transfer
any pressure to the soil.
 The strap, assumed to be infinitely stiff, serves to transfer the column loads on
the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footings.

Figure-2.8: Strap footing

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 2.11.
2.11. SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.11.4. Mat (raft) Foundation
 A raft or mat is a combined footing that cover the entire area beneath a
structure and support all the walls and columns.
 Mat foundation will be used when:
 the allowable soil pressure is low
 the building loads are heavy
 use of spread footing covers more than the one half the area.
 Based on design and construction Rafts may be
 solid slab
 Beam slab
 cellular system

Figure 2.9: Mat Foundation

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS
 Deep foundations are those in which the depth of the foundation constructed
by ordinary methods of open pit excavations or deep drilling excavation.
Deep foundations are of the following types.
1) Pile foundations- more commonly used.
2) Pier foundation
3) Caisson or well foundation
2.12.1. Pile foundations
 Pile foundations are preferable under the following situation:
 When the load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is
uneven.
 The top soil has poor bearing capacity
 The sub soil water level is high so that pumping of water from the
open trenches for the shallow foundations is difficult and
uneconomical. When there is large fluctuations in sub soil water level
 When the structure is situated on the sea shore or river bed
 Canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundations.

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.12.1. Pile foundations (Cont . . .)
Types of piles:
 Piles used for building foundation may be of four types; based on the
function they serve.
i. End bearing piles
 Used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum.
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely to hard strata. Multi-storey
buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the settlements
are minimized.

Figure 2.10: End bearing pile

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS (CONT .. .. .)
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
2.12.1. Pile foundations (Cont . . .)
Type of pile (Cont . . .)
ii) Friction piles
 used to transfer load to a depth of a friction – load- carrying material by
means of skin friction along the length of the pile.
 Generally used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very great.
iii) Combined end bearing
 Some times the super imposed load is transferred both through and friction
side friction as well as end bearing.

Figure 2.11: Friction pile Figure 2.12: Combined End bearing and friction pile

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.12.1. Pile foundations (Cont . . .)
Type of pile (Cont . . .)
iv) Compaction piles
 Used to compact loose granular soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity.
The compaction piles themselves do not carry a load. Hence it may be of
weaker material (eg timber, bamboo, etc)
 The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and sand is
filled in its place thus forming a ‘sand pile’

Figure 2.13: Compaction Piles

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.12.1. Pile foundations (Cont . . .)
Type of pile (Cont . . .)
 Classification of piles based on materials and composition
1. Concrete piles
a) Pre- Cast
b) cast in – situ
 Driven piles (cased or uncased)
 Bored piles (pressure piles, under- reamed piles, bored compaction piles)
2. Timber Piles
3. Steel Piles
a) H- pile
b) Pipe pile
c) Sheet pile
d) Composite pile
e) concrete and timber
f) concrete and steel.

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

2.12.2. Pier Foundations (Drilled caisson Foundation)

 Transfer large superimposed loads to the firm strata below
 The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the method
of construction.
 Pile foundations transfer the load through friction and or bearing, pier
foundations transfer the load only through bearing.
 Pier foundation is shallower in depth than pile foundation
 Pier foundation is preferred in a location where the top strata consists of
decomposed rock over lying a strata of sound rock. In such cases it is difficult
to drive the bearing piles through decomposed rock .
2.12.3. Well Foundations (Caissons)
 These are box like structures circular or rectangular which are sunk from the
surface of either land or water to the desired depth.
 Much large in diameter than the pier foundations.
 These are used for major foundation works, such as.

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.12.3. Well Foundations (Caissons) (Cont . . .)
 These are used for major foundation works, such as.
 bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes, etc
 wharves, quay, walls, docks (related to ships)
 Break waters and other structures for shore protection.
 large water front structures such as pump houses
 Well foundations are not used for building.

io n
dat
n
f ou
e ll
: W
. 1 4
e 2
g ur
Fi

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
2.12.3. Well Foundations (Caissons) (Cont . . .)
 wharves = landing stage where ships may moor for loading/
unloading
 Dock = artificially enclosed body of water where ships are
admitted for loading, unloading or repair
 Foundations on Expansive Soils (Black Cotton soils)
 In black cotton soil and other expansive type of soils, building
often cracks due to relative ground movements. This is
caused by alternate swelling and shrinkage of the soil due to
changes in its moisture content.
I. Strip or pad foundation:
 For medium loads, strip foundation (for walls) and pad
foundation (for columns) may be provided with care

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

Figure 2.16: Alternate layers of sand and

Figure 2.15: Simple sand fill

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
II. Pier foundation with arches.
 Piers are dug at regular interval and filled with cement concrete. The piers
may rest on good bearing strata. These piers are connected by concrete or
masonry arch, over which the wall is constructed.

Figure 2.17: Pier Foundation with Arch

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)
III. Under- reamed pile foundation
An under – reamed pile is a pile of shallow depth (1 to 6m)
having one bulb at its lower end. If the bulb is provided at a
level lower than the critical depth of moisture movement in
expansive soils, the foundation will be anchored to the ground
and it would not move with the swelling and shrinkage of the
soil. The diameters of the piles vary from 15cm - 50cm and
are reinforced.
Spacing of the piles may vary between 2 - 4m.
The piles are connected by a rigid capping beam, suitably
reinforced over which the wall is constructed.
The capping beam is kept 8 to 12 cm above the ground level,
so as to provide air gap to accommodate the soil movement.

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 2.12.
2.12. DEEP
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS (CONT
(CONT .. .. .).)

Figure 2.18: Under – Reamed Pile Foundation

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 2.13.
2.13. BEARING
BEARING CAPACITY
CAPACITY OF
OF SHALLOW
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
 A foundation is that part of a structure which transmits the weight of the structure to
the ground.
 A foundation is, therefore, a connecting link between the structure proper and the
ground which supports it.
 A foundation is required for distributing the loads of the superstructure on a large area.
 The foundation should be designed such that :-
1) The soil below does not fail in shear and
2) The settlement is within the safe limits.
 The pressure which the soil can safely withstand is known as allowable bearing
pressure.
 A shallow foundation transmits the loads to the strata at a shallow depth. A deep
foundation transmits the load at considerable depth below the ground surface.
 The distinction between a shallow foundation and a deep foundation is generally
made according to Terzaghi’s criterion.
 According to which, a foundation is termed shallow if is laid at a depth equal to or
less than its width.

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 2.14.
2.14. BASIC
BASIC DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
1) Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) : The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross
pressure at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails shear.
2) Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu): It is the net increase in pressure at the
base of foundation that causes shear failure of the soil. it is equal to the gross
pressure minus overburden pressure.

It may be noted that the overburden pressure equal to Df existed even
before the construction of foundation.
3) Net safe Bearing Capacity (qns). It is the net soil pressure which can be
safely applied to the soil considering only shear failure. it is obtained by
dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by a suitable factor of safety. Thus

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 2.14.
2.14. BASIC
BASIC DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

4) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs). It is the maximum gross pressure which
the soil can carry safety without shear failure. It is equal to the net safe
bearing capacity plus the original overburden pressure. Thus

5) Net safe settlement Pressure (qna). It is the net pressure which the soil can
carry without exceeding the allowable settlement. The maximum allowable
settlement generally varies between 25mm and 40mm for individual footings
 The net safe settlement pressure is also known as unit soil pressure or safe
bearing pressure.
6) Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna). The net allowable bearing pressure
is the net bearing pressure which can be used for the design of foundation.

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 2.15.
2.15. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF SHEAR
SHEAR FAILURE
FAILURE
 Relative density of the soil and size of the foundation are among the major factors that
affect the mode of bearing failure likely to occur. The modes of bearing failure are
generally separated into three categories:
1) General shear failure
2) Local shear failure
3) Punching shear failure
2.15.1. GENERAL SHEAR FAILURE
 General Shear Failure. Figure 19 (a) shows a strip footing resting on the
surface of a Dense Sand or a Stiff Clay.
 The figure also shows the load settlements curve for the footing, where q is
the load per unit area and S is the settlement.
 At a certain load intensity equal qu, the settlement increases suddenly.
 a shear failure occurs in the soil at that load and the failure surfaces extend to
the ground surface. This type of failure is known as General shear Failure.
 a heave on the sides is always observed in general shear failure.

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 2.15.
2.15. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF SHEAR
SHEAR FAILURE
FAILURE (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

Figure 2.19: Modes of bearing failures (a) General shear (b) Local shear and
(c) Punching shear.
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 2.15.
2.15. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF SHEAR
SHEAR FAILURE
FAILURE (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

2.15.2. LOCAL SHEAR FAILURE

 Local shear Failure. Figure 19 (b) shows a strip footing resting on medium
dense sand or on clay of medium consistency.
 The figure 19 (b) also shows the load-settlement curve. When the load is
equal to a certain value qu(1) , the foundation movement is accompanied by
sudden jerks.
 The failure surfaces gradually extend outwards from the foundation, as
shown. However, a considerable movement of the foundation is required for
the failure surface to extended to the to the ground surface (shown dotted).
The load at which this happens is equal to qu .
 Beyond this point an increase of load is accompanied by a large increase in
settlement. This type of failure is known as local shear failure.
 A heave is observed only when there is substantial vertical settlement.

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 2.15.
2.15. TYPES
TYPES OF
OF SHEAR
SHEAR FAILURE
FAILURE (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

2.15.3. PUNCHING SHEAR FAILURE

 Punching shear failure. Figure 19(c) shows a strip footing
resting on a loose sand or a soft clay. In this case, the failure
surfaces do not extend up to the ground surface. There are
jerks in foundation at a load of qu1.
 The footing fails at a load of at which stage the load-settlement
curve becomes steep and practically linear. This type of failure
is called the punching shear failure.
 No heave is observed. There is only vertical movement of
footing
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 2.16.
2.16. SETTLEMENT
SETTLEMENT OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION

2.16. 1. SETTLEMENT UNDER LOADS

 Foundation settlement under loads can be classified into three types
(1) Immediate or elastic settlement.
 Immediate or elastic settlement takes place during or immediately after
the construction of the structure.
 it is also known as the distortion settlement as it is due to distortions (and
not the volume change) within the foundation soil. Although the
settlement is not truly elastic, it is computed using elastic theory ,
especially for cohesive soils.
(2) Consolidation Settlement. This component of the settlement occurs due to
gradual expulsion of water from the voids of the soil.
(3) Secondary Consolidation Settlement. This component of the settlement is
due to secondary consolidation. This settlement occurs after completion of the
primary consolidation.

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2.16.
2.16. SETTLEMENT
SETTLEMENT OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)
2.16.2. SETTLEMENT DUE TO OTHER CAUSES
 In addition to settlement under loads, the settlement may also occur due to a
number of other causes.
1) Underground erosion. Underground erosion may cause formation
of cavities in the subsoil which when collapse cause settlement.
2) Structural Collapse of soil. Structural collapse of some soils, such
as saline , non-cohesive soils, gypsum, silts and clays and loess, may
occur due to dissolution of materials responsible for intergranular
bond of grains.
3) Thermal changes. Temperature change cause shrinkage in
expansive soils due to which settlement occurs.
4) Frost heave. Frost heave occurs if the structure is not founded below
the depth of frost penetration. When thaw occurs, the foundation
may settle.

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2.16.
2.16. SETTLEMENT
SETTLEMENT OF
OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION (CONT.
(CONT. .. .).)

2.16.2. SETTLEMENT DUE TO OTHER CAUSES (CONT . . .)

5) Vibration and Shocks. Vibration and shock cause large settlements,
especially in loose, cohesionless soils.
6) Mining subsidence. Subsidence of ground may occur due to
removal of minerals and other materials from mines below.
7) Landslides. If landslides occur on unstable slopes, there may be
serious settlement problems.
8) Creep. The settlement may also occur due to creep on clay slopes.
9) Changes in the vicinity. If there are changes due to construction of a
new building near the existing foundation, the settlement may occur
due to increase in the stresses.
 Suitable measures are taken to reduce the settlement due to all above causes.

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 Thank you For
Attention!
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