University of Salford

School of Science, Engineering & Environment

Lecturer: Dr Vincent Uzomah

Civil Engineering, Newton Building, Rm LG06
University of Salford
Recommended Text Books:

Engineering mathematics through application. Singh, K. (2011) 2nd

Edition. Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-230-27479-2.

Engineering Mathematics. Stroud, K.A. and Booth, D.J. (2007) 6th

Edition. Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke. ISBN-10: 1403942463

Higher Engineering Mathematics. John Bird. (2010) 6th Edition.

Newnes publishers. ISBN: 0-7506-4110-x.
Module Contents

Key topics

Algebra
Revision of basic algebra, including indices, fractions, linear simultaneous
equations, quadratic equations, logarithms and exponential functions, functions and
their inverses, partial fractions. Applications to engineering problems

Trigonometry
Graphs, area of a triangle, sine rule and the cosine rule. Circular measure, arc length
and area of a sector of a circle. Trigonometric identities and solution of trigonometric
equations. Small angles. Applications to engineering problems.

Hyperbolic Functions
Definition and solution of equations involving hyperbolics. Osbourne's rule.

Co-ordinate Geometry
The straight line. Parabola, ellipse, circle: properties and graphical form.
Applications to engineering problems.

Calculus
Standard form differentiation and integration. Rules of differentiation including
product rule, quotient rule and chain rule. Parametric, implicit and logarithmic
differentiation. Application of differentiation to small increments, maxima and
minima, and curve sketching. Rules for integration including by parts, substitution
and partial fractions. Application of integration to determine areas under curves and
volumes of revolution. Introduction to partial differentiation. Application to
engineering problems.

Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations

Solutions of first order linear differential equations by direct integration, by
separation of variables and by use of an integrating factor.

Series Expansions
Arithmetic, geometric and binomial series. Taylor and McLaurin series, limiting
values, convergence. Application to engineering problems.

Introduction to Vectors
Concept and elementary properties of 3D vectors. Scalar and Vector product.
Contents pages

Key topics Page

Number

1. Number Line 1-5

2. Fractions 6 - 14

3. Quadratic Equations 15 - 22

4. Indices 23 – 26

5. Transposition of Formulae 27 – 32

6. Equation of Straight Line 33 – 40

7. Simultaneous Equations_ – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 41 – 43

8. Logarithms 44 – 47

9. Exponential Functions 48 – 52

10. Trigonometry 53 – 90

11. Hyperbolic Functions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90 – 101

12. Co-ordinate Geometry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 102 – 127

13. Calculus - DE 128 – 159

Differentiation by Product Rule, Quotient Rule

And chain Rule

Differentiation of Implicit Functions

Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Differentiation of parametric Functions

Partial Derivatives

14. INTEGRATIONS 160 – 186

Integration by Substitution

Partial Fractions
 Integration using Partial Fractions

Integration using Trigonometric Substitution

Integration by Product of sines and cosines

Integration by sin𝜽 substitution

Standard Integrals

Integration by Parts

15. Intro to Ordinary Differential Equations 187 – 189

16. Expansion Series 190 – 196

17. Vectors -------------------------------------------------------------------------159 – 175

18. Tutorials 213 – 250

19. Past Examination Papers 251 – 257

20. Mathematical Formulae 258 – 269

21. Textbooks and Other Learning Materials List – – – – – – – – 270

 1

Chapter 1

Algebra

1. NUMBER LINE

N = Z + = 1, 2,3, 4,5,.... = {natural numbers}

or {positive integers}

 = Integers  = .... − 3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,...

a
Rational Numbers where a, b are integers and b  
=
b
Irrational Numbers e.g. 2

R= {Real Numbers}

Inequalities

 Greater than
 Less than
= Equal
 Greater or equal
 Less or equal

x3

Examples

1) x+79
x 9−7

x2

2) 3− x  7
x − 3  −7
x  −7 + 3

x  −4

3) 5 + 4 x  29
 2

4 x  24
x6

4) 6 − 2x  5
2 x − 6  −5
1
x
2

5) 4 + 5x  9 + 2 x
5x − 2 x  9 − 4
3x  5
5
x
3

Further Examples

1) 5  3 x + 2  11
5 − 2  3x  11 − 2
3  3x  9
1 x  3

2) − 4  7 − 2 x  5

7 − 2x  5 and 7 − 2 x  −4

− 2 x  5 − 7 and − 22 x  −4 − 7
11
− 2 x  −2 and x 
2
x 1
11
1 x 
2
 3

Further Examples

1) Simplify

x −3 8

x − 3  −8 and x −38
x  −5 and x  11
− 5  x  11

2) x+4 2

x+42 and x + 4  −2
x  −2 and x  −6
-2<x<-6

3) 2x + 1  7

2x + 1  7 and 2x + 1 − 7
2x  6 and 2 x  −8
x3 and x  −4
−4 x 3
SKETCHES OF MODULUS EQUATIONS

Ex.1) Sketch the graph of

(a) y= x+2
(b) y = 2 − 3x

x + 2 if x  −2
(a) y= x+2 = 
 − (x + 2 ) if x  −2

2
x
2 − 3 x if 3

(b) y = 2 − 3x = 
− (2 − 3 x )
 if
x
2
3
4
 5

1.2 Expanding brackets

Read section 1(e) (pages 73 – 78) of Engineering Mathematics Through Applications

Example: Structures

The deflection y at a distance x from one end of a beam of length l is given by:
𝑤𝑥2
1. 𝑦 = (3𝑙 − 𝑥)
6𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝑥2
2. 𝑦 = 48𝐸𝐼 (3𝑙2 − 2𝑥2)
𝑤 𝑥4 𝑙3𝑥
3. 𝑦 = − 12𝐸𝐼 (𝑙𝑥3 − − )
2 2

Where, w is the load per unit length and EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Remove the brackets of these expressions.
 6

 a → Numerator 
1.3 FRACTIONS  
 b → Denomiator 

There are two types of fraction

1. Proper Fractions: Are fractions in which the Numerator is less than the
Denominator.

2 3 6
Ex.) etc.
3, 5, 7,

2. Improper Fractions: Are fractions in which the Numerator is greater than the
Denominator.

5 6 17
Ex.) etc.
3, 5, 9,

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

1 1
Ex.1) +
(x + 1) (x − 2 )
(x − 2 ) + (x + 1) 2x − 1
=
(x + 1)(x − 2 ) (x + 1)(x − 2 )

3 2 4
Ex.2) − +
(x + 1) (x − 2 ) (x + 3)

3( x − 2 )( x + 3) − 2( x + 1)( x + 3) + 4( x + 1)( x − 2 )

( x + 1)( x + 2 )( x + 3)

    
3 x 2 + x − 6 − 2 x 2 + 4x + 3 + 4 x 2 − x − 2 
(x + 1)(x − 2 )(x + 3)

3x 2 + 3x − 18 − 2 x 2 − 8x − 6 + 4 x 2 − 4 x − 8
=
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)

5x 2 − 9 x − 32
=
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
 7

ALGEBRAIC LONG DIVISION

This kind of division mainly required with improper fractions. It is important concept
to understand when we are dealing with Partial fractions and Laplace Transform.

1 =Quotient
5 2 2
Ex.) = 1+ = 1 3 5
3 3 3
3
=
2

Numerical Examples are usually simple cases.

Ex.2) Divide x 2 + 3x − 1 by (x − 1)
 
dividend divisor
x+4
x − 1 x + 3x − 1
2

+x 2 +x
4x − 1
+4x +4
3=Remainder
x + 3x − 1
2
3
= x+4+
(x − 1) x −1

Ex.3) Divide x 3 + 4x 2 − 7 by x 2 − 3

x + 4 = Quotient
x − 3 x 3 + 4 x 2 + x − 7
2

+x 3 +x + 3x
4x 2 + 3x − 7
+ 4x 2 +x +12
3x + 5 =Remainder

x 3 + 4x 2 − 7 3x + 5
= x+4+ 2
x −3
2
x −3
 8

Remainders Theorem
Generally, when a polynomial is divided by a linear expression there is a remainder.

Any polynomial can be written in the following form:

Polynomial = divisor x quotient + remainder.
In particular if the divisor is (𝑥 − 𝑎) and the polynomial is 𝑓(𝑥) then

This gives an easy way of finding the remainder when a polynomial is divided by
(𝑥 − 𝑎)
 9

Examples:
10
 11

We can use the factor theorem to factorise polynomials, although some trial and
error is involved.
12
13
 14

More resources about Remainder and Factor

Theorems are in the Blackboard
 15

1.4 SOLUTIONS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Equations of the type:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ( 𝑎 ≠ 0)

are called Quadratic equations

Ex.1) x 2 − 3x + 2 = 

(x − 2 )(x − 1) = 

x−2= or x −1 = 
x=2 x =1

Ex.2) x 2 = 5x

x 2 − 5x = 
x (x − 5 ) = 
x=
or x − 5 = 
x=5

Ex.3) 15 − x 2 − 2x = 

x 2 + 2 x − 15 = 
x = −5 or x=3

b) Completing the Square Method

This Method can be used to solve any Quadratic Equation, It will be useful in the
second year to solve Laplace Transform Questions

x 2 + 2ax + a 2 = (x + a )
2
Using the standard equation

Ex.1) x 2 − 4x − 2 = 

Make sure the coefficient of x2 is Unity (means =1)

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 2

Half Coefficient of x, square it and add to both sides, Coefficient of x is 2 in

this case

x 2 − 4x + 4 = 2 + 4
 16

Left hand side is completed square

(x − 2 ) 2 =6
x−2=+ 6
x= 6+2
or x =− 6+2

Ex.2) x 2 + 8x − 1 = 

x 2 + 8x = 1
x 2 + 8x + 16 = 1 + 16
(x + 4 ) 2 = 17
x + 4 = + 17
x = 17 − 4
or x = − 17 − 4

c) Using the Formula Method

If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

Using completing the square method

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 the solutions are real numbers; and

If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 the solutions are complex numbers

If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 the solutions are repeated roots

Ex.1) Determine the roots of the equation 2 x 2 − 7 x − 1 = 0 giving your answer correct
to 3 d.p.

2x 2 − 7 x − 1 = 
ax 2 + bx + c = 
a = 2, b = 7, c = −1

− (− 7 )+ (− 7 )2 − 4  2  (− 1)
x=
2 2
 17

7 + 49 + 8
=
4
7 + 57
x=
4
7 + 57
x= = 3.637
4
7 − 57
or x= = −0.137
4

Solve the following quadratic equations using the formula method (correct to 2 d.p.):
(i) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 (2.62 or 0.38)
(ii) 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 = 0 ( )
(iii) 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 ( )

Graphical Method
If the coefficient of x2 in the quadratic expression is positive, i.e.
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = 0

Has no real roots Has two equal roots Has two different real roots

y y y

x x x

If the coefficient of x2 in the quadratic expression is negative, i.e.

𝑦 = −𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = 0
 18

x x x

For Example

Suppose we wish to solve 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0

We consider 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2

x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x2 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 25
– 3x 6 3 0 –3 –6 –9 – 12 – 15
–2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2
y 8 2 –2 –4 –4 –2 2 8
 19

From the graph we observe that solutions of the equation x2 − 3x − 2 = 0 lie between
−1 and 0, and between 3 and 4.

We can use the same graph to solve other equations. For example to solve x2 − 3x −
2 = 6 we can simply locate points where the graph crosses the line y = 6
20
 21

Some Applications of Quadratic Equation

22
 23

1.5 INDICES
Law 1

In multiplication the indices(powers) are added.

x a  x b  x c = x a + b+c

Ex.1) 3 4  3 2 = 3 4+ 2 = 36

Ex.2) 2 −5  28 = 2 −5+8 = 2 3

Law 2

In division the indices(powers) are subtracted

xa
b
= x a −b
x

34
Ex. 1) 2 = 3 4 − 2 = 3 2
3

56
Ex. 2) 3 = 5 6 −3 = 5 3
5

2 −3
Ex. 3) − 4 = 2 −3+ 4 = 21 = 2
2

Law 3

If a number is raised to a power and the whole term raised to a further power, the
indices(powers) must be multiplied.

(y )
x z
= y x  z = y xz

Ex.1) (3 )
2 5
= 3 25 = 310

Ex.2) (5 )
−3 4
= 5 − 3 4 = 5 −12 =
1
512

Law 4

x = b xa
b
 24

If a number has its power fraction, the Numerator is the power of the Number and the
denominator is the root value.

Ex. 1) x 2 = x 3

Ex. 2) x 3 = 3 x 5

Ex. 3) 3 5 = 5 x 7

Law 5

Any number or variable raised to the power of Zero then it is equal to 1

x0 = 1

10 0 = 1

(10000000 )0 = 1

Law 6

1
xa =
x −a
The sign of the power or index will change if you change the numerator or denominator’s
positions.
1
x −a =
xa

𝑥𝑎 𝑦𝑏
Ex.1) = 𝑥 −𝑎
𝑦 −𝑏

Further Examples

(2 x )3 23 x 3
=
(4 y )
1) 2 2
 12 
 4y 
 
 

8x3 8x3 x3
= 1
= =
2 16 y 2 y
42 y 2

Summary
 25

Law Example
x1 = x 61 = 6
x0 = 1 70 = 1
x-1 = 1/x 4-1 = 1/4
xmxn = xm+n x2x3 = x2+3 = x5
xm/xn = xm-n x6/x2 = x6-2 = x4
(xm)n = xmn (x2)3 = x2×3 = x6
(xy)n = xnyn (xy)3 = x3y3
(x/y)n = xn/yn (x/y)2 = x2 / y2
x-n = 1/xn x-3 = 1/x3
And the law about Fractional Exponents:

Exercises

Example 1(c) p.68 EMTA

1. Simplify the following:
𝑥3 𝑥7 5 3
(a) 𝑥 5 𝑥 2 (b) 𝑥1/5 𝑥1/2 (c) 𝑥 3 (d) 𝑥 9 (e) √𝑥 2 √𝑥
3 7
(f) √𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 (g) √𝑥 3 𝑥 4

2. Simplify:

(c)
 26

(d) (e)
 27

1.6 TRANSPOSITION OF FORMULAE

The process of rearranging a formula so that one of the other symbols becomes the
subject of the formula.

It is one of the most important topics in Engineering and Science.

Ex. 1) F = ma, make (a) the subject

F ma
=
m 
m
F
a=
m

y
Ex. 2) x= y
b
y
xb =  b
b
y = bx
x
Ex. 3) y=a+ x
b
x
y−a =
b
x
(y − a )  b =  b
b
x = b(y − a )

2R
Ex. 4) V= r
R−r

V (R − r ) = 2R

VR − Vr = 2 R

VR − 2 R = Vr

VR − 2 R Vr
=
V 
V

VR − 2 R
r=
V

Ex.5) f = md (T − t ) (t)
 28

f
= md (T − t )
md

f  d (T − t )
m
=
md m d

f
T−t=
md
f
T− =t
md
f
t = T −
md

Ex. 6) 1 = (x − y )2 + 4 2 (𝜎𝑦 )

12 = (x − y ) + 4 2
2

 12 − 4 2 = (x − y )
2

12 − 4 2 = (x − y )2

x − y = 12 − 4 2

x − 12 − 4 2 = y
 29

Engineering case study: Steel beam with a central point load

A steel beam is to support another steel beam at its mid-span location (as shown)

0.5
L
L
The steel beam arrangement can be idealised into this
analytical model. The maximum bending moment, M, is
at the mid-span location, and is given by:

M = P L
4

Rearrange the equation by transposition to find an expression for P.

If the moment capacity of the chosen beam is 368.5kNm, and the length of the
beam, L, is 8m, what is the magnitude of the maximum central point load, P?

4 M = P
L
Ensure units are consistent (inputs in kNm and m to get output
in kN)
P = 4 (368.5) =
8 184.25kN

Have a go The deflection of the beam is given by the equation:

δ = P L3
48 E I

Rearrange the equation by transposition to find an expression for P.

If the deflection of the beam, δ, is limited to 10mm, the length of the beam, L, is 8m,
the elastic modulus, E, is 205kN/mm2, and the second moment of area, I, is
35000cm4, what is the magnitude of the maximum central point load, P?
 30

STANDARD FORMS
(Page 33 of EMTA)

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol for prefix

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
10-3 milli M
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

Engineering calculations sometimes involve converting from prefix unto another. Lets
now consider the SI units below

SI UNITS ANS CONVERSION OF UNITS

Quantity SI Unit Symbol for SI unit

Mass kilogram kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Resistance ohm Ω
Capacitance Farad F
Current Ampere A
Inductance Henry H
Potential Volt V
difference
Power Watts W
Frequency Hertz Hz
Pressure Pascal Pa
Energy Joule J
Temperature Kelvin K
Force newton N
 31

STANDARD FORMS

10index number = 1 0….0}- no. of zeros = index no.

7.530 x 10 = 7.530 x 101 = 75.30

7.530 x 100 = 7.530 x 102 = 753.0

7.530 x 1000 = 7.530 x 103 = 7530

Another example:

68 000 000 could be written as: 68 x 106 - (not a standard form)

or 6.8 x 107 - (a standard form)

Similarly,

1/10index = 10-index

7.530 x 1/10 = 7.530 x 10-1 = 0.7530

7.530 x 1/100 = 7.530 x 10-2 = 0.07530

7.530 x 1/1000 = 7.530 x 10-3 = 0.007530

Examples
Write the following numbers in standard form:
a. 136 000 b. 1 392 000 c. 0.000 000 034 39
d. 0.000 000 095 1 e. 14.96 x 106 f. 7.6 x 102

CONVERSION OF UNITS

An object has a velocity of 5 m/s. Find the velocity in km/h.

5 m/s means 5 m covered in 1 second. Therefore, the object will cover 10 m in 2

seconds.

In 1 hour (60 x 60 seconds), the object will cover 5 x 60 x 60 m = 5 x 3600 m = 18

000 m.

18 000 = 18 km

Therefore

5 x 60 x 60
5 m/s = = 18 km/h
1000
 32

Examples

a. [Fluid mechanics] The density of air is 1.206kg/m3. Convert this into g/cm3
b. [Materials] The second moment of area of a body is 0.63 cm4. Convert this
into m4.
c. [Materials] Modulus of Elasticity is 0.2 x 1011 N/m2. Write this in N/cm2.
 33

1.7 EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINE

Slope (or Gradient) Y Intercept

y = how far up

x = how far along

m = Slope or Gradient (how steep the line is)

b = the Y Intercept (where the line crosses the Y axis)

How do you find "m" and "b"?

• b is easy: just see where the line crosses the Y axis.

• m (the Slope) needs some calculation:
 34

Example 1

m = 2/1 = 2

b = 1 (where the line crosses the Y-Axis)

So: y = 2x + 1
With that equation you can now choose any value for x and find the matching value for y

For example, when x is 1:

y = 2×1 + 1 = 3

Check for yourself that x=1 and y=3 is actually on the line.

Or we could choose another value for x, such as 7:

y = 2×7 + 1 = 15

And so when x=7 you will have y=15

Example 2
 35

m = −3/1 = −3

b=0

This gives us y = −3x + 0

We do not need the zero!

So: y = −3x

Example 3: Vertical Line

What is the equation for a vertical line?

The slope is undefined ... and where does it cross the Y-Axis?

In fact, this is a special case, and you use a different equation, not "y=...", but instead you use
"x=...".

Like this:

x = 1.5

Every point on the line has x coordinate 1.5,

that is why its equation is x = 1.5
 36

Rise and Run

Sometimes the words "rise" and "run" are used.

• Rise is how far up

• Run is how far along

And so the slope "m" is:

m = rise / run

You might find that easier to remember

Point-Slope Equation of a Line

The "point-slope" form of the equation of a straight line is:

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

Using this formula, when we know:

• one point on the line

• and the slope of the line,

we can find other points on the line. Yes we can. Let's find how.

What does it stand for?

 37

(x1, y1) is a known point

m is the slope of the line

(x, y) is any other point on the line

Making Sense of It

It is based on the slope:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑦−𝑦
Slope , m = = 𝑿− 𝑿1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝟏

Starting with the slope:

we rearrange it like this:

to get this:

So, it is just the slope formula in a different way!

Now let us see how to use it.

 38

Example 1:

slope "m" = 3/1 = 3

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

We know m, and also know that (x1, y1) = (3,2), and so we have:

y − 2 = 3(x − 3)

That is a perfectly good answer, but we can simplify it a little bit more:

y − 2 = 3x − 9

y = 3x − 9 + 2

y = 3x − 7

Example 2:
 39

m = −3 1 = −3

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

We can pick any point for (x1, y1), so let's choose (0,0), and we have:

y − 0 = −3(x − 0)

Which can be simplified to:

y = −3x

Example 3: Vertical Line

What is the equation for a vertical line?

The slope is undefined!

In fact, this is a special case, and we use a different equation, like this:

x = 1.5

Every point on the line has x coordinate 1.5,

that’s why its equation is x = 1.5
 40

What About y = mx + b ?

You may already be familiar with the "y=m x+b" form.

It is the same equation, in a different form!

The "b" value (called the y-intercept) is where the line crosses the y-axis.

So point (x1, y1) is actually at (0, b)

and the equation becomes:

Start with y − y1 = m(x − x1)

(x1, y1) is actually (0, b): y − b = m(x − 0)

Which is: y − b = mx

Put b on other side: y = mx + b

And that is called the "slope-intercept" form of the equation of a line.

 41

1.8 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Ex. 1) Solve the equation:

5 x + 3 y = 19 .......... ....1.
3x + 2 y = 12 .......... ....2.

Multiply equation 1 by 3 and equation 2 by 5, then the coefficient of x will be the same in
both equations.

15 x + 9 y = 57
+15 x +10 y = + 60

− y = −3
 y = 3 substitute in 1

5x + 3  3 = 19

5 x = 10

x=2

Ex. 2) In a lifting machine it is found that the Effort (E) and the load (W) which is being
raised are related by the equation

E=aw+b

An Effort of 3.7N raised a load of 10N whilst an Effort of 7.2N raises a load of 20N.
Determine the values of the constants a and b and hence find the value of the Effort to lift a
load of 12 N.

Ex.2) E = 3 .7 and W = 10

E = 7 .2 and W = 20

3.7 = 10a + b.......... .........1

7.2 = 20a + b.......... ........2.

1 2 + 2 1

7.4 = 20 a + 2b
+ 7.2 =  20 a +b

0 .2 = b substitute in 1
 42

3.7 = 10 a + 0.2

10 a = 3.5
a = 0.35

E = 0.35 W + 0.2
When W = 12 N

E = 0.35  12 + 0.2
E = 4 .4 N

SOLUTION BY SUBSTITUTION
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 (1)
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 24 (2)
From (1): 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 ∴ 2𝑦 = 14 − 5𝑥 ∴
5𝑥
𝑦=7− 2

If we substitute this in (2), we get:

5𝑥
3𝑥 − 4 (7 − ) = 24
2

∴ 3𝑥 − 28 + 10𝑥 = 24; ∴ 13𝑥 = 52∴ 𝑥 = 4

Substituting x = 4 into (1), we get:
5(4) + 2𝑦 = 14; 20 + 2𝑦 = 14; 2𝑦 = −6; 𝑦 = −3
Checking: (1)5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5(4) + 2(−3) = 20 − 6 = 𝟏𝟒
(2)3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 3(4) − 4(−3) = 12 + 12 = 𝟐𝟒

Now try: 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 9 (1)

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 8 (2)

SOLUTION BY EQUATING COEFFICIENTS

Solve: 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 16 (1)
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 10 (2)

Multiplying eqn (1) x 3; and eqn (2) x 2, we get:

9𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 48 (3)
8𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 20 (4)
Adding Eqns (3) and (4) together, we get:
 43

17𝑥 = 68 ∴𝑥=4
Substituting 𝑥 = 4 into either eqn (1) or (2) gives value of y.
In (1), 3(4) + 2𝑦 = 16; 12 + 2𝑦 = 16; 𝑦=2
Therefore, 𝑥 = 4; 𝑦 = 2.

Now try: 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 18 (1)

4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 21 (2)

Simultaneous Linear Equations with three unknowns

Solve: 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 19 (1)
4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 4 (2)
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 32 (3)
We take a pair of equations and eliminate one of the variables using our usual
methods.
(1) x 2: 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 38
(2): 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 4
Add: 10𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 42 (4)
Now take another pair, e.g. (1) and (3):
(1) x 5: 15𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 95
(3): 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 32
Subtract: 13𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 63 (5)
We can now solve eqns (4) & (5) for values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the usual method.

Now try this: 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 31 (1)

2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4 (2)
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 30 (3)

[𝑥 = 5; y = 2; z = −6]
 44

1.9 LOGARITHMS
- Is a mirror image of an index.

There are two types of logs

Type one log 10 the most common logarithm which is in the calculators.
Usually the base is omitted and log 10 x written as
Log x.

Type two: loge written as ln which is used or related to exponential

function ex

There are three laws of logarithms

Law1

In multiplication, logs are added

log xy = log x + log y

Ex.) log 5  3 = log 5 + log 3

Law 2

In division, logs are subtracted

x
log   = log x − log y
 y

7
Ex.) log = log 7 − log 3
3
Law 3
log x n = n log x
log x 3 = 3 log x

To change the base of log, use the following method:

log b x
log ax =
log b a
 45

log10 10 1
Ex.) 2 =
log10 =
log10 2 log10 2

SOME PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

1. log a a = 1 Ex. log 5 5 = 1

2. log a 0 =  Ex. log10 0 = 
3. No solution for negative number in logarithms.

1
4. log a x =
log x a

The base of any log can be changed by writing it in fraction form

2
Ex. log x 9 = log x 3 = 2 log x =
2 3
log 3 x

logx
Y-Axis

X-Axis
 46

Further Examples on Logarithms

1. Evaluate the following

 5 7 
a) log  
 9 

log(5  7 ) − log 9
log 5 + log 7 − log 3 2
log 5 + log 7 − 2 log 3
1

b) log 10 10 = log 10 10 2
1
= log 10 10
2
1
=
2

2. Solve the following equations

a) 4 2 x + 4 x + 2 − 80 = 0

4 2 x + 4 x  4 2 − 80 = 0
(4x )2 + 16(4 x ) − 80 = 0
let y = 4 x

y 2 + 16 y − 80 = 0
(y + 20 )(y − 4 ) = 0
y + 20 = 0
y = −20

or y−4=0
y=4

but y = 4x
− 20 = 4 x

Take log of both sides

log (− 20 ) = log 4 x

negative no solution

also 41 = 4 x

x =1
 47

b) log ax + log a4 − log 5a = log 12

a

log𝑎 𝑥 + log𝑎 4 = log𝑎 12 + log𝑎 5

log a (4 x ) = log a (12  5 )

4 x = 60

60
x= = 15
4
 48

Exponential Functions and Natural Logarithms

An exponential function is one which contains e x is constant and called the exponent
and have a value of 2.7183. The exponent is produced from the natural laws of growth
and decay and used as a base for natural logarithms.
The value of e x is determined by
a) The power series for e x .
b) a calculator

The power series for e x is:

x2 x3
ex = 1+ x + + + ...
21 31

where 2 != 2  1
3 != 3  2  3
considering the value of x = 1

12 13 14
 e1 = 1 + 1 + + + 1 + ...
21 31 4
e1 = 2.7183
Nowadays calculators are the easiest option for determining the values of exponential
functions.
It is important to know that:
ex  0

e x  −1
The Natural Exponential Function
This is the "Natural" Exponential Function:
f(x) = ex
Where e is "Eulers Number" = 2.718281828459 (and more ...)
 49

Graph of f(x) = ex
At the point (1,e) the slope of the line is e and the line is tangent to the curve

Graphs of Exponential functions(Growth and decay)

Laws of Growth and Decay

 50

If y = e ax where a is positive then we are dealing with Laws of Growth. When a is

negative, then we are dealing with the Laws of Decay.

The Laws occur frequently in Engineering and Science, and examples of quantities
related by a natural law include:

1) Linear expansion L = L 0 e 

2) Change in electrical resistance with temperature R  = R 0e 

3) Tension in Belts T1 = T0e

4) Newton’s Law of Cooling  = 0e − kt

5) Biological Growth y = y0e kt

t
−
6) Discharge of a capacitor q = Qe cR

h
−
7) Atmospheric pressure p = p 0e c

8) Radioactive decay N = N 0 e − t

Rt
−
9) Decay of current in an inductive circuit i = Ie L

 −
t

10) Growth of current in a capacitive circuit i = I1 − e cR 
 

Examples

 −
t

1) Given that 20 = 60 1 − e 2  , determine the value of t correct to 3 sig. fig.

 
 − 
t

20 = 601 − e 
2

 
t
20 −
=1− e 2
60
t
1 −
=1− e 2
3
t
− 1
e 2
=1−
3
 51

t
− 2
e 2
=
3

Take loge of both sides

t
2−
log e e 2
= log e
3
t 2
− log e e = n
2 3
t
− = −0.4055
2
t = 0.8109
t = 0.811

Ex. 2) The resistance R of an electrical conductor at temperature C is given by

R = R 0e  , where  is a constant and R 0 = 5  103 ohms. Determine:

a) the value of  when R = 6  103 ohms and  = 1500 C

b) the temperature value when the resistance R = 5.4  103 ohms

R = R 0e 

R
= e 
R0

Take loge of both sides

R
n = ne  
R0

R
n = ne (where ne = 1 )
R0

R
n = 
R0
R
n
R0
=


6  10 3 6
n n
= 5  10 =
3
5 = 1.215  10 − 4
1500 1500
 52

Ex. 2)

b) When R = 5.4  103 

R
n
R0
=


 5 − 4  10 3 
n  
 5  10 3 
=
1.215  10 − 4

 = 633 .4C

Ex. 3) The pressure P Pascals at Height h metres above ground level is given by:
h
−
p = p 0e c
, where p 0 is the pressure at ground level and C is a constant. When

p 0 = 1.012  105 pa and the pressure at a height of 1420m is 9.921  10 4 pa determine the

value of C.

h
−
p = p 0e c

1420
−
9.921  10 4 = 1.012  105 e C

9.921  10 4
1420

=e C
1.012  10 5

−1420

0.98034 = e C

Take loge of both sides.

= 1420
n 0.98034 = ne
C

− 1420
− 0.01986 = ne
C
− 1420
C=
0 .03980

C = 71500
 53

Chapter 2
Trigonometry
Introduction to Trigonometry

Trigonometry (from Greek trigonon "triangle" + metron "measure")

Trigonometry ... is all about triangles.

Right Angled Triangle

The triangle of most interest is the right-angled triangle.

The right angle is shown by the little box in the corner.
We usually know another angle θ.
And we give names to each side:
• Adjacent is adjacent (next to) to the angle θ
• Opposite is opposite the angle θ
• the longest side is the Hypotenuse
Sine, Cosine and Tangent
Trigonometry is good at find a missing side or angle in a triangle.
The special functions Sine, Cosine and Tangent help us!
They are simply one side of a right-angled triangle divided by another.
For any angle "θ":
 54

Sine Function: sin(θ) = Opposite / Hypotenuse

Cosine Function: cos(θ) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
Tangent Function: tan(θ) = Opposite / Adjacent
(Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreviated to sin, cos and tan.)

Example: What is the sine of 35°?

Using this triangle (lengths are only to one decimal

place):
sin(35°) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8/4.9 = 0.57...

Calculators have sin, cos and tan, let's see how to use them:

Example: What is the missing length here?

1. We know the Hypotenuse
2. We want to know the Opposite
Sine is the ratio of Opposite / Hypotenuse:
sin(45°) = OppositeHypotenuse

Get a calculator, type in "45", then the "sin" key:

sin(45°) = 0.7071...
Now we know all of this:
 55

0.7071... = Opposite 20
A little bit of algebra now. First swap sides:
Opposite 20 = 0.7071...
Then multiply both sides by 20 (the Hypotenuse length):
Opposite = 0.7071... × 20
= 14.14 (to 2 decimals)

Triangles

A triangle has three sides and three angles

The three angles always add to 180°

Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene

There are three special names given to triangles that tell how many sides (or angles) are
equal.

There can be 3, 2 or no equal sides/angles:

Equilateral Triangle
Three equal sides
Three equal angles, always 60°

Isosceles Triangle
Two equal sides
Two equal angles

Scalene Triangle
No equal sides
No equal angles
 56

What Type of Angle?

Triangles can also have names that tell you what type of angle is inside:

Acute Triangle
All angles are less than 90°

Right Triangle
Has a right angle (90°)

Obtuse Triangle
Has an angle more than 90°

Trigonometric Ratios of Acute Angles

C
By Pythagoras Theorem

b2 = a 2 + c2

a
sin A = (90-A)
b
c
cos A =
b
a
tan A = A
c
c
sin (90 − A ) = = cos A
b A
B
a
cos (90 − A ) = = sin A
b
a
sin A b a b a
= =  = = tan A
cos A c b c c
b

In general

sin 
tan  =
cos 

sin  = cos (90 −  )

 57

cos  = sin (90 −  )

sin 0 = 0
cos 0 = 1
sin 90  = 1
cos 90  = 0
tan 90  = 0
tan 90  = not defined ( )
450
1 2
sin 45 = =
2 2 1
1 2
cos 45  = =
2 2 450
tan 45  = 1
Equilateral Triangle 1
1
sin 30  = = cos 60 
2
300 300
3
cos 30  = = sin 60 
2
1 3 2 2
tan 30  = =
3 3 √3
tan 60  = 3

600 1 1 600
2

Angle sin cos tan

0 0 1 0

30  1 3 1
2 2 3
45  1 1 1
2 2
60  3 1 3
2 2
90  1 0 
 58

Trigonometric Ratios of Obtuse Angles

(90    180)

sin  = + sin (180 −  )

cos  = − cos (180 −  )
tan  = − tan (180 −  )

Examples

1) Write as trigonometric ratio of an acute angle:

a) sin 148  = sin 32(= cos 58)

b) tan 115  = − tan 65 
c) cos 134  = − cos 46 
Note:

sin (−  ) = − sin  e.g. sin (− 30 ) = − sin 30

cos (−  ) = cos  e.g. cos (− 30) = cos 30
tan (−  ) = − tan  e.g. tan (− 30) = − tan 30

2) If sin 42  = 0.669

a) sin 138  = 0.669

cos 132  = − cos 48 
= − sin 42 
= −0.699
5
3) Given that sin  = and that  is an acute angle, determine (a) cos  , (b) tan 
13

x 2 = 13 2− − 5 2
x 2 = 169 − 25
x = 12

x
12
(a) cos  =
13

5
(b) tan  =
12
 59

4
4) Given that sin  = and that  is an obtuse angle, determine (a) cos  ; (b) tan 
5

4
sin  = = sin (180 −  )
5
3
(a) cos (180 −  ) = 5
5 4
3
cos  = −
5
(180-θ)
4
(b) tan (180 −  ) = 3
3
4
tan  = −
3

Solution of Triangles

Each triangle has 3 sides and 3 angles, solving a triangle means calculating the unknown
sides and angles.

For a right angle triangle

1) Use the trigonometry

4
tan 38  =
x 4

4
x=
tan 38
380
x = 5.12 (3 sig. fig.)

x x
2) cos 57 0 =
8 .4

x = 8.4 cos 57 
x = 4.57

2 .5
3) sin  =
6 .9
 60

sin  = 0.3623

 = sin −1 (0.3623 )
 = 21 .24 

5
4) tan  =
8

tan  = 0.625
 = tan −1 (0.625 )
 = 32 

Cosine Rule C

CBN : h 2 = a 2 − (c − x )
2

CAN : h 2 = b2 − x 2
a b
a − (c − x ) = b − x
2 2 2 2 h
( )
a 2 − c 2 − 2cx + x 2 = b 2 − x 2
a − c + 2cx − x = b 2 − x 2
2 2 2
c-x x
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2cx B N
A
x
but cos A = c
b

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A

Cosine Rule used to

1) Find the opposite side when 2 sides and included angle are given;

2) Finding an angle when 3 sides are given.

Examples

1) Determine the distance AB giving your answer correct to 3 d.p.

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos c
c 2 = 7 2 + 9 2 − 2  7  9 cos 61
= 49 + 81 − 126  (0.4848 )
 61

= 68 .9139

c = 8.3014
c = 8.301 cm (3 d.p.)

2) Determine the distance XZ using Cosine Rule.

y 2 = x 2 + z 2 − 2 xz cos y
= (26.9) + (14 ) − 2  26.6 14 cos121
2 2

y 2 = 1307 .5366
y = 36.2

3) Determine the nearest degree (the largest angle) in the triangle shown.

“Largest angle is opposite the largest side”

b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cos B
16 2 = 9 2 + 112 − 2  9 11cos B

256 = 81 + 121 − 198 cos B

256 = 202 − 198 cos B

256 − 202 = −198 cos B

54
cos B
− 198

cos B = −0.272727 B = cos −1 (− 0.272727 )

B = 74 
B̂ = 180 − 74 = 106 
A
Sine Rule
c b
h
In ABN , sin B = h
c
h
ACN , sin c = B C
b

h = c sin B
h = b sin C a

C sin B = b sin c

c b
=
sin c sin B
 62

a c
Similarly =
sin A sin C

a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
or

sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c

Used for:
1) Finding a side when 2 angles and 1 side is given;

2) Finding an angle when 2 sides and non-included angle is given.

Ex. 1) Determine the length of AC in the triangle shown.

a b A
=
sin A sin B
430
5 b
=
sin 43 sin 61
610
b sin 43 = 5 sin 61 B C
5 sin 61
b=
sin 43
b = 6.41cm

x y
Ex. 2) = X
sin x sin y

8 11
=
sin x sin 41 

11 sin x = 8 sin 41 
410
Y Z
8 sin 41 
sin x =
11 X= 8cm

sin x = 0.4771
x = sin −1 (0.4771 )
x = 28 .5
 63

Area of a Triangle

In a right-angled triangle

1 h
Area = bh
2
b

h
In  ABN , sin B =
c A
h = C sin B
b
1
AREA = ac sin B h
2
B C
N
a

or using Heron’s formula

Area = s(s − a )(s − b )(s − c )

a+b+c
where s = , the semi-perimeter
2
 64

General Definition of an Angle

An angle is defined as the rotation of a line op about a fixed point o. Taking ox as the
initial direction of op, anticlockwise rotation describes a positive angle, and clockwise
rotation describes the negative angle. The rotation of op is not limited to one
revolution, so an angle can be as big as we choose to make it.

If  is any angle, and measuring  in degrees,

one revolution = 360  = 2 

y y

600 o
x
o 0
−60

2400
x 600

600

The Trigonometric Functions

The sine, cosine and tangent for any angle can now be defined.
If for all values of  , the coordinate of a point p are (x , y ) and the length of op is r then
 65

1st Quadrant

y
y
sin  =
P(x,y) r

y x
cos  =
𝜃 x r

x y
tan  =
x

y
2nd Quadrant P(x,y)
sin  = sin (180  −  )
y 𝜃
cos  = (180  −  ) 180−𝜃

x
tan  = tan (180  −  ) x

3rd Quadrant
y
sin  = − sin ( − 180  )
𝜃
cos  = − cos ( − 180 )
x x
tan  = tan ( − 180  ) 180−𝜃
y

P(x,y)

y
4th Quadrant

sin  = − sin (360  −  )

x
cos  = cos (360  −  ) x
360−𝜃

tan  = − tan (360  −  ) y

P(x,y)
 66

Summary
900

Only
Sine
All
Positive
Positive
1800 00 , 3600

Only Only
Tangent Cosine
Positive Positive

2700

Conversion of Angles

From degree to Radians


Angle in degrees  = Radians
180

Ex.)

 
1) 30   = radians
180 6

 
2) 60  = radians
180 3
 67

From Radians to degrees

180
Angle in radians  = degrees


Ex.)

 180
1)  = 30 
6 

2  180
2)  = 120 
3 

Further Examples

1) sin 152  = + sin 28 

cos 128  = − cos 52 
cos 230  = − cos 50 
cos 300  = + cos 60 
cos (− 54 ) = + cos 54
tan 222  = + tan 42 
tan (− 200  ) = − tan 20

Finding Angles whose Trigonometric Ratio known

1
sin  =
2

 = 30,150,390,510,....
− 210,−330

The calculator will give the following values for sin −1

sin −1 : −90    90

tan −1 : −90    90

cos −1 0    180
 68

Ex. 1) Give all angles between 0 and 360  for which sin  = − 0.3

 = sin −1 (− 0 .3)
 = −17 .5
 = 197 .5,342.5 197.50 342.50

Ex. 2) Find the solutions between −180  and 180  which cos  = 0.36

 = 68 .9
680

 = −68.9,68.9 −680

Ex. 3) Find all solutions between 0 and 360  for which and draw their diagrams:

a) cos  = −0.72
 = 136 .1

 = 136 .1,223 .9

b) sin x = −0.23
 = −13 .3

 = 193.3,346.7

c) tan  = 2.45
 = 67 .8

 = 67.8,247.8

Maximum value of sin  = 1 , when  = 90,450,810, etc.

Minimum value of sin  = −1 ,when  = 270,−90,630, etc.

Maximum value of cos  = 1 , when  = 0,360, etc...

 69

Minimum value of cos  = −1 , when  = 180,−180, etc.

Here are some of the most commonly-used functions, and

their graphs:
Linear Function:

f(x) = mx + b
Square Funtion:

f(x) = x2
 70

Cube Function:

f(x) = x3

Square Root Function:

f(x) = √x
 71

Absolute Value Function:

f(x) = |x|

Reciprocal Function

f(x) = 1/x
 72

Logarithmic Function:

f(x) = ln(x)

Exponential Function:

f(x) = ex
 73

Floor and Ceiling Function:

The Floor Function

Sine Function: y= sinx

Cosine Function: y = cosx

 74

Tangent Function: y = tanx

 75

Dance Moves
You can remember them by dancing (author unknown):

Consider y = sin 2x
sin 2 x = 0,180,360,...
x = 0,90,180,...

Draw the graph of Sin2x

1
y = sin x draw the graph
2
1
sin x=0
2
1
x = 0,180,360,...
2
x = 0,360,720

y = sin 3x

sin 3x = 0
3x = 0,180,360,540,720,...
x = 0,60,120,180,240,...
 76

Definitions

1
sec x =
cos x

1
cos ecx =
sin x

1
cot x =
tan x

sin x
tan x =
cos x

cos x
cot x =
sin x y

Pythagorian Relations P(x,y)

y
sin  =
r
𝜃 x
x
cos  =
r

(sin ) (sin ) = (sin )2

= sin 2 
y2 x2
sin 2  = 2 , cos 2  = 2
r r

y2 x 2
sin 2  + cos 2  = +
r2 r2
x 2 + y2
sin  + cos  =
2 2

r2
but x 2 + y 2 = r 2

 sin 2  + cos 2  = 1

sin 2  + cos 2  = 1 (1)

Divide by sin 2 

cos 2  1
1+ =
sin  sin 2 
2
 77

1 + cot 2  = cos ec 2

Divide equation ( 1 ) by cos 2 

tan 2  + 1 = sec 2 

Ex.) Find the solution between 0 and 360 

1) sin  = 0.47

 = sin −1 (0 .47 )
 = 28,152

2) cos  = −0.3

 = 107 .5
(360 − 107.5)
 = 107.5, 252 .5

3) cos ( + 40) = 0.27

 + 40  = cos −1 (0.27 )

 + 40 = 74.3,285.7
  = 34.3,245.7
4) cos ( + 70 ) = 0.83
 + 70 = 33.9,326.1,393.9
 = −36.1,256.1,323.9
  = 256 .1and 323 .9

5) tan 2 = 2.4
2 = tan −1 2.4
2 = 67.38,247.38,427.38,607.38
  = 33.7,123.7,213.7,303.7

1
6) cos  = −0.37
2
1
 = cos −1 (− 0.37 )
2

1
 = 111 .7, 248 .3
2

 = 223 .4
 78

7) Determine the values of  such that 0    360 

a) sin  = 2 cos 
Divide by cos 

tan  = 2
 = tan −1 (2 )

 = 63 .4
 = 63.4,243.4

1
b) sin 2  =
2

1
sin  = +
2

 = 45,135,225,315

c) tan 2  = 3
tan  = + 3

 = 60,120,210,300

d) 2 sin  = cos ec − 1

1
2 sin  = −1
sin 
2 sin 2  = 1 − sin 
2 sin 2  + sin  − 1 = 0
2 sin 2  + sin  − 1 + 0
(2 sin  − 1)(sin  + 1) = 0
2 sin  = 1
1
sin  =
2
 = 30,150 

or sin = −1

 = 270 

  = 30,150,270

e) 4 sin 2  = 4 − 3 cos 
 79

put sin 2  = 1 − cos 2 

( )
4 1 − cos 2  = 4 − 3 cos 
4 − 4 cos  = 4 − 3 cos 
2

4 cos 2  − 3 cos  = 0
cos (4 cos  − 3) = 0

3
cos  = 0 and cos  =
4
90,270 41.4,318.6
  = 90,270,41.4,318.6

f) 4 cos 2  + 11sin  = 10
put cos 2  = 1 − sin 2 

( )
4 1 − sin 2  + 11 sin  = 10
4 − 4 sin 2  + 11sin  − 10 = 0
− 4 sin 2  + 11sin  − 6 = 0
4 sin 2  − 11sin  + 6 = 0
(4 sin  − 3)(sin  − 2 ) = 0

3
sin  = , sin  = 2 (not valid)
4

 = 48.6,131 .4

8) Find the angles between − 180     180 

a) 2 tan 2  + 8 = 7 sec 
put 1 + tan 2  = sec 2 
tan 2  = sec 2  − 1

( )
2 sec 2  − 1 + 8 = 7 sec 
2 sec  − 2 − 7 sec  + 8 = 0
2

2 sec 2  − 7 sec  + 6 = 0

(2 sec  − 3)(sec  − 2 ) = 0
2 sec  = 3, sec  = 2
3 1
sec  = , =2
2 cos 

1 3 1
= , cos  =
cos  2 2
 80

2
cos  =
3
 = 48 .2 and  = 60 
 = −48 .2 and  = −60 

  = 48.2,−48.2,60,−60

b) 5 sin 2 2 = 3 cos 2 + 3

put sin 2 2 = 1 − cos 2 2

( )
5 1 − cos 2 2 = 1 − cos 2 2

5 − 5 cos 2 2 = 3 cos 2 + 3
(5 cos 2 − 2 )(cos 2 + 1) = 0

2
cos 2  = , cos 2 = −1
5

2 = 66.42, 2 = +180
2 = −66.42,66.42,−426,42,426.42,−293.58,293.58
and 2 = +180 , +540 

 = −33.2,33.2,−213.2,213.2,−90,90,−270,270,146.8,−146.8

 = −33.2,33.2,−90,90,146.8,−146.8

Compound Angles

sin (A + B ) = sin B cos A + cos B sin A

sin (A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

similarly

cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Let B = −B

sin (A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

cos (A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

sin (A + B )
tan (A + B ) =
cos (A + B )
 81

sin A cos B + cos A sin B

=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B

divide top and bottom by cos A cos B − sin A sin B gives

tan A + tan B
tan (A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B

Summary

sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin ( A − B ) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A
cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos ( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A + tan B
tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B

tan A − tan B
tan ( A − B ) =
1 + tan A tan B

Examples

1) Without using calculator. Find:

a) sin 75 = sin (45 + 30 )

= sin 45  cos 30  + 30 cos 45 

2 3 1 2
=  + 
2 2 2 2

2 3 2 2
= + +
4 4 4

=
4
2
( )
3 +1
 82

b) tan (− 15 ) = tan (30 − 45 )

tan 30  − tan 45 
=
1 + tan 30  tan 45 

3
−1
= 3
3
1+ 1
3

3 −1
= 3
3+ 3
3

3 −1 3
= 
3 3+3

3 −1 3 −3
= 
3+3 3 −3

3−3 3 − 3 +3 6− 4 3
= =
3−9 −6

4 7
2) Given that  and  are acute angles and sin = , cos  = , find without using
5 25
calculator:

a) cos ( + ) b) tan ( + )

3 24
cos = sin  =
5 25

4 24
tan = tan  =
3 7

cos ( + ) = cos  cos  − sin  sin 

3 7 4 24
=  − 
5 25 5 25

21 96 − 75
− =
125 125 125

3
=−
5
 83

tan  + tan 
b) tan ( + ) =
1 − tan  tan 

4 24
+
= 3 7
4 24
1− 
3 7

28 + 72 100
21 = 21 = 100   − 7 
32 25 21  25 
1− −
7 7

4
=−
3

3) Show that sin 7 x − sin 3x = 2 cos 5x sin 2 x

sin 7 x − sin 3x = sin (5x + 2 x ) − sin (5x − 2 x )

= sin 5x cos 2 x + sin 2 x cos 5x − (sin 5x cos 2 x − sin 2 x cos 5x )

= sin 5x cos 2 x + sin 2 x + cos 5x − sin 5x cos 2 x + sin 2 x cos 5x

= 2 sin 2 x cos 5x = L.H.S.

4) Show that cos (A + B ) + cos (A − B ) == 2 cos A cos B

cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B + cos A cos B + sin A sin B

= 2 cos A cos B = L.H.S.

5) Express 3 cos x + sin x in the form R cos (x −  )

Where R is positive integer and 0  90  . Hence find the maximum value of
f (x ) where f (x ) = 3 cos x + sin x + 7
R cos (x −  ) = 3 cos x + sin x
R cos x cos  + R sin x sin = 3 cos x + sin x
Equating coefficients of cos x

R cos = 3 1
Equating coefficients of sinx

R sin = 1 2
 84

1 +2
2 2

( )
2
R 2 sin 2  + cos 2  =  3  + 12
 
R2 = 4

R=2 (positive integer)

2 divided by 1

R sin  1
=
R cos  3

1
tan =
3

= 30 

3 cos x + sin x = 2 cos (x − 30)

 f (x ) = 2 cos (x − 30 ) + 7

maximum value of f (x ) = 9 when cos (x − 30 ) = 1

 x − 30 = cos −1 1
x − 30 = 0,360 ,….
x = 210 ,570  ,…

Double Angle Formulae

sin (A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

If B=A

sin 2 A = sin A cos A + cos A sin A

sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A

cos (A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

 85

If B=A

cos 2A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A

But cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A

cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin 2 A

Similarly sin 2 A = 1 − cos 2 A

cos 2A = 2 cos 2 A − 1

tan A + tan B
tan (A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B

If B=A

2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A

Summary
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
= 1 − 2 sin 2 A
cos 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A

Half Angle Formulae

 
cos  = cos 2 − sin 2
2 2

= 2 cos 2 −1
2

= 1 − 2 sin 2
2

General Solution
 86

The general solution for Trigonometric equations can be solved using the following
Formulae:

1) For sin  = sin  , the general solution is

 = n + (− 1) 
n

where n is an integer

1
Ex.) If sin  =
2

 = 45  =

 = n + (− 1)n 
 = 180 n + (− 1) 
n

put n=1

 = 180  1 + (− 1)  45
1

= 180 − 45 = 135 

 = 180  2 + (− 1)  45
2
n=2
= 360 + 45
= 405

n=-1  = 180  (− 1) − 45

= −225 

1) For sine
=n+(-1)n

i.e. =n+ for even n

= n- for odd n

2) For cos  = cos  , the general solution is

 = 2 n + 
or
 = 360 n + 
 87

3) For tan  = tan  , the general solution is

 = n + 
or
 = 180 n + 

Conversion of a sin wt + b cos wt into R sin (wt +  )

2
1) R sin (wt +  ) represents a sine wave of maximum value R, periodic time ,
w
w
frequency and leading R sin wt by angle 
2

2) Expanding R sin (wt +  ) using the compound angle formula gives

R sin (wt +  ) = R sin wt cos  + (R sin  )cos wt 

= (R cos  )sin wt + (R sin  )cos wt

let a = R cos  and b = R sin 

 R sin (wt +  ) = a sin wt + b cos wt

where a and b are constants.

Ex. 1) Express 3 sin wt + 4 cos wt in the form R sin (wt +  ) and determine the value
of R and .

3 sin wt + 4 cos wt = R sin (wt +  )

3 sin wt + 4 cos wt = R sin wt cos  + R cos wt sin 

Equating coefficient of sin wt

3 = R sin  (1)

Equating coefficient of cos wt

4 = R sin  ( 2)

(1) 2 + ( 2 ) 2

32 + 4 2 = R 2 cos 2  + R 2 sin 2 
 88

(
3 2 + 4 2 = R 2 cos 2  + sin 2  )
but cos 2  + sin 2 = 1
25 = R 2

R =5

2 1

4 R sin 
=
3 R cos 

4
tan =
3

4
= tan −1  
3

= 53 .13 

= 53 .13  = 0.927 radians
180

Hence 3 sin wt + 4 cos wt = 5 sin (wt + 0.927 )

Ex. 2) Express 3 cos x + sin x in the form R cos (x −  ) where R is positive integer
and 0  90  . Hence find the maximum value of f (x ) where:

f (x ) = 3 cos x + sin x + 7

3 cos x + sin x = R cos (x −  )

3 cos x + sin x = R cos x cos  + R sin x sin 

Equating coefficient of cos x

3 = R cos x 1

Equating coefficient of sin x

1 = R sin  2

1 +2
2 2

( 3 ) + (1)
2 2
= R 2 cos 2  + R 2 sin 2 
 89

(
4 = R 2 cos 2  + sin 2  )
R =4
2

R=2

2 1

R sin  1
=
R cos  3

1
tan =
3

 1 
= tan −1  
 3

= 30 

 3 cos x + sin x = 2 cos (x − 30)

f (x ) = 2 cos (x − 30) + 7

At max. cos (x − 30  ) = 1

 f (x ) = 2  1 + 7 = 9
and cos (x − 30 ) = 1

x = 30 = cos −1 (1)
x − 30 = 0,360,....
x = 30,390 
At min. cos (x − 30 ) = −1

 f (x ) = 2  (− 1) + 7 = 5

and cos (x − 30 ) = −1
x − 30 = cos −1 (− 1)
x − 30 = 180,540 ,…
x = 210 ,570 
 90

Arc of a Circle
 91

Chapter 3

Hyperbolic Functions
Definition and solution of equations involving hyperbolics. Osbourne's rule.

A hyperbolic function is characterized in terms of the exponential function

For example: sinh(x), called ‘shine’ x and cosh(x), called ‘cosh x’

(i) Hyperbolic sine of x,

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 = (1)
2

(ii) Hyperbolic cosine of x,

𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
cosh 𝑥 = (2)
2

(iii) Hyperbolic tangent of x,

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = (3)
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 𝑥

(iv) Hyperbolic cosecant of x,

1 2
cosech 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 (4)
 92

Hyperbolic Functions
Aims: to explore Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions.

Objective: by the end of this lesson you will be able to

1. develop awareness of Exponential Functions;

2. identify Hyperbolic Functions and their Relations with Exponential Functions;
3. identify Inverse Hyperbolic Functions;
4. use the Infinite Series associated with Hyperbolic Functions.

Exponential Function

In calculus and more advanced mathematics, a mathematical constant e is regularly used. This
constant is known as the exponent and has a value of 2.718. A function containing ex is called
an EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION and may be written as exp(x). ex is a function increases at a
rate proportion to its own magnitude.

All the laws of growth and decay are of the form y = ae x . As logarithms to the base 10 were
introduced to assist calculations based on power 10, logarithms to base e were developed by
Napier to simplify calculations involving the exponential functions.

Evaluating Exponential Functions

f (x ) = e x

f (0 ) = e 0 = 1

f (1) = e 1 = 2.718

1
f (− 1) = e −1 = = 0.368
2.718

 2
f  −  = e − 2 = 0.513
 3 3

 1
f  −  = e − 1 = 0.607
 2 2

f (x ) = e − x

f (1) = e −1 = 0 .368

f (− 2 ) = e − ( −2 ) = e 2 = 7.389
 93

Graphs of Exponential Functions

Example 1

Draw the graph of y=ex and y=e-x over the range x=-3 to x=3.

X -3 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
y=ex 0.05 0.08 0.14 0.22 0.37 0.61 1.00 1.65 2.72 4.48 7.39 12.18 20.09
y=e-x 20.09 12.18 7.39 4.48 2.72 1.65 1.00 0.61 0.37 0.22 0.14 0.08 0.05

Graphs of Exponential functions y = 𝑒 𝑥 and y 𝑒 −𝑥

 94

Example 2

Draw the graph of y = 1 − e − x over the range x=0 to x=3.5

x 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

e-x 0.05 0.08 0.14 0.22 0.37 0.61 1.00 1.65
y=1-e-x 20.09 12.18 7.39 4.48 2.72 1.65 1.00 0.61

Graph of Exponential function y = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑥

 95

Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic functions are constructed from the exponential functions as follows:

The hyperbolic cosine of x, cosh x is defined as:

e x + e−x 1 x
cosh x = (
= e + e −x )
2 2

The hyperbolic sine of x, sinh x is defined as:

e x − e −x 1 x
sinh x = (
= e − e −x )
2 2

and the hyperbolic tangent of x, tanh x

𝑒𝑥 −𝑒−𝑥
sinh x 2 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
tanh x = = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥 =
cosh x 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
2

1
cos echx =
sinh x

1
sec hx =
cosh x

1 cosh x
coth x = =
tanh x sinh x

Osbourne’s Rule
Each trigonometric identity has its equivalent hyperbolic identity which may be derived from
the original trigonometric identity by the following process:

(i) replace each trigonometric function in the original identity by its corresponding
hyperbolic function i.e. replace sinx by sinh x, cos by cosh s etc;

(ii) change the SIGN in front of the product or implied product of two sines in the
original identity e.g.-sin x sin y becomes + sinh x sinh y, see Table1.
 96

Trigonometric Identities Equivalent Hyperbolic

1 1
cot x = coth x =
tan x tanh x
1 1
sec x = sec hx =
cos x cosh x
1 1
cos ecx = cos echx =
sin x sinh x
cos x + sin 2 x = 1
2
cosh x − sinh 2 x = 1
2

sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x sec h 2 x = 1 − tanh 2 x

cos ec 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x cos ech 2 x = coth 2 x − 1
sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cos 2x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x cosh 2x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
= 1 − 2 sin 2 x = 1 + 2 sinh 2 x
= 2 cos 2 x − 1 = 2 cosh 2 x − 1

Table 1 Trigonometric functions and their equivalent hyperbolic functions.

Example 3

Verify from the definitions that cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 .

2 2
1
(
 1
) 
cosh x − sinh x =  e x + e − x  +  e x − e − x 
2 2
( )
2  2 

= (
1 2x 1
) (
e + 2 + e −2 x − e 2 x − 2 + e −2 x )
4 4

= (
1 2x
e + 2 + e −2 x − e 2x + 2 − e −2x )
4

1
= (4 ) = 1
4

Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

The graph of the hyperbolic functions depend on the values of ex and e-x

y = cosh x =
1 x
(
e + e −x )
2
 97

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Y = cosh x 10.07 3.74 1.54 1 1.54 3.70 10.07

The graph of y = cosh x

From the graph and the table values, it can be noted that

i cosh 0=1;
ii the value of cosh x is never less than 1;
iii the curve is symmetrical about y-axis i.e. cosh (-x)=coshx;
iv for any given value of coshx, there are two values of x, equally spaced about the
origin, i.e. x = a .

y = sinh x =
1
(e x
− e−x )
2

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y=sinhx -10.02 -3.63 -1.18 0 1.18 3.63 10.02
 98

The graph of y = sinh x

From the graph and the table values, it can be noted that

→ (v) sinh 0 = 0 ;
→ (vi) sinh x can have values from −  to  ;
→ (vii) the curve is symmetrical about the origin i.e. sinh (− x ) = − sinh x
→ (viii) for any given value of sinh x , there is only one value of x.#
 99

y = tanh x =
sinh x
= x
(
e x − e −x )
cosh x e + e −x ( )
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = tanh x -0.995 -0.964 -0.762 0 0.762 0.964 0.995

The graph of y = tanh x

From the graph and the table values, it can be noted that

→ (ix) tanh 0 = 0
→ (x) tanh x always lies between y=-1 and y=1
→ (xi) tanh (− x ) = − tanh x
→ (xii) as x → , tanh x → 1 and as x → −, tanh x → −1

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of logarithms, suppose

y = sinh −1 (x)

Taking sinh for both sides, we get:

(
sinh y = sinh sinh −1
x )
sinh y = x or x = sinh y
 100

x= (e − e − y ) = 1  e y − 1y 
1 y
2 2 e 
1
2x = e − y =
y ey −1 ( ) 2

e ey

2 xe y = (e y ) − 1
2

Solving as a quadratic equation (e y ) − 2 xe y − 1 = 0 with a = 1, b = - 2x and c = -1 using the

2

− b  b 2 − 4ac
formula e y =
2a

We get:
− (− 2 x )  (− 2 x )2 − 4(1)(− 1)
e =
y

2(1)

2x  4x 2 + 4
=
2

2x  2 x 2 + 1
=
2

ey = x  x2 +1

Take loge of both sides:

log e e y = log e x  x 2 + 1 ( )
(
y = log e x  x 2 + 1 but y = sinh ) −1
x
 sinh −1
(
x = log e x + x 2 + 1 or sinh ) −1
(
x = log e x − x 2 + 1 )


( )
Because loge x − x 2 + 1 is always negative, this solution never exists.

−1
Graph of y = sinh x

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 -1.82 -1.44 -0.88 0 0.88 1.44 1.82
 101

−1
The graph of y = sinh x

Prove that:

1 (
y = cosh −1 x =  ln x + x 2 + 1 )
1 1+ x 
2 y = tanh −1 x = ln  
2 1− x 

Sketch the graph of each function.

 102

Chapter 4
Coordinate Geometry
What you will learn:

The straight line. Parabola, ellipse, circle: properties and graphical form. Application
to engineering problems

4.1 Coordinate Geometry

Once the coordinates of two points are known the distance between the two points
and midpoint of the interval joining the points can be found.

For example,
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points.
a) A(1, 2) and B(4, 2)
b) A(1, –2) and B(1, 3)
 103

2. Find the distance between the points A(1, 2) and B(4, 6) is calculated below:

Solution

AC = 4 – 1 = 3 and BC = 6 – 2 = 4.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AB2 = 32 + 42 = 25
Therefore, AB = 5

4.2 The general case

We can obtain a formula for the length of any interval. Suppose that P(x1, y1) and
Q(x2, y2) are two points

Form the right-angled triangle PQX,

where X is the point (x2, y1),
PX = x2 – x1or x1 – x2 and
QX = y2 – y1 or y1 – y2
depending on the positions of P and Q.
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
PQ2 = PX2 + QX2
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
Therefore, PQ = QP = [(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2]½
 104

EXAMPLE 4.2a
Find the distance between the points A(–4, –3) and B(5, 7).

SOLUTION
In this case, x1 = –4, x2 = 5, y1 = –3 and y2 = 7.
AB2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
= (5 – (–4))2 + (7 – (–3))2
= 92 + 102 = 181
Thus, AB = 181.
Note that we could have chosen x1 = 5, x2 = –4, y1 = 7 and y2 = –3 and still obtained
the same result. As long as (x1, y1) refers to one point and (x2, y2) the other point, it
does not matter which one is which.

EXERCISE
The distance between the points (1, a) and (4, 8) is 5. Find the possible values of a
and use a diagram to illustrate.

4.3 Midpoints
Example 4.3a
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line interval AB, given:
(a) A(1, 2) and (B7, 2) (b) A(1, -2) and B(1, 3)

When the interval is not parallel to one of the axes we take the average of the x-
coordinate and the y-coordinate.
 105

Hence the x-coordinate of M is the

average of 1 and 5.
x = (5 + 1)/2 = 3
The y-coordinate of M is the average
of 2 and 8.
x = (2 + 8)/2 = 5
Thus, the coordinates of the midpoint
M are (3, 5).

EXAMPLE 4.3b
If C(3, 6) is the midpoint of line interval AB and A has coordinates (–1, 1), find the
coordinates of B.

SOLUTION
Let the coordinates of B be (x1, y1).
{x1 + (–1)}/2 = 3 and {y1 + 1}/2 = 6
x1 – 1 = 6; y1 + 1 = 12
So,
x1 = 7; and y1 = 11.
Thus, B has coordinates (7, 11).

EXAMPLE 4.3c
Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the straight lines joining the following pairs
of points: (a) (3, 7) and (5, 9) (b) (-2, 5) and (8, -1)

SOLUTION
(a) Mid-points of the line joining (3, 7) and (5, 9) has coordinates
3+5 7+9
( , ) = (4, 8)
2 2

(b) Mid-points of the line joining (-2, 5) and (8, -1) has coordinates
−2+8 5+(−1)
( , ) = (3, 2)
2 2
 106

EXAMPLE 4.3d
The points P(4, -3), Q(-3, 4), R(-2, 7) and S are the vertices of a parallelogram
PQRS. Find (a) the coordinates of the mid-point of the diagonal PR, (b) the
coordinates of S

SOLUTION
(a) If M is the mid-points of the line joining P(4, -3) and R(-2, 7), then M has
coordinates
4+(−2) (−3)+7
( , ) = (1, 2)
2 2

Therefore, mid-point of PR is the point with coordinates (1, 2)

(b) Since the diagonal of a parallelogram bisect each other. M(1, 2) is also the
mid-point of QS. Let the coordinates of S be (x, y)
−3+𝑥 4+𝑦)
Then (1, 2) = ( , )
2 2
−3+𝑥 4+𝑦
1= and 2=
2 2

𝑥=5 and 𝑦=0

Therefore, the coordinates of S are (5, 0)

EXCERCISE 4.3
1. Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the straight lines joining the following
pairs of points:
(a) (3, 4) and (7, 10) (b) (2, 8) and (10, 4) (c) (0, 5) and (6, 3)
(d) (4, 3) and (1, 5) (e) (-2, 1) and (6, 5) (f) (-2, -1) and (5, 6)
(g) (-3, 8) and (-4, 0) (h) (-3, -9) and (-7, -1)
2. Find the coordinates of point E, if point F(-4, 3) is the mid-point of the straight line
joining E to G(-6, 10)
3. A triangle has vertices at A(2, 4), B(4, -2) and C(8, 12). L is the mid-point of AB
and M is the mid-point of BC. Find:
(a) the coordinates of point L
(b) the coordinates of point M,
(c) the distance LM
4. A triangle has vertices at A(9, 9), B(3, 2) and C(9, 4). Find:
(a) the coordinates of M, the mid-point of BC,
 107

(b) the length of the median from A to M

4.4 Gradient of a line joining two points

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 𝐵𝐿 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 𝐿𝐴 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Note that
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

EXAMPLE 4.4a
Find the gradients of the line joining the
following points:
(a) (4, 1) and (7, 3) (b) (2, -7) and (4, 3) (c) (2, 5) and
(6, 1)
SOLUTIONS
(a) (b) (c)
3−1 3−(−7) 1−5
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 7−4 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 6−2
4−2

=2/3 =5 = -1

EXAMPLE 4.4b
Determine whether points A(-4, 3), B(-1, 5) and C(8, 11) are collinear
 108

SOLUTION
5−3
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = −1−(−4) = 2/3
11−5
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶 = 8−(−1) = 2/3

Since the gradient of AB = the gradient of BC, and B is a point common to the lines
AB and BC, the points A, B and C are collinear.

EXERCISE 4.4a
1. Find the gradients of the straight lines joining each of the following pairs:
(a) (3, 5) and (5, 9) (b) (6, 7) and (3, -2)
(c) (5, -1) and (1, -3) (d) (-2, -2) and (0, 2)
(e) (-1, -4) and (11, 4) (f) (-1, -1) and (7, -7)
2. For each of the parts, state whether the three given points are collinear:
(a) (2, 3), (4, 4), (10, 7) (b) (2, 0), (3, 1), (8, 7)
(c) (1, -3), (-1, 1), (-4, 7) (d) (2, -2), (-3, -5), (12, 4)
(e) (5, 3), (6, 1), (10, -5).
3. If the straight line joining A(3, -5) to B(6, b) has a gradient of 4, find the value of b.
4. If the straight line joining C(c, 5) to D(-3, 2) has a gradient of ¾, find the value of c.
5. Three points A(a, -1), B(8, 1) and C(11, 2) are collinear. Find the value of a
6. The points A(5, 2), B(1, 0), C(c, 5), D(-5, d) and E(e, -2) all lie on the same straight
line. Find the values of c, d and e.

4.5 Parallel and perpendicular lines

Suppose two lines (1) and (2) intersect at right angles at the point A and cut the x-
axis at the points B and C respectively.
If AD is the perpendicular from
A to the x-axis and angle ABD
= θ, it follows that angle DAC =
θ.
𝐴𝐷
Gradient of line (1) = 𝐷𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝐷
Gradient of line (2) = − 𝐶𝐷 =
−1 1
= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝐶𝐷/𝐴𝐷
 109

−1
∴ gradient of line (1) X gradient of line (2) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 × (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) = -1

Therefore, if two lines are parallel, they have equal gradients, and
if two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is -1.
If a line has a gradient, m, any perpendicular line will have a gradient of -1/m
Therefore, the following pairs of gradients all apply to pairs of
perpendicular lines:
1 2 3 3 5
2 and -½, 3 and − 3, and − 2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3
3 5

EXAMPLE 4.5a
Given the points A(1, -1), B(5, 2), P(-1, 10), Q(-1, 3) and R(-9, -3). Show that AB is
parallel to QR and that BP is perpendicular to AB.

SOLUTION
2−(−1) 3 −3−3 3 10−2 4
Gradient AB = = 4; Gradient QR = −9−(−1) = 4; Gradient BP = −1−5 = − 3
5−1

Therefore, AB is parallel to QR, while BP is perpendicular to AB

EXAMPLE 4.5b
The triangle P(-4, 3), Q(-1, 5) and R(0, -3) is right angled. Find which side is the
hypotenuse.

SOLUTION
5−3 2 −3−5 −3−3 3
Gradient PQ = −1−(−4) = 3 ; gradient QR = 0−(−1) = −8 gradient PR = 0−(−4) = − 2

(gradient PQ) x (gradient PR) = -1

Therefore, PQ is perpendicular to PR, so angle QPR 90º and QR is the hypotenuse
 110

EXERCISE 4.5
1. Using points A(2, 4), B(8, 7), C(5, -2) and D(19, 5), prove that: (a) AB is parallel to
CD (b) AC is perpendicular to CD
2. The points A(6, 8), B(11, 9), C(7, -3) and D(4, 2) form the trapezium ABCD. Name
the pair of sides that are parallel.
3. A triangle has vertices A(2, 2), B(5, 7) and C(15, 1). Find the gradients of the lines
AB, BC and AC. Hence show that the triangle is right-angled, and state which angles
A, B or C is the right angle.
4. The line joining point A(a, 3) to point B(2, -3) is perpendicular to the line joining
point C(10, 1) to point B. Find the value of a.
5. Points A(0, 3), B(4, 7) and C(10, 5) form the triangle ABC; L is the mid-point of AB,
and M is the mid-point of BC. Show that LM is parallel to AC.

4.6 The Equation 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Suppose the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on

the straight line which cuts the 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at the point 𝐴(0, 𝑐) and has a
gradient 𝑚.
The gradient of AP is 𝑚,
𝑦−𝑐
But AP has a gradient
𝑥−0
𝑦−𝑐
∴ =𝑚
𝑥−0

EXERCISE 4.6a
1. Find where the following straight lines cut the y-axis:
(a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 (b) 𝑦 − 3𝑏 = 4
(c) 2𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 8 (d) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
(e) + = 1 (f) − =1
3 2 4 3

2. Find the gradient of each of the lines (a) to (e) shown on the graph below.
Assume the same scale is used on each axis.
 111

3. Find where the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 cuts: (a) the x-axis, (b) the y-axis.
Hence sketch the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2.
4. Find where the line 2𝑦 = 6 − 3𝑥 cuts: (a) the x-axis, (b) the y-axis.
Hence sketch the line 2𝑦 = 6 − 3𝑥.
5. Which of the following lines are parallel to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4?
(a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1, (b) 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3, (c) 3𝑦 − 6𝑥 = 1, (d) 2𝑦 + 3𝑦 = 4.
6. Which of the following lines are perpendicular to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4?
1 1
(a) 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 4, (b) 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 + 7, (c) 2𝑦 = 5 − 𝑥, (d) 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5.

7. The line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is parallel to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 6 and passes through the

point (-1, 7). Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
8. The line 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 is perpendicular to the line 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 4 and cuts the line
𝑦 + 𝑥 + 3 = 0 on the y-axis. Find the values of 𝑐 and 𝑑.

4.7 Cartesian equation of a straight line

A. Equation of a line from its gradient m and a point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) on it.
 112

Consider a line having gradient

m and passing through the
point 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ).
Suppose that 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is any
other point on the line.

𝑃𝑁 𝑦−𝑦1
Gradient of the line = 𝑚 = =
𝑁𝐴 𝑥−𝑥1

Or the equation of the line is 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

Example 4.7a
4
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through (-2, 3) and has a gradient 5.

Solution
Let P(x, y) be any point on the line.
Using the equation 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) gives:
4
𝑦 − 3 = [𝑥 − (−2)]
5
5𝑦 − 15 = 4𝑥 + 8
Therefore, the required equation is:
5𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 23

B. Equation of a line
through 𝑨(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and
𝑩(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )
Consider a line which passes
through the points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and suppose 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is
any other point on the line.
The gradient of AP is equal to the gradient of AB as ABP is a straight line
 113

Therefore,
𝑃𝑁 𝐵𝑀
=
𝑁𝐴 𝑀𝐴
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Example 4.7b
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through (3, -1) and (7, 2).

Solution
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the line and using
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑦 − (−1) 2 − (−1)
=
𝑥−3 7−3
4(𝑦 + 1) = 3(𝑥 − 3)
4𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 13

Example 4.7c
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points A(2, -3)
and B(6, 5).

Solution

We need to know the gradient of

the perpendicular bisector, and
also one point on it, and then we
use the equation
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
The coordinates of M, the midpoint of AB are:

2 + 6 −3 + 5
( , ) = (4, 1)
2 2
5−(−3)
Gradient of AB = =2
6−2
1
Therefore, the gradient of the perpendicular bisector = − 2
1
The required line has gradient − 2 and passes through M(4, 1)
 114

Using
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑥 − 4)
2
2𝑦 − 2 = −𝑥 + 4
2𝑦 = 6 − 𝑥
Therefore, the equation of the perpendicular bisector is
2𝑦 = 6 − 𝑥

Example 4.7d
Find the equation of the locus of points which are equidistant from A(3, 2) and
B(-4, 1).

Solution
Suppose 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is any point on the required locus.
Since P is equidistant from A and B,
PA = PB and so PA2 = PB2
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − (−2))2 = (𝑥 − (−4))2 + (𝑦 − 1)2
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = (𝑥 + 4)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 4 = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1
3𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 2
Therefore, the required equation is
3𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 2
Note that this equation could have been solved by finding the perpendicular bisector
of AB, as in example 4.7c, since that is the required locus.

Exercise 4.7
1. Find the equation of the straight line that:
(a) Passes through (1, 7) and has a gradient 3,
(b) Passes through (-1, -6) and has a gradient 5,
(c) Passes through (-1, 1) and has a gradient 2,
(d) Passes through (4, 1) and is parallel to 2𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3,
(e) Passes through (-2, 9) and is perpendicular to 2𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3.
2. Find the equation of a straight line that passes through:
(a) (0, 4) (b) (0, 7) and (7, 0)
 115

(c) (2, 1) and (-2, -7) (d) (6, -2) and (12, 1)
(e) (1, -2) and (-1, 4).
3. Find the equation of the locus of the points that are equidistant from the points A(1,
1) and B(5, 3).
4. Find the equation of the locus of points that are equidistant from the points C(2, 7)
and D(8, 1).
5. If point E has coordinates (4, 1) and point F has coordinates (2, 7) find:
(a) The coordinates of the mid-point of EF
(b) The gradient of EF.
(c) The equation of the perpendicular bisector of EF
6. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through he points L and M where
L is the mid-point of the straight line joining A(-1, 6) to B(5, 4) and M is the mid-
point of the line joining C(-5, -1) to D(3, -1).
7. A triangle has vertices at A(0, 7), B(9, 4) and C(1, 0). Find:
(a) The equation of the perpendicular line from C to AB,
(b) The equation of the straight line from A to the mid-point of BC.

4.8 Intersection of Lines

In order to find the points in which two lines intersect, we have to find a point with
coordinates which satisfy both equations. This is equivalent to solving the equations
of the lines simultaneously.

Example 4.8a
Find the coordinates of the point in which the lines 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1 and 2𝑥 = 5𝑦 + 3
intersect.

Solutions
Since the point of intersection satisfies both equations, the values of x and y at the
point of intersection will be the same for both lines.
𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1 ie 2𝑥 = 6𝑦 + 2
and 2𝑥 = 5𝑦 + 3 ie 2𝑥 = 5𝑦 + 3
subtracting 0= 𝑦−1 or 𝑦=1
substituting in one of the original equations
 116

𝑥−3=1 or 𝑥=4
Therefore, point of intersection is (4, 1).
Intersection of straight line and curve
A straight line may intersect a curve at more than one point. Thus, solving the
equation of the line and the curve simultaneously could give more than one answer.

Example 4.8b
The line 𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 0 intersect the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 at the points A and B. find
the coordinates of A and B.

Solution
The coordinates of points of intersection satisfy both equations.
𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 0 (1)
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 (2)
Substituting for y from eqn. (2) into eqn. (1):
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 0
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0
∴ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
∴ 𝑥=3 or 1
Substituting for 𝑥 in eqn. (1):
𝑦−6+3= 0 or 𝑦−2+3= 0
i.e. 𝑦=3 i.e. 𝑦 = −1
Therefore, the points of intersection are (3, 3) and (1, -1).

Example 4.8c
Find the points at which the curves 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 intersect.

Solution
The points of intersection are found by solving simultaneously the equations:
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 (1)
{
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 (2)
Substitute for y from eqn. (1) into eqn. (2)
3𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3
 117

2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
3
𝑥=− or −1
2
Substituting for 𝑥 in eqn. (1):
3 2 27
𝑦 = 3 (− ) = 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 3(−1)2 = 3
2 4
3 27
Therefore, points of intersection are (− , ) and (−1, 3)
2 4

Exercise 4.8
1. Find the coordinates of the points where the following pairs of line intersect:
(a) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2 and 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 14
(b) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 and 2𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 and 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 12
(e) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 and 2𝑦 + 2 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
(f) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1
(g) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 = 5
2. Prove that the lines 2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 7 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5 are concurrent
(meeting in one point).
3. If the three lines 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4, 2𝑦 + 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 8 are concurrent, find the
value of 𝑎.
 118

4.9 Applications of Coordinate Geometry to Civil Engineering

(1)
The force of wind resistance to a particular component of a structure was noted for
various heights of the component, and the results were tabulated below:
Wind resistance R (in Newtons) 26 60 122 135 180 270
Height of the structure’s component (m) 4 10 16 17 20 25

By plotting a suitable graph, show that the figures agree approximately with a
relationship of the form 𝑅 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑉 2 and find values for the constants 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Find the wind resistance experienced by the structure at a height of 15 m.
[20, 0.4; 110N]

(2)
An experiment involved noting the time period 𝑇 of pendulums of various lengths 𝑙.
The results were as follows:
Length 𝑙, (cm) 20 30 45 50 75 100
Time period 𝑇, (secs) 0.90 1.10 1.35 1.42 1.74 2.01

It is suspected that these two quantities 𝑇 and 𝑙 are related by a rule of the form
𝑇 = 𝑎√𝑙 where 𝑎 is a constant. Plot a suitable graph to show this to be the case.

(3)
In an experiment demonstrating Hooke’s law, the stress in an aluminium, wire was
measured for various stresses. The results were:

Plot a graph of stress (vertically) against strain (horizontally). Find:

(a) Young’s modulus of elasticity for aluminium which is given by the gradient of
the graph.
(b) The value of the strain at a stress of 20 N/mm2, and
(c) The value of the stress when the strain is 0.00020
 119

4.10 THE CIRCLE

Properties of a circle

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑐)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝜋)
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑑)

∴ 𝑐 = 𝜋𝑑 𝑂𝑅 𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟

One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the

centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius.

When 𝑠 = whole circumference (= 2𝜋𝑟) then

𝑠 2𝜋𝑟
𝜃= = = 2𝜋
𝑟 𝑟
i.e. 𝟐𝝅 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐬 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° or 𝝅 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐬 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
Thus, 𝟏 𝐫𝐚𝐝 = = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑𝟎°, correct to 2 decimal places.
𝝅
 120

Arc length
𝐚𝐫𝐜 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡, 𝒔 = 𝒓𝜽 where 𝜃 is in radians

Area of a circle
𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 or
𝟒

Area of a sector
𝜽
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 (𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) when 𝜃 is in degrees
𝜽 𝜽
= 𝟐𝝅 (𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) = 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝟐 𝜽 when 𝜃 is in radians.

Example 4.10a
Find the area of a circular metal plate, correct to the nearest square millimetre,
having a diameter of 35.0mm.

Solution
𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝜋(35.0)2
𝟐
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐥𝐞 = 𝝅𝒓 = = = 962 mm2
𝟒 4
Therefore, area of the circular plate = 962 mm2

Example 4.10b
If an angle of 125O is subtended by an arc of a circle of radius 8.4 cm, find the length
of (a) the minor arc, and (b) the major arc, correct to 3 significant figures.

Solution
 121

Example 4.10c
A football stadium floodlight can spread its illumination over an angle of 45◦ to a
distance of 55m. Determine the maximum area that is floodlit.

Solution

Example 4.10d
The angle of a tapered groove is checked using a 20mm diameter roller as shown in
figure below. If the roller lies 2.12mm below the top of the groove, determine the
value of angle θ.

Solution
Redrawing the figure as shown below, triangle ABC is right-angled at C.
 122

Length BC = 10 mm (i.e. the radius of the circle), and AB = 30 – 10 – 2.12 = 17.88

mm.

Exercise 4.10
1.

Calculate the length of wire in the paper clip

shown in the diagram. The dimensions are
in millimeters.

2.
A rectangular park measures 50m by 40m. A 3m flower bed is made round the two
longer sides and one short side. A circular fish pond of diameter 8.0m is constructed
in the centre of the park. It is planned to grass the remaining area. Find, correct to
the nearest square metre, the area of grass. [1548m2]

3. If the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of diameter 82mm is 1.46rad, find
the lengths of the (a) minor arc (b) major arc.
[(a) 59.86mm (b) 197.8mm]

4. A pendulum of length 1.5m swings through an angle of 10o in a single swing. Find,
in centimetres, the length of the arc traced by the pendulum bob. [26.2cm]
 123

5. Determine the number of complete revolutions a motorcycle wheel will make in

travelling 2 km, if the wheel’s diameter is 85.1 cm. [748]

6. An automatic garden spray produces a spray to a distance of 1.8m and revolves

through an angle α which may be varied. If the desired spray catchment area is to be
2.5m2, to what should angle α be set, correct to the nearest degree.
[88o]

7. The floodlights at a sports ground spread its illumination over an angle of 40◦ to a
distance of 48m. Determine (a) the angle in radians, and (b) the maximum area that
is floodlit.
[(a) 0.698 rad (b) 804.1m2]

8. Determine (a) the shaded area in Fig. 13.10 (b) the percentage of the whole
sector that the area of the shaded portion represents.
[(a) 396mm2 (b) 42.24%]

9.Determine the length of steel strip required to make the clip shown in the figure
below. [701.8mm]
 124

10. A 50o tapered hole is checked with a 40 mm diameter ball as shown in the figure
below. Determine the length shown as x.
[7.74mm]

4.11 The Equation of a Circle

The simplest equation of a circle with centre at the origin, and radius 𝑟, is given by:
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2

However, for a circle with the centre (𝑎, 𝑏), the equation is
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 (1)
Considering, for example, the figure below,
 125

The equation of the circle is

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 4
However, the general equation of a circle is:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑒𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 (2)
But multiplying out the bracketed terms in equation (1) gives:
𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑟 2
Comparing this with equation (2) gives:
𝟐𝒆
2𝑒 = −2𝑎, i.e. 𝒂=− 𝟐
𝟐𝒇
and 2𝑓 = −2𝑏, i.e. 𝒃=− 𝟐

and 𝑐 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2

i.e. 𝒓 = √(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝒄)
Thus, for example, the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0 represents a
−4 −6
circle with centre 𝑎 = − ( 2 ), 𝑏 = − ( 2 ), i.e. at (2, 3)

And radius 𝑟 = √(22 + 32 − 9) = 2

Example 4.11a
Determine (a) the radius, and (b) the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle given by
the equation: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 8 = 0.

Solution
8 −2
𝑎 = − (2) = −4, 𝑏 = −( 2 ) = 1 and 𝑟 = √[(−4)2 + (1)2 − 81] = √9 = 3

Therefore, the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 8 = 0 represents a circle with

centre (-4, 1) and a radius 3, as shown below:
 126

Alternatively, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 8 = 0 could be rearranged as:

(𝑥 + 4)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 − 9 = 0
i.e. (𝑥 + 4)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 32
Which represents a circle with centre (-4, 1) and a radius 3.

Exercise 4.11
1. Determine the radius and the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle given by
the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 26 = 0
[6, (−3, 1)]
2. Sketch the circle given by the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3 = 0 .
[Centre at (3, −2), radius 4]
3. Sketch the curve 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 − 25 = 0
[Circle, centre (0, 1), radius 5]
4. Sketch the curve 𝑥 = 6√[1 − (𝑦/6)2 ]
[Circle, centre (0, 0), radius 6]
 127

4.12 The Ellipses

The equation of an ellipse is:
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2

The length AB is called the major axis and CD the minor axis. In the above
equation, ‘a’ is the semi-major axis and ‘b’ is the semi-minor axis.
 128

CHAPTER 5
CALCULUS:
DIFFERENTIATION
You will learn:
• Standard form differentiation (first principle)
• Rules of differentiation including: product rule, sine & cosine rule, logarithm
rule, chain rule, quotient rule, implicit functions, parametric functions, and
engineering application of differential calculus.

Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or leading to calculations dealing with

continuously varying functions. It is a subject that falls into two parts:
1. differential calculus (or differentiation) and
2. integral calculus (or integration).
Differentiation is used in calculations involving velocity and acceleration, rates of
change and maximum and minimum values of curves.

Consider the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

(iv) If E is the point on the curve (1.1, 𝑓(1.1)), then the gradient of chord AE
𝑓(1.1) − 𝑓(1) 1.21 − 1
= = = 2.1
1.1 − 1 0.1
(v) If F is the point on the curve (1.01, 𝑓(1.01)), then the gradient of chord AF
𝑓(1.01) − 𝑓(1) 1.0201 − 1
= = = 2.01
1.01 − 1 0.01
 129

Thus, as point B moves closer to point A the gradient of the chord approaches
nearer to the value 2. This is called the limiting value of the gradient of the chord
AB and when B coincides with A the chord becomes the tangent to the curve.

5.1 Differentiation from first principles

Consider the graph

As δx approaches zero, δy/δx approaches a limiting value and the gradient of the
chord approaches the gradient of the tangent at A.

dy/dx is the same as f’(x) and is called the differential coefficient or the derivative.
The process of finding the differential coefficient is called differentiation.
In summary,
𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

Example 5.1a
Differentiate from first principles 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and determine the value of the gradient of
the curve at x = 2.
Solution.
Differentiating from the first principle,
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
 130

Example 5.1b
Using the first principle, find the differential coefficient of 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥.
Solution.
Differentiating from the first principle,
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥

Therefore, for f(x) = 5x; f’(x) = 5

Example 5.1c
Differentiate from first principles f(x) = 2x3
Solution.
 131

Therefore, the differential coefficient of 2𝑥 3 is 6𝑥 2 .

Example 5.1d
Find the differential coefficient of y = 4x2 + 5x − 3 and determine the gradient of the
curve at x = −3
Solution
 132

Exercise 5.1

Differentiation
It is the rate of change of a function with respect to its variables.

If y is a function of x, its derivative will be:

dy
dx

The formula used to differentiate is:

y = xn
dy
= nx n −1
dx

There are two basic rules of a differentiation of this type:

1) The differential coefficient of a constant is zero.

(Ex.) If y = 2
dy
=0
dx

2) Constants associated with variable are carried forward.

(Ex.) If y = x 3
 133

dy
= 3x 2
dx

(Ex.) y = 3x 2
dy
= 3  (2 x)
dx

(ex.) y = 2x 1
dy
= 2  (1x1−1 )
dx

= 2  1x

dy
=2
dx

Further Examples

1) y = x 2 + 2x + 3
dy
= 2x + 2
dx

2) y = 3x 4 + 3x 3 + 8 x + 1
dy
= 12 x 3 + 9 x 2 + 8
dx

1
3) y=
x

This type of equation has to be changed to y = x n form

1
y=
x

y = x −1

dy
= −1( x − 2 )
dx

dy − 1
= 2
dx x

3
4) y=
x2
 134

y = 3 x −2

dy
= − 6 ( x −3 )
dx

dy − 6
= 3
dx x

5) y= x

y = x2

1
dy 1 − 2 1
= (x ) = 1
dx 2
2x 2

To find the gradient at a given point

Differentiation is a process used to determine the gradient of any function.

(Ex.) Find the gradient of the curve y = x 2 − 3 at the point x=1.

y = x2 − 3
dy
= 2x
dx

when x=1

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥1=2
𝑑𝑥

To find the coordinates of a point with a given gradient

(ex.) Find the coordinates of the point in the curve y = x 2 − x + 3 at which its
gradient =1.

dy
= 2x − 1
dx

dy
when =1
dx

1 = 2x − 1
1 + 1 = 2x
 135

x =1
 y = 12 − 1 + 3
y=3

 The point is (1,3)

Second derivatives (Differentiating twice)

y = xn

dy
= nx n −1 (1st derivative)
dx

d2y
2
= n (n − 1)x n −1−1 (2nd derivative)
dx

d2y
(Ex.) If y = x − 3x + 5 , find
3 2

dx 2

dy
= 3x 2 − 6 x
dx

d2y
= 6x − 6
dx 2
d2y
(Ex.) If y = x 4 , find
dx 2

dy
= 4x 3
dx

d2y
= 12 x 2
dx 2

Velocity and Acceleration

If x is the distance travelled and t is time taken by an object.

dx
= v (velocity) m/s
dt

d2x
= 18 t − 4 = a (acceleration) m/s2
dt 2

when t = 0
 136

dx
= 9(0 ) − 4(0 ) + 4 = 4 m / s
2
v=
dt

d 2x
a= 2
= 18(0 ) − 4 = − 4m / s 2 (deceleration)
dt

when t =1.5 secs

v = 9(1.5) − 4(1.5) + 4 = 18.25m / s

2

a = 18 (1.5 ) − 4 = 23 m / s 2

(Ex. 2) The distance x metres travelled by a vehicle in time t seconds after the brakes
5
are applied is given by x = 20 t − t 2 . Determine:
3

(a) the speed of the vehicle (in km/h) at the instant the brakes are applied, and
(b) the distance the car travels before it stops.

5
(a) x = 20 t − t 2
3

dx 10
v= = 20 − t
dt 3
at the instance when the brakes are applied t = 0
10
v = 20 − (0 ) = 20 m / s
3

20
v = 20 m / s = 1000 km / h = 72 km / h.
3600

(b) When the car stops the velocity = 0

10
0 = 20 − t
3

10
t = 20
3

10 t = 60
t = 6secs

5
 distance, x = 20 (6 ) − (6 )2
3
 137

x = 120 − 60 = 60 m

Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

y = sin ax
dy
= a cos ax
dx

(Ex.1) y = sin 2 x
dy
= 2 cos 2 x
dx

(Ex. 2) y = sin x
dy
= cos x
dx

3
(Ex. 3) y = sin x
2
dy 3 3
= cos x
dx 2 2

(Ex. 4) y = 3 sin 4x
dy
= 3  ( 4 cos 4 x )
dx
dy
= 12 cos 4 x
dx

y = cos ax
dy
= − a sin ax
dx

(Ex. 1) y = cos 2x
dy
= −2 sin 2 x
dx

(Ex. 2) y = 3 cos 3x
dy
= − 9 sin 3 x
dx

(Ex. 3) y = cos x
dy
= − sin x
dx
 138

5
(Ex. 4) y = cos x
2
dy 5 5
= − sin x
dx 2 2

Further Examples

1) Differentiate the following functions:

(a) y = 6 sin 2 − 3 cos  + 

dy 1
= 12 cos 2 + 3 sin  +
d 1

2 2
y = 5(t + 2 ) − 3(7 sin 6 t )
2
(b)
( )
y = 5 t 2 + 4 t + 4 − 21 sin 6 t
y = 5 t + 20 t + 20 − 21 sin 6 t
2

dy
= 10 t + 20 − 21  (6 cos 6t )
dt
dy
= 10 t + 20 − 126 cos 6t
dt

1 1 1
(c) y= − + cos 3 − 5 sin 
  2
1
− 1
y =  −1 −  2
+ cos 3 − 5 sin 
2
3
dy 1 − 5 1
= −  − 2 +  2 − 3 sin 3 − cos 
d 2 2 2
dy 1 1 5 1
=− 2 + − 3 sin 3 − cos 
d  3
2 2
2 2


2) Determine the gradient of the function y = 7 sin 2  at the point when  =
6
y = 7 sin 2 
dy
= 14 cos 2 
d
dy   1
= 14 cos 2  = 14 cos = 14  = 7
d 6 3 2
 139

Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

y = log ax
dy 1
=
dx x

(Ex. 1) y = log 2x
dy 1
=
dx x

(Ex. 2) y = 3 log x
dy 1 3
= 3  =
dx x x

(Ex. 3) y = 5 log 2 x
dy 1 5
= 5  =
dx x x

Further Examples

Differentiate the following functions with respect to their variables:

(a) y = 3x 3 − 5 log 10 x + 6 sin x − 4 cos 5 x

dy 5
= 9 x 2 − + 6 cos x + 20 sin 5 x
dx x

3
(b) y= 3
− m 4 + log 2 m + cos 3m
m
y = 3m −3 − m 4 + log 2 m + cos 3m
dy 1
= −9 m − 4 − 4 m 3 + − 3 sin 3m
dm m

Differentiation of Exponential Functions

y = e ax
dy
= ae ax
dx

(Ex. 1) y = e x
dy
= ex
dx

(Ex. 2) y = e 2 x
 140

dy
= 2e 2 x
dx

2
(Ex. 3) y =
e 3x
y = 2 e −3 x
dy −6
= − 6 e −3 x = 3 x
dx 3

Further Examples

Differentiate the following functions with respect to their variables.

(a) y = 2e 5 x − 3 log 5 x + 10 cos 2 x − x3

3

y = 2e 5 x − 3 log 5 x + 10 cos 2 x − x 2
1
dy 3 3
= 10 e 5 x − − 20 sin 2 x − x 2
dx x 2

5 1
(b) y= −3 t
++ 3 sin 4 + log 8 t
e 3t
1
y = 5e 3 t + t −1 + 3 sin 4 t + log 8 t
3
dy 1 1
= 15 e 3t − t − 2 + 12 sin 4t +
dt 3 t
dy 1 1
= 15 e 3 t − 2 + 12 sin 4 t +
dt 3t t

In Problems 1 to 21 write down the differential coefficients with respect to the variable.

1. 5x 7 35 x  6

2. 3x 4 − 2x + 1 12 x 3 − 2  
4 1 −8 1
3. 2
− +2 3
+ 2
x x x x
 3 
4. 3 V  
2 V 
15 7 15  5
5. t 2 t
7  
6. 5 y ( y + 3) 5(2 y + 3)
1
 5 −21 9 −5 / 2 
7. 5 x 2 − 3x − 3 / 2 + 6  x + x 
2 2 
(t + 2 )2  4
8. 1 − t 2 
t  
 141

(s − 1)3 5 3 9 3 1 
9. +4  s − s+ + 
s 2 2 2 s 2 s3 
3 6 9 15 
10. x3 −  x+ 
5 x5 10 x7 
3  3 
11. 6 sin 3 y + y − cos 2 y 18 cos 3y + + 2 sin 2 y 
5  10 y 
12. 3 + 2(u + 3) − u
3
6u + 36 u + 53 
2

f +2  1 3 − 1  1 3 
13.  − − or  + 
f 3
 2 f 3
f 5
f 3
 2 f 
14. sin 2 t 2 cos 2 t 
15. − cos  sin 
16. 3 sin 5 x 15 cos 5x 
17. 2 cos 4 y − 8 sin 4 y 
18. − 5 sin 3m − 15 cos 3m 
19. 6 sin 3t − 2 cos 7 t 2(9 cos 3t + 7 sin 7 t )
20. 24 sin 100 t 2400 cos 100 t 
21. − 35 cos 50  1750 sin 50 
22. An alternating voltage is given by v=125 sin 80t volts where t is the time in seconds.
Calculate the rate of change of current when t=0.01s.
[-292 volts per second]
23. An alternating current is given by i =50 sin 120 t amperes where t is in seconds.
Calculate the rate of change of current when t=0.01s.
[2174 amperes per second]
24. v=24 sin 50t represents an alternating voltage where tis the time in seconds. At a time
of 32ms find the rate of change of voltage.
[-35 volts per second]
25. An alternating current is given by i=28 sin 60t where t is the time in seconds.
Calculate the rate of change of current when t=150ms.
[-1531 amperes per second].

In Problems 1 to 6 find the differential coefficients of the given functions with respect to the
variable.

1  1 
1. (a) 5 x 5 : (b )2.4 x 3.5 ; (c ) (a )25 x ; (b )8.4 x ; (c ) − x 2 
4 2 .5

x  

2. (a ) − 24 ; (b )6; (c ) 4  8 
(a ) x 3 ; (b )0; (c )2 
x x  
4  2 
3. (a )2 x ; (b )3 3 x 5 ; (c ) (a )
1
; (b )5 3 x 2 ; (c ) − 3 
x  x x 
 
4. (a ) 3− 3 ; (b )(x − 1)2 ; (c )2 sin 3x (a ) 3
1
; (b )2(x − 1); (c )6 cos 3x 
x  x4 
 142

3  − 15 
5. (a ) − 4 cos 2 x ; (b )2e 6 x ; (c ) (a )8 sin 2 x ; (b )12 e ; (c ) e 5 x 
6x

e 5x  
ex − ex 1− x  4 ex + ex −1 1 
6. (a )4 ln 9 x; (b ) ; (c ) (a ) ; (b ) ; (c ) 2 + 
2 x  x 2 x 2 x3 
7. Find the gradient of the curve y = 2 t 4 + 3t 4 − t + 4 at the points (0,4) and (1,8)
− 1;16
9. Find the coordinates of the point on the graph y = 5 x 2 − 3x + 1 where the gradient is 2.
1 3
2 , 4
 
5
3x 4 − 4 x + 3 4 x
10. Given f (x ) = 3
evaluate f 1 (x ) when x=1
x
2 2  3
11. (a ) Differentiate y = 2 + 2 ln 2 − 2(cos 5 + 3 sin 2 ) − 3 7 4 
 e  
dy 
(b) Evaluate when  = , correct to 3 significant figures.
d 2
 −4 2 6 
(a )  3 +  + 10 sin 5 − 12 cos 2 + e 3 ;
 
(b )22.30 
ds 
12. Evaluate , correct to 3 significant figures, when t = given s = 3 sin t − 3 + t
dt 6
3.29 
Turning points, Maximum and Minimum or Stationary points

The gradient of the curve changes from positive between O and P to negative between P and
Q and then positive again between Q and R. At point P, the gradient is zero, and as x increases,
the gradient of the curve change from positive just before P to negative just after. Such a point
is called a maximum point. At point Q, the gradient is also zero and, as x increases, the gradient
of the curve changes from negative just before Q to positive just after. Such a point is called a
minimum point. Points such as P and Q are called turning points.

It is possible to have the same gradient on either side of the curve. Such a point is known as a
point of inflexion.
143
 144

Procedure for finding and distinguishing between stationary points.

= f ' (x )
dy
(i) Given y = f(x), determine
dx
dy
(ii) Let = 0 and solve for the values of x.
dx
(iii) Substitute the values of x into original equation, y=f(x) to determine the
corresponding y values. This gives the co-ordinates of the stationary points.
To determine the nature of the stationary points:
d2y
iv) Find and substitute into it the values of x found in ( ii)
dx 2

If the results
(a) positive-the point is a minimum one;

(b) negative- the point is a maximum one;

(c) zero-the point is a point of inflexion.

 145

Ex.1) Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve y = x 3 − 3x + 5

dy
= 3x 2 − 3
dx
dy
at max. or min. =0
dx

3x 2 − 3 = 0
3(x 2 − 1) = 0
x2 −1 = 0
x = +1
When, x=1

y = (1) − 3(1) + 5 + 3
3
(1,3)
When, x= -1
y = (− 1) − 3(− 1) + 5 = 7
3
(-1,7)

d2y
= 6x
dx 2

when x=1
d2y
= 6(1) = 6 (+ve min. at (1,3))
dx 2

when x=-1
d2y
= 6(− 1) = −6 (-ve max. at (-1,7)
dx 2

Ex. 2) Determine the turning points on the curve y = 4 sin x − 3 cos x in the range
X = 0 so x = 2  radians, and distinguish between them.

y = 4 sin x − 3 cos x
dy
= 4 cos x + 3 sin x
dx

dy
at max. or min. =0
dx

4 cos x + 3 sin x = 0
3 sin x = −4 cos x
4
tan x = −
3
4
x = tan −1   = 126 .7 = 2.214 rad .
3
or x = 306 .7 = 5.356 rad .
 146

Since tangent is negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrant.

When x = 126.7, y = 4 sin 126.7 − 3 cos 126.7 = 5

x = 306.7, y = 4 sin 306.7 − 3 cos 306.7 = −5
the co-ordinates of the T.P. are (2.214,5) and (5.356,-5)

d2y
= −4 sin x + 3 cos x
dx 2

when x = 126 .7

d2y
= −4 sin 126 .7 + cos 126 .7
dx 2
d2y
= −5 (-ve  its max.)
dx 2

when x = 306 .7

d2y
= −4 sin 306 .7 + 3 cos 306 .7
dx 2
=5 (+ve  its min. )

Ex.3) Determine the height and radius of a cylinder of volume 200 cm3 which has the
least surface area.

Let radius of the cylinder = r

Let height of the cylinder = h
Volume V= r 2 h
Surface area A= 2rh + 2r 2
 147

200 = r 2 h
200
h = 2
r
 200 
A= 2 r  2  + 2 r 2
 r 
A= 400 r −1 + 2r 2

dA
= −400 r − 2 + 4 r
dr
dA
At max. or min. =0
dr

0 = −400 r −2 + 4r

4r = 400 r −2

400
4 r =
r2
4r 3 = 400
400
r3 =
4
100
r3 =

100
r=3 = 3.169 cm

200
h = = 6.339 cm
(3.169 )
2

d 2A
2
= +800 r −3 + 4 
dr

when r = 3.169

d 2A 800
= + 4  = 37.8 (+ve its min. )
dr 2
(3.169 )3
The least surface area of a cylinder with volume of 200cm3 has r = 3.169 cm and h =
6.339cm.

Differentiation by Product Rule

If y = u v where u and v are functions of x:

 148

U= first and v = second

𝑑𝑦 dv du
= 𝑢. + v.
𝑑𝑥 dx dx

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 x differentiation of second + second x differentiation of first
𝑑𝑥

Ex.1) y = x 𝑒 3x

u=x v = e3x

du dv
=1 = 3𝑒 3𝑥
dx dx

𝑑𝑦
= x ( 3 𝑒 3x ) + 𝑒 3x . 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 3 x 𝑒 3x + 𝑒 3x
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 3x [3 x + 1]
𝑑𝑥

Ex.2) y = x 2 ln 𝑥

u = 𝑥2 v = ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 dv 1
= 2𝑥 =
dx dx x

𝑑𝑦 1
= x 2 . + (ln x). (2x)
𝑑𝑥 x

𝑑𝑦
= x + 2x ln 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
= x(1+ 2ln 𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
= x (1 + ln 𝑥 2 ).
𝑑𝑥

Ex.3) 𝑦 = 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑥 . ln 𝑥

u=x v = 𝑒𝑥 w = ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤 1
=1 = 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 149

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑢𝑣. + 𝑣𝑤. + 𝑢𝑤.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑥. 𝑒 𝑥 . + (𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥). 1 + (𝑥 ln 𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 [1 + ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥]
𝑑𝑥

Differentiation by Quotient Rule

𝑢
If 𝑦 = where u and v are functions of x, then
𝑣

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 v. − 𝑢.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= (𝑣)2
𝑑𝑥

u = top, v=bottom

𝑑𝑦 (𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚).𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝−(𝑡𝑜𝑝).𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

= (𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚)2
𝑑𝑥

𝑥
Ex.1) 𝑦 =
sin 𝑥

u=x v = sinx

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥).1−𝑥.𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−𝑥.𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥

3 tan 𝑝
Ex.2) 𝑦 =
𝑒 3𝑝

u = 3 tan p 𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑝
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 3 sec 2 𝑝 = 3 𝑒 3𝑝
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑣.𝑑𝑝−𝑢.𝑑𝑝
=
𝑑𝑝 𝑣2
 150

𝑑𝑦 𝑒 3𝑝 (3 sec2 𝑝)−3 tan 𝑝 (3𝑒 3𝑝 )

𝑑𝑝 (𝑒 3𝑝 )2

𝑑𝑦 3 sec2 𝑝−9 tan 𝑝

=
𝑑𝑝 𝑒 3𝑝

Differentiation by function of a function Rule (Chain Rule)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Ex.1) 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 2 + 1)

𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 1
𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢
𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦
= (cos 𝑢)(2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑥

2 +1
Ex.2) 𝑦 = 𝑒 3 𝑥

𝑢 = 3 𝑥2 + 1
𝑑𝑢
= 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑢 . 6x
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 +1
= 6x. 𝑒 3 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 151

IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
An implicit function is one in which a relationship between two variables x and y is given
without having y as an explicit or clearly defined as function of x.

If
y = 3x2 -7x +1, y is given as an explicit function of x,

whereas

y2 – 3yx = x2, y is not given explicitly as a function of x.

Example 1

Differentiate y2 +4x = 6x2,

Differentiate each term with respect to x,

d
dx
( )
y2 +
d
dy
d
( 4 x ) = 6 x2
dx
( )

dy
2y + 4 = 12 x
dx

dy
2y = 12 x − 4
dx
dy 12 x − 4
=
dx 2y

Example 2

dy
Determine in terms of x and y if:
dx

(a) y3 + 6 x = x2

(b) 3 y 2 + 2 y + xy = x 3

dy
(a) 3y2 + 6 = 2x
dx
dy
3y2 = 2x − 6
dx
 152

dy 2 x − 6
=
dx 3y2

dy dy 𝑑𝑦
(b) 6y +2 + (𝑥. + 𝑦. 1)) = 3 𝑥 2
dx dx 𝑑𝑥

dy dy dy
6y +2 +x + y = 3x2
dx dx dx

dy
( 6 y + 2 + x ) = 3x2 − y
dx

dy 3x2 − y
=
dx 6 y + 2 + x

Example 3

Determine the equation of (a) the tangent and (b) the normal to the curve
3 x 2 − xy − 2 y 2 + 12 = 0 at the point (2,3).

3 x 2 − xy − 2 y 2 + 12 = 0

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
6x -(𝑥. + 𝑦. 1) − 4𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

dy dy
6x − x − y − 4y =0
dx dx

dy dy
6x − y = x + 4y
dx dx

dy
6x − y = (x + 4y)
dx

dy 6 x − y
=
dx x + 4 y

at the point (2,3).

dy 6  2 - 3
Gradient =
dx 2 + 4  3

9
=
14
 153

Equation of the tangent at (2,3).

Using straight line equation: 𝑦 − 𝑦1=𝑚 (𝑥− 𝑥1 )

Where m is the gradient

9
y −3= ( x − 2)
14

14y – 42 =9x – 18

14y = 9x + 24

−1 14
Gradient of the normal = =−
9 9
14

14
Therefore, equation of the normal y − 3 = − ( x − 2)
9

9y = -14x + 55
Further Examples

Differentiate the following implicit functions:

(a) xey = x + 1

(b) sinx + siny =1

(c) sinx cosy =2

DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

If y = sin-1x

siny = x

dy
cos y = 1
dx

dy 1
=
dx cos y

Using Trigonometric Identities:

sin 2 y + cos 2 y = 1
 154

cos 2 y = 1- sin 2 y

cos y = 1 − sin 2 y

Therefore,

dy 1
=
dx 1 − sin 2 y

Also,

sin 2 y = x 2

dy 1
=
dx 1 − x2

Example 1

Differentiate:

y = sin -1 5 x

sin y = 5 x

dy
cos y = 5
dx

dy 5
=
dx cos y

cos y = 1 − sin 2 y

dy 5
=
dx 1- sin 2 y

but

sin y = 5 x

therefore
dy 5
=
1 − (5x )
dx 2
 155

dy 5
=
dx 1- 25 x 2

Example 2
If y = cos -1 x

cos y = x

dy
( - sin y ) = 1
dx

dy 1
=
dx - sin y

dy -1
=
dx sin y

sin 2 y + cos 2 y = 1

sin 2 y = 1- cos 2 y

sin y = 1 − cos 2 y

dy -1
=
dx sin y

−1
=
1 − cos 2 y

but

cos y = x

therefore

dy −1
=
dx 1 − x2

Example 3
Differentiate: y = cos -1 3 x

cos y = 3 x
 156

dy
( − sin y ) = 3
dx

dy −3
=
dx sin y

−3
=
1 − cos 2 y

−3
=
1 − ( 3x )
2

dy −3
=
dx 1 − 9 x2

Further Example

If y = tan-1 x

tan y = x

dy
sec 2 y = 1
dx

dy 1
=
dx sec 2 y

but
sec 2 y = 1 + tan 2 y

dy 1
=
dx 1 + tan 2 y
and
tan y = x

dy 1
Therefore, =
dx 1 + x 2
 157

Differentiation of a parametric functions

Cartersian equation of a line links the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the general point
(x,y) on the line. Sometimes a third term, t, is involved and to express x and y each as a function
of a third variable, t, the equations x = f (t ) and y = y (t ) are called parametric equations of the
line and t is a parameter.

Example 1

Find the cartersian equation of the following parametric functions

𝑥 = 2𝑡 − 1 , 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑡2

x +1
t=
2

2
 x +1
y = 1−  
 2 

x2 + 2 x + 1
y = 1−
4

4 y = 4 − x2 − 2 x − 1

4 y = 3 − x2 − 2 x

4 y = 3 − 2 x − x2
 158

Derivatives of the parametric equation

𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡)

dy
dy
= dt
dx dx
dt

Example 2

dy
Find of the followings:
dx

(a) x = 2t 3 , y = 4t 2 + 1

3
(b) x= , y = 1+ t2
t

Answers:

(a) x = 2t 3 , y = 4t 2 + 1

dx dy
= 6t 2 , = 8t
dt dt

dy
dy
= dt
dx dx
dt

𝑑𝑦 8𝑡 4
= =
𝑑𝑥 6 𝑡2 3𝑡

( )
1

x = 3t −1, y = 1 + t 2
2
(b)

𝑑𝑥 −3
= −3 𝑡 −2 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡2

−1
𝑑𝑦 1
= (1 + 𝑡 2 ) 2 (2𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2

dy t
=
( )
1
dt 2
1+ t2
 159

𝑡
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 (1+ 𝑡2 )2
= 𝑑𝑥 = −3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 (𝑡2 )

𝑑𝑦 𝑡3
=
𝑑𝑥 3 √1+𝑡 2
 160

INTEGRATION
Integration Is the reverse process of Differentiation.

dy
If = xn
dx
dy = x n dx
y =  x n dx
where  is a sign stands for Integral

n
y =  x dx
x n +1
y= +c
n +1

Where c is an arbitrary constant.

i) Increase the power of x by 1, i.e. the power of xn is raised to xn+1

ii) The new power of x, is divided by n+1

x n +1
i.e.
n +1

The same rule is also applied for all value of n (except n = -1), (i.e. fractions and decimal
numbers).
Integration is a process used to calculate the value of area’s and volumes of different shapes.

Ex. 1) y =  xdx
x 1+1
+c
1+1
x2
y= +c
2
Ex. 2) y =  x 2 dx
x3
= +c
3
Ex. 3) y =  x dx
1

y =  x 2 dx
3

x2
y= +c
3
2
 161

2 x2
y= +c
3

1
Ex. 4) y= dx
x2
=  x −2 dx
x −1 1
= +c=− +c
−1 x

Ex. 5) y =  3x 2 dx
3x 3
= +c
3
y = x3 + c

Ex. 6) y =  3x 5 dx
3x 6
= +c
6
x6
= +c
2

Ex. 7) y = 1dx
y = x+c

Ex. 8) y =  2.dx
y = 2x + c

Finding the value of the arbitrary constant with given value of the variables

Ex.) Determine the value of the arbitrary constant of y =  (x 2 − 2 x + 3)dx , at

x=2 when y=3.

( )
y =  x 2 − 2 x + 3 dx
x 3 2x 2
y= − + 3x + c
3 2
x3
y= − x 2 + 3x + c
3

when x = 2, y = 3
23
3= − (2 ) + 3  2 + c
2

3
 162

8
3= −4+6+c
3
3 = 2.667 + 2 + c
3 − 4.667 = c
c = −1.667

x3
 y= − x 2 + 3x − 1.667
3

Integration of Trigonometric Functions

y =  sin axdx
− cos ax
y= +c
a

Ex. 1) y =  sin xdx

y = − cos x + c

Ex. 2) y =  sin 2 xdx

− cos 2 x
y= +c
2

3
Ex. 3) y =  sin xdx
2

3
− cos x
y= 2 +c
3
2

3
2 cos x
=− 2 +c
3

Ex. 4) y=  4 sin 5d

− 4 cos 5
y= +c
5
 163

y =  cos axdx
sin ax
y= +c
a

Ex. 1) y =  cos xdx

y = sin x + c

Ex. 2) y =  cos 2 xdx

sin 2 x
y= +c
2

Ex. 3) y =  3 cos 5tdt

3 sin 5t
= +c
5

Integration of Exponential Function

y =  e x dx
e ax
y= +c
a

Ex.1) y =  e x dx
y = ex + c

Ex. 2) y =  e 2 x dx
e 2x
y= +c
2

1
Ex. 3) y= dx
e 3x
y =  e −3 x dx
e −3
y= +c
−3
1
= − 3x + c
3e
 164

Integration of
1
 x dx = log x + c

Where n = - 1

3
Ex.) y=  x dx
y = 3 log x + c

Further Examples

Integrate the following functions with respect to their variables:

 1
a) y =   sin 3 + cos 2 − d
 
cos 3 sin 2
y=− + − log  + c
3 2

 1 1 
b) y =  − 3 sin 5 t + dt
 e 4t 
 t
 − 4t −1

 e − 3 sin 5 t + t 2 dt
 
 
1
−4 t
e 3 cos 5 t t 2
+ + +c
−4 5 1
2
1
1 3 cos 5t
y = − 4t + + 2t 2 + c
4e 5
 165

Definite Integrals
Definite Integrals are integrals with limits.

[𝑥]𝑏𝑎 = b - a

2
Ex.1) ∫0 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥

12
𝑥2 22 02
[ ] = [ ]− [ ]=2
2 0 2 2

𝜋=1800 3
Ex.2) ∫0 cos 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜃
2

3 𝜋
[− sin 𝜃]
2 0

3 3
[− sin 𝜋] − [− sin 0] = 0
2 2

When you use π make sure your calculator is in radians mode.

1
Ex.3) ∫0 3𝑒 3𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡

[𝑒 3𝑡 ]10 = [𝑒 3x1 ] − [𝑒 3x0 ] = 19.09

1
Ex.4) ∫0 5 cos 3𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
Use radians mode in your calculator for the limits.

5 sin 3𝑥 1 5 sin 3x1 5 sin 3x0

[ ] = [ ]− [ ] = 0.2352
3 0 3 3
 166

Infinite Series
Exponential Series

x2 x3
ex = 1+ x + + + ...
2! 3!

This is an example of an infinite series. For an infinite series to be any use, the magnitude of
the terms must get smaller and smaller as we take more and more of them. This property is
called convergence. Some infinite series only converge for certain values of x. However the
exponential series will converge for any value of x, sooner or later the terms will begin to get
smaller and smaller.

1 (− x )2 (− x )3 
sinh x =
1 x
( )
e − e − x = 1 + x +
x2 x3
+ + ...1 − (− x ) − − + ... 
2 2 2! 3! 2! 3! 

1  x3   x5  
=  2 x + 2  + 2  + ... 
     
2  3!   5!  

x3 x5
=x+ + + ...
3! 5!

Similarly

x2 x4
cosh x = 1 + + + ...
2! 4!

Both sinh x and cosh x converge for all values of x.

Example

Solve the equation

3 cosh x + 2 sinh x = 4

Substitute for the cosh x and sinhx in the equation, we get;

1
( 
)
1
( 
3 e x + e − x  + 2 e x − e − x  = 4 )
2  2 

3 x
( ) (
e + e −x + e x − e −x = 4 )
2
 167

3 x 3 −x
e + e + e x − e −x = 4
2 2

2.5e x + 0.5e − x − 4 = 0

Multiply both sides by ex, we get

2.5(e x ) − 4e x + 0.5 = 0
2

Let y = ex and solving for a quadratic equation

2 .5 y 2 − 4 y + 0 .5 = 0 for a=2,5, b = - 4, c = 0.5

− b  b 2 − 4ac
y=
2a

− (− 4 )  (− 4 )2 − 4(2.5)(0.5)
=
2(2.5 )

4  16 − 5
=
5

4  3.316625
=
5

Therefore, y = 1.463325 or y = 0.13668

 e x = 1.463325 and ln e x = ln 1.463325 , therefore x=0.381 or

e x = 0.13668 and ln e x = ln 0.133668 , therefore x = -1.9901
 168

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

dy
y = sinh ax , = a cosh ax
dx

dy
y = cosh ax , = a sinh ax
dx

Integral of Hyperbolic Functions

cosh ax
 sinh axdx =
a
+c

sinh ax
 cosh axdx =
a
+c

1
 tanh axdx =
a
ln cosh ax + c

Integration by substitution

Ex.1)  cos(3x + 7 )dx

Solution

Let u = 3x + 7

𝑑𝑢
=3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 =
3

𝑑𝑢
∫ cos 𝑢 . 3
1
3
∫ cos 𝑢 . 𝑑𝑢

1
= sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
3

1
= sin(3 𝑥 + 7) + 𝐶
3
 169

𝜋
Ex.2) ∫0 24 sin5 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
6

Solution

Let u = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑢
= cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
∫0 24 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑢6 6 sin6 𝜃 6
= 24 [ ] = 24[ ]
6 0 6 0
=0
𝜋 6
(sin 6 ) (sin 0)6 1
= 24 {[ ]− [ ]} = 24
6 6 384

1
=
16

Partial Fracions
Consider a first function such as :

2 3
f(x)  +
( x + 1) ( x − 1)

f(x) may be expressed as a single fraction with a common denominator, thus

2 3
f(x)  +
( x + 1) ( x − 1)

2 ( x − 1) + 3 ( x + 1)

( x + 1) ( x − 1)

2 x − 2 + 3x + 3

( x + 1) ( x − 1)

5x + 1
f(x)  −−−−−−−
( x + 1) ( x − 1)
 170

5x + 1
This process can be reversed, that is to take the function in  as f(x) =
( x + 1) ( x − 1)

and express it as the sum of two (or in some cases more) separated fractions. This process
called expressing f(x) in PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

5x + 1 A B
Hence f(x) =  +
( x + 1) ( x − 1) ( x + 1) ( x − 1)

There are two types of fractions

1) Proper Fractions : are the fractions where the numerator power is less than
denominators power.

2 4 x x2
Example: , , and , etc.
3 5 ( x 2 − 1) x3 −1

2) Improper Fractions: are the fractions where the numerator power is greater than the
denominator power.

3 5 x2 x3
Example: , , and , etc
2 4 x −1 x2 −1

TYPE 1

f (x) A B C
 + +
( x + a ) ( x + b ) ( x + c) ( x + a ) ( x + b ) ( x + c)

x+3
Example : Express in partial fractions
( x − 2) ( x + 4)

This is a proper fraction

x +3 A B
= +
( x − 2) ( x + 4) ( x − 2) x + 4

Use Cover Up Rule to find the value of A & B.

To find A : x – 2 = 0 = x = 2.

Substitute x = 2 on the left hand side by covering (x-2)

2+3
=A
( 2 + 4)
 171

5
A=
6

To find B: x + 4 = 0 = x = -4

− 4+3
=B
( −4 − 2)

−1 1
B = =
−6 6

5 1
x +3 6 6 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏
 = + = {(𝒙−𝟐) − }
( x − 2) ( x + 4) ( x − 2) ( x + 4) 𝟔 (𝒙+𝟒)

TYPE 2

f (x) A B C
= + +
(x + a ) 3
(x + a ) (x + a ) 2
(x + a ) 3

2t −1
Example: Express in partial fraction
( t + 1) 2

2t −1 A B
= +
( t + 1) 2
( t + 1) ( t + 1) 2

cover up can not be applied in this example

2t −1 A ( t + 1) + B
 
( t + 1) 2
( t + 1) 2

As the denominators are obviously identical, the numerators must be the same.
2t – 1 = A (t +1) + B

2t – 1 = At + A + B

Equating coeff of t

2=A

Equating coefficient of constants

-1 = A + B

-1 = 2 + B
 172

B = -1 -2

B = -3

2t −1 2 3
= −
( t + 1) 2
( t + 1) ( t + 1) 2

TYPE 3

f (x) Ax + B C
= +
(ax + bx + c) ( x + d )
2
ax + bx + c
2
x+d

4x − 3
Example: Express in partial fractions
( x + 2) (3x 2 − 2 x + 1)

4x − 3 Ax + B C
= +
(3x − 2 x + 1) ( x + 2)
2
(3x − 2 x + 1)
2
( x + 2)

Cover Up Rule only applied to find C

let x +2 = 0 = x = -2

4(−2)−3
=𝐶
3(−2)2 −2(−2)+1

− 11 − 11
= C,  C =
12 + 4 + 1 17

4x − 3 ( Ax + B) ( x + 2) + C (3x 2 − 2 x + 1)
=
(3x 2 − 2 x + 1) ( x + 2) (3x 2 − 2 x + 1) ( x + 2)

As the denominators are obviously identical, the numerators must be the same.

4x – 3 = (Ax + B) (x + 2) +C (3x2 – 2x +1)

4x – 3 = Ax2 + 2Ax + Bx + 2B + 3Cx2 – 2Cx + C

Equating coefficient of x2

0 = A + 3C

11
but C = −
17
 173

11
0=A+3  −
17

33
A=
17

Equating coefficient of x:

4 = 2A + B – 2C

33 11
4=2  + B − 2 −
17 17

66 22
4= + +B
17 17

88
4= +B
17

88
B=4 −
17

− 20
B=
17

33 20
x− − 11
4x − 3 17 17 17
 = +
(3x − 2 x + 1) ( x + 2)
2
(3x − 2 x + 1)
2
( x + 2)

33 x − 20 11
= −
17 (3x − 2 x + 1)
2
17 ( x + 2)

TYPE 4

x2 −2
Example: Express in partial fractions.
( x + 3) ( x − 1)

This fraction is an improper fraction because the power of the numerator is not less than the
power of the denominator.
x2 −2 x2 − 2
= 2
( x + 3) ( x − 1) x + 2x − 3

We must carry out long division.

 174

1
x 2 + 2x − 3 x 2 −2
x + 2x − 3
2

− 2x +1

x2 −2 − 2x + 1
 =1 +
( x + 3) ( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 x − 3)

1− 2 x
=1 +
( x + 3)( x − 1)

1 − 2x
Now express in partial fractions
( x + 3)( x − 1)

1 − 2x A B
= +
( x + 3)( x − 1) ( x + 3) ( x − 1)

To find A : let x + 3 = 0 = x = -3

1−2(−3)
(−3−1)
=𝐴

1+ 6
=A
−4

7
A= −
4

To find B : let x − 1 = 0 = x = 1

1−2(1)
=B
(1+3)

−1
= B
4

x2 − 2 7 1
 =1 − −
( x + 3)( x − 1) 4( x + 3) 4( x − 1)
 175

FURTHER EXAMPLES ON PARTIAL FRACTIONS

f (x) A B C
TYPE 1  + +
( x + a )( x + b )( x + c) x+a x+b x+c

f (x) A B C
TYPE 2  + +
(x + a ) 3 x+a (x + a) 2
(x + a ) 3

f (x) Ax + B C
TYPE 3  2 +
(ax + bx + c)( bc + d ) ax + bx + c
2
x+d

NOTE: THE NUMERATOR MUST BE OF A LESS DEGREE OF X THAN THE

DENOMINATOR
USE PARTIAL FRACTIONS FOR THE FOLLOWING: -

12  2 2 
1) −
( x + 3)( x − 3)  x − 3 x + 3 


x  2 1 
2)  − 
( x − 1)( x − 2)  ( x − 2) ( x − 1) 

5x − 7  4 3 
3)  − 
( x + 1)( 2 x − 1)  ( x + 1) ( 2 x − 1) 

3  1 1 
4)  − 
( x − 1)( x + 2)  ( x − 1) ( x + 2) 

3x − 1  − 1 7 
5)  + 
x ( x + 2)  2 x 2( x + 2) 

x 2 + 3x  2 10 9 
6)  − + 
( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3)  ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) 

1 1 x 
7)  − 
x ( x + 4)  4 x
2
4 ( x + 4) 
2

2t − 1  2 3 
8)  − 
( t + 1) 2  ( t + 1) ( t + 1) 2 

1  1 1 1 
9)  2− + 
x ( x + 2)  2 x
2
4 x 4( x + 2) 
 176

7 x − 2x 2  1 2 1 
10)  + − 
( 2 − x ) (1 + x )  ( 2 − x ) ( 2 − x )
2 2
(1 + x ) 

12 − 2 x − 5x 2  2 x + 5 3 
11)  2 − 
( x + x + 1)(3 − x )  ( x + x + 1) (3 − x ) 
2

x 2 − x − 13  2 x + 3 1 
12)  2 − 
( x + 7)( x − 2)  ( x + 7) ( x − 2) 
2

2x  1 x +1 
13)  + 2 
( x − 1)( x + 1)  ( x − 1) ( x + 1) 
2

x 2 − 3x − 1  1 1 
14)  − 2 
( x + 1)(3x + 2)  (3x + 2) ( x + 1) 
2

4x − 3  − 11 33x − 20 
15)  + 
( x + 2)(3x − 2 x + 1) 17 ( x + 2) 17 (3x − 2 x + 1) 
2 2

x 2 − x − 14  2 3 
16) 1 − + 
x − 2 x − 3  ( x − 3) ( x + 1) 
2

Integration Using Partial Fractions

1
Ex. 1) Express in partial fractions and hence integrate
x (x + 1)

1 A B
= +
x (x + 1) x (x + 1)
using cover up rule

let x = 0 to find A:
1
=A
cov er (0 + 1)

1
A= =1
1

let x + 1 = 0  x = −1 to find B

1
=B
(− 1)(cov er )
 177

1
B = = −1
−1

1 1 (− 1) 1 1
= + = −
x (x + 1) x (x + 1) x (x + 1)

1 1
  x  (x + 1)dx = nx − n (x + 1) + nk
  −

 x 
= n   + nk
 x + 1

Ex. 2) Integrate:

x +1
 (x 2
− 3x + 2 )
dx

x +1 x +1
=
x − 3x + 2 (x − 2 )(x − 1)
2

put x = 1 to find A

2
=A
−1

A = -2

put x=2 to find B

3
=B
1

B = 3

 −2 3 
  (x − 1) + (x − 2)dx

1 1
− 2 dx + 3 dx
(x − 1) (x − 2 )

− 2n (x − 1) + 3n (x − 2 ) + nk

n (x − 1) + n (x − 2) + nk
−2 3
 178

1
+ n (x − 2 ) + nk
3
n
(x − 1) 2

(x − 2 )3
n + nk
(x − 1)2
Ex. 3) Integrate:

x2
 (x − 2 ) x 2 + 1 dx
( )
x2 A Bx + C
= + 2
( )
(x − 2 ) x + 1 (x − 2 ) x + 1
2
( )

4 1 2
A= ,B = ,C =
5 5 5

 4 1 2
 5 x+ 
  (x − 2 ) + x 2 + 1  dx
5 5
 (  )
 

4 1 1 x 2 1

5 (x − 2 )
dx +  2
5 x +1
dx +  2 dx
5 x +1 ( )
4
 n (x − 2 ) +
1 2
( )
n x 2 + 1 + tan −1 (x ) + C
5 10 5

Integration usingTrigonometric substitutions

Double angle formulae

1
cos 2 x = (1 + cos 2 x )
2

1
sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x )
2

1
sin A cos B = sin (A + B ) + sin (A − B )
2
 179

cos A sin B =
1
sin (A + B ) − sin (A − B )
2

cos A cos B =
1
cos (A + B ) + cos (A − B )
2

1
sin A sin B = cos (A + B ) − cos (A − B )
2

Examples


Ex. 1)
0  4
4 cos 4 d

4
0  4
cos 4 d

 (cos  ) d
2 2
4
4
0

 2
1 
  2 (1 + cos 2 ) d
4
4
0
 
=0
1 𝜋 2 1 2
= 4{(2 [1 + cos 2 ( 4 )]) − (2 [1 + cos 2(0)]) } = -4

 sin d
5
Ex.2)

 sin  sin d

4

 (1 − cos  )
2
2
sin d

Let u = cos 

− du = sin d

(
−  1− u2 ) 2
− du

(
−  1 − 2u 2 + u 4 du )
 180

 (2u )
− 1 − u 4 du
2

2 3 u5
u −u− +c
3 5

2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − ( )+𝐶
3 5

Integration by product of sines and cosines

Ex. 1)  sin 3t cos 2tdt

1
sin (3t + 2 t ) + sin (3t − 2 t )dt
2

1
(sin 5 t + sin t )dt
2

1  − cos 5 t 
 − cos t  + c
2 5 

1
Ex. 2)  3 cos 5 x sin 2 xdx
1 1
sin (5x + 2 ) − sin (5x − 2 x )dx
32

1
(sin 7 x − sin 3x )dx
6

1  − cos 7 x cos 3x 
+ +c
6  7 3 


1
Ex. 3) Evaluate 2 cos 6 cos d correct to 4d.p.
0

2 
1 1
cos (6 +  ) + cos (6 −  )d
0 2

 cos 7 + cos 5d

1
0

 sin 7 sin 5 
1

 7 + 5 
  0
 181

 sin 7 sin 5   sin 0 sin 0 

 7 + 5 − 7 + 5  Use radians mode in your calculator.
   

0.0938 − 0.19178 
= −0.0979

Integration by sin substitution

Ex.1) ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

let x = sin 

dx
= cos 
d

dx = cos d

 1 − sin 2  cos d

 cos 2  cos d

 cos  cos d

 cos d
2

1
(1 + cos 2 )d
2

1 sin 2  a2 x x
 +  +c= sin −1 + a2 − x2 + c
2 2  2 a 2

 16 − x 2 dx
4
Ex.2 )
0
 182

Standard Integrals

1
∫ . 𝑑𝑥
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2

𝑥
= sin−1 𝑎 + 𝐶

1

3
Ex.1) dx
0 9 − x2

3
 −1 x 
sin 3 
  0

 3   −1 0
= sin −1 − sin
 3   3 


=
2

1
a + x2
dx
2

1 x
= tan −1 + c
a a

1 1 x
Ex. 2) 4+x 2
dx =
2
tan −1 + c
2

 
 
1 1 1 3 x 
 3 + 2x 2  3 2 2 2
−1
dx = = tan +c
3
2 + x   
2   2
 183

Integration by parts

 udv = uv −  vdu
This method is used when we have a product of simple functions such as

 xe dx ,  t sin t ,  e  cos d,  xnxdx

x

In this method one of the functions is differentiated and the other is integrated.

The following rules are applied in this method:

3 3
If the product to be integrated contains an algebraic term such as ( t , x, x or 3θ ) then
this term is chosen as u (to be differentiated). The one exception to this rule is when a ‘  nx ’
term is involved, then  nx will be differentiated.

Ex. 1)  x cos xdx

I =  x cos xdx

u=x dv = cos dx

du
=1 V =  cos xdx
dx

du = dx V = sin x

I = UV −  Vdu

I = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥

I = x sin x + cos x + c

Ex. 2) I =  3te 2 t dt

U = 3t

du
=3 dv = e 2 t dt
dt
v =  e 2 t dt
 184

e 2t
du = 3dt v=
2

I = UV −  v.du

e 2t e 2t
I = 3t − 3dt
2 2

3 2t 3 2t
= te −  e dt
2 2

3 2t 3 2t
= te − e + c
2 4


Ex. 3) Evaluate
0  2
2 sin d

u = 2 v =  sin d

du = 2d v = − cos 

 

I = 2(− cos  ) − 2
0  (− cos  )2d
2
0

 

= − 2 cos  + 2
0  2
2 cos d
0

    
=  − 2  cos  − (− 2  (0 ) cos 0 ) + 2 sin 0 2
 2 2 


= 2 sin − 2 sin 0 = 2
2

Ex. 4)  xnxdx
u = nx dv = xdx

1
du = dx V =  xdx
x

x2
V=
2
 185

I = uv −  vdu

𝑥2 𝑥2 1
I = [(ln 𝑥) 2 ] − ∫ ( 2 ) (𝑥) dx

 x2  1
=  nx  _  xdx
 2  2

x2 x2
= nx − +c
2 4

Ex. 5) I = ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(1) ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let u = ln 𝑥 v = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 1
= v=𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

I = uv - ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

1
I = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

I = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
I= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
 186

ax
Integration of  e cos b x dx
When integrating a product of an exponential and cosine or sine function, it is not important
which part is made equal to u. (i.e. to be differentiated)

Ex.) I =  e t sin t dt

u = et V =  sin tdt

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 V = − cos t

I = uv −  vdu

I = e t (− cost ) +  e t costdt

u = et v = ∫ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

du = e t dt v = sin t

I = (e t cost ) + e t sint −  e t sintd t

 e sintdt = I
t
but

I = −e t cost + e t sint − I
2I = − e t cos t + e t sint

I=
1

− e t cost + e t sint 
2
1 t
= e − cost + sint 
2
 187

CHAPTER 6:

INTRODUCTION TO ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

First Order Differential Equations

Method 1: By direct integration
𝑑𝑦
If the equation can be arranged in the form = 𝑓(𝑥), then the equation can be
𝑑𝑥

solved by simple integration.

Example 1:
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides,
𝑦 = ∫(3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 𝐶
Ie 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 𝐶

Have a go:
𝑑𝑦
1. Solve 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑥 3 + 4
𝑑𝑦
2. Find the particular solution of the equation 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4, given that y = 3 when x

=0

Method 2: By separating the variables

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)
Equations of the form = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑦) and of the form = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(which are products and quotients, respectively, of functions of x or of y) can

only be solved by separating the variables.
Example 1:
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
Solve 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦+1
𝑑𝑦
This can be written as (𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥

Rearranging and integrating both sides gives:

∫(𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

 188

𝑦2
…and therefore + 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝐶
2

Example 2:
𝑑𝑦
Solve = (1 + 𝑥)(1 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

Rearranging and integrating both sides gives

1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(1 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑦
𝑥2
ln(1 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + + 𝐶
2
Example 3:
𝑑𝑦 1+𝑦
Solve =
𝑑𝑥 2+𝑥
Rearranging and integrating, gives:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑦 2+𝑥
Therefore, ln(1 + 𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛(2 + 𝑥) + 𝐶.
Presenting the constant C as a logarithm of another constant A, we have
ln(1 + 𝑦) = ln(2 + 𝑥) + 𝑙𝑛𝐴 = 𝑙𝑛𝐴(2 + 𝑥)
∴ 1 + 𝑦 = 𝐴(2 + 𝑥)
Example 4:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 2 +𝑥𝑦 2
Solve =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑦−𝑥 2

Could be written as:

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 2 (1 + 𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 1)
Rearranging and adding the integral signs:
𝑦−1 1+𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑦2 𝑥2
and completing the solution:
1 1
∫ { − 𝑦 −2 } 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ {𝑥 −2 + } 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
𝑙𝑛𝑦 + 𝑦 −1 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 −1 + 𝐶
1 1
𝑙𝑛𝑦 + = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 − + 𝐶
𝑦 𝑥
 189

Exercise 1:
Solve the following first ODEs:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(a) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 [𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥]
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
(b) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑦 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) [𝑙𝑛(𝑦 + 2) = + 𝑥 + 𝐶]
2
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 2 −1
(c) = [𝑦 − 1 = 𝐴𝑥 2 (𝑦 + 1)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 +1 𝑦3 𝑦2 𝑥2
(d) 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [3 + = + 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶]
𝑦+1 2 2
𝑑𝑦
(e) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 [𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑦
(f) 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (4 + 𝑦 2 )𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 [𝑦 2 = 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 − 4]
𝑑𝑦
(g) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 + 3 [ln(𝑦 + 3) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶]
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
(h) = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 [ln 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 𝐶]
𝑑𝑥 2

Method 3: Homogeneous equations – by substituting y = vx

Example 1:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+3𝑦
Solve =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥
This may look simple but will be difficult to separate the “x-factors” and “y-factors”
into the LHS and RHS.
Therefore, we use the substitution y = vx, where v is a function of x.

Solve the following first ODEs:

𝑑𝑦
(a) (𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑦

𝑑𝑦
(b) 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

𝑑𝑦
(c) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2
 190

Series Expansions

Topics to cover:
Arithmetic, geometric and binomial series. Taylor and McLaurin series, limiting
values, convergence, Application to engineering problems.

BINOMIAL EXPANSION OR BINOMIAL THEOREM

Expanding the following

(a + x ) 1 = a+x

(a + x )2 = a 2 + 2ax + x 2

(a + x )3 = a 3 + 3a 2 x + 3ax 2 + x 3
As we notice the higher the power of the bracket, the more complicated is the
Expansion.

The procedures used are as follows

n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 3)(n − 2 ) 3 n (n − 1)(n − 2 )(n − 3)

(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x +
2! 3! 4!

+…..
2! = 2x1, 3! = 3x2x1

If we consider (a + x ) where
2

(a + x )2 = a 2 1 + x 
 a

x
n = 2 and x =
a
Using the formula above

  x  2(2 − 1)  x  
2

= a 1 + 2  +
2
  
 a 21  a  

  2x  2  1 x 2 
= a 1 +   +
2
2 
  a  2 1 d 
 191

= a 2 + 2ax + x 2

Similar method can be used for any expansion method

4
 x
(a + x )4
= a 1 + 
4

 a

 x
4
  x  4  3  x 
2 2
4  3  2  x  4  3  2  3  x  
3 4

a 1 +  = a 1 + 4  +
4 4
  +   +   
 a  a 2 !  a  3!  a  4 !  a  

 4x 6x 2 4x 3 x 4 
= a 1 +
4
+ 2 + 3 + 4
 a a a a 

= a 4 + 4a 3 x + 6a 2 x 2 + 4ax 3 + x 4

or we may use Pascal’s Triangle for Expansion. Extracting the coefficients of a and
x we obtain Pascal’s Triangle.

(1 + x )0 1
(1 + x )1 1 1
(1 + x )2 1 2 1
(1 + x )3 1 3 3 1
(1 + x )4 1 4 6 4 1
(1 + x )5 1 5 10 10 5 1
(1 + x )6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(1 + x )7
(1 + x )8

Therefore, Pascal’s Triangle may be used to expand the expression of the type
(a + x )n .
Example

Use Binomial Expansion to expand the following expressions.

Ex.1) (2 + 3x )
5
 192

1
Ex.2) as for as the term in x3
1− x

==============================================

1)
(2 + 3x ) = 2 1 + 3x 
5 5

 2
3x
n = 5, x =
2

n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1)(n − 2 ) 3
using (1 + x ) = 1 + nx + x + x + ....
n

21 31
5
 3x 
2 5 1 + 
 2 

  3 x  5 x4  3 x 
2 2 3
5  4 2  3  3 x  5  4  3  2  3 x 
4
5  4  3  2  1  3 x  
5

2 5 1 + 5  +   +   +   +   
  2  2 !  2  3!  2  4 !  2  5 !  2  
 15 x  9x 2   27 x 3   81x 4  243 x 5 
2 5 1 + + 10  + 10  + 5  + 
 2  4   8   16  32 

2 5 + 240 x + 720 x 2 + 1080 x 3 + 810 x 4 + 243x 5

1
= (1 − x )
−1
2)
(1 − x )
(1 − x )−1 = 1 + (− 1)(− x ) + (− 1)(1− 2 ) (− x )2 + (− 1)(− 12 )(− 3) (− x )3
2 3
= 1+ x + x + x 2 3

A binomial expression is one with two terms connected by a plus or a minus sign,
examples are: (𝑝 + 𝑞), (𝑎 + 𝑥)2, (2𝑥 + 𝑦)3
Expanding (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 for integer values of n say from 0 to 6:
 193

The powers of ‘𝑎’ decrease and the powers of ‘𝑥’ increase moving from left to right.
Therefore,
(𝑎 + 𝑥)7 = 𝑎7 + 7𝑎6 𝑥 + 21𝑎5 𝑥 2 + 35𝑎4 𝑥 3 + 35𝑎3 𝑥 4 + 21𝑎2 𝑥 5 + 7𝑎𝑥 6 + 𝑥 7

The binomial series or binomial theorem is a formula for raising a binomial

expression to any power without lengthy multiplication. The general binomial
expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 is given by:
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 𝑛−3 3
(𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + ...
2! 3!
Suppose we are required to find the the r’th term, then (r −1) is very evident. It may
therefore be reasoned that the r’th term of the expansion (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 is:
𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝟐). . . 𝒕𝒐 (𝒓 − 𝟏) 𝒏−(𝒓−𝟏) 𝒓−𝟏
𝒂 𝒙
(𝒓 − 𝟏)!

Example 1: Use the binomial series to determine the expansion of (2 + 𝑥)7 .

 194

Solution: Binomial expansion is given by:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 𝑛−3 3
(𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + ...
2! 3!
 195

Example 2: Without fully expanding (3 + 𝑥)7 , determine the fifth term.

Solution: The rth term of the expression (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 is given by:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2). . . 𝑡𝑜 (𝑟 − 1) 𝑛−(𝑟−1) 𝑟−1
𝑎 𝑥
(𝑟 − 1)!

1
Example 3: Find the middle term of (2𝑝 − 2𝑞)10 .

Solution: In the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑥)10 there are 10+1, i.e. 11 terms. Hence the
middle term is the sixth. Using the general expression for the r’th term:
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2). . . 𝑡𝑜 (𝑟−1) 𝑛−(𝑟−1) 𝑟−1
(𝑟−1)!
𝑎 𝑥
1
where 𝑎 = 2𝑝, 𝑥 = − 2𝑞 , 𝑛 = 10, and 𝑟 − 1 = 5 gives:

Exercises
1. Use the binomial theorem to expand (𝑎 + 2𝑥)4
[𝑎4 + 8𝑎3 𝑥 + 24𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 32𝑎𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 4 ]

2. Use the binomial theorem to expand (2 − 𝑥)6

[64 − 192𝑥 + 240𝑥 2 − 160𝑥 3 + 60𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6 ]
 196

3. Expand (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)4 [16𝑥 4 − 96𝑥 3 𝑦 + 216𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 216𝑥𝑦 3 + 81𝑦 4 ]

2 5
4. Determine the expansion of (2𝑥 + 𝑥)
320 160 32
[32𝑥 5 + 160𝑥 3 + 320𝑥 + + + 𝑥5]
𝑥 𝑥3

5. Expand (𝑝 + 2𝑞)11 as far as the fifth term

[𝑝11 + 22𝑝10 𝑞 + 220𝑝9 𝑞 2 + 1320𝑝8 𝑞 3 + 5280𝑝7 𝑞 4 ]
197
198
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 213

Tutorials
 214

Tutorial No.1 on Indices, Inequalities, Modular and Fractions

1. Simplify the following expressions:

6
(4x)3 (y√x)
(i) 2 , (ii) ,
(6√y) x3

1 1 −3⁄4
(iii) , (iv) (3 ) ,
√x−0.3 √x4

2 3
3√a 2√x x√z
(v) 2
, (vi) ( yz ) × (y ) ,
a ×√a

4 3
( √n) t√x (2z)2
(vii) , (viii) × .
√n z2 √xt

2. Simplify each of the following inequalities:

(a) 2x ≤ 6 ,

(b) 2x + 1 < 6 ,

(c) 5x − 3 ≤ 11 − 2x ,

(d) −5 ≤ 2x − 3 ≤ 7 ,

(e) −9 ≤ 3 − 2x ≤ 1 ,

(f) 4≤2−x<7 ,

(g) 1 < 7𝑥 + 15 < 36 .

3. Determine the solution sets of the following modular inequalities:

(a) |𝑥 − 2| ≤ 5 ,

(b) |2𝑥 − 1| ≤ 5 ,

(c) |2𝑥 − 5| > 7| ,

(d) |4𝑥 − 1| < 15 ,

(e) |5𝑥 − 1| ≥ 4 ,

(f) |3𝑥 − 1| > 5 .

 215

4. Express as a single fraction:

𝑥 2𝑥
(a) + ,
4 3

5 1
(b) + ,
2𝑥+3 4

1 3 1
(c) + (𝑥+4)2 + ,
2(𝑥+4) 2

3 1 3
(d)
(2𝑥−8)
+ (𝑥−4) + .
2𝑥

5. Divide:

(a) 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 − 1) ,

(b) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 3 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3) ,

(c) 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 2 + 3) ,

(d) 2𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 − 11𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 + 5 𝑏𝑦 (2𝑥 + 5) .

6. Solve the following equations by factorisation:

(a) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0 ,

(b) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 24 ,

(c) 𝑥 2 + 36 = 13𝑥 ,

(d) 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) − 2(𝑥 + 5) = 0 ,

𝑥(2𝑥−1)
(e) = 12 ,
(𝑥+2)

5𝑥−3
(f) 3𝑥 − 5 = .
𝑥

(g) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0 ,

(h) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 24 ,

(i) 𝑥 2 + 36 = 13𝑥 ,

7. Solve the following equations by completing the square method:

(a) 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 1 = 0 ,
 216

(b) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 = 0 ,

(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ,

(d) 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 1 = 0 ,

(e) 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 1 = 0 .

8. Solve the following equations by using the formula, giving your answer correct to three decimal
places:

(a) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 ,

(b) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 4 = 0 ,

(c) 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 5 = 0 ,

(d) 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 ,

(e) 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0 .
 217

Tutorial No. 2 Practical questions on Quadratic equations

1. The height, S metres of a mass thrown vertically upward at time, t seconds is given by

𝑆 = 40𝑡 − 13𝑡 2 .

Determine the time taken for the mass to reach a height of 25 metres:

(a) on the ascent,

(b) on the descent.

[Answer: 0.872 sec; 2.205 sec]

2. The total surface area of a closed cylindrical can is 125 cm2. Calculate the radius of the cylinder if
its height is 5.4 cm.

[Answer: 2.514cm]

3. The area of a triangle is 23.1 cm2 and its perpendicular height is 5.3 cm more than its base length.
Determine the length of the base correct to three decimal places.

[Answer: 4.645 cm]

4. A rectangular building is 20 m long and 12m wide. A concrete path of constant width is laid all
the way around the building. If the area of the path is 75 m2, calculate its width to the nearest
mm.

[Answer: 1.0967 mm ] ]

5. For the rectangular metal plate shown, a circle of radius, R, has been cut out of the centre and
the quadrants of circles of radius, r, from the corners. The remaining area forms a template of
area 200 cm2. Calculate the diameter of the central circular area if R = 2r.

12.0 cm

R 18.0 cm

r r
 218

Tutorial No. 3 Transposition of Formulae

Make the symbols indicated in round brackets the subject of each formulae shown in
questions 33 to 65 and express each in its simplest form.

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑄 𝑎+𝑥
N44 𝐴 = (𝒓) N45 𝜐 = 𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 (𝒚) N46 𝑀=√ (𝒙
360 𝑦

360𝐴 𝑎2 𝜔2 −𝜐2
𝑟=√ 𝑦=√ 𝑥 = 𝑦𝑀2 − 𝑎
𝜋𝑄 𝜔2

𝑐2
N33 𝑅 = 𝑃𝑄 2 𝑉 (Q) N34 𝑋 = 3𝑀𝑛2 𝐿2 (L) N35 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 + 4𝑎) (𝒙)

2
𝑅 𝑥 𝑦 2 −𝑐
𝑄 = √𝑃𝑉 𝐿 = √3𝑀𝑛2 𝑥= 4𝑎

𝑥2 𝑦2
N36 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝐶 2 (C) N37 + 𝑞2 = 1 (p)
𝑝2
𝑥𝑞
𝐶 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 𝑝=
√𝑞 2 − 𝑦 2

𝑙
N38 ω= 𝑎√𝑐 (c) N39 𝑡 = 2𝜋√𝑔 (g) N40 𝑣 = √2𝑔𝑏 (b)

𝜔2 4𝑙𝜋 2 𝑣2
𝑐 = 𝑎2 𝑔= 𝑏 = 2𝑔
𝑡2

𝑣2𝑡 1
N41 𝐸= (V) N42 𝜐 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝒖) N43 𝑠 = 𝑣 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝒕)
𝑅

𝐸𝑅 2(𝑠−𝑣)
𝑉=√ 𝑢 = √𝑣 2 − 2𝑎𝑠 𝑡=√
𝑡 𝑎

𝑛
N47 𝑆 = 2 (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
1
(𝒅) N48 𝐴 = 6 (1−𝑑 − 𝑟) (𝒅)
2(𝑠−𝑎𝑛) 𝐴+𝑏(𝑟−1)
=𝑑 𝑑=
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝐴+𝑟𝑏

𝑏2
N49 𝑆 = √ 4 + 𝑎2 (𝒃) N50 𝑧 = √𝑟 2 + (2𝜋𝑓𝐿)2 (𝒇)

√𝑧 2 −𝑟 2
𝑏 = 2√𝑆 2 + 𝑎2 =𝑓
2𝜋𝐿
 219

𝑒 2 𝑚−𝑒 2 𝑛
N51 𝑧 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2(𝒙𝟐 ) N52 𝑝= (𝒆)
𝑠

𝑝𝑠
𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − √𝑧 2 − 𝑅 2 √𝑚−𝑛 = 𝑒

𝜋𝑏 𝑏𝑑3 𝑏𝑑3
N53 𝑙= 2
(𝐷2 2 − 𝐷1 2 ) (𝑫𝟐 ) N54 𝑀 = 12
+ 3
(𝒅)
4𝑑
3 12𝑀
4𝑙𝑑2 √
√ + 𝐷1 2 = 𝐷2 𝑑= 5𝑏
𝜋𝑏

2(𝑇−𝑎𝑛)
N55 𝑀 = 𝜋(𝑅 4 − 𝑟 4 ) (𝒓) N56 𝑚= (𝒂)
𝑛(𝑛−𝑙)
4 𝜋𝑅 4 −𝑀 2𝑇−𝑚𝑛(𝑛−𝑙))
𝑟=√ 𝑎=
𝜋 2𝑛

𝐸𝑟 𝑦 𝐾𝑎𝑏
N57 𝑉 = 𝑅+𝑟 (𝒓) N58 𝑎 + 𝑥 = 2+𝑦 (𝒚) N59 𝑉 = 𝑏−𝑎 (𝒂)

𝑉𝑅 2(𝑎+𝑥) 𝑉𝑏
𝑟 = 𝐸−𝑉 𝑦= 𝑎 = 𝐾𝑏+𝑉
1−𝑥−𝑎

𝑝−𝑞 𝑢𝐿
N60 𝐴 = 2+𝑝𝑞 (𝒒) N61 𝑚 = 𝐿+𝑟𝑐𝑅 (𝑳)

𝑝−2𝐴 𝑚𝑟𝐶𝑅
𝑞 = 1+𝐴𝑝 𝐿= 𝑢−𝑚

1 4𝐾−2𝑏 𝑦 2 −𝑧 2
N62 = (𝑲) N63 𝑥2 = (𝒚)
𝑥 3𝑐+5𝐾 𝑦2

3𝑐+2𝑏𝑥 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝐾= 𝑦=√ = √1−𝑥2
4𝑥−5 1−𝑥 2

𝑒 1+𝑟 2 𝐷 𝑓+𝑝
N64 = 1−𝑟 2 (𝒓) N65 = √𝑓−𝑝 (𝒑)
𝑓 𝑑
𝑓(𝐷 2 −𝑑2 )
𝑟 = √(𝑒 − 𝑓)/(𝑒 + 𝑓) 𝑝= 𝑑2 +𝐷 2

𝐾+4𝐺/3
66. The passage of sound waves through walls is governed by equation 𝑣 = √ 𝜌
where K is the bulk modulus and G the shear modulus. Make G the subject formula.
3
[𝐺 = 4 (𝑣 2 𝑝 − 𝐾)]
 220

67. If 𝑃 is the safe load which may be carried by a steel plate weakened by rivet holes then
P =𝑓(𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑) t. Make 𝑓, the safe working stress in the steel and then 𝑛, the number of rivet
𝑃 𝑓𝑏𝑡−𝑝
holes, the subject of the formula. [𝑓 = (𝑏−𝑛𝑑)𝑡 , 𝑛 = 𝑓𝑑𝑡 ]

68. The safe working stress timber, 𝑓 is related to the moment of resistance, M, of a beam of
6𝑀
rectangular cross section of depth and breadth, b and d, by equation of 𝑓 = 𝑏𝑑2 . Make d the
6𝑀
subject of the formula [𝑑 = √ 𝑏𝑓 ].
𝑊𝑙
69. The modulus of elasticity of a structural material (E) is given by the formula E= .
𝐴𝑥
𝑊𝑙
Make 𝑥 the subject of the formula [𝑥 = 𝐸𝐴]

𝑅𝑡 𝜃−𝜃
70. The outside resistance R, of a cold store is given by the equation = 𝜃−𝜃0 where R is the
𝑅 𝑑
resistance of the surface and 𝜃, 𝜃0 ,𝜃𝑑 are the store temperature, the minimum outside
temperature and the dew point temperature respectively. Make 𝜃 the subject of the formula
𝑅 𝜃𝑑−𝑅𝜃0
[𝜃 = 𝑡 ]
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅
𝑎
71. Van der Waals equation for the pressure of a real gas(p) is (𝑝 + 𝑣2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇. Make
𝑅𝑇 𝑎
p the subject formula[𝑝 = − ]
𝑉−𝑏 𝑣2
1 𝑚 1
72. The observed growth yield, Y, of an organism is given by = + 𝑌 . Make 𝑌𝐺 , the
𝑌 𝜇 𝐺
𝜇𝑌
truth growth yield, the subject of the equation [𝑌𝐺 = 𝜇−𝑚𝑌]
𝜋𝑃𝑟 4 𝑡
73. The viscosity coefficient of a liquid (𝑛) is given by the equation 𝜂 = 8𝜈𝑙
𝜋𝑃𝑟 4 𝑡
𝑣=
8𝜂𝑙
2𝑉𝑒
74. The velocity 𝑣 of an electron is given by 𝑣 = √ . Make 𝑚 the subject of the formula
𝑚
2𝑉𝑒
[𝑚 = ]
𝑣2
𝜇 𝐶𝑍 4 𝜆5⁄2 𝑁
75. Make 𝜆 the wavelength of X-rays, the subject of the following formula 𝑝 = 𝐴
5
𝐴𝜇 2
[𝜆 = √(𝑝𝐶𝑍 4𝑁) ]

23𝜋𝑑2
76. Given that 28𝑡(𝑝 − 𝑑) = , find 𝑝 when 𝑡 = 0.500 and 𝑑 = 1.20√𝑡[1.778]
4
𝑛𝐸
77. Given 𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑛𝑟 find 𝑛 when 𝐼 = 2, 𝐸 = 1.8, 𝑅 = 2.4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 0.5 [6]
0.03𝐿𝑉 2
78. The velocity, 𝑉, of water in a pipe occurs in the following formula ℎ = . Express,
2𝑑𝑔
𝑉 as the subject of the formula and find its value when ℎ = 0.614, 𝐿 = 168, 𝑑 =
0.250 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 = 9.81
2ℎ𝑑𝑔
[𝑉 = √ , 0.773 0]
0.03𝐿
 221

(𝑀+3𝑚)𝑙 𝑀(16𝜋 2 𝑙−3𝑔𝑇 2

79. Transpose the formula 𝑇 = 4𝜋 √3(𝑀+2𝑚)𝑔 to make 𝑚 the subject [𝑚 = ]
6(𝑔𝑇 2 −8𝜋2 𝑙)
𝑦+𝑘
80. Transpose 𝑝 = 𝑦 𝐾 to make 𝑦 the subject. Evaluate 𝑦 to 2 decimal places given that
+
𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑝 = 6.21, 𝑘 = 32.8, 𝑝1 = 5.22 and 𝑝2 = 7.31
𝑘𝑝1 (𝑝2 − 𝑝)
[𝑦 = , 26.02]
𝑝2 (𝑝 − 𝑝1 )

81. In an electrical alternating current circuit the impedance 𝑍 is given by the formula
1
𝑍 = √[𝑅 2 + (𝑤𝐿 − 𝑤𝑐)2 ]. Make 𝐿 the subject of the formula and evaluate when 𝑍 =
1 1
50, 𝑅 = 30, 𝑤 = 314 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 4 × 10−6 [𝐿 = 𝑤 (𝑤𝑐 + √(𝑍 2 − 𝑅 2 )) , 𝐿 = 2.66]

82. The sag 𝑆 at the centre of a wire of length 𝐼 supported at two points distance 𝑑 apart is
3𝑑(𝑙−𝑑)
given by the formula 𝑆 =√ . Transpose the formula to make 𝐼 the subject. Find
8
the length of the wire to the nearest millimetre given that 𝑑 is 1.62m and 𝑆 is 82.0cm.
8𝑆 2
[𝑙 = + 𝑑, 𝑙 = 2.727 𝑚]
3𝑑
 222

Tutorial No.4 Logarithms

1. Express the following in terms of 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏, and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐:

𝑎 𝑎
(i) 𝑙ogab ; (ii) logabc ; (iii) 𝑙oga2b ; (iv) 𝑙og ; (v) 𝑙og √ .
𝑏𝑐 𝑏

2. Simplify

(a) 𝑙og3 + 𝑙og4 [Answer: 𝑙og12] ,

(b) 𝑙og6 - 𝑙og2 [Answer: 𝑙og3] ,

(c) 𝑙og2 + 𝑙og6 - 𝑙og4 [Answer: 𝑙og3] ,

(d) 2 𝑙og3 + 𝑙og2 [Answer: 𝑙og18] ,

(e) 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 2 − 1) [Answer: −𝑙og(𝑥 − 1)] .

3. Solve the following equations:

(a) 3𝑥 =6 [Answer: 1.6309] ,

(b) 22𝑥 = 5 [Answer: 1.1620] ,

(c) (5𝑥 )(5𝑥−1 ) = 10 [Answer: 1.2153] ,

(d) 2(22𝑥 ) − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0 [Answer: -1,1] ,

(e) 32𝑥+1 − 26(3𝑥 ) − 9 = 0 [Answer: 2] .

4. Solve the following simultaneous equations:

𝑦
(a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 2

𝑥𝑦 = 8 [Answer: 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = 4] ,

(b) 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

1
2𝑦 = 4𝑥 [Answer: = 1 , 𝑥 = 2 ] ,

Cont’d . . . .
(c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔3𝑥 = 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 (2𝑥 − 1) [Answer: 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 0] ,

(d) 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 0

2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑦 + 1) [Answer: (𝑥 = 1 , −2) , (𝑦 = 0 , 3)] ,

(e) 5𝑥+2 + 7𝑦+1 = 3468

 223

7𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 76 [Answer: 𝑥 = 3 , 𝑦 = 2] ,

(f) ℓ𝑛6 + ℓ𝑛(𝑥 − 3) = 2ℓ𝑛𝑦

2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 3 [Answer: 𝑥 = 9 , 𝑦 = 6] ,

(g) 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (2𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦

𝑥 = 22 − 𝑦 [Answer: 𝑥 = 12 , 𝑦 = 10] .

5. Show that 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑏 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎 = 1 and hence evaluate:

(a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔38 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔29 [Answer: 6] ,

(b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔564 × 2𝑙𝑜𝑔425 [Answer: 12] ,

8
(c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔21000 [Answer: 9] .
 224

Tutorial No.5 Binomial Expansion

1. Expand the following:

(a) (1 + 3𝑥)4 [Answer: 1 + 12𝑥 + 54𝑥 2 + 108𝑥 3 + 81𝑥 4 ] ,

(b) (2𝑥 + 𝑦)4 [Answer: 16𝑥 4 + 32𝑥 3 𝑦 + 24𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑦 4 ] ,

(c) (2 − 3𝑥)6

[Answer: 64 − 576𝑥 + 2160𝑥 2 − 4320𝑥 3 + 4860𝑥 4 − 2916𝑥 5 + 729𝑥 6 ] ,

3 5 1080 810 243

(d) (2𝑥 + 𝑥) [Answer: 32𝑥 5 + 240𝑥 3 + 720𝑥 + 𝑥
+ 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 ] .

2. If 𝑥 is sufficiently small to allow any terms in 𝑥 3 or higher powers of 𝑥 to be neglected, show that:

(1 + 𝑥)7 (1 + 2𝑥)4 ≈ 1 + 15𝑥 + 101𝑥 2 .

3. When 𝑥 is very small, show that:

1 5
(a) (1−𝑥)2 (√1−𝑥)
≈ 1 +2𝑥 ,

1−2𝑥
(b) (1−3𝑥)4
≈ 1 + 10𝑥 ,

√1+5𝑥 19
(c) 3 ≈1+ 6
𝑥 .
√1−2𝑥

4. Pressure, 𝑝, and volume, 𝑣, are related by 𝑝𝑣 3 = 𝑐 , where 𝑐 is a constant. Determine the

approximate percentage change in 𝑐 when 𝑝 is increased by 3% and 𝑣 decreased by 1.2%.

[Answer: 0.6% decrease]

5. An error of +1.5% was made when measuring the radius of a sphere. Neglecting the products of
small quantities, determine the approximate error in calculating:

(a) the volume [Answer: 4.5% increase] ;

(b) the surface area [Answer: 3% decrease] .

6. The radius of a cone is increased by 2.7% and its height reduced by 0.9%. Determine the
approximate percentage change in its volume. [Answer: 4.5% increase]

7. The shear stress, 𝜏, in a shaft of diameter, 𝐷, under a torque, 𝑇, is given by:

𝐾𝑇
𝜏 = 𝜋𝐷3 .

Determine the approximate percentage error in calculating 𝜏 if 𝑇 is measured 3% too small and
𝐷 1.5% too large. [Answer: 7.5% decrease]
 225

8. In a series electrical circuit containing inductance, 𝐿, and capacitance, 𝐶, the resonant frequency
is given by:

1
𝑓𝑟 = .
2𝜋√(𝐿𝐶)

If the values of 𝐿 and 𝐶 used in the calculations are 2.6% too large and 0.8% too small,
respectively, determine the approximate percentage error in frequency.
[Answer: 0.9% too small]
 226

Tutorial No. 6 Exponential Functions

1 Solve the following equations, each correct to four significant figures:

(a) 1.5 = 4𝑒 2𝑡 [Answer: -0.4904] .

−𝑡⁄2
(b) 16 = 24 (1 − 𝑒 ) [Answer: 2.197] .
𝑥
(c) 5.17 = l𝑛 (4.64) [Answer: 816.2] .
1.59
(d) 3.72 l𝑛 ( ) = 2.43 [Answer: 0.8274] .
𝑥

2 The length, 𝐿, metres of a metal bar at temperature, 𝑡 𝑜 𝐶, is given by 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 , where 𝐿𝑜 and 𝛼

are constants. Determine:

(a) the value of 𝛼 when 𝐿 = 1.993 𝑚, 𝐿𝑜 = 1.894 𝑚, and 𝑡 = 250𝑜 𝐶;

(b) the value of 𝐿𝑜 when 𝐿 = 2.416, 𝑡 = 310𝑜 𝐶, and ∝= 1.982 × 10−4.

[Answer: (a) 2.038x10-4; (b) 2.272 m]

3 The voltage drop, v, volts, across an inductor, L, henrys at time, t, seconds is given by:
−𝑅𝑡
𝑉 = 200 𝑒 𝐿 ,

where 𝑅 = 150Ω and 𝐿 = 12.5 × 10−3 𝐻. Determine:

(a) the voltage when 𝑡 = 160 × 10−6 𝑠𝑒𝑐;

(b) the time for the voltage to reach 85V.

[Answer: (a) 29.32 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, (b) 71.31 × 10−6 𝑠𝑒𝑐]

4.The current, i, flowing in a capacitor at time, t, is given by:

𝑡
𝑖 = 12.5 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐶𝑅 ) ,

where resistance, R, is 3𝑜 𝑘Ω and the capacitance, C, is 20𝜇𝐹. Determine:

(a) the current flowing after 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠;

(b) the time for the current to reach 10 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠.

[Answer: (a) 7.07 𝐴; (b) 0.966 𝑠𝑒𝑐]

 227

Tutorial No.7 Trigonometry

1. Write down the values of the following, leaving surds in your answer:

(a) sin 30𝑜 ,

(b) cos 30𝑜 ,
(c) tan 45𝑜 ,
(d) sin 150𝑜 ,
(e) sin 135𝑜 ,
(f) cos 120𝑜 ,
(g) cos 150𝑜 ,
(h) tan 120𝑜 .

2. If sin 20𝑜 = 0.342, write the values of:

(a) sin 160𝑜 [Answer:0.342] ,

(b) cos 70𝑜 [Answer: 0.342] ,
(c) cos 110𝑜 [Answer: -0.342] .

3. If sin 40𝑜 = 0.643 and cos 40𝑜 = 0.766, write down the values of:

(a) sin 50𝑜 [Answer: 0.766] ,

(b) cos 50𝑜 [Answer: 0.643] ,
(c) sin 140𝑜 [Answer: 0.643] ,
(d) sin 130𝑜 [Answer: 0.766] ,
(e) cos 140𝑜 [Answer: -0.766] .

4. Determine the areas of the given triangles:

9 cm
5 cm 7 cm

50o
C B
6 cm 4 cm

[Answer: 11.5 𝑐𝑚2] [Answer: 13.4 𝑐𝑚2]

5. Determine the length, x, in each of the following:

(a) (b) (c)

70o 5 cm 60o x
o
x 6 cm 75o 55o
50
x 4 cm
8 cm

[Answer: 6.52 cm] [Answer: 5.57 cm] [Answer: 3.74 cm]

 228

(d) (e) 5 cm (f)

10 cm 140o x
22 o 5 cm
x 25o
x
115o
6 cm 3 cm

[Answer: 5.22 cm] [Answer: 8.58 cm] [Answer: 6.83 cm]

6. Determine the angle of 𝜃 in each of the following:

(a) (b) 7 cm (c)

6 cm 5 cm
7 cm
5 cm 5 cm  6 cm 
110o 
9 cm

[Answer: 42.2o] [Answer: 78.5o] [Answer: 38.9o]

(d) (e) (f)

7 cm 5 cm 6 cm 8 cm  6 cm
 65 o
 58o
4 cm 7 cm

[Answer: 40.3o] [Answer: 104.5o] [Answer: 81.6o or 98.4o]

7. Find the areas of the following triangles:

(a) (b) (c)

6m 6 cm 6 cm 5 cm
o
30
5 cm 4 cm 7 cm

[Answer: 15 m2] [Answer: 6 cm2] [Answer: 14.7 cm2]

(d) (e) (f)

8 cm 6 cm o 5 cm 7 cm
6.2 cm 50 4.1 cm
10 cm 9 cm

[Answer: 24 cm2] [Answer: 9.74 cm2] [Answer: 17.4 cm2]

 229

Tutorial N0.8 Trigonometric Identities and Proves

1. Solve the following equations for all values of 𝑥 from 0° to 360°

1
a) cos 𝑥 = − 2 [𝑥 = 120°, 240°]

−√3
b) sin 𝑥 = [𝑥 = 240°, 300°]
2

1
c) cos2 𝑥 = [𝑥 = 60°, 120°, 240°, 300°]
4

d) 2 sin 𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑥 [𝑥 = 56.3°, 236.3°]

√3
e) sin(𝑥 + 20°) = − [𝑥 = 150°, 330°, 120°, 300°]
2

√3
f) sin(𝑥 + 20°) = − [𝑥 = 280°, 220°]
2

g) 2 tan2 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 − 6 = 0 [𝑥 = 63.4°, 123.7°, 243.4°, 303.7°]

h) 3(cos 𝑥 − 1) = −1 [𝑥 = 48.2°, 311.8°]

2. Solve the following equations for all values of 𝑥 from −180° to +180°

1
a) cos 𝑥(𝑥 − 20°) = − [𝑥 = −115°, 155°]
√2
b) cos 𝑥(sin 𝑥 − 1) = 0 [ 𝑥 = 90°, −90°]

3. Solve the following equations for all values of 𝜃 from −180° 𝑡𝑜 180°

a) 4 − sin 𝜃 = 4 cos2 𝜃 [𝜃 = 0°, 14.5°, 165.5°, ±180°]

b) sin2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 + 1 = 0 [𝜃 = ±180° ]
c) 5 − 5 cos 𝜃 = 3 sin2 𝜃 [𝜃 = 0°, ±48.2° ]
d) 8 tan 𝜃 = 3 cos 𝜃 [𝜃 = 19.5°, 160.5° ]
e) 1 − cos 2 𝜃 = −2 sin 𝜃 × cos 𝜃 [𝜃 = −63.4°, 0°, 116.6°, ±180°]
f) sec 𝜃 = 2 [𝜃 = ±60° ]
−2
g) cot 2𝜃 = [𝜃 = −124.1°, −34.1°, 5.59°, 145.9]
5
h) 2 tan 𝜃 = 5 co sec 𝜃 + cot 𝜃 [𝜃 = ±70.5°]
 230

3 5
5. A, B and C are the angles of a triangle such that cos 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = 13.
Without using a calculator determine the value of;

i) tan 2𝐴, ii) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵), iii) cos 𝐶,

24 −33 33
[ (𝑖) − ; (𝑖𝑖) ; (𝑖𝑖𝑖) ]
7 65 65

8
6. The angle A lies between 90° and 180° and sin2 𝐴 = 9. Calculate without using a
calculator the value of;

1
a) cos 𝐴; b) sin2 𝐴; c) cos 2𝐴; d) cos2 (2 𝐴)
1 −4√2 −7 1
[ (𝑎) − ; (𝑏) ; (𝑐) ; (𝑑) ]
3 9 9 √3

7. Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which will satisfy the equations;

𝑎) (1 + 2 sin 𝑥) cos 2𝑥 = 0 [𝑥 = 45°, 135°, 210°, 225°, 315°, 330°]

b) sin 𝑦 = 3 cos(𝑦 − 30°) [𝑦 = 100.9°, 280.9°]

8. If 𝑥 = sin2 2𝜃 and 𝑦 = cos 𝜃, express 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦.

[𝑥 = 4(1 − 𝑦 2 )𝑦 2 ]

9. A chord PQ of a circle, radius 5cm, subtends an angle of 2 radians at the centre of

the circle. Taking π to be 3.14, calculate, correct to one decimal place

i) The length of the major arc PQ

ii) The area enclosed by the chord PQ and the minor arc.

[ (𝑖) 21.4 𝑐𝑚; (𝑖𝑖) 13.6 𝑐𝑚2 ]

10. Using the double and half angle formulae show that:

a) cos 3𝜃 = 4 cos 3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃

1
b) 11. cos4 𝜃 = 8 (3 + 4 cos 2𝜃 + cos 4 𝜃)

1−cos 𝜃 𝜃
c) = tan ( )
sin 𝜃 2

11. Find all the solutions of the following equations between 0° and 360°

a) 9 cos 𝜃 + 4 sin 𝜃 = 8 [𝜃 = 59.643°, 348.281°

 231

b) 6 cos 𝜃 − 7 sin 𝜃 = 3 [𝜃 = 21.612°, 240.59]

c) 2 sin 𝜃 − 5 cos 𝜃 = 4, [𝜃 = 116.168°, 200.23°]

Prove Identities

1. Prove the following identities;

cos 2∅
a) 1 − cos2 ∅ = tan2 ∅

1+cos 2𝑡
b) = 2 cot 2 𝑡
sin2 𝑡

tan 2𝑥(1+tan 𝑥) 2
c) = 1−tan 𝑥
tan 𝑥

d) 2 cosec 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = cot 𝜃 − tan 𝜃

2. Express as sums or differences of the following;

1
a) cos 2𝑥 sin 7𝑥 [2 (sin 9𝑥 + sin 5𝑥)]

1
b) cos 8𝑥 sin 2𝑥 [2 (sin 10𝑥 − sin 6𝑥)]

c) 4 cos 3𝜃 cos 𝜃 [2(cos 4𝜃 + cos 2𝜃)]

3. Prove that;

2𝜋 2𝜋
a) sin (𝑥 + ) + sin (𝑥 + ) = √3 cos 𝑥
3 3

cos(270°+𝜃)
b) = tan 𝜃
cos(360°−𝜃)
 232

Tutorial No.9 Differentiation by product Rule, Quotient Rule and Chain Rule

Differentiate the following using product rule with respect to their variable:

1. 2 x 3 cos 3 x  6 x 2 ( cos 3 x − x sin 3 x ) 

  3 
2. x3 n 3x  x 1 + 2 n 3x  
  

3. e 3t sin 4t  e 3t ( 4 cos 4t + 3sin 4t ) 

 sin 2 x 
4. x sin 2 x  2 x cos 2 x + 
 2 x 

 4  1 
5. e 4 n 3  e   + 4 n 3  
  

 t  1  
6. e t n t cos t  e  + n t  cos t − n t sin t  
  t  

𝑑𝐼
7. Evaluate , correct to four significant figures, use radians when t=0.1, u and I=15t
𝑑𝑡
sin 3t.
8.732 
𝑑𝑧
8. Evaluate , correct to four significant figures, use radians when t=0.5, given that
𝑑𝑡
z = 2e 3t sin 2t 32 .31
In problems 9 to14 differentiate the quotient with respect to the variables:

2 cos 3x  −6 
9.
x3  x 4 ( x sin 3 x + cos 3 x ) 
 

10.
2x  (
 2 1 − x2
) 
x +1 (
 x2 + 1 2
) 
2

 

3 3  3  ( 3sin 2 − 4 cos 2 ) 
11.  
2 sin 2  4 sin 2 2 
 233

 1 
n 2t  1 − 2 n 2t 
12.  
t  t3 
 

3 tan p  3sec 2 p − 3 tan p 

13.  
e3 p  e3 p 

2 xe 4 x  2e 4 x 
14.  2 (1 + 4 x ) sin x − x cos x 
sin x  sin x 

2x
15. Find the gradient of the curve y = at the point (2,-4).
x −5
2

− 18

dy 2x2 + 3
16. Evaluate at x = 2.5 , correct to three significant figures, given y =
dx n 2x
3.82 

17. Evaluate f 1   when f(t)= 2 tan 2t − cot 4t
3
 1
 21 3 
 
d
( 2 sec 3 z )
18. Show that dz = 2 tan 3 3 z
d
( − cos ec3 z )
dz
Problems 19 to 28, find the differential coefficients with respect to the variable.

(2x ) (
5 6 x 2 − 5
)( 2 x ) 
4
19. 3
− 5x 5 3
− 5x
 

20. 2 sin ( 3 − 2 )  6 cos ( 3 − 2 ) 

 
3t 2
21. ( 2t 3
−4 ) 


 ( 2t − 4 
3
)


22. 2cos 5 𝑥 [−10 cos4 𝑥 sin 𝑥]

23.
1
 5 2 − 3x2
 ( ) 

(x 3
− 2x +1 ) 5

 (
 x3 − 2 x + 1
)
6


 234

24. 5e 2 t +1 10e 2 t +1 

25. 4 sec 3 x 12 sec 3 x tan x 

26. (
2 cot 5t 2 + 3 ) (
 −20t cos ec 2 5t 2 + 3 
  )
27. 6 tan ( 3 y + 1) 18sec 2 ( 3 y + 1) 

28. 2e tan   2 sec 2  e tan  


29. Differentiate  sin   −  with respect to  , and evaluate, correct to three significant
 3

figures, when  = . 1.86 
2
d2y d3y
30. If y = 3 x 4 + 2 x 3 − 3 x + 2 find (a) ; (b)
dx 2 dx 3

( a ) 36 x 2 + 12 x; ( b ) 72 x + 12 

In problems 31 and 33, find the second differential coefficient with respect to the variable.

 −2 
31. ( a ) 3sin 2t + cos t; ( b ) 2 ln 4 ( a ) − (12 sin 2t + cos t ) ; ( b )  2 
 

32. ( a ) 2 cos 2 x; ( b )( 2 x − 3 )
4

 ( )
( a ) 4 sin 2 x − cos 2 x ; ( b ) 48 ( 2 x − 3 ) 2 


−2 t d 2 y dy
33. (a) If y = Ae + Be
3t
prove that 2 − − 6 y = 0
dt dt

(b) Evaluate f " ( ) when  = 0 given f " ( ) = 2 sec 3 18

d2y dy
(c) Show that the differential equation 2
−4 + 4 y = 0 is satisfied when y = xe 2 x .
dx dx
 235

Tutorial No.10 Differentiation of Implicit functions

dy
Determine in terms of x and y:
dx

 x
1. x 2 + y 2 = 10 − 
 y

 2 (1 − x ) 
2. 2x2 + y2 = 4x  
 y 

 2 ( 2 − 3x ) 
3. 6x2 + 2 y3 = 8x + 4 y  
(
 3 y − 2 
2
)

4. 2 x − 5 y + 6 x − 10 y = 6
3 2 (
 3 x2 + 1

) 
 5 ( y + 1) 

 4x + 3 
5. 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 + 3 x = 10 + 7 y  
7 − 4y 

(2𝑥+𝑦)
6. x 2 + xy + y 2 = 0 [− (𝑥+2𝑦)
]

7. x + 3 xy − y = 6
3 2 (
 3 x2 + y

) 
 2 y − 3 x 

 2x2 + y2 
8. 2 x 3 + 3 xy 2 − y 3 = 0  
 y ( y − 2 x ) 

 5 − 6x − y 
9. 3 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 5 x + xy + 6 y = 8  
6 + x + 4y 

1 1 1 𝑦3
10. + 2 = [− ]
x 2
y 4 𝑥3

𝑥(2+𝑥)
11. (1 + y )(1 + x ) = x [ (1+𝑥)2 ]

d2y
12. Find as a function of x if
dx 2
 236

 
 x 
sin y + cos y = x  3 
 (
 2 − x2 ) 2 


13. If sin y = 2 sin x show that:

2
 dy 
  = 1 + 3sec y
2

 dx 

14. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:

 x dy 1 
(a) yx = x  ny + = 
 y dx x 

 dy y 
(b) x y = sin x  nx dx + x = cot x 
 

 sin x dy 1 
(c) y sin x = x  + cos x ny = 
 y dx 2x 

1
 1 dy 1 1 
(d) (1 + x ) y = sin 2 x  + = cot x 
 y dx 1 + x 2 
 237

Tutorial No.11 Differentiation of parametric functions

dy
1. For each part of the following find in terms of t:
dx
1 
(a) x = 3t 2 , y = t 3 2 t
 

1 
(b) x = 4t 2 , y = 8t t 
 

2
1 1  t − 1  
(c) x= ,y=  t + 1  
t −1 t +1  

(d) x=
1
, y = t2 + 4  −2t ( t + 1) 2 
t +1  

2. A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

2
x = t 3 − 6t + 4, y = t − 3 +
t

Find:

(a) the equations of the normals to the curve at the points where the curve meets
the x-axis,

 y + 12 x = 0, y + 3 x + 3 = 0

(b) the co-ordinates of their point of intersection,

 1 
  3 , −4  
 

3. A curve is given by the parametric equations:

1− t
, y = (1 − t )(1 + t )
2
x=
1+ t

dy d2y
Determine and in terms of t. Find also the equation of the tangent to the
dx dx 2
curve at the point where t=2.

1 
 2 (1 + t ) ( 2t − 1) , 3t (1 + t ) , 2 y = 135 x + 27 
3 4

 
 238

4. Given that:

x = sec  + tan 

y = cos ec + cot 

Show that:

1 1
x+ = 2 sec  and y + = 2 cos ec
x y
dx dy dy 1+ y2
Find and in terms of  , and hence show that =−
d d dx 1 + x2

5. If y = x tan −1 x , show that:

( ) ( )
dy
(a) x 1 + x2 = x2 + 1 + x2 y
dx

d2y
( )
dy
(b) 1 + x2 2
+ 2x − 2y = 2
dx dx

6. Given that the variables x and y satisfy the equation:

dy
sin −1 2 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 ( xy ) = 0 , find when x = y =0
dx
− 2

d2y
7. Given that y = n (1 + sin x ) , prove that + e− y = 0
dx 2

8. Differentiate the following with respect to x:

 1 
(a) sin −1 x  
 1− x 
2

 x  a 
(b) tan −1    a2 + x2 
a  

x  1 
(c) sin −1  
4  16 − x 
2

 −3 
(d) cos −1 3x  
 1 − 9x 
2
 239

 4 
(e) tan −1 4x  1 + 16x 2 
 

 6 
(f) sin −1 6x  
 1 − 36x 
2

 
 1 
(g) sin −1 (2 x − 1)
  x (1 − x )  
  

 −3 
(h) tan −1 (1 − 3x )  2 − 6x + 9x2 
 

 2 
(i) sin −1 ( x 2 − 1)  
 2− x 
2

(j) (x 2
)
+ 1 tan −1 x  2 x tan −1 x + 1
 240

Tutorial No.12 Partial derivatives

1. Determine the first partial derivatives of z where:

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
(a) 𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 [ = 2 − 𝑦, = 3 − 𝑥]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑥 𝜕𝑧 1 𝜕𝑧 𝑥
(b) 𝑧 = 𝑦 + 𝑥2, [ = + 2𝑥, =− ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑦2

𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
(c) 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 [𝜕𝑥 = ,
𝜕𝑦
= ]
√𝑥2 +𝑦 2 √𝑥2 +𝑦2

𝜕𝑧
= 4𝑥√𝑦 − 3𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑦);
𝜕𝑥
(d) 𝑧 = 2𝑥 2 √𝑦 + 3cos(𝑥𝑦) [ 𝜕𝑧 1 ]
= 𝑥2 − 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 √ 𝑦

2. Determine the first derivatives of y where:

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
(a) 𝑧 = 3sin(2𝑥 + 3𝑡) [𝜕𝑥 = 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3𝑡); = 9𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3𝑡); ]
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
(b) 𝑦 = 4cos(4𝑥 − 6𝑡) [𝜕𝑥 = −16 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥 − 6𝑡); = 24 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥 − 6𝑡); ]
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑦 2 𝑧4 𝜕𝑦 3 𝑥3
(c) y = 6 x3 z + 4 x z 4 [ = 18 𝑥 2 √𝑧 + , = 16 𝑧 3 √𝑥 + ]
𝜕𝑥 √𝑥 𝜕𝑧 √𝑧

3. Given that f ( r , h ) = 2 r 2 h − r h, evaluate the first partial derivatives of f when r =2

and h =1.

 f f 
 = 7.646 , = 6.586 
 r h 

1 z z
4. If z = , show that x + y , = −2 z (1 + z )
x + y −1
2 2
x y

5. Prove that, if v = n ( x 2 + y 2 ) , then

 2v  2v
+ =0
x 2 y 2

y
6. If z = , show that
x

2 z 2 z 2  z
2
x 2
+ 2 xy +y =0
x 2 xy y 2
 241

If z = ( x + y )   show that:
y
7.
 x

z z
x +y =z
x y
 242

Tutorial No. 13 (Hyperbolic Functions)

1. Use the exponential definitions of the hyperbolic functions to prove the identities:

(i) cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = cosh 2 x .

(ii) cosh ( x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh sinh y .

2. Solve, for x, the equation:

(i) 3 cosh x − 2 sinh x = 5

(ii) cos x cosh x − 1 = 0

3. Differentiate with respect to the following functions:

(i) x cosh 2 x ; (ii) n ( sec hx − tanh x ) ;

cosh x − cos x
(iii) ; (iv) tan −1 ( sinh x ) ;
sinh x − sin x

 1 + sinh x 
(v) n   ; (vi) ( cosh x ) x .
 1 − sinh x 

1 1+ x 
4. Show that for x  1 , tanh −1 x = n  .
2  1− x 

5. Differentiate with relation to x:

(i) sinh −1 4 x ; (ii) cosh −1 ( x) ;

( )
2
(iii) sinh −1 ( tan x ) ; (iv) x tanh −1 x .
 243

Tutorial No. 14 (Integration by Substitution)

 (2x − 5) dx
7
1)

 2e
6 x −1
2) dx

 3x (4 x )5
3) 2
+ 3 dx

𝜋
4) ∫0 24 sin5 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
6

x
5)  2 + 3x 2
dx

2x
6)  dx
(4 x 2
−1 )
7) Show that ∫ tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ln sec 𝜃 + 𝐶

8)
1 
3
5x (2x 2
+ 7 dx )
3x

2
9) dx
0
2x 2 + 1
 244

Tutorial No.15 Integration using Partial fractions

In problems 1 to 8, integrate with respect to x

 2 n ( x − 3) − 2 n ( x + 3 + c )
12  
1.  (x 2
−9 )
dx  or n  x − 3  2 + c
 

  x + 3 

 5 n ( x + 1) − n ( x − 3 ) + c 
4 ( x − 4)  
 (x   ( x + 1) 
 
5
2. dx 
2
− 2x − 3 )  or n  +c 
(
  x − 3)  


 7 n ( x + 4 ) − 3 n ( x + 1) − n ( 2 x − 1 ) + c 
(
3 2x2 − 8x −1 )  
 ( x + 4 )( x + 1)( 2 x + 1) dx   ( x + 4)  
7
3.  
 or n   + c 
 ( x + 1) ( 2 x − 1) 
3
   

 x + 2 n ( x + 3) + 6 n ( x − 2 ) + c 
x2 + 9x + 8  

 
4. dx
x2 + x − 6  or x + n ( x + 3 ) ( x − 2 ) + c 
2 6

 

3 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 16 x + 20  3x 2 
5.  ( x − 2 )( x + 2 ) dx  − 2 x + ln ( x − 2 ) − 5 ln ( x + 2 ) + c 
 2 

4x − 3  7 
6.  ( x + 1) dx  4 n ( x + 1) + + c
2
 ( x + 1) 

5 x 2 − 30 x + 44  10 2 
7.  dx 5 n ( x − 2 ) + − + c
( x − 2)
3
 ( x − 2) ( x − 2) 2


x 2 − x − 13  
( )
3 x
8.  (x  n x +7 +
2
arctan − n ( x − 2) + c
2
+7 ) ( x − 2)  7 7 

In problems 9 to 15, evaluate the definite integrals correct to four significant figures.

x2 − 3x + 6
4
9.  dx 0.6275 
3
x ( x − 2 )( x − 1)

x − x − 14
6

10.  dx 0.8122 
4
x2 − 2x − 3
 245

x2 + 7 x + 3
2
11.  dx 1.663 
1
x 2 ( x + 3)

18 + 21x − x 2
7
12.  ( x − 5 )( x + 2 ) 2
dx 1.089 
6

6x − 5
6

13.  ( x − 4) ( x 0.5880 
5
2
+3 )
2

14.
4
 (16 − x ) dx 2
0.2939 
1

15.  (x
2
dx 0.1865 
4
2
−9 )
16. The velocity constant K of a given chemical reaction is given by:

dx
kt = 
( 3 − 0.4 x )( 2 − 0.6 x )

where x = 0 when t = 0
  2 ( 3 − 0.4 x )  
Determine kt  n 
  3 ( 2 − 0.6 x )  
 246

Tutorial No.16 Integration by trigonometric Substitution

1)
0  4
2 cos 2 4 tdt

 sin
2
2) 3xdx

3) ∫ sin5 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
4) ∫02 sin2 𝑥 cos3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫02 sin2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5)
0  4
4 cos 4 d

 sin
2
6) t cos 4 tdt
 247

Tutorial No.17 Integration by Parts

Determine the integrals in problems 1 to 10 using integration by parts

 e2 x  1 
 xe  x −  + c
2x
1. dx 
 2  2 

4x  4 −3 x  1 
2. e 3x
dx − 3 e  x + 3  + c 
   

3.  x sin xdx  − x cos x + sin x + c 

2 3  1 
 2x  3 x  n x − 3  + c
2
4. n xdx
   

5. 2 n 3xdx  2 x ( n 3 x − 1) + c 

5  1  
6.  5 cos 2 d  2   sin 2 + 2 cos 2  + c 
   

 3 2t  2 1 
 3t e  2 e  t − t + 2  + c
2 2t
7. dt
   

 cos 3 x 
( )
2
x  27 2 − 9 x + 9 x sin 3 x + c 
2 2
8. sin 3 xdx
 

 2 5x 
9. 2e5 x cos 2 xdx  29 e ( 2 sin 2 x + 5 cos 2 x ) + c 
 

10.  2 sec
2
 d  2  tan  − n ( sec  )  + c 
 

Evaluate the integrals in problems 11 to 18, correct to four significant figures.

16 .78 
2
11. 0
2 xe x dx


12. 0
4
x sin 2 xdx 0.2500 

0.6363 
2
13. 1
x ln xdx


14. 0
4
t 2 cos tdt 0.4674 
 248

x
15. 1
2
3 x 2 e 2 dx 15 .78 

11.31
1
16. 0
2e 3 x sin 2 xdx


17. 0
2
e t cos 3tdt − 1.543

12 .78 
4
18. 1
x 3 n xdx

1 1
19. The equation C =  e −0.4 cos1.2 d and S =  e −0.4 sin1.2 d are involved in the
0 0

study of damp oscillations. Determine the value of C and S

C = 0.66 .S = 0.41
 249

Tutorial No.18 Complex Numbers

 250

Tutorial No.19 Vectors

 251

PAST EXAMINATION PAPERS

 252

School of Computing, Science & Engineering

SEMESTER TWO EXAMINATION

PROGRAMMES:

BEng (Hons)/MEng Aeronautical Engineering

BEng (Hons)/MEng Aircraft Engineering with Pilot Studies
BEng (Hons)/MEng Civil Engineering
BEng (Hons)/MEng Civil & Architectural Engineering
BEng (Hons)/MEng Mechanical Engineering
BEng (Hons) Petroleum & Mechanical Engineering

BLOCK CODES:

E/AE/F1 ME/AE/F1
E/AEPS/F1 ME/AWPS/F1
E/CI/F1 ME/CI/F1
E/CAE/F1 ME/CAE/F1
E/ME/F1 ME/ME/F1
E/PME/F1

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS E1 (P1)

Wednesday 18th May 2016 14:00 – 17:00

Instructions to Candidates

Answer FIVE QUESTIONS only

Formulae sheets are appended to this paper

Approved electronic calculators may be used

 253

1. (a) (i) In electrical alternating circuit the impedance Z is given by the formula:

1 2
𝑍 = √[𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝑐) ] .

Make L the subject of the formula and evaluate its value when Z = 50,
R= 30,  = 314, and c= 4x10-6 .
(5 Marks)

(ii) Re-arrange the following equation to make x the subject:

𝑥−1
𝑦 = 3 ℓ𝑛 (𝑥+1) .
(3 Marks)

(b) A rectangular building is 20m long and 12m wide. A concrete path of constant
width is laid all the way around the building. If the area of the path is 75 m2,
calculate its width to the nearest mm.
(6 Marks)

(c) (i) Simplify the following expression:

3
2√𝑥 𝑥𝑧 4
( 𝑦𝑧 ) . ( 𝑦 ) .
(3 Marks)

(ii) Determine the solution set of the following modular inequalities:

|3𝑥 − 1| ≤ 7 .
(3 Marks)

2. (a) The radius of a cylinder is reduced by 4% and its height is increased by 2%.
Determine the approximate change in its volume. Use Binomial Expansion
method.
(6 Marks)

(b) Solve the following equations for x:

(i) 4(32𝑥+1 ) + 17(3𝑥 ) − 7 = 0

(4 Marks)

(𝑖𝑖) log 2 𝑥 + 2 log 4 𝑦 = 4

𝑥 + 12 𝑦 = 52
(5 Marks)
 254

(c) The Resistance R of an electrical conductor at temperature 𝜃 0 𝐶 is given by 𝑅 =

𝑅0 𝑒 𝛼𝜃 ,
Where α is a constant and 𝑅0 = 5000 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠. Determine:

(i) The value of α, correct for to 4 significant figures, when R = 6000 ohms and θ =
15000 𝐶,

(ii) The temperature to the nearest degree when the resistance R is 5400 ohms.
(5 Marks)

3. (a) Show that:

1
cos4 𝜃 = 8 (3 + 4cos2𝜃 + cos4𝜃) .
(5 Marks)

(b) Determine all the angles between 0o and 360o which will satisfy the equations:

(i) (1 + 2sin𝑥)cos2𝑥 = 0 ,
(4 Marks)
(ii) sin𝑦 = 3 cos(𝑦 − 30𝑜 ) .
(4 Marks)
(c) Show that:
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
(sec 𝑥+1)(sec 𝑥−1)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
Hence solve
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
(sec 𝑥+1)(sec 𝑥−1)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 3

For values of x to the nearest degree in the interval −1800 < 𝑥 < 1800
(7 Marks)

4. (a) A rectangular sheet of metal having dimensions 22cm by 14cm, has squares
removed from each of the four corners and the sides bent upwards to form an open
box. Determine the maximum possible volume of the box.
(8 Marks)

(b) If 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 3𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑡 , prove that:

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 𝑑𝑡 − 6𝑦 = 0 .
𝑑𝑡 2
(4 Marks)

(c) Find the derivatives of the following functions:

(𝑥−1)3
(i) +8 .
𝑥2
(3 Marks)
 255

3𝜃 4 − 4√𝜃 + 3 ( √𝜃 5 ) and evaluate the derivative when  = 1.

4
(ii)
(3 Marks)

𝑒 𝑡 −𝑒 2𝑡
(iii) + 5ℓ𝑛6𝑡 + sin3𝑡 − 8cos4𝑡 .
2
(2 Marks)
5. (a) Differentiate the following functions with respect to their variables:

(i) 𝑒 2𝑡 ℓn 3𝑡sin𝑡 ,
(4 Marks)

3√𝜃3
(ii) ,
2sin2𝜃
(4 Marks)

(iii) 4𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 .
(2 Marks)

(b) A curve is given by the parametric equations:

1
𝑥= , 𝑦 = 𝑡2 + 4
𝑡+1

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
Determine expressions for and in terms of t.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
(5 Marks)

(c) If sin𝑦 = 2sin𝑥 show that

𝑑𝑦 2
(𝑑𝑥 ) = 1 + 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦
(5 Marks)

𝑥
6. (a) If 𝑧 = ln 𝑦, Show that:
𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
(i) = 𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 and
𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧
(ii) Evaluate 𝜕𝑦 2 when x= -3 and y = 1
(8 Marks)
(b) Prove that, if 𝑣 = ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ), then

𝜕 2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
(8 Marks)
 256

(c) The equation for the heat generated by H is given by 𝐻 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 𝑡. Determine the
error in the calculated values of H if the error in measuring the current 𝑖 is +2%,
the error in measuring the resistance R is -3% and the error in measuring the time
t is +1%.

(4 Marks)

7. (a) Solve the following equations giving your answers correct to three decimal places:

(i) 4 cosℎ 𝑥 − 3 sinℎ 𝑥 = 5 ,

( 4 Marks)
2
(ii) 3 cosℎ 𝑥 = 7 − 4 sinℎ𝑥 .
(2 Marks)

1 1+𝑥
(b) Show that tanℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓn (1−𝑥) .
2
(5 Marks)

(c) Integrate the following functions with respect to their variables:

(i) sin2 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥 ,

(3 Marks)

(ii) sin5 𝜃 ,
(3 Marks)
1
(iii) cos 5𝑡 sin 2𝑡 .
3
(3 Marks)

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
8. (a) Express in partial fractions and hence evaluate :
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)

5 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
∫4 (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)
𝑑𝑥 ,

giving your answer correct to three decimal places.

(6 Marks)
(b) Show that:
1 4
∫0 𝑥 √𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥 = 5
(3 √3 − 4) .
(5 Marks)

(c) Use Integration by parts to evaluate the following integrals:

 257

2
(i) ∫1 𝑥 ℓn 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ,
(3 Marks)
𝜋
(ii) ∫0 𝑡 2 cos 𝑡. 𝑑𝑡
4 ,
(3 Marks)
𝜋
(iii) ∫0 𝑒 𝜃 sin 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜃
2 .
 258

FORMULAE
259
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Indicative texts and other learning materials

Engineering mathematics through application. Singh, K. (2011) 2nd Edition. Palgrave

Macmillan: Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-230-27479-2.

Engineering Mathematics. Stroud, K.A. and Booth, D.J. (2007) 6 th Edition. Palgrave
Macmillan: Basingstoke. ISBN-10: 1403942463

Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Stroud, K.A. and Booth, D.J. (2003) 4th Edition.
Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke. ISBN-10: 1403903123

Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Erwin Kreyszig. (2011) 10th Edition. John Wiley
& Sons Inc, USA. ISBN 978-0-470-45836-5

Higher Engineering Mathematics. John Bird. (2010) 6th Edition. Newnes publishers.
ISBN: 0-7506-4110-x.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Peter V. O’Neil. (2012) 7th Edition.

Publishers: Cengage Learning, USA. ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42741-2; ISBN-10: 1-111-
42741-0.

Matlab Programming for Engineers, by Stephen J. Chapman. 5th Edition.