07 Cauchy's integral theorem

Please to see Reference Book Chapter -05

(a) Definitions:
i) Cauchy’s theorem or Cauchy’s integral theorem or Cauchy-Goursat theorem S-4.4

(b) Theorems:
i) State and prove Cauchy’s integral theorem. S-4.14-4.11

(c) Problems:
1
 z  a dz where C is any simple closed curve and by
i) Evaluate C z  a is
1) Outside C S-4.20-4.21
2) Inside C
1
  z  a n dz, n 2,3, 4,
ii) Evaluate C where z  a is inside the simple closed curve C .
S-4.21-4.22
z4
iii)
 2 dz
Evaluate z  2 z  5 where C is the circle z  1  1 . S-4.22-4.25
C

z2  z 1

iv) Evaluate C z  1
dz
where C is the circle
z 
1
2 . S-4.23-4.26

08 Cauchy's integral formulae: S-5.1

Please to see Reference Book Chapter -05
(a) Definitions:
i) Cauchy's integral formulae S-5.1
ii) Morera’s theorem or converse of Cauchy theorem S-5.1
iii) Cauchy inequality S-5.1
iv) Fundamental theorem of algebra S-5.2
v) Gauss’ mean value theorem S-5.2
vi) Maximum modulus theorem S-5.2
vii) Minimum modulus theorem S-5.2
viii) The argument theorem S-5.2
ix) Rouche’s theorem S-5.2
x) Possion’s integral formulae for a circle S-5.2
xi) Poisson’s integral formulae for half plane S-5.3
(b) Theorem:
i) State and prove the Cauchy integral formula. S-5.1, 5.3

(c) Problems:
i) If f  z  be analytic inside and on the boundary C of a simple connected region IR , prove that
1 f  z
f a   dz
2 i C  z  a 2 . S-5.4-5.2
ii) If f  z  be analytic inside and on the boundary C of a simple connected region IR , prove that
f  z
f   a 
n!

n
dz n  0,1, 2,
2 i C  z  a n1 . S-5.5-5.3
iii)
 iv) Evaluate:
sin  z 2  cos  z 2

1) C  z  1 z  2 
dz
S-5.6-5.5(a)
2z
e
  z  14 dz where C is the circle z  1
2) C S-5.6-5.5(b)
3z 2  z
 2 dz where C is thecircle z 1  1
3) C z  1 S-5.7-5.7

Appication of Cauchy’s theorem or Cauchy’s integral theorem

Cauchy's Theorem and Cauchy's Integral Theorem are fundamental results in complex analysis with
important applications in various fields, including computer science and engineering. Here are a few
ways in which these theorems are applied in Computer Science and Engineering (CSE):

1. Signal Processing and Image Processing

In signal and image processing, Cauchy's Integral Theorem can be used in the context of the Fourier
transform. The Fourier transform is a tool used to analyze the frequency components of a signal or
image.

 Signal Analysis: Cauchy's theorem helps in understanding the properties of the Fourier transform and in
proving results about signal reconstruction and filtering.
 Image Compression: Techniques like the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and its variants, such as the
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), rely on complex analysis. Cauchy's theorem ensures the validity of these
transforms in certain contexts.

2. Computer Graphics

In computer graphics, particularly in algorithms for rendering and texture mapping, complex integrals
and functions can be involved.

 Texture Mapping: When dealing with complex mappings and transformations of textures, Cauchy's
Integral Theorem helps ensure that certain integrals over closed paths are zero, which can simplify
computations in texture coordinates and mappings.
 Rendering Algorithms: Some advanced rendering techniques involve the use of complex functions and
integrals. The theoretical results provided by Cauchy's theorem can be used to prove and optimize these
algorithms.

3. Control Systems
In control systems engineering, complex analysis plays a role in analyzing system stability and
response.

 Stability Analysis: Techniques such as the Nyquist criterion and the use of complex functions to analyze
system poles and zeros are underpinned by results from complex analysis, including Cauchy's theorem.
These tools help ensure that control systems are stable and perform as expected.
4. Cryptography

In cryptography, complex functions and their properties are sometimes used in the design and analysis
of cryptographic algorithms.

 Complex Function Properties: Understanding the properties of complex functions can help in the
design of certain cryptographic algorithms, although this is a more indirect application.

5. Algorithm Complexity

In theoretical computer science, the study of algorithms and their complexity can involve complex
functions and integrals.

 Complexity Analysis: Certain advanced algorithms, especially those involving probabilistic methods or
complex integrals, may use results from complex analysis. Cauchy's theorem can help simplify the
analysis of these algorithms.

Summary
Cauchy's Theorem and Cauchy's Integral Theorem provide powerful tools in complex analysis that
have broad applications in various fields of CSE. They ensure the validity of integrals and the
properties of complex functions, which are foundational for many algorithms and systems in signal
processing, image processing, control systems, computer graphics, and more.
Real life example of Cauchy’s theorem or Cauchy’s integral theorem

Cauchy's Theorem and Cauchy's Integral Theorem from complex analysis may seem abstract, but they
have real-life applications that impact various fields. Here are a few examples where these
mathematical concepts play a crucial role:

1. Electrical Engineering: Signal Processing

In electrical engineering, especially in signal processing, complex functions are used extensively to
analyze and manipulate signals.

 Fourier Transform: The Fourier transform, which decomposes a signal into its constituent frequencies,
is grounded in complex analysis. Cauchy's Integral Theorem helps in understanding and proving
properties of the Fourier transform, such as its behavior in different regions of the complex plane. This is
crucial for designing filters, analyzing signal spectra, and reconstructing signals.

Real-Life Example: Audio processing software that removes noise from recordings uses Fourier
transforms. The underlying mathematical proofs, which rely on concepts from complex analysis like
Cauchy's Theorem, ensure the effectiveness of these noise reduction techniques.

2. Control Systems: Stability Analysis

In control systems, stability and performance are critical. The Nyquist criterion and other methods for
analyzing system stability involve complex functions and integrals.

 Nyquist Criterion: This method uses complex functions to determine the stability of a control system by
analyzing the frequency response. Cauchy's Theorem ensures that integrals around closed paths in the
complex plane yield accurate results, which are fundamental for designing stable control systems.

Real-Life Example: In aerospace engineering, ensuring the stability of flight control systems is
essential. The stability analysis of these systems often relies on complex analysis techniques, including
those supported by Cauchy's Theorem, to ensure that the control systems behave reliably under various
conditions.

3. Fluid Dynamics: Incompressible Flow

In fluid dynamics, especially when analyzing incompressible flow, complex potential functions are
used to model and solve flow problems.

 Complex Potential Function: For incompressible, two-dimensional flow, complex functions can
represent the flow field. Cauchy's Theorem ensures that certain integrals over closed paths are zero,
which simplifies solving these flow problems.

Real-Life Example: Engineers use these methods to design and analyze the behavior of airflows
around aircraft wings or the flow of water through pipes. Accurate predictions and optimizations in
these contexts are enabled by the mathematical principles grounded in complex analysis.

4. Electromagnetic Theory

In electromagnetic theory, complex analysis is used to solve Maxwell's equations in certain scenarios.

 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation: When analyzing wave propagation and interactions, complex
functions and integrals are employed. Cauchy's Theorem helps in simplifying the analysis of these
problems, such as finding the electric and magnetic fields in various media.

Real-Life Example: In designing antennas and communication systems, engineers use these
mathematical tools to predict how electromagnetic waves will propagate. The reliability of these
predictions is supported by the mathematical foundations provided by Cauchy's Theorem.

5. Medical Imaging
In medical imaging techniques like MRI, complex mathematical methods are used to reconstruct
images from raw data.

 Image Reconstruction: The reconstruction algorithms often use Fourier transforms and other complex
analysis tools. Cauchy's Theorem helps in ensuring that these algorithms work correctly and efficiently
by providing theoretical guarantees about the integrals involved.

Real-Life Example: The quality of MRI images, which are critical for accurate diagnosis, relies on
sophisticated algorithms whose theoretical underpinnings involve complex analysis principles
supported by results like Cauchy's Theorem.

Summary
These examples illustrate how abstract mathematical theorems like Cauchy's Theorem have practical
implications in engineering, science, and technology. From ensuring the stability of control systems to
enhancing medical imaging techniques, these concepts are integral to real-world applications that affect
our daily lives and technological advancements.

Real life example of Cauchy's integral formulae

Cauchy's Integral Formula is a powerful result in complex analysis with practical applications in
various fields. It provides a way to evaluate integrals of analytic functions and helps in computing
function values based on their behavior within a given domain. Here are some real-life examples where
Cauchy's Integral Formula is applied:

1. Medical Imaging: MRI and Tomography

In medical imaging techniques such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and computed tomography
(CT), Cauchy's Integral Formula plays a role in image reconstruction algorithms.

 MRI Image Reconstruction: MRI scans involve collecting data from various angles and then
reconstructing the images using Fourier transforms. The Fourier transform relies on complex analysis,
and Cauchy's Integral Formula is part of the theoretical foundation that helps ensure accurate
reconstruction of images from the collected data. The formula helps in understanding how the data
collected from a circular or spherical region (in k-space) can be used to reconstruct detailed images of
the internal structures of the body.

2. Control Systems: System Response Analysis

In control systems, particularly when analyzing the response of linear time-invariant systems, Cauchy's
Integral Formula is used to derive and compute system properties.

 Transfer Function Analysis: To determine the response of a control system to different inputs,
engineers use the transfer function, which is derived from the Laplace transform of the system's
differential equations. Cauchy's Integral Formula is used to compute residues and evaluate integrals in
the complex plane, which helps in analyzing system poles and zeros and understanding the system's
stability and frequency response.

3. Electrical Engineering: Circuit Analysis

In electrical engineering, particularly in analyzing AC circuits, complex functions and integrals are used
extensively.

 Impedance Calculation: For AC circuits, the impedance of various components (resistors, capacitors,
and inductors) can be calculated using complex analysis. Cauchy's Integral Formula helps in evaluating
integrals related to circuit analysis, such as calculating the impedance of components in different
frequency domains or determining the effects of different circuit configurations.

4. Fluid Dynamics: Potential Flow

In fluid dynamics, particularly in studying potential flow around objects, Cauchy's Integral Formula is
used to analyze and solve flow problems.

 Flow Around Objects: For problems involving the flow of an incompressible fluid around objects (like
aircraft wings or underwater structures), complex potential functions are used. Cauchy's Integral Formula
helps in computing the potential function values and stream functions, which are crucial for predicting
flow patterns and optimizing designs.

5. Financial Mathematics: Option Pricing

In financial mathematics, particularly in option pricing models, complex analysis and integrals play a
significant role.

 Option Pricing Models: In the Black-Scholes model for pricing European options, the formula involves
 integrating complex functions. Cauchy's Integral Formula and related results are used to simplify and
evaluate these integrals, helping in the accurate calculation of option prices and risk management.

Summary

Cauchy's Integral Formula is more than just an abstract mathematical concept; it has tangible
applications across various fields. From reconstructing medical images and analyzing control systems
to calculating circuit impedances and optimizing fluid flow, this formula provides a theoretical
foundation that underpins many practical tools and techniques used in engineering, science, and
finance.
 Lecture No.:
Date: Time:
Topic Serial No.: 4 Week:
Topic Title: Complex Differentiation and the Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Textbook: Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschut, John J. Schiller and Dennis Spellman, Complex
Variables, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw Hill, 2010, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-07-008538-1
Textbook Chapter No., Name & Page No.: Chapter 3; Complex Differentiation and the Cauchy-
Riemann Equations; S-77

4. Complex Differentiation and the Cauchy-Riemann Equations

b. Cauchy-Riemann Equations
4b.1 Historical Background of complex number system
4b.2 Applications/Uses of complex number
4b.3 Pre-requisite topics
4b.4 Definitions
a. Cauchy-Riemann equations S-3.1
b. Harmonic function S-3.2
c. L’Hospital’s rule S-3.5
d. Complex differential operators S-3.8, S-84-3.15
e. Gradient S-3.8
f. Divergence S-3.9
g. Curl S-3.9
h. Laplacian S-3.9
i. Singular Points S-81-3.11
i. Isolated Singularities
ii. Poles
iii. Branch Points
iv. Removable Singularities
v. Essential Singularities
vi. Singularities at Infinity
4b.5 Geometrical Representations
a. Geometric interpretation of the derivative S-78-3.5
b. Application to geometry and mechanics S-83-3.14
4b.6 Theorems
a. Prove that a (a) necessary and (b) sufficient condition that
w  f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  be analytic in a region R is that the Cauchy–Riemann
u v u v
equations  ,  are satisfied in R where it is supposed that these
x y y x
partial derivatives are continuous in R. S-87-3.5

b. Given f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  is analytic in a region R. Prove that u and v are

harmonic in R if they have continuous second partial derivatives in R. S-3.12
c. Prove that in polar form the Cauchy–Riemann equations can be written
u 1 v v 1 u
 ,  . S-102-3.37
r r  r r 
d. Prove that the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function of a complex
variable when expressed in polar form satisfy the equation [Laplace’s equation in
 2 1  1  2
polar form]    0 . S-103-3.38
r 2 r r r 2  2
4b.7 Properties
a. Rules for Differentiation S-79-3.7
b. Derivatives of Elementary Functions S-80-3.8
c. Some Identities Involving Gradient, Divergence, and Curl S-85
4b.8 Problems
a. Prove that u  e x  x sin y  y cos y  is harmonic. Find v such that f  z   u  iv is
analytic. Also find f  z  . S-89-3.7, 3.8
b. Given w  f  z   z 3  2 z 2 . Find
i. w S-90-3.9 (a)
ii. dw S-90-3.9 (b)
iii. w  dw S-90-3.9 (c)
c. Prove that
d az
i. e  aeaz where a is any constant. S-91-3.11 (b)
dz
d
ii. tan z  sec2 z S-92-3.12 (c)
dz
d 1
iii. z , hrealizing that z is a multiple-valued function. S-92-3.13
dz 2 z
d f  z
iv. ln f  z   S-93-3.15
dz f z
d 1
v. sin 1 z  S-93-3.16(a)
dz 1 z2
d 1
vi. tanh 1 z  S-93-3.16(b)
dz 1 z2
dw d 2w
d. Suppose w3  3z 2 w  4ln z  0 . Find and . S-94-3.18, 3.20
dz dz 2
dw
e. Given w  sin 1  t  3 and z  cos  ln t  . Find . S-95-3.19
dz
f. Evaluate
z10  1
i. lim 6 S-96-3.22 (a)
z i z  1
1  cos z
ii. lim S-96-3.22 (c)
z i sin z 2
1
iii. lim  cos z  z 2 S-96-3.24
z 0
g. For each of the following functions, locate and name the singularities in the finite
z plane and determine whether they are isolated singularities or not.
z
i. f  z   S-97-3.25 (a)
 
2
z 4
2

ln  z  2 
ii. f z  S-97-3.25 (c)
 
4
z2  2z  2
 sin z
iii. f  z   S-97-3.25 (d)
z
z8  z 4  2
h. Locate and name all the singularities of f  z   . Determine
 z  13  3z  2 2
where f  z  is analytic. S-98-3.26
i. Suppose A  x, y   2 xy  ix 2 y3 . Find
i. grad A S-101-3.36 (a)
ii. div A
iii. curl A
iv. Laplacian of A S-101-3.36 (d)
j. Suppose A is real or, more generally, suppose Im A is harmonic. Prove that
curl grad A  0 . S-104-3.41
 2U  2U
k. Solve the partial differential equation  2  x 2  y 2 . S-105-3.42
x 2
y
l. Prove that u  2 xy  3xy 2  2 y 3 is harmonic. Find v such that f  z   u  iv is
analytic function.
y
m. In a two dimensional fluid flow, the stream function is    , find the
x  y2
2

velocity potential  . S-3.15

n. Prove that the function f  z   u  iv , where
 x3 1  i   y 3 1  i 
 z0
f  z   x2  y 2 is continuous and that Cauchy-Riemann

0 z0
equations are satisfied at the origin, yet f   z  does not exist there. S-3.20
y
o. Prove that, if u  x 2  y 2 and v   both u and v satisfy Laplace’s
x  y2
2

equation but u  i v is not analytic function of z. S-3.22-3.23

p. Using the rules of differentiation, find the derivative of cos2  2 z  3i  .
S-3.26-3.32 (a)

4b.9 Sample Questions

a. What do you mean by analytic function? Prove that u  e x  x sin y  y cos y  is
harmonic. Find v such that f  z   u  iv is analytic. Also find f  z  .
b. When a function is said to satisfy Laplace’s equation? If possible, prove that
y
u  x 2  y 2 and v   2 both satisfies the Laplace’s equation and analyze
x  y2
that u  i v is analytic or not?
c. Prove that the function f  z   u  iv , where
  x3 1  i   y 3 1  i 
 z0
f  z   x2  y 2 is continuous and that Cauchy-Riemann

0 z0
equations are satisfied at the origin, yet f   z  does not exist there.
4b.10 Historical Background of Cauchy-Riemann equations in complex number system
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are fundamental in complex analysis and serve as a
condition for a function to be analytic. Here’s a brief historical background:
1. Early Developments
 Complex Numbers: The concept of complex numbers emerged in the 16th
century, with notable contributions from mathematicians like Gerolamo Cardano
and Rafael Bombelli, who explored solutions to polynomial equations.
2. 18th Century Foundations
 Euler and Functions: In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler developed the notation
for complex exponentials and trigonometric functions, setting the stage for later
analysis of complex functions.
3. Cauchy’s Contributions
 Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1820s): Cauchy formulated the theory of complex
functions, introducing concepts of contour integration and establishing many
foundational results in complex analysis. His work on analytic functions led him to
discover conditions for differentiability in the complex plane.
4. Riemann’s Impact
 Bernhard Riemann (1850s): Riemann expanded on Cauchy's work, rigorously
developing the concept of analytic functions and contributing to the understanding
of functions of a complex variable. He articulated the Cauchy-Riemann equations
in their modern form, showing their necessity for a function to be analytic.
5. Formalization
 The equations emerged formally as a part of the study of complex differentiability,
demonstrating the relationship between the partial derivatives of the real and
imaginary parts of a complex function.
6. Later Developments
 The Cauchy-Riemann equations became a cornerstone of complex analysis,
influencing various fields, including physics, engineering, and applied
mathematics.
Summary
The Cauchy-Riemann equations, established through the contributions of Cauchy and
Riemann, provide essential criteria for differentiability in complex analysis, linking the
behavior of complex functions to their real and imaginary components. Their historical
evolution reflects the broader development of mathematical thought surrounding complex
numbers.
4b.11 Applications/Uses of Cauchy-Riemann equations in complex number system
The Cauchy-Riemann equations have several important applications in various fields.
Here are some key uses:
1. Complex Analysis: They are used to determine whether a complex function is
analytic (holomorphic) in a region, which is fundamental for exploring properties
of complex functions.
2. Fluid Dynamics: The equations help in modeling potential flows, where the flow
of an incompressible fluid can be described using analytic functions.
3. Electromagnetism: In physics, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are applied to
solve problems involving electric fields and potentials, linking the electric field
and the potential function.
4. Signal Processing: They are used in the analysis of analytic signals, which are
important in modulation and demodulation processes in communication systems.
5. Image Processing: The equations play a role in techniques like edge detection and
image reconstruction, where complex analysis helps to manipulate and analyze
visual data.
6. Control Theory: In systems engineering, the Cauchy-Riemann equations help
analyze stability and behavior of dynamic systems using complex functions.
7. Mathematical Physics: They are instrumental in solving partial differential
equations, particularly in applications related to heat conduction and wave
propagation.
These applications demonstrate the significance of the Cauchy-Riemann equations across
mathematics, engineering, and the sciences.
4b.12 Pre-requisite topics to study Cauchy-Riemann equations in complex number system
To effectively study the Cauchy-Riemann equations in the context of complex analysis,
you should have a solid understanding of several prerequisite topics:
1. Complex Numbers:
o Understanding the definition and properties of complex numbers.
o Operations with complex numbers (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division).
2. Functions of a Complex Variable:
o Basics of functions defined on complex numbers.
o Real and imaginary parts of complex functions.
3. Limits and Continuity:
o Concepts of limits and continuity in the context of complex functions.
4. Differentiation:
o Understanding the concept of differentiation and how it applies to real
functions.
o Familiarity with the concept of a derivative for complex functions.
 5. Real Analysis:
o Basic principles of real analysis, including sequences, series, and
continuity.
6. Partial Derivatives:
o Understanding how to compute partial derivatives of functions of multiple
variables.
7. Basic Differential Equations (optional):
o Familiarity with ordinary differential equations can be helpful for
understanding applications.
8. Mapping and Transformations:
o Basic understanding of functions as mappings from one set to another.
These topics will provide the necessary foundation to comprehend the Cauchy-Riemann
equations and their significance in complex analysis.
 Lecture No.:
Date: Time:
Topic Serial No.: 4 Week: 2
Topic Title: Complex Differentiation and the Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Textbook: Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschut, John J. Schiller and Dennis Spellman, Complex
Variables, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw Hill, 2010, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-07-008538-1
Textbook Chapter No., Name & Page No.: Chapter 3; Complex Differentiation and the Cauchy-Riemann
Equations; S-77

4. Complex Differentiation and the Cauchy-Riemann Equations

a. Complex differentiation
4a.1 Historical Background of complex number system
4a.2 Applications/Uses of complex number
4a.3 Pre-requisite topics
4a.4 Definitions
a. Derivative of a complex function S-3.1
b. Differentiable function at z  z0 S-3.1
c. Analytic function S-3.1
d. Analytic function at a point S-3.1
4a.5 Geometrical Representations
a. Geometric interpretation of the derivative S-78-3.5
b. Application to geometry and mechanics S-83-3.14
4a.6 Theorems
4a.7 Properties
a. Rules for Differentiation S-79-3.7
b. Derivatives of Elementary Functions S-80-3.8
4a.8 Problems
a. Using the definition, find the derivative of w  f  z   z 3  2 z at the points
z  z0 and z  1 . S-85-3.1, S-3.10-3.1
d
b. Show that z does not exist anywhere, i.e., f  z   z is non-analytic anywhere.
dz
S-86-3.2
1 z
c. Given w  f  z   , find
1 z
dw
i. S-86-3.3 (a)
dz
ii. Determine where f  z  is non-analytic. S-86-3.3(b)
d. If f  z  is analytic at z0 , prove that it must be continuous at z0 . S-86-3.4(a)
e. Give an example to show that the converse of (d) is not necessarily true. S-86-3.4(b)
4a.9 Sample Questions
a.
 Lecture No.:
Date: Time:
Topic Serial No.: 3 Week:
Topic Title: Limits and Continuity of Functions of Complex Variables and Related Theorems
Textbook: Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschut, John J. Schiller and Dennis Spellman, Complex
Variables, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw Hill, 2010, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-07-008538-1
Textbook Chapter No., Name & Page No.: Chapter 2; Functions, Limits, and Continuity; S-41

3. Limits and Continuity of Functions of Complex Variables and Related Theorems

3.1 Historical Background of complex number system
3.2 Applications/Uses of complex number
3.3 Pre-requisite topics
3.4 Definitions
a. Limit of a complex function at z  z0 (general) S-2.6
b. Limit of a complex function at z  z0 (by    ) S-2.6
c. Limit of a complex function at z   S-2.7
d. Continuity of a complex function at z  z0
e. Continuity of a complex function in a region
f. Uniform continuity of a complex function in a region S-48-2.14
g. Sequence S-48-2.15
h. Limit of a sequence S-49-2.16
3.5 Geometrical Representations
3.6 Theorems
3.7 Properties
3.8 Problems
a. Suppose f  z   z 2 . Prove that lim f  z   z0 and interpret geometrically. S-61-
2
z  z0

2.23
 z 2 when z  z0
b. Find lim f  z  if f  z    and interpret geometrically.
z  z0 0 when z  z0
S-61-2.24
3z 4  2 z 3  8 z 2  2 z  5
c. Prove that lim  4  4i . S-62-2.25
z i z i
d. Evaluate each of the following using theorems on limits
i.
z 1i

lim z 2  5 z  10  S-63-2.29 (a)

lim
 2 z  3 z  1
ii. S-63-2.29 (b)
z   2i z2  2z  4
z3  8
iii. lim i S-63-2.29 (c)
z  2e 3
z 4  4 z 2  16

z
e. Prove that lim does not exist. S-2.25-2.30
z 0 z
f. Prove that f  z   z 2 is continuous at z  z0 . S-61-2.31
  z when z  z0
2
g. Prove that f  z    , where z  0 , is discontinuous at z  z0 .
0 when z  z0
S-61-2.31
3z 4  2 z 3  8 z 2  2 z  5
h. Is the function f  z   continuous at z  i ? S-62-
z i
2.32
i. Prove that f  z   z 2 is continuous in the region z  1 . S-65-2.34
j. Prove that f  z   z 2 is uniformly continuous in the region z  1 . S-66-2.36
3.9 Sample Questions
z2  4z  3
a. What do you mean by limit of f  z  at z  z0 ? Evaluate lim .
z 1i z 1
b. What do you mean by limit of a complex function at a point? Using the definition
 2 z  3 z  1
of a limit, find lim .
z   2i z2  2z  4

c. Prove that the function f  z   u  iv , where

 x3 1  i   y 3 1  i 
 z0
f  z   x2  y 2

0 z0
is continuous at the origin.
 Lecture No.:
Date: Time:
Topic Serial No.: 2 Week:
Topic Title: General Functions of a Complex Variable
Textbook: Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschut, John J. Schiller and Dennis Spellman, Complex
Variables, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw Hill, 2010, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-07-008538-1
Textbook Chapter No., Name & Page No.: Chapter 2; Functions, Limits, and Continuity; S-41

2. General Functions of a Complex Variable

2.1 Historical Background of complex number system
2.2 Applications/Uses of complex number
2.3 Pre-requisite topics
a. Function
b. Complex numbers
2.4 Definitions
a. Complex Variable S-1.2, 2.1
b. Complex function S-2.1
c. Singled valued function S-2.1
d. Multiple valued function S-2.1
e. Inverse function S-2.1
f. Transformation S-2.2
g. Curvilinear coordinates S-2.2
h. Polynomial function S.2.2
i. Rational algebraic function S-2.3
j. Exponential function S-2.3
k. Trigonometric function S-2.3
l. Hyperbolic function S-2.4
m. Logarithmic function S-2.4
n. Inverse trigonometric function S-2.4
o. Inverse hyperbolic function S-2.5
p. Algebraic and transcendental function S-2.5
2.5 Geometrical Representations
2.6 Theorems
2.7 Properties
2.8 Problems
a. Let w  f  z   z 2 then find the values of w which correspond to z  2  i and
show how the correspondence can be represented graphically. S-2.10-2.1
b. Show that the line joining the points P and Q in the z-plane of
z  2  i and z  1  3i is mapped by w  z 2 into a curve joining points PQ and
determine the equation of this curve. S-2.10-2.2
c. Let w5  z and suppose that corresponding to the particular value z  z1 , we have
w  w1 . (i) If we start at the point z1 in the z plane [see Fig. 2-12] and make one
complete circuit counterclockwise around the origin, show that the value of w on
2 i
returning to z1 isw1e 5 . (ii) What are the values of w on returning to z1 , after 2, 3,
……… complete circuits around the origin? (iii) Discuss parts (i) and (ii) if the
paths do not enclose the origin. (iv) Explain why we can consider w as a collection
of five single-valued functions of z. (v) Explain geometrically the relationship
 between these single-valued functions. (vi) Show geometrically how we can
restrict ourselves to a particular single-valued function. S-52-2.6, 2.7

d. Prove that
i. e z1  e z2  e z1  z2 S-2.14-2.8(a)
ii. sin 2 z  cos 2 z  1 S-2.14-2.9(a)
iii. eiz  cos z  i sin z S-2.14-2.9(b)
iv. sin   z    sin z S-2.15-2.11(a)
v. cos   z   cos z
e. Prove that the zeros of cos z are all real and find them. S-2.15-2.10(b)
f. Prove that
i. 1  tanh 2 z  sec h 2 z S-55-2.12
ii. sin iz  i sinh z
iii. cos iz  cosh z
iv. sin  x  iy   sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y
g. Suppose z  ew where z  r  cos   i sin   and w  u  iv . Show that
u  ln r and v    2k , k  0,  1,  2,...so that w  ln z  ln r  i   2k  .
Determine the values of ln 1  i  .What is the principal value? S-56-2.14
2.9 Sample Questions
a. Let w  f  z   z 2 then find the values of w which correspond to z  2  i and
show how the correspondence can be represented graphically. S-2.10-2.1
b. Prove that 1  tanh 2 z  sec h 2 z . S-55-2.12
 Lecture No.:
Date: Time:
Topic Serial No.: 1 Week: 1
Topic Title: Complex Number System
Textbook: Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschut, John J. Schiller and Dennis Spellman, Complex
Variables, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw Hill, 2010, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-07-008538-1
Textbook Chapter No., Name & Page No.: Chapter 1; Complex Numbers; S-1

1. Complex Number System

1.1 Historical Background of complex number system

1.2 Applications/Uses of complex number

a. Complex numbers are very important in engineering and science. They have
applications in many areas, including control theory, signal analysis, relativity, and
fluid dynamics.
b. Complex numbers are used by Electrical & Electronic Engineers to define the
Alternating Current or AC concept of Impedance, and in Fourier analysis they are
used in the processing of radio, telephone and video signals.
c. Complex numbers (the sum of real and imaginary numbers) occur quite naturally in
the study of quantum physics. They're useful for modelling periodic motions (such as
water or light waves) as well as alternating currents.
d. Complex number is used in Electromagnetism. Complex number is used to simplify
the unknown roots if roots are not real for quadratic equations. Complex numbers are
used in computer science engineering. Complex number is used in mechanical and
civil engineering
e. Complex numbers used in Computer science engineering
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-are-complex-numbers-used-in-real-life/
In Computer science, data place a major role. The data cannot be seen visually
because it is in the form of CSV files. Those CSV file data can be seen by using
visual representation methods in computer science. That Visual representation is in
the real axis and imaginary axis only so complex numbers are used to represent the
data in a visual format for computer science technology. In 2D images also we can
use complex numbers. Rotation of a point having real part and imaginary part and
translation of a point in a 2D image represents the complex number.
f. Complex numbers in Electronics
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-are-complex-numbers-used-in-real-life/
In electronics, we are used to representing the general form of a complex number in
the circuit having voltage and current. In Electronics circuit is mainly based on
current and voltage. Those two elements are put together as single complex numbers.
 Z = V+ iI is the complex representation of a circuit having both current and voltage
where V is the real axis part and I is the imaginary axis part so that we can able to see
the comparison of both V and I by representing as a complex number in electronics.
Sometimes in RC circuits or RLC circuits, if we want to combine two elements, say
for example resistor and inductor we can write it as R + jXL as well as if in case
resistor and capacitor complex number representation would be R + j Xc where XL =
jwL and Xc = 1/jwc.
1.3 Pre-requisite topics
a. Natural numbers
b. Negative integers and zero
c. Rational numbers
d. Irrational numbers
1.4 Definitions
a. Complex number S-1.2
b. Complex variable S-1.2
c. Conjugate of a complex number S-1.2
d. Absolute value of a complex number S-1.3
e. Polar form of a complex number S-1.4
f. Argument or amplitude of a complex number S-1.4
g. Polynomial equations S-1.5
h. Dot and cross product S-1.7
1.5 Geometrical Representations
a. Sum of two complex numbers S-1.6
b. Product of two complex numbers
c. Vector Interpretation of complex numbers
1.6 Theorems
a. De-Moivre’s theorem S-1.4
b. Roots of a complex numbers S-1.5
c. Euler’s formula S-1.5
1.7 Properties
a. Equal of two complex numbers
b. Sum of two complex numbers S-1.6
c. Subtraction of two complex numbers
d. Product of two complex numbers
e. Division of two complex numbers
f. If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then prove that
i. z1  z2  z1  z2 Sh-04-1-2.7(i)
2
ii. z  z z Sh-08-1-2.8(ii)
iii. 2 z  Re  z   Im  z  Sh-09-1-2.9
iv. z1  z2  z1  z2 S-1.12-1.7(a), Sh-10-1-2.11
v. z1  z2  z1  z2 S-1.12-1.7(c), Sh-10-1-2.11
 vi. z1  z2  z1  z2 Sh-11-1-2.12
1.8 Problems
a. Find the complex number of the following
i.  3  2i    7  i  S-1.8-1.1(a)
ii.  4  2i  2  3i  S-1.8-1.1(g)
5  5i 20

iii. 3  4i 4  3i S-1.9-1.1(i)
3i 30  i19
iv. 2i  1 S-1.9-1.1(m)

b. Perform the indicated operations both analytically and graphically:

i. 3  4i   5  2i  S-1.10-1.5(a)
ii.  6  2i    2  5i  S-1.10-1.5(b)

c. Express each of the following complex numbers in polar form and draw the
graph
i. 2  2 3 i S-1.15-1.16(a)
ii.  6  2 i S-1.15-1.16(c)

d. Prove that
i.  cos  i sin  n  cos n  i sin n
where n is any positive integer S-1.18-1.20
ii. cos 5  16 cos5   20 cos3   5cos  S-1.18-1.21

e. Find all values of z for which z 5  32 and locate these values in the complex
plane. S-1.20-1.28(a)
1
f. Find the indicated roots of  1  i  3 and locate then graphically. S-1.21-1.29(a)
g. Find the square roots of 15  18i S-1.21-1.30
h. Find all the fifth roots of Unity. S-1.24-1.37
i. Find the cube roots of 8i Sh-69-8
j. Find the roots of a complex number
k. If z1  3  4i and z2  4  3i then find
i. z1 z2 S-1.24-1.39
ii. z1  z2 S-1.24-1.39
iii. Acute angle S-1.24-1.40
l. Sketch the region in z-plane represented by the following relations:
z 3
i. 2 S-46-5(v)
z3
ii. Re  z   1 Sh-53-6(iii)
iii. z  4  z Sh-53-6(v)
iv. z  i  z  i Sh-53-6(vii)
 v. z4  z Sh-53-6(v)
vi. Re    1
1
Sh-53-6(xvi)
z
vii. z  1  i  z  1  i Sh-53-6(xvii)
viii. 1  z  2i  2 Sh-54-6(xviii)
m. Find the equation of a straight line joining the points of two complex numbers in the
argand plane complex.
n. If A, B and C are complex constant and A, B and C are their conjugates then show
that the equation (A+A)ZZ+BZ+BZ+C+C=0 represent a circle if BB>(A+A)(C+C).
1.9 Sample Questions
a. What do you mean by a complex variable? Evaluate the absolute value of the
following complex number
i 2  i9
.
2i 4  i 5
b. What do you mean by complex number? Find the complex number of the following
5  5i 20
 .
3  4i 4  3i
c. Write down the definition of a conjugate of a complex number? Evaluate the
conjugate of the complex number defined by
7  i7
.
 6  4i  3  2i 
x y
d. If z is complex number then prove that z  x y.
2
e. Write down the De-Moivre’s theorem for complex variable. Applying the De-
1
Moivre’s theorem, evaluate the indicated roots of 1  3i  3 and locate them
graphically.
f. Analyze and sketch the region in z-plane represented by the following relation as
1  z  2i  2 .