Introduction to Math

Olympiad Problems
Introduction to Math
Olympiad Problems

Michael A. Radin
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Radin, Michael A. (Michael Alexander), author.

Title: Introduction to Math Olympiad problems / Michael A. Radin.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2021.
| Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021000951 (print) | LCCN 2021000952 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367544829 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367544713 (paperback) | ISBN
9781003089469 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mathematics--Problems, exercises, etc. | International
Mathematical Olympiad. | Mathematics--Competitions.
Classification: LCC QA43 .R34 2021 (print) | LCC QA43 (ebook) | DDC
510.76--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000951
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000952

ISBN: 978-0-367-54482-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-08946-9 (ebk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-54471-3 (pbk)

Typeset in CMR10 font

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Contents

Preface ix

Author Bio xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Chapter 1  Introduction 1

1.1 Patterns and Sequences 1

1.2 Integers 3
1.3 Geometry 4
1.4 Venn Diagrams 8
1.5 Factorial and Pascal’s Triangle 10
1.6 Graph Theory 11
1.7 Piecewise Sequences 12
1.8 Chapter 1 Exercises 13

Chapter 2  Sequences and Summations 17

2.1 Linear and Quadratic Sequences 20

2.2 Geometric Sequences 22
2.3 Factorial and Factorial−Type Sequences 23
2.4 Alternating and Piecewise Sequences 25
2.5 Formulating Recursive Sequences 26
2.6 Solving Recursive Sequences 29
2.7 Summations 31
2.8 Chapter 2 Exercises 34

v
vi  Contents

Chapter 3  Proofs 37

3.1 Algebraic Proofs 37

3.2 Proof by Induction 40
3.3 Chapter 3 Exercises 42

Chapter 4  Integers’ Characteristics 45

4.1 Consecutive Integers 45

4.2 Prime Factorization and Divisors 47
4.3 Perfect Squares 49
4.4 Integers’ Ending Digits 51
4.5 Chapter 4 Exercises 53

Chapter 5  Pascal’s Triangle Identities 55

5.1 Horizontally Oriented Identities 58

5.2 Diagonally Oriented Identities 62
5.3 Binomial Expansion 64
5.4 Chapter 5 Exercises 66

Chapter 6  Geometry 69

6.1 Triangular Geometry 69

6.1.1 Isosceles Triangles 71
6.1.2 30−60−90 Triangles 74
6.1.3 45−45−90 Triangles 76
6.1.4 Additional Right Triangles 77
6.2 Area and Perimeter Geometry 81
6.3 Geometry and Proportions 88
6.4 Chapter 6 Exercises 94

Chapter 7  Graph Theory 101

7.1 Degrees of Vertices and Cycles 101

7.2 Regular Graphs 109
 Contents  vii

7.3 Semi-Regular Graphs 110

7.4 Hamiltonian Cycles 112
7.5 Chapter 7 Exercises 117

Chapter 8  Answers to Chapter Exercises 121

8.1 Answers to Chapter 1 Exercises 121

8.2 Answers to Chapter 2 Exercises 123
8.3 Answers to Chapter 4 Exercises 124
8.4 Answers to Chapter 5 Exercises 125
8.5 Answers to Chapter 6 Exercises 126
8.6 Answers to Chapter 7 Exercises 126

Chapter 9  Appendices 129

9.1 Venn Diagram 129

9.2 Angular Geometry 130
9.3 Right Triangles 131
9.4 Isosceles Triangles 133
9.5 Equilateral Triangles 133
9.6 Area of Figures 134
9.7 Patterns (Sequences) 135
9.8 Alternating Patterns (Sequences) 136
9.9 Summation Properties 137
9.10 Finite Summations 137
9.11 Laws of Exponents 138
9.12 Factoring Methods 139
9.13 Binomial Expansion 139

Bibliography 141

Index 143
Preface

The first International Math Olympiad was hosted in Romania in 1959.

In the United States, the first Math Olympiads were hosted in 1977 by
Dr. George Lenchner (an internationally known math educator). Currently,
many regional, national and international Math Olympiads are held annually
worldwide.
The aim of this textbook is to train and prepare students to compete in
Math Olympiads by presenting the essential fundamentals of various topics
such as angular geometry, triangular geometry, integers’ characteristics, fac-
toring, patterns and sequences, recursive sequences, algebraic proofs, proof by
induction, Pascal’s triangle, binomial expansion, Venn diagrams and graph
theory. Each topic will commence with the understanding of when and how to
apply the basic fundamentals to solve challenging multi-step and multitasking
problems. We will encounter that every problem reduces to understanding and
implementing specific principle(s).
Furthermore, the intents of this book are not only to prepare students to
compete in Math Olympiads but also to get students acquainted with topics
that will direct them for future college mathematics courses such as Discrete
Mathematics, Graph Theory, Difference Equations, Number Theory and Ab-
stract Algebra.
I invite you to the mathematical discovery journey in deciphering each
problem to distinct fundamentals that will open doors and windows to creative
and innovative solutions. Numerous repetitive-type examples will be provided
for each topic that will enhance and widen our mathematical principles and
perspectives. I hope that you will enjoy opening these discoveries as much as
I will enjoy introducing them and guiding them.

Michael A. Radin

ix
Author Bio

Michael A. Radin earned his Ph.D. at the University of Rhode Island in

2001 and is currently an associate professor of mathematics at the Rochester
Institute of Technology (RIT) and an international scholar at Riga Technical
University Department of Engineering Economics and Management. Michael
began his pedagogical journey at the University of Rhode Island in 1995 and
taught SAT preparatory courses in addition to teaching his regular courses at
the RIT. For the first time in 2019, Michael taught a mini-course for high-
school students on ‘Introduction to Recognition and Deciphering of Patterns’
hosted by the Rezekne Technical University High School.
While teaching the SAT preparatory courses for the high-school students,
Michael established new techniques on solving multi-tasking problems that
remit principles of geometry, integers, factoring and other crucial tools. He
especially emphasizes to his students when and how to apply these perti-
nent principles by providing them with numerous repetitive-type guided ex-
amples and hands-on practice problems. Michael applied similar strategies
while teaching his mini-course for high-school students on ‘Introduction to
Recognition and Deciphering of Patterns’ by directing the students’ focus on
recognizing when and how to apply specific patterns after working out several
repetitive-type examples that guide to formulation of theorems.
For several years, Michael organized the annual MATHBOWL event hosted
by the RIT K-12 Office. This event consists of seven rounds of questions, and
students from five different school districts competed in this annual event. In
addition to organizing the MATHBOWL event at RIT, Michael organized the
Math Olympics in American Style event in Riga, Latvia, hosted by the Uni-
versity of Latvia Department of Mathematics. Close to 100 students competed
in this event from numerous school districts throughout Latvia.
Recently, Michael published four papers on international pedagogy and has
been invited as a keynote speaker at several international and interdisciplinary
conferences. Michael taught courses and conducted seminars on these related
topics during his spring 2009 sabbatical at the Aegean University in Greece
and during his spring 2016 sabbatical at Riga Technical University in Latvia.
Michael’s aims are to inspire students to learn.
Furthermore, Michael had the opportunity to implement his hands-on
teaching and learning style in the courses that he regularly teaches at RIT and
during his sabbatical in Latvia during the spring 2016 semester. This method
confirmed to work very successfully for him and his students, kept the stu-
dents stimulated and improved their course performance [1, 3]. Therefore, the

xi
xii  Author Bio

hands-on teaching and learning style is the intent of this book by providing
the repetitive-type examples. In fact, several repetitive-type examples will de-
velop our intuition on pattern recognition, help us see the bigger spectrum on
how concepts relate to each other and will lead to the formulation of theorems
and their proofs.
During his spare time, Michael spends time outdoors and is an avid land-
scape photographer. In addition, Michael is an active poet and has several
published poems in the LeMot Juste. Furthermore, Michael published an arti-
cle on ‘Re-photographing the Baltic Sea Scenery in Liepaja: Why photograph
the same scenery multiple times’ in the Journal of Humanities and Arts 2018.
Michael also recently published a book on Poetic Landscape Photography with
JustFiction Edition 2019. Spending time outdoors and active landscape pho-
tography widen and expand Michael’s horizons and interpretations of nature’s
patterns and cadences.
Acknowledgments

First of all, I would like to take the opportunity to thank the CRC Press
staff for their support, encouragement, their beneficial guidance while devis-
ing new ideas and for keeping me on the right time track. Their encourage-
ment certainly lead me in new innovative directions with new practices by
specific formulations of concepts. Their suggestions were very valuable with
the textbook’s structure, such as introduction of new definitions, graphical
representations of concepts, additional examples of new concepts and apply-
ing the definitions and principles from the introduction chapter throughout
the textbook.
Second of all, I would also like to thank my colleague, Olga A. Orlova, from
Munich Technical University, for her artistic help with numerous diagrams and
figures. Olga indicated mistakes that she detected after meticulously checking
the examples in each section and in the end-of-chapter exercises. In addition,
Olga suggested to include specific supplementary examples of configuration
of figures’ geometrical formations and to include Venn Diagrams and graph
theory as textbook topics.
Furthermore, I would like to take the opportunity to thank my colleagues,
Maruta Avotina and Agnes Shuste, from the University of Latvia Department
of Mathematics, for sponsoring the ‘Math Olympics in American Style Event’,
for inviting me to experience these unique cultural contrasts that compare the
Latvian and American students’ mathematical knowledge and performance,
and for their guidance on the diversity and difficulty level of mathematical
topics for the event.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Alexander and Shulamit, for
encouraging me to write textbooks, for their support with the textbook’s
content and for persuading me to continue writing in the future.

xiii
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to get acquainted with the basic fundamental tools
that we will use to approach, analyze and solve assorted problems that may
require just one or two steps to solve or perhaps require multiple number
of steps to solve. We will discover that every problem will reduce to under-
standing and deciphering of basic fundamentals. Therefore, it is vital to es-
tablish and understand the intrinsic knowledge that will guide us to unfolding
very challenging problems. We will emerge with the foundation of assorted
sequences and patterns.

1.1 Patterns and Sequences

This section’s aims are to recognize various patterns and sequences. We will
commence with linear sequences where the difference between two neighbor-
ing terms is a constant. For instance, the sequence that lists the consecutive
positive integers starting at 1 is graphically portrayed with the correspond-
ing diagram.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 1.1 List of positive consecutive integers.

Analytically, we express the sequence of positive integers in Figure 1.1 as

{n}∞
n=1 . (1.1)

Analogous to Figure 1.1, we will assemble similar diagrams when solving re-
lated problems with consecutive integers and other homologous contents.
In addition, (1.1) can be expressed as a recursive sequence. Observe that

1
2  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

we start at 1 and transition from neighbor to neighbor by adding a 1. Hence,

recursive and inductively we procure

x0 = 1,
x0 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 = x1 ,
x1 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3 = x2 ,
x2 + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 = x3 ,
x3 + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5 = x4 ,
x4 + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6 = x5 ,
..
.

Thus for all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + 1,
x0 = 1.
The succeeding pattern evokes a geometric sequence.

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128

Figure 1.2 Geometric sequence listing 2n for n ∈ [0, 1, 2, . . .].

Notice that in Figure 1.2 we transition from neighbor to neighbor by multi-

plying by 2. We can formulate sequence of integers in Figure 1.2 as

{2n }∞
n=0 . (1.2)

Also, (1.2) can be depicted recursively as

x0 = 1,
x0 · 2 = 1 · 2 = 2 = x1 ,
x1 · 2 = 2 · 2 = 4 = x2 ,
x2 · 2 = 4 · 2 = 8 = x3 ,
x3 · 2 = 16 · 2 = 16 = x4 ,
x4 · 2 = 32 · 2 = 32 = x5 ,
..
.

Thus for all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = 2xn ,
x0 = 1.
We will study additional patterns such as quadratic patterns and facto-
rial in Section 1.5 and in Chapter 5. Now will transition to the study of
integers.
 Introduction  3

1.2 Integers
This section’s aims are to establish the fundamentals of integers such as con-
secutive integers, perfect squares, factoring integers, integers’ ending digits
and additional properties of integers. For instance, the cognate tree diagram
depicts the prime factors of 30.

Figure 1.3 Prime factorization of 30.

Via Figure 1.3, we see that the unique prime factors of 30 are 2, 3 and 5
and are the ending nodes of the factoring tree. The corresponding set lists
all the proper factors of 30 (excluding 1 and 30):

2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15. (1.3)

Now via (1.3) we obtain the following sums:

(i) The sum of all the prime factors: S1 = 2 + 3 + 5 = 10.
(ii) The sum of all the factors: S2 = 2 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 10 + 15 = 41.
Observe S2 exceeds 30. Analogous to Figure 1.1, the corresponding diagram
lists positive consecutive even integers starting at 2.

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Figure 1.4 List of positive consecutive even integers.

In Figure 1.4, the difference between two neighbors is two. We will apply
Figures 1.1 and 1.4 to solve numerous problems that remit questions about
consecutive integers and about consecutive even and odd integers. In fact, we
will often add consecutive integers, consecutive even integers and consecutive
4  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

odd integers. The corresponding summation adds all the consecutive positive
integers starting with 1:
n
X
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = i. (1.4)
i=1

We will prove (1.4) by induction and will apply (1.4) to solve supplemental
problems addressing consecutive integers. In addition, provided that r 6= 1,
We will encounter the associated geometric summation:
n
X
2 3 n
a + a·r + a·r + a·r + ··· + a · r = a · ri . (1.5)
i=0

We will also prove (1.5) by induction and apply (1.5) to solve specific integer
problems. The consequent list of integers renders perfect squares:

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, . . . . (1.6)

Via (1.6) it is interesting to note that perfect squares must either end in a 1,
4, 5, 6, 9 and 0. Using the ending digits of perfect squares, we can generally
determine the ending digits of product(s) of integers. For instance, determine
the ending digit of the related product:

18 · 24 = 432. (1.7)

By multiplying only the ending digits 8 · 4 = 32 of the product in (1.7), we

obtain 2 as an ending digit of (1.7). More thorough details on perfect squares
and the ending digits of integers will be examined in Chapter 4. Next we will
transition to geometry.

1.3 Geometry
This section’s objectives are to develop and enhance the foundations of angu-
lar, triangular geometry and areas of geometrical figures. We will commence
with angular geometry. The corresponding sketch sums two supplementary
angles α and β along the straight line.

Figure 1.5 Sum of angles along a straight line.

 Introduction  5

In Figure 1.5, α and β are supplementary angles and

α + β = 180. (1.8)

Example 1.1. Determine two supplementary angles whose ratio is 2 : 1.

Solution: Suppose that α and β are supplementary angles. Then we set α =
2β and via (1.8) we obtain

α + β = 2β + β = 3β = 180.

Hence we acquire β = 60 and α = 120.

Example 1.2. Solve for α in terms of β from the cognate sketch:

Solution: The red line is a bisector and via (1.8) we obtain

2α + β = 180,

and
180 − β
α = .
2
The corresponding diagram sums all the interior angles of a triangle.

Figure 1.6 Sum of interior angles in a triangle.

In Figure 1.6, α, β and γ are interior angles and

α + β + γ = 180. (1.9)
6  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Example 1.3. Solve for y from the corresponding sketch:

Solution: Via (1.9), in the left-neighboring triangle we set

4x + 50 = 90,

and obtain x = 10. Similarly, in the right-neighboring triangle we set

3x + y = 30 + y = 90,

and acquire y = 60.

Next we will examine the area of specific figures such as a circle and a square.
The corresponding diagram renders a full circle with radius r (Figure 1.7)

Figure 1.7 A full circle with radius r.

whose area is

A = πr2 . (1.10)
The
√ upcoming sketch describes a square with length x, width x and diagonal
x 2 (Figure 1.8)
 Introduction  7

Figure 1.8 A square with length, width and diagonal.

whose area is

A = x2 . (1.11)
Example 1.4. Determine the area of a square inscribed inside the circle whose
area is 8π:

Solution: First of all via (1.10) we set

A = πr2 = 8π,
√ √ √
and obtain r = 8 = 2 2. Then the circle’s diameter becomes d = 2r = 4 2.
From the sketch below
8  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

we see that the circle’s diameter is the square’s diagonal. Therefore, via Figure
1.8 and Eq. (1.11) we acquire
√
d 4 2
x = √ = √ = 4,
2 2
and
A = 42 = 16.
Notice that the diagonal of a square in Figure 1.8 decomposes the square into
two equal 45−45−90 triangles. Next we will transition to Venn diagrams that
remit overlapping between two or more sets.

1.4 Venn Diagrams

This section’s objectives are to establish the fundamentals of when and how
to apply Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams remit overlapping of two or more
sets or what two or more sets have in common. For instance, consider the two
sets
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . . , 79},
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . . , 80}.
Notice that sets A and B are disjoint sets or do not intersect where

A ∩ B = ∅,

as A evokes the positive odd integers and B depicts the positive even integers
described by the cognate diagram as shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Decomposition of disjoint sets A and B.

Via Diagram 1.9 we obtain the corresponding union of sets A and B (joining
sets A and B):

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . , 80}
 Introduction  9

and
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| . (1.12)
The cognate sets A and B,

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . . , 120} and

B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, . . . , 120},

are overlapping sets, and the intersection between A and B is the associ-
ated set
A ∩ B = {6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, . . . , 120}.
Overlapping sets or sets that intersect are evoked by the corresponding
Venn diagram as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Venn diagram of two sets A and B.

In contrary to Diagram 1.9, via Diagram 1.10, we obtain

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| . (1.13)

From Diagram 1.10 we will transition to the associated Venn diagram as shown
in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11 Venn diagram of three sets A, B and C.

10  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Diagram 1.11 renders three sets A, B and C and the following combinations
of intersections:
A ∩ B, A ∩ C, B ∩ C, A ∩ B ∩ C.
Via (1.14) and via Diagram 1.11 we procure

|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − [|A ∩ B| + |A ∩ C| + |B ∩ C|]

+ |A ∩ B ∩ C|. (1.14)

1.5 Factorial and Pascal’s Triangle

This section’s aims are to get acquainted with factorial pattern and the
characteristics of the Pascal’s triangle. The factorial pattern is defined as
a product of consecutive positive integers starting with 1 as

0! = 1,
1! = 1,
2! = 2 · 1 = 2 · 1!,
3! = 3 · 2 · 1 = 3 · 2!,
4! = 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 4 · 3!, (1.15)
..
.
n
Y
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · · · 2 · 1 = n · (n − 1)! = i.
i=1

Note that (1.15) can be expressed as the following piecewise sequence:


1Q if n = 0,
n! = n
i=1 i if n ∈ N.

The factorial is applied in Permutations and in Combinations.

Definition 1.1. For all n ≥ 0 and k ∈ [0, 1, . . . , n], the number of ordered
k-permutations out of n elements is defined as
n!
P (n, k) = . (1.16)
(n − k)!

Definition 1.2. For all n ≥ 0 and k ∈ [0, 1, . . . , n], the number of k-

combinations out of n elements is defined as the corresponding binomial
coefficient:  
n n!
= . (1.17)
k k!(n − k)!
The factorial will be described as a recursive sequence in Chapter 5 and (1.17)
will render the elements of the corresponding Pascal’s triangle.
 Introduction  11

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 1.12 The Pascal’s triangle decomposed into blue and red rows.
Figure 1.12 assembles the triangle with even-ordered and odd-ordered rows.
The even-ordered rows are shaded in blue and the odd-ordered are shaded in
red. Note that the elements of the third row and the seventh row are all odd
integers. In addition, observe that the odd-ordered rows in blue have an even
number of elements while the even-ordered rows in red have an odd number
of elements. Additional properties of the Pascal’s triangle with (1.17) will be
examined in Chapter 5.

1.6 Graph Theory

This section’s intents are to explore the cores of graph theory, which remits
the number of vertices and edges. To determine the Cartesian Product of
the associated sets
A = {a, b} and
B = {α, β, γ},
we match each English letter a and b with each Greek letter α, β and γ and
acquire the corresponding Cartesian Product denoted as A × B:

{a, α}, {a, β}, {a, γ}

(1.18)
{b, α}, {b, β}, {b, γ}.

Then we render (1.18) graphically as the related Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 .

Figure 1.13 Cartesian product rendered as a Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 .

12  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

In Figure 1.13, the vertices a and b have three edges each or degree 3, while
the vertices α, β and γ have two edges each or degree 2. The consequent
example will examine the Partition of Sets together with prime factorization
of integers. To determine the prime factorization of the corresponding set
A = {2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15}, (1.19)
we decompose set A in (1.19) into two disjoint subsets. The first subset lists
the prime numbers that are divisible only by 1 or by itself:

 2 = 2 · 1,
3 = 3 · 1, (1.20)
5 = 5 · 1.


The next subset lists the product of exactly two prime numbers:

 6 = 2 · 3,
10 = 2 · 5, (1.21)
15 = 3 · 5.


Observe that (1.21) has 32 = 3 products. Combining (1.20) and (1.21) we

assemble the associated Hasse Diagram.

Figure 1.14 Partition of sets as a 2-regular graph with six vertices.

In Figure 1.14, all the vertices have two edges each or degree 2. In this case
Figure 1.14 is a regular graph as all the vertices have the same degree.

1.7 Piecewise Sequences

This section’s objectives are to examine piecewise sequences that consist of
two or more subsequences. We commence with the corresponding definition.
Definition 1.3. For all n ≥ 0, we define a Piecewise Sequence {xn }∞
n=0
that consists of two subsequences {an }∞ ∞
n=0 and {bn }n=1 as

a0 , b1 , a2 , b3 , . . . . (1.22)
 Introduction  13

Now we express (1.22) as


an if n = 0, 2, 4, . . . ,
{xn }∞
n=0 = (1.23)
bn if n = 1, 3, 5, . . . .

The next two examples will render piecewise sequences together with (1.22)
and (1.23).
Example 1.5. Write a formula of the following sequence:

0, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, . . . . (1.24)

Solution: First we break up (1.24) into two main blue and green subsequences:

0, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, . . . . (1.25)

Then for n ≥ 0 we acquire


2n if n = 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . ,
{xn }∞
n=0 = 2n − 1 if n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . .

Example 1.6. Write a formula of the following sequence

2, 4, 6, −8, 10, 12, 14, −16, . . . . (1.26)

Solution: Note that (2.24) is composed in terms of positive even integers

starting at 2 while every fourth term of (2.24) is negative. Thus we will break
up (2.24) into two primary blue and green subsequences:

2, 4, 6, −8, 10, 12, 14, −16, . . . . (1.27)

Now observe that in (1.27) the blue subsequence is a non-alternating sequence

while the green subsequence alternates. Hence for n ≥ 0 we acquire

2(n + 1) if n = 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . ,
{xn }∞
n=0 = n−1
(−1) 2 [2(n + 1)] if n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . .

1.8 Chapter 1 Exercises

In problems 1–10, write a formula of each sequence:

1: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, . . . .

2: 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, . . . .
3: 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41, . . . .
4: 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, . . . .
5: 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32, . . . .
14  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

6: 16, 64, 144, 256, 400, 484, . . . .

7: 1, 9, 25, 49, 81, 121, . . . .
8: 1, 4, 13, 28, 49, 76, 109, . . . .

In problems 9–14, write a formula of each piecewise sequence:

9: 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, . . . .
10: 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, . . . .

11: 1, 3, 4, 9, 16, 27, . . . .

12: 3, −6, 9, 12, 15, −18, . . . .
13: 1, 2, 6, 12, 36, 72, . . . .
14: 0, a, a + b, 2a + b, 2a + 2b, 3a + 2b, . . . .

In problems 15–20, write a recursive formula (as an initial value problem)

of each sequence:

15: 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, . . . .

16: 4, 12, 36, 108, 324, 972, . . . .
17: 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, . . . .
18: 1, 4, 16, 64, 256, 1024, . . . .
19: 9, 18, 36, 72, 144, 288, . . . .
20: 1, 3, 15, 105, 945, 10395, . . . .

In problems 21–26, determine the prime factors of the following integers:

21: 36.
22: 40.
23: 42.
24: 70.
25: 105.

26: 150.

In problems 27–30, sketch the Bi-Partite Graph describing:

 Introduction  15

27: The Cartesian Product A × B of the following sets:

A = {a, b, c},
B = {α, β, γ}.

28: The Cartesian Product A × B of the following sets:

A = {a, b, c, d},
B = {α, β, γ, δ}.

29: The Cartesian Product A × B × C of the following sets:

A = {a, b},
B = {α, β},
C = {1, 2}.

30: The Cartesian Product A × B × C of the following sets:

A = {a, b, c},
B = {α, β, γ},
C = {1, 2, 3}.

In problems 31–34, sketch the Hasse Diagram rendering the prime factor-
ization of the following sets of integers:

31:
A = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21}.

32:
A = {2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}.

33:
A = {2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 36}.

34:
A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 25, 90, 100}.

Problems 35–40 are the corresponding geometry problems:

35: Determine two supplementary angles where one angle is 60 more than
twice the other angle.
36: Determine three supplementary angles where the second angle is twice
the first and the third angle is 30 more that the first.
37: Determine all the interior angles of a triangle whose ratio is 3 : 2 : 1.
38: Determine the circumference of a circle whose area is 8π.
16  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

39: Determine the area of a square whose perimeter is 10.

40: Determine the perimeter of a square whose diagonal is 12.

Problems 41–44, using Venn diagrams, determine:

41: How many integers between 1 and 360 are divisible either by 4 or 9?

42: How many integers between 1 and 4500 are divisible either by 2, 3 or 5?

43: How many integers between 1 and 300 are neither divisible by 3 nor 10?
44: How many integers between 1 and 4900 are neither divisible either by
2, 5 or 7?

Problems 45–48, using the corresponding diagram

45: Determine AD ∩ BC.

46: Determine [AD ∩ AC] ∪ [BE ∩ CD].
47: Determine [AC ∪ BC] ∩ [BE ∪ CE].
48: Determine [AD ∩ AC ∩ AB] ∪ [BE ∩ BD ∩ BC].
 CHAPTER 2
Sequences and Summations

In Chapter 1, we examined linear, quadratic and geometric patterns and sum-

mations. This chapter’s aims are to analyze these sequences and patterns more
rigorously and to study supplemental sequences and patterns. The upcoming
examples will render varieties of sequences and summations with geometrical
applications. For instance, we encountered a linear sequence that lists con-
secutive positive integers in Figure 1.1. The consequent example lists positive
multiples of 4.
Example 2.1. Formulate a linear sequence that determines the total num-
ber of red triangles rendered in the cognate diagram.

Figure 2.1 System of shrinking squares.

Each time we incise a blue square inside a green square and vice versa we
produce four symmetrical red 45−45−90 triangles as shown in Figure 2.1.
Therefore, for n ∈ N, the total number of generated triangles mimics the
corresponding linear sequence:

4, 8, 12, 16, . . . , 4 · n = {4 · i}ni=1 .

17
18  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

This is example of a linear sequence that recites positive multiples of 4.

The succeeding example recites a sequence of rectangular areas as a geomet-
ric sequence.

Example 2.2. Formulate a geometric sequence that determines the area

of the rectangles depicted in the corresponding diagram.

Figure 2.2 A square first folded in half vertically, then horizontally, etc.

In Figure 2.2, suppose that the area of the largest square is 1. First we cut
the main square in half with a vertical red line, then with a horizontal red
line, then with a red vertical line, then with a red horizontal line, etc. The
Diminishing Rectangles and their associated areas are rendered with the
darker shades of blue. During each fold we reduce the area by half and hence
generate the following geometric sequence:
 2  3  4  5  6  7  8 (  )8
i
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , , , , , = .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
i=0

This is an example of a Geometrical Fractal.

The upcoming example manifests a sequence of right triangles as a linear
summation.
Example 2.3. Formulate a linear summation that determines the number
of green and blue right triangles rendered in the associated sketch.
 Sequences and Summations  19

Figure 2.3 A system of right triangles at the same scale.

In Figure 2.3 the first row has one triangle, the second row has three triangles,
the third row has five triangles, the fourth row has seven triangles and so on.
Hence, each row has an odd number of triangles and traces the corresponding
pattern that describes the consecutive positive odd integers:

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 = {(2i − 1)}6i=1 .

Furthermore, by adding all the sub-right triangles, we obtain the corresponding

summation
6
X
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = (2i − 1) = 36 = 62 . (2.1)
i=1

For all n ∈ N, (2.1) extends to the following sum that adds all the consecutive
positive odd integers:
n
X
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1) = (2i − 1) = n2 . (2.2)
i=1

(2.2) will be verified by proof by induction technique in Chapter 3.

The upcoming example determines the total number of right triangles as a
geometric summation.
Example 2.4. Write a geometric summation that determines the total
number of right triangles depicted in the corresponding diagram (Figure 2.4).
20  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 2.4 A system of shrinking right triangles.

Starting from the largest 45−45−90 triangle, the exact number of 45−45−90
triangles that are inserted inside the blue square is characterized by the fol-
lowing geometric summation:

1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128
= 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 + 26 + 27
7 (2.3)
= 2i = 28 − 1.
i=0

Observe (2.3) adds eight terms as the blue square is decomposed into eight
primary triangular regions (emphasized by the red diagonal, horizontal and
vertical lines) and into eight categories of 45−45−90 triangles. Hence for all
n ∈ N, provided r = 1, (2.3) extends to the corresponding geometric sum-
mation:
a[1 − rn+1 ]
a + a · r + a · r2 + a · r3 + · · · + a · rn = . (2.4)
1−r
Note that (2.4) has n + 1 terms added and r = 1. We will verify (2.4) by
using the proof by induction technique and derive and prove supplemental
summations.

2.1 Linear and Quadratic Sequences

A linear sequence is convened by adding a constant from neighbor to neigh-
bor as we observed in Figures 1.1 and 1.4. Our goal is to write a formula
that recites all the specified terms of the given sequence with a starting term
and the analogous starting index. We will examine examples with a range of
patterns. The succeeding example recites positive multiples of 4 and adds a 4
while shifting from neighbor to neighbor.
 Sequences and Summations  21

Example 2.5. Write a formula of the following sequence:

4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, . . . . (2.5)

Solution: Note that (2.5) lists positive multiples of 4 starting with 4. The
associated formula depicts (2.5):

{4n}∞
n=1 . (2.6)

Alternatively, we can rewrite (2.6) by shifting the starting index down by 1

and acquire
{4(n + 1)}∞n=0 .

Example 2.6. Write a formula of the following sequence:

13, 19, 25, 31, 37, 43, . . . . (2.7)

Solution: Note that (2.7) lists 1 more than multiples of 6 starting with 13.
To determine the starting index of (2.7) we set

6n + 1 = 13.

We acquire n = 2 and the corresponding formula describing (2.7):

{6n + 1}∞
n=2 . (2.8)

Alternatively, we can reformulate (2.8) by shifting the starting index by 1 and

acquire
{6(n + 1) + 1}∞n=1 .

The upcoming examples will examine quadratic sequences that depict per-
fect squares.
Example 2.7. Write a formula of the following sequence:

36, 64, 100, 144, 196, 256, . . . . (2.9)

Solution: (2.9) enumerates even perfect squares starting with 36. To deter-
mine the starting index we set of (2.9)

(2n)2 = 4n2 = 36.

We obtain n = 3 and the cognate formula rendering (2.9):

{4n2 }∞
n=3 . (2.10)

Analogous to Examples 2.15 and 2.6, we reformulate (2.10) by shifting the

starting index down by 2 and acquire

{4(n + 2)2 }∞
n=1 .
22  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Example 2.8. Write a formula of the following sequence:

1, 25, 81, 169, 289, 441, . . . . (2.11)

Solution: (2.11) enumerates every other odd perfect square starting with
1. First we reformulate (2.11) as

12 , 52 , 92 , 132 , 172 , 212 , . . . . (2.12)

Next we obtain the corresponding formula describing (2.12):

{(4n + 1)2 }∞
n=0 . (2.13)

We can alternatively rewrite (2.13) by shifting the starting index up by 1 and

procure
2
{[4(n − 1) + 1] }∞n=1 .

2.2 Geometric Sequences

A geometric sequence is contrived by multiplying by a constant from term
to term as we observed in various examples in the preceding chapters. For
instance, for n ≥ 0 in Example 2.2 we defined the finite geometric sequence
with n + 1 terms in the form

{a · ri }ni=0 = a, a · r, a · r2 , a · r3 , a · r4 , . . . , a · rn , (2.14)

where a is the starting term of (2.14) and r is the multiplicative factor. We

will commence with repetitive-type examples that will illustrate the change
of indices and render infinite sequences with a starting index only.
Example 2.9. Write a formula of the following sequence:

4, 12, 36, 108, 324, 972, . . . .

Solution: Observe
4,
4 · 3 = 12,
12 · 3 = 4 · 32 = 36,
36 · 3 = 4 · 33 = 108,
108 · 3 = 4 · 34 = 324,
..
.
For all n ≥ 0 we procure
{4 · 3n }∞
n=0 . (2.15)
By rearranging the starting index by 1, we reformulate (2.15) as

{4 · 3n−1 }∞
n=1 .
 Sequences and Summations  23

Example 2.10. Write a formula of the following sequence:

√ √ 1 1
4, 2 2, 2, 2, 1, √ , , . . . .
2 2
Solution: Notice:
4,
4 √
√ = 2 2,
√2
2 2
√ = 2,
2
2 √
√ = 2,
√2
2
√ = 1,
2
..
.
Hence for all n ≥ 0 we acquire
 ∞
4
√ . (2.16)
( 2)n n=0

Alternatively we can recast (2.16) as

 ∞
1
√ .
( 2)n−4 n=0
The upcoming subsection will resume with the factorial-type patterns.

2.3 Factorial and Factorial−Type Sequences

We will resume with our inquiries on the factorial and the factorial-type
patterns. For all n ∈ N we generate the factorial by multiplying the consec-
utive positive integers starting at 1 as
n
Y
0! = 1 and n! = i. (2.17)
i=1

Note that (2.17) can be described as the following piecewise sequence:


1Q if n = 0,
n! = n
i=1 i if n ∈ N.

In section 2.5 we will reformulate the factorial as a recursive sequence.

Now we will transition to assorted examples of patterns that mimic the fac-
torial pattern. The upcoming example evokes the geometric-type pattern
that guides us to the factorial-type sequences and renders the product of
the consecutive positive even integers.
24  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Example 2.11. Write a formula of the following sequence:

2, 8, 48, 384, 3840, . . . .

Solution: Observe
2,
[2] · 4 = 8,
8 · 6 = [2 · 4] · 6 = 48,
48 · 8 = [2 · 4 · 6] · 8 = 384, (2.18)
384 · 10 = [2 · 4 · 6 · 8] · 10 = 3,840,
..
.

Thus via (2.18), for all n ∈ N we acquire

n
Y
{xn }ni=1 = 2i. (2.19)
i=1

We can also formulate (2.19) as a product of two sequences:

" n #
Y
n i n
{xn }i=1 = {2 }i=1 · i = 2n · n!.
i=1

The succeeding example will require the use of a piecewise sequence to

characterize the assigned sequence.
Example 2.12. Write a formula of the following sequence:

2, 10, 70, 630, 6,930, . . . .

Solution: Notice
2,
2 · [5] = 10,
10 · 7 = 2 · [5 · 7] = 70,
70 · 9 = 2 · [5 · 7 · 9] = 630,
630 · 11 = 2 · [5 · 7 · 9 · 11] = 6,930,
..
.
Then for all n ∈ N, we obtain the associated piecewise sequence:

n 2 Q if n = 1,
{xn }i=1 = n
2 · [ i=2 (2i + 1)] if n ≥ 2.

Observe that the product formula works only starting with the second term of
the sequence and therefore requires the use of a piecewise formula. This will
lead us to the study of alternating and piecewise sequences.
 Sequences and Summations  25

2.4 Alternating and Piecewise Sequences

The corresponding sequence is an alternating piecewise sequence that
alternates between 1 and −1. That is, for all n ≥ 0, we obtain

n ∞ 1 if n is even,
{(−1) }n=0 = (2.20)
−1 if n is odd.

Observe that (2.20) is an alternating geometric sequence. Alternating se-

quences can be described in one fragment as (2.20). However, several piecewise
sequences cannot be formulated in one fragment. We will compare the simi-
larities and differences after repetitive-type examples. The upcoming example
renders an alternating geometric sequence.
Example 2.13. Write a formula of the following sequence:

3, −6, 12, −24, 48, −96, . . . . (2.21)

Solution: Note that the first term of (2.21) is positive and the sign switches
from neighbor to neighbor. Second of all, (2.21) is a geometric sequence with
a = 3 and r = −2. Hence for n ≥ 0 we get

{xn }∞ n ∞ n n ∞
n=0 = {3 · (−2) }n=0 = {3 · 2 · (−1) }n=0 . (2.22)

We can also reformulate (2.21) as

3, −6, 12, −24, 48, −96, . . . . (2.23)

Thus we reformulate (2.23) as the corresponding piecewise geometric se-

quence:
{3 · 2n }∞

∞ n=0 if n is even,
{xn }n=0 =
{−6 · 2n−1 }∞n=1 if n is odd.
Example 2.13 extends to the following alternating geometric sequences:

a, −a · r, a · r2 , −a · r3 , a · r4 , . . . = {a · rn · (−1)n }∞
n=0 ,

and

−a, a · r, −a · r2 , a · r3 , −a · r4 , . . . = {a · rn · (−1)n+1 }∞
n=0 .

In fact, in the upcoming example we will come upon an alternating and a

non-alternating subsequence.
Example 2.14. Write a formula of the following sequence:

2, 4, 6, −8, 10, 12, 14, −16, . . . . (2.24)

Solution: Note that (2.24) is composed in terms of positive even integers

26  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

starting at 2 while every fourth term of (2.24) is negative. Thus we will break
up (2.24) into two primary blue and green subsequences:

2, 4, 6, −8, 10, 12, 14, −16, . . . . (2.25)

Now observe that in (1.27) the blue subsequence is a non-alternating sequence

while the green subsequence alternates. Hence for n ≥ 0 we acquire

∞ 2(n + 1) if n is even,
{xn }n=0 = n−1
(−1) 2 [2(n + 1)] if n is odd.
Now we will transition to formulating and solving recursive sequences.

2.5 Formulating Recursive Sequences

Our aims of this section are to alternatively describe sequences in Examples
2.15−2.16 and analogous sequences as recursive relations. This will then
direct us to deeper understanding of the new categories of sequences and
their unique traits. We will emerge our study of a linear sequence expressed
as a recursive formula and as an Initial Value Problem. The upcoming
example renders a sequence of consecutive positive odd integers.
Example 2.15. Write a recursive formula for

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, . . . . (2.26)

Solution: In (2.26), we transition from neighbor to neighbor by adding a 2

(as consecutive positive odd integers differ by 2). We can write the following
formula of (2.26):
{2n + 1}∞n=0 . (2.27)
We will alternatively formulate (2.26) and (2.27) as a recursive sequence. By
iteration and induction we acquire
x0 = 1,
x0 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3 = x1 ,
x1 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5 = x2 ,
x2 + 2 = 5 + 2 = 7 = x3 ,
x3 + 2 = 7 + 2 = 9 = x4 ,
x4 + 2 = 9 + 2 = 11 = x5 ,
..
.
For all n ≥ 0 we obtain the following Initial Value Problem rendering
(2.26): 
xn+1 = xn + 2,
x0 = 1.
Notice that this is a special case of a First Order Linear Nonhomogeneous
Difference Equation.
 Sequences and Summations  27

The successive example renders a Summation-Type Sequence recursively

that adds consecutive positive integers starting at 1 as in Eq. (1.4).
Example 2.16. Write a recursive formula for
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, . . . . (2.28)
Solution: (2.28) depicts the sum of the consecutive positive integers starting
at 1 traced by the corresponding formula
n
X
i. (2.29)
i=1

We will formulate (2.28) and (2.29) as a recursive sequence. By iteration we

obtain
x0 = 1,
x0 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3 = x1 ,
x1 + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6 = x2 ,
x2 + 4 = 6 + 4 = 10 = x3 ,
x3 + 5 = 10 + 5 = 15 = x4 ,
x4 + 6 = 15 + 6 = 21 = x5 ,
..
.
For all n ≥ 0, we acquire the related Initial Value Problem describing
(2.28): 
xn+1 = xn + (n + 2),
x0 = 1.
Observe that this is a special case of a First Order Linear Non-autonomous
Difference Equation in the additive form.
The consequent example describes a geometric sequence recursively.
Example 2.17. Write a recursive formula for
1, 4, 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , . . . . (2.30)
Solution: In (2.30) we shift from neighbor to neighbor by multiplying by 4.
Hence we can write the following formula of (2.30):
{4n }∞
n=0 . (2.31)
Furthermore, we will treat (2.30) as a recursive sequence where
x0 = 1,
x0 · 4 = 1 · 4 = 4 = x1 ,
x1 · 4 = 4 · 4 = 42 = x2 ,
x2 · 4 = 42 · 4 = 43 = x3 ,
x3 · 4 = 43 · 4 = 44 = x4 ,
x4 · 4 = 44 · 4 = 45 = x5 ,
..
.
28  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Thus for all n ≥ 0 we obtain the corresponding Initial Value Problem

tracing (2.30): 
xn+1 = 4xn ,
x0 = 1.
This is a special case of a First Order Linear Homogeneous Difference Equa-
tion.
The succeeding example describes the product of two consecutive positive
integers.
Example 2.18. Write a recursive formula for
2 · 3, 3 · 4, 4 · 5, 5 · 6, 6 · 7, 7 · 8, . . . . (2.32)
Solution: We depict (2.32) with the cognate iterative pattern:
x0 = 2 · 3,  
[2 · 3] · 4 4
x1 = 3 · 4 = = x0 ,
2 2
 
[3 · 4] · 5 5
x2 = 4 · 5 = = x1 ,
3 3
 
[4 · 5] · 6 6
x3 = 5 · 6 = = x2 ,
4 4
 
[5 · 6] · 7 7
x4 = 6 · 7 = = x3 ,
5 5
..
.
Thus for all n ≥ 1 we obtain the corresponding Initial Value Problem
tracing (2.32): (  
xn+1 = n+3 n+1 xn ,
x0 = 2 · 3.
The upcoming example describes the factorial pattern recursively.
Example 2.19. Write a recursive formula for
1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5,040, . . . . (2.33)
Solution: We render (2.33) with the corresponding iterative pattern
x0 = 1,
x0 · 1 = 1 · 1 = 1 = x1 ,
x1 · 2 = 1 · 2 = 2 = x2 ,
x2 · 3 = 2 · 3 = 6 = x3 ,
x3 · 4 = 6 · 4 = 24 = x4 ,
x4 · 5 = 24 · 5 = 120 = x5 ,
..
.
 Sequences and Summations  29

Thus for all n ≥ 0 we obtain the successive Initial Value Problem describing
(2.33): 
xn+1 = (n + 1) · xn ,
x0 = 1.
This example describes the factorial pattern and is a special case of a First
Order Linear Non-Autonomous Difference Equation in the multiplicative
form.
Now we will transition to solving recursive sequences explicitly by inductively
obtaining a formula and solving an Initial Value Problem.

2.6 Solving Recursive Sequences

This section’s aim is to formulate an explicit solution to assorted recursive
sequences inductively after multiple repetitions. We will commence with ob-
taining an explicit solution to a linear homogeneous recursive relation whose
solution depicts a geometric sequence:
Example 2.20. Determine an Explicit Solution to the following recursive
relation:
xn+1 = axn , n = 0, 1, . . . , (2.34)
where a 6= 0. By iterations and induction we acquire the following pattern:

x0 ,
x1 = ax0 ,
2
x2 = ax1 = a · [ax
 2 0 ] = a x30 ,
x3 = ax2 = a · a x0  = a x0 ,
x4 = ax3 = a · a3 x0  = a4 x0 ,
x5 = ax4 = a · a4 x0 = a5 x0 ,
..
.

Hence for all n ∈ N we procure the corresponding solution of Eq. (2.34):

xn = an x0 . (2.35)

The upcoming two examples will render a summation of consecutive pos-

itive integers and a geometric summation.
Example 2.21. Solve the following Initial Value Problem:

xn+1 = xn + (n + 1), n = 0, 1, . . . .
x0 = 0.
30  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Solution: By iterations and induction we obtain

x0 = 0,
x1 = x0 + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1,
x2 = x1 + 2 = 1 + 2,
x3 = x2 + 3 = 1 + 2 + 3,
x4 = x3 + 4 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4,
x5 = x4 + 5 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5,
..
.
Hence for all n ∈ N we acquire
n  
X n[n + 1] n+1
xn = i = = .
i=1
2 2
Example 2.22. Solve the following Initial Value Problem:
xn+1 = xn + 2n+1 , n = 0, 1, . . . ,

x0 = 1.
Solution: By iterations and induction we procure
x0 = 1 = 20 ,
x1 = x0 + 2 1 = 20 + 21 ,
x2 = x1 + 2 2 = 20 + 21 + 22 ,
x3 = x2 + 2 3 = 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 ,
x4 = x3 + 2 4 = 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 ,
x5 = x4 + 2 5 = 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 ,
..
.
Thus for all n ≥ 0 we obtain
n
X
xn = 2i = 2n+1 − 1.
i=0

The next example will describe a piecewise sequence of integers.

Example 2.23. Solve the following Initial Value Problem:

xn+1 = −xn + (n + 1), n = 0, 1, . . . .
x0 = 1.
Solution: By iterations and induction we get
x0 = 1,
x1 = −[x0 ] + 1 = −1 + 1 = 0,
x2 = −[x1 ] + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2,
x3 = −[x2 ] + 3 = −2 + 3 = 1,
x4 = −[x3 ] + 4 = −1 + 4 = 3,
x5 = −[x4 ] + 5 = −3 + 5 = 2,
..
.
 Sequences and Summations  31

Hence for all n ≥ 0 we procure

n+2

if n is even,
{xn }∞
n=0 =
2
n−1
2 if n is odd.

2.7 Summations
The primary goals of this section are to study summations analogous to Eqs.
(1.4), (2.2) and (2.4). We will commence with the associated definition and
sigma notation of a summation.
Definition 2.1. For n ∈ N, we define
P the summation consisting of n values
with the sigma notation symbol as
n
X
S = x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn = xi .
i=1

From Eq. (1.4), the consequent summation adds the consecutive positive in-
tegers starting with 1 (natural numbers N):
n
X n · [n + 1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = i = . (2.36)
i=1
2

The starting index of (2.36) must be 1 and we will apply (2.36) to derive
supplemental summations and prove (2.36) by induction in Chapter 3. From
Eq. (2.2), the upcoming summation adds the consecutive positive odd integers
starting with 1:
n
X
1 + 3 + 5 + 9 + · · · + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1) = (2i − 1) = n2 . (2.37)
i=1

We will apply (2.37) to formulate addition summations and prove (2.37) by

induction in Chapter 3. From Eq. (2.4), provided that r 6= 1, the succeeding
summation adds the consecutive geometric terms:
n
X a · [1 − rn+1 ]
a + a·r + a·r2 + a·r3 + · · · + a·rn = a·ri = . (2.38)
i=0
1−r

The first example will focus on formulating a geometric summation by apply-

ing (2.38).
Example 2.24. Using (2.38), simplify the corresponding summation

1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 243 + 729 + 2,187. (2.39)

32  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Solution: We reformulate (2.39) as the associated geometric summation

1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 243 + 729 + 2,187

= 30 + 31 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 35 + 36 + 37

7
X [1 − 38 ] 38 − 1
= 3i = = = 3,280.
i=0
1−3 2

The upcoming two examples will apply (2.36).

Example 2.25. Using (2.36), simplify the corresponding summation

4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + 20 + · · · + 600 (2.40)

Solution: First we rewrite (2.40) in the sigma notation as

150
X
4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + 20 + · · · + 600 = 4i. (2.41)
i=1

Now applying (2.36), we reformulate (2.41) as

150  
X 150 · 151
4i = 4 · = 2 · 150 · 151.
i=1
2

Example 2.26. Using (2.36), simplify the corresponding summation

6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + · · · + 75. (2.42)

Solution: First we revise (2.42) in the sigma notation as

75
X
6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + · · · + 75 = i. (2.43)
i=6

Next we reformulate (2.43) by shifting the starting index to i = 1 and the

terminating index to i = 70 and applying (2.36)
75
X 70
X 70
X 70
X
i = (i + 5) = i + 5
i=6 i=1 i=1 i=1

70 · 71
= + 70 · 5.
2
Example 2.27. Using (2.36), derive the formula of the following summation:

7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 + · · · + n. (2.44)
 Sequences and Summations  33

Solution: Using the sigma notation, for n ≥ 7 we compose (2.44) as

n
X
7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 + · · · + n = i. (2.45)
i=7

Next by revising the starting and the terminating indices by six units. For
n ≥ 7 we obtain the corresponding summation
n
X n−6
X
i = (i + 6). (2.46)
i=7 i=1

By implementing the Distributive Property of summations, we split (2.46)

into two separate summations and for all n ≥ 7 we procure
n−6 n−6 n−6
X X X [n − 6] · [n − 5] [n − 6] · [n + 7]
(i+6) = i+ 6 = + 6 [n − 6] = .
i=1 i=1 i=1
2 2

The succeeding example will apply (2.36) and (2.37) to simplify an alternating
summation.
Example 2.28. Using (2.36) and (2.37), simplify the corresponding alternat-
ing summation
X20
(−1)i i. (2.47)
i=1
Solution: First we decompose (2.47) into two summations of even integers
and odd integers as
20
X
(−1)i i = − 1 + 2 − 3 + 4 − 5 + · · · − 19 + 20 . (2.48)
i=1

First of all notice that (2.48) has ten odd integers (in red) and ten even integers
(in blue). Second of all, observe that the odd integers in red have a negative
sign while the even integers in blue have a positive sign. By regrouping the
even integers and the odd integers in (2.48) into two separate summations
and together with (2.36) and (2.37) we obtain
[2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 20] − [1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 19]

10
X 10
X
= 2i − (2i − 1)
i=1 i=1
 
10 · 11
= 2· − 102 .
2

= 10.
34  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

2.8 Chapter 2 Exercises

In problems 1–12, write a formula of each sequence:

1: 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, . . . .

2: 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 46, . . . .
3: 8, 17, 26, 35, 44, 53, 62, . . . .

4: (m + 8), (m + 12), (m + 16), (m + 20), (m + 24), . . . .

5: 1, 9, 25, 49, 81, 121, 169, . . . .
6: 1, 25, 81, 169, 289, 441, 625, . . . .
7: 9, 49, 121, 225, 361, 529, 729, . . . .
8: 16, 64, 144, 256, 400, 576, 784, . . . .
9: 4, 36, 100, 196, 324, 484, 676, . . . .
10: 1, 49, 169, 361, 625, 961, 1,369, . . . .

In problems 11–22, write a recursive formula (as an initial value problem)

of each sequence:

11: 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32, . . . .

12: 7, 19, 31, 43, 55, 67, 79, . . . .
13: 4, 7, 12, 19, 28, 39, 52, . . . .
14: 5, 8, 14, 23, 35, 50, 68, . . . .
15: 5, 7, 11, 17, 25, 35, 47, . . . .
16: 4, 7, 13, 22, 34, 49, 67, . . . .
17: 3, 7, 15, 27, 43, 63, 87, . . . .
18: 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, 486, 1,458, . . . .
81 243
19: 64, 48, 36, 27, 4 , 16 , . . . .

20: 2, 8, 48, 384, 3,840, 46,080, . . . .

21: 1 · 3, 3 · 5, 5 · 7, 7 · 9, 9 · 11, . . . .
22: 1 · 2 · 3, 2 · 3 · 4, 3 · 4 · 5, 4 · 5 · 6, 5 · 6 · 7, . . . .

In problems 23–28, solve the following Initial Value Problem:

 Sequences and Summations  35

23: 
xn+1 = xn + (2n + 3),
x0 = 1.

24:
xn+1 = xn + 2n+1 ,

x0 = 1.

25:
xn+1 = 22n+1 xn ,

x0 = 1.

26: 
xn+1 = 2xn + (n + 1),
x0 = 1.

27: 
xn+1 = −xn + (2n + 3),
x0 = 1.

28:
xn+1 = −xn + 2n+1 ,

x0 = 1.

In problems 29–32, using (2.36), determine the corresponding summations:

29: 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 + 20 + · · · + 152.
30: 21 + 24 + 27 + 30 + 33 + · · · + 168.
31: 24 + 28 + 32 + 36 + 40 + 44 + · · · + 140.
32: m + (m + 1) + (m + 2) + (m + 3) + (m + 4) + · · · + n.
 CHAPTER 3
Proofs

Our aims of this chapter are to get acquainted with algebraic proofs and
the proof by induction technique. We will first commence with assorted
algebraic proofs that remit distinct algebraic characteristics.

3.1 Algebraic Proofs

This section’s goal is to prove various integers’ attributes by applying the cor-
responding fundamental properties of consecutive integers, consecutive even
integers and consecutive odd integers:
1. Sum of two consecutive integers is odd.
2. Sum of two consecutive even integers is even.
3. Sum of two consecutive odd integers is even.
4. Product of two consecutive integers is even.
5. Product of two odd integers is odd.
In Chapter 1, Figure 1.1 lists consecutive positive integers:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . . (3.1)
Then we can extend (3.1) to the corresponding list of consecutive integers
starting at some random integer x:
x, x + 1, x + 2, x + 3, x + 4, . . . . (3.2)
Observe that the difference between any two neighboring terms in (3.2) is
always 1. We will apply (3.2) to prove assorted attributes about consecutive
integers. We can decompose (3.1) into consecutive positive odd integers in
blue and consecutive positive even integers in green as follows:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . . (3.3)

37
38  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

We can then extend (3.3) to the cognate list of either consecutive odd integers
or consecutive even integers starting at some random integer x:

x, x + 2, x + 4, x + 6, x + 8, . . . . (3.4)

Notice that the difference between any two neighboring terms in (3.4) is always
2. The first example renders product of integers in the form 3n + 1.
Example 3.1. Prove that the product of two integers in the form 3n + 1 is
also in the form 3n + 1 or 1(mod3).
Solution: Note
4 · 7 = 28 = (3 · 1 + 1) · (3 · 2 + 1) = 3 · 9 + 1,
7 · 10 = 70 = (3 · 2 + 1) · (3 · 3 + 1) = 3 · 23 + 1,
4 · 13 = 52 = (3 · 1 + 1) · (3 · 4 + 1) = 3 · 17 + 1,
..
.

Now for k ∈ N and m ∈ N, we assemble the corresponding two integers I1 and

I2 in the form 3n + 1 as:

I1 = 3k + 1 and I2 = 3m + 1.

Then we obtain the corresponding product

I1 · I2 = (3k + 1) · (3m + 1)
= 9km + 3k + 3m + 1
= 3 [3km + k + m] + 1.

The result follows.

More questions on integers’ ending digits will be addressed in Chapter 4. The
upcoming example will sum three consecutive integers.
Example 3.2. Using Eq. (3.2), prove that the sum of three consecutive inte-
gers must be divisible by 3.
Solution: First notice:
1 + 2 + 3 = 6 = 3 · 2,
2 + 3 + 4 = 9 = 3 · 3,
3 + 4 + 5 = 12 = 3 · 4,
4 + 5 + 6 = 15 = 3 · 5,
..
.

Via (3.2), we set the sum of three consecutive integers as

x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 3x + 3 = 3(x + 1). (3.5)

The result follows.

 Proofs  39

The next examples will decipher specific features of odd perfect squares.
Example 3.3. Prove that an odd perfect square is one more than a multiple
of 8 or 1(mod8).
Solution: We will prove the result algebraically and recursively. First we will
prove the result algebraically. Observe

12 = 8·0 + 1,
32 = 8·1 + 1,
52 = 8·3 + 1,
72 = 8·6 + 1,
..
.

For n ≥ 0 we formulate an odd perfect square as

(2n + 1)2 = 4n2 + 4n + 1

= 4(n2 + n) + 1
= 4 [n(n + 1)] + 1.

Hence the result follows as the product of two consecutive integers n(n + 1)
must be even. Next we will prove the result recursively. The corresponding
sequences depicts odd perfect squares:

1, 9, 25, 49, 81, 121, . . . . (3.6)

Next we formulate (3.6) as the associative iterative pattern:

x0 = 1,
x1 = 1 + 8 = x0 + 8 · 1,
x2 = 9 + 16 = x1 + 8 · 2,
x3 = 25 + 24 = x2 + 8 · 3,
x4 = 49 + 32 = x3 + 8 · 4,
..
.

Thus for all n ≥ 0 we obtain the successive Initial Value Problem describing
(3.6): 
xn+1 = xn + 8(n + 1),
x0 = 1.
Hence the result follows.
More proofs rendering the attributes of integers will be remitted in Chapter
4. Next we will focus on applying the proof by induction technique.
40  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

3.2 Proof by Induction

In Chapter 2, we examined various summations such as the summation of
consecutive positive integers:
n
X n · [n + 1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = i = , (3.7)
i=1
2

the summation of consecutive positive odd integers:

n
X
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1) = (2i − 1) = n2 , (3.8)
i=1

and provided r 6= 1, the corresponding geometric summation:

n
X a · [1 − rn+1 ]
a + a · r + a · r2 + a · r3 + · · · + a · rn = a · ri = . (3.9)
i=0
1−r

Using the proof by induction technique, we will prove (3.7), (3.8) and (3.9)
and derive and prove supplemental summations. The succeeding example will
prove (3.7).
Example 3.4. Using proof by induction, verify the following summation:
n
X n · [n + 1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = i = . (3.10)
i=1
2

Solution: Observe that (3.10) holds true for n = 3 as

3·4
1 + 2 + 3 = = 6.
2
Now we will assume that (3.10) holds true for n = k:
k
X k · [k + 1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (k − 1) + k = i = . (3.11)
i=1
2

Next we will verify that (3.11) holds true for n = k + 1:

k+1
X [k + 1] · [k + 2]
[1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + k] + [k + 1] = i = .
i=1
2
(3.12)
Using (3.11) we reformulate (3.12) as
" k #  
X k · [k + 1] [k + 1] · [k + 2]
i + [k + 1] = + [k + 1] = .
i=1
2 2

The result follows.

 Proofs  41

The succeeding example will prove (3.8).

Example 3.5. Using proof by induction, verify the following summation:
n
X
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + (2n − 1) = (2i − 1) = n2 . (3.13)
i=1

Solution: Observe that (3.13) holds true for n = 4 as

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42 = 16.

Now we will assume that (3.13) holds true for n = k:

k
X
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + (2k − 1) = (2i − 1) = k 2 . (3.14)
i=1

Next we will verify that (3.14) holds true for n = k + 1:

k+1
X
[1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + (2k − 1)] + [2k + 1] = (2i−1) = (k+1)2 .
i=1
(3.15)
Using (3.14) we reformulate (3.15) as
" k #
X
i + [2k + 1] = k 2 + [2k + 1] = (k + 1)2 .
 
i=1

The result follows.

The consequent example will apply the proof by induction method to prove
a special case of (3.9).
Example 3.6. Using proof by induction, verify the following summation:
n
X
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + · · · + 2n−1 + 2n = 2i = 2n+1 − 1. (3.16)
i=0

Solution: Observe that (3.13) holds true for n = 2 as

1 + 2 + 22 = 7 = 23 − 1.

Now we will assume that (3.16) holds true for n = k:

k
X
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + · · · + 2k−1 + 2k = 2i = 2k+1 − 1. (3.17)
i=0
42  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Now we will confirm that (3.14) holds true for n = k + 1:

k+1
X
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + · · · + 2k + 2k+1 = 2i = 2k+2 − 1.
   
i=0
(3.18)
Using (3.17) we restructure (3.18) as
" k #
X
2 + 2k+1 = 2k+1 − 1 + 2k+1 = 2 · 2k+1 − 1 = 2k+2 − 1.
i
   
i=0

The result follows.

3.3 Chapter 3 Exercises

In problems 1–10 prove the following expressions by the proof by induction
method:
Pk
1: i=1 (4i − 3) = k · [2k − 1].
Pk
2: i=1 i
2
= k·[k+1]·[2k+1]
6 .
Pk k·[k+1]·[k+2]
3: i=1 i[i + 1] = 3 .
Pk a·[1−r k+1 ]
4: i=0 a · ri = 1−r (r 6= 1).
Pk k·[k+1]·[k+2]
5: i=1 i · [i + 1] = 3 .
Pk k·[k+1]·[k+2]·[k+3]
6: i=1 i[i + 1][i + 2] = 4 .
Pk 1 k
7: i=1 i·[i+1] = k+1 .
Pk 1 k
8: i=1 [2i−1]·[2i+1] = 2k+1 .
Pk
9: i=1 i · 2i−1 = [k − 1] · 2k + 1.
Pk
10: i=1 i · i! = (k + 1)! − 1.

In problems 11–14 prove the following properties algebraically:

11: Prove that an even perfect square is divisible by 4.

12: Prove that the difference between neighboring perfect squares is odd.
13: Prove that the difference between any two odd perfect squares is a
multiple of 8.
14: For k ≥ 3, prove that the product of two integers in the form kn + 1 is
also in the form kn + 1.
 Proofs  43

In problems 15–18, using (3.7):

15: Prove that the sum of five consecutive positive integers is a multiple of
5.
16: Prove that the sum of six consecutive positive integers is a multiple of
3.

17: For n ≥ 2, prove that the sum of 2n+1 consecutive integers is a multiple
of 2n + 1.
18: For n ≥ 2, prove that the sum of 2n consecutive integers is a multiple
of n.
 CHAPTER 4
Integers’ Characteristics

Our chapter’s intents are to get acquainted with the integers’ traits such as
consecutive integers, consecutive even and odd integers, prime factorization of
integers, simplifying integer arithmetic using law of exponents, attributes of
even and odd perfect squares and integers’ ending digits. We will use several
results established in the previous chapters such as addition of consecutive
integers and geometric summations. We will commence with features of con-
secutive integers.

4.1 Consecutive Integers

In Chapter 3, we examined several questions remitting consecutive integers
starting with any random integer x:
x, x + 1, x + 2, x + 3, x + 4, . . . . (4.1)
We also examined consecutive odd and even integers starting with any random
integer x:
x, x + 2, x + 4, x + 6, x + 8, . . . . (4.2)
Similar to Example 3.2, using (4.1) the first example will add six consecutive
integers.
Example 4.1. Using (4.1), determine six consecutive positive integers whose
sum is 87.
Solution: Via (4.1), we obtain the corresponding sum of six consecutive in-
tegers:
x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) + (x + 3) + (x + 4) + (x + 5). (4.3)
Expressing (4.3) in the sigma notation and applying (3.7) we procure
5
X 5·6
6x + i = 6x + = 6x + 15. (4.4)
i=1
2

45
46  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Now via (4.4) we set

6x + 15 = 87,
and obtain x = 12. Finally via (4.3) the six consecutive corresponding positive
integers are 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17.
Analogous to Example 3.2, using (4.2) the upcoming example will add con-
secutive even integers.
Example 4.2. Using (4.2), prove that the sum of eight consecutive even in-
tegers must be divisible by 8.
Solution: Via (4.2), we assemble the cognate sum of eight consecutive even
integers:
x + (x+2) + (x+4) + (x+6) + (x+8) + (x+10) + (x+12) + (x+14). (4.5)
By reformulating (4.5) in the sigma notation and via (3.7) we acquire
7  
X 7·8
8x + 2i = 8x + 2 · = 8(x + 7).
i=1
2

The result follows.

Using (4.1) the upcoming example will multiply consecutive positive integers.
Example 4.3. Using Eq. (4.1) and the corresponding definition of Permuta-
tions:
n!
P (n, k) = , (4.6)
(n − k)
solve for n ∈ N in:
P (n, 4) = 3,024. (4.7)
Solution: First via (4.6) we acquire
n!
P (n, 4) = = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · (n − 3). (4.8)
(n − 4)!
Now via (4.7) and (4.8) we set
n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · (n − 3) = 3,024. (4.9)
Note that via (4.9) we are multiplying four consecutive positive integers whose
product is 3,024. In addition observe that 3,024 is not a multiple of 5 as it
does not end in a 5 nor in a 0. Therefore we cannot multiply by a multiple
of 5 (5, 10, 15, 20, . . .). Using the cognate list of positive consecutive integers
starting with 1:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, . . . , (4.10)
we obtain the corresponding product of four consecutive positive integers:
6 · 7 · 8 · 9 = 3,024. (4.11)
Hence we procure n = 9.
 Integers’ Characteristics  47

4.2 Prime Factorization and Divisors

In Chapter 1, Figure 1.3 rendered the prime factorization of 30, where each
prime number 2, 3 and 5 emerges exactly once. On the other hand, the cognate
factoring tree depicts prime factorization of 4,900.

Figure 4.1 Prime factorization of 4,900.

In comparison to Figure 1.3, in Figure 4.1 each prime number 2, 5 and 7

emerges twice as 4,900 is a product of three perfect squares 22 ·52 ·72 . Therefore
we can see that Figure 4.1 emphasizes that the product of three perfect squares
must also be a perfect square.
Definition 4.1. For n ∈ N, we define the Euler’s Phi Function Φ(n) as the
number of positive integers smaller than the given integer n that are relatively
prime to n.
Example 4.4. For prime integer n ≥ 3, determine Φ(2n) and the sum of all
the elements in Φ(2n).
Solution: Observe
Φ(2 · 3) = |1, 5| = 2,
Φ(2 · 5) = |1, 3, 7, 9| = 4,
Φ(2 · 7) = |1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13| = 6,
Φ(2 · 11) = |1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21| = 10,
..
.
Notice that each term in red is an omitted term from each list. Hence for all
prime integers n ≥ 3 we acquire the corresponding list with a missing term n:
Φ(2n) = |1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . , 2n − 1| = n − 1. (4.12)
Now via (4.12) we acquire the cognate summation of consecutive positive odd
integers with an excluded term n:
[1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + · · · + 2n − 1] − n = n2 − n.
48  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Example 4.5. Determine the sum of all the proper divisors of 48 (divisors
less than 48).
Solution: First of all, 48 has the corresponding proper divisors:
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24. (4.13)
Second of all, by summing all the divisors in (4.13) we obtain
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 12 + 16 + 24 = 76.
In Example 4.5 the sum of all the divisors S > 48. However, it is possible that
the sum of all the divisors can be equal or less than the assigned integer. The
upcoming example will render the sum of all the divisors that will be less than
the assigned integer.
Example 4.6. Determine the sum of all the proper divisors of pk (divisors
less than pk ), where p ≥ 2 is a prime number and k ≥ 2.
Solution: Note that pk has the following proper divisors:
p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . , pk−1 . (4.14)
Now by summing all the divisors in (4.14) we acquire the associated geometric
summation:
k−1
X pk − 1
S = p0 + p1 + p2 + p3 + · · · + pk−1 = pi = .
i=0
p−1

The upcoming example will apply prime factorization together with the laws
of exponents to simplify an expression.
Example 4.7. Simplify the following expression:
12121 · 18122
. (4.15)
6362
Solution: By factoring the numerator and the denominator we rewrite (4.15)
as
[3 · 2 · 2]121 · [3 · 3 · 2]122
. (4.16)
[3 · 2]362
Now by applying the laws of exponents we reformulate (4.16) as
3121 · 2121 · 2121 · 3122 · 3122 · 2122
. (4.17)
3362 · 2362
By applying additional laws of exponents we simplify (4.17) as

3365 · 2364
3362 · 2362
= 33 · 22
= 27 · 4 = 108.
 Integers’ Characteristics  49

The consequent example will render the use of geometric summation together
with a recursive sequence.
Example 4.8. Show that for all n ∈ N, 4n − 1 is divisible by 3.
Solution: By induction we obtain

41 − 1 = 3 = 3 · 1 = 3 · [1],
42 − 1 = 15 = 3 · 5 = 3 · [1 + 4],
43 − 1 63 = 3 · 21 = 3 · 1 + 4 + 42 ,

=
44 − 1 255 = 3 · 85 = 3 · 1 + 4 + 42 + 43 ,

=
..
.

Hence for all n ∈ N we acquire

"n−1 #
X
n i
4 − 1 = 3· 4 . (4.18)
i=0

Observe that (4.18) is a reformulated version of the corresponding geometric

summation
n−1
X 4n − 1
4i = .
i=0
3

4.3 Perfect Squares

We will commence with the corresponding list of perfect squares:

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, . . . . (4.19)

Note that an ending digit of a perfect square is either 1, 4, 5, 6, 9 or 0. Also

observe that (4.19) is decomposed into odd perfect squares in blue:

1, 9, 25, 49, 81, 121, . . . , (4.20)

and into even perfect squares in green:

4, 16, 36, 64, 100, 144, . . . . (4.21)

The ending digit of an even perfect square in (4.21) is either 4, 6 or 0. In

addition, all the even perfect squares are divisible by 4 as for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
even perfect squares are in the form

(2n)2 = 4n2 . (4.22)

Via (4.22), we can conclude that for n ∈ N even perfect squares in the form
(4k − 2)2 are divisible only by 4 and even perfect squares in the form (4k)2
are divisible by 16.
50  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Second of all the ending digit of an odd perfect square in (4.20) is either
1, 5 or 9. For n ∈ N odd perfect squares are in the form

(2n − 1)2 . (4.23)

Recall that in Example 3.3 we proved that odd perfects squares are 1 more
than a multiple of 8 or are in the form 1 (mod8). The succeeding example will
focus on odd perfect squares such as 52 , 72 , 112 , 132 , . . .; for n = 2, 4, 6, . . .,
they are in the form (3n − 1)2 or (3n + 1)2 and are one more than multiple of
24 or 1 (mod24).
Example 4.9. Prove that an odd perfect square in the form (3k + 1)2 and in
the form (3k − 1)2 for n = 2, 4, 6, . . . is one more than a multiple of 24.
Solution: First we will prove the result for (3k + 1)2 . The proof for (3k −
1)2 is similar and will be omitted. Analogous to Example 3.3, we procure the
corresponding pattern
72 = 24 · 2 + 1,
132 = 24 · 7 + 1,
192 = 24 · 15 + 1,
232 = 24 · 22 + 1,
..
.
Similar to the technique in Example 3.3, for n = 2, 4, 6, . . . we set

(3n + 1)2 = 9n2 + 6n + 1

= 3n · [3n + 2] + 1.

First notice that for all n = 2, 4, 6, . . ., 3n and 3n + 2 are both even integers.
Second of all observe that 3n · [3n + 2] is a multiple of 3. We can then prove
that 3n · [3n + 2] must be a multiple of 8 (this will be left as an end of chapter
exercise). Hence the result follows.
The following example will analyze the ending digit of specific neighboring
perfect squares.
Example 4.10. Let n be a positive integer (n ∈ N). Determine the ending
digit of (n + 2)2 if the ending digit of n2 is 9 and the ending digit of (n + 1)2
is 4.
Solution:

(i) As the ending digit of n2 is 9, then n must be an odd perfect square and
therefore n must be an odd integer. Thus we can first conclude that n + 1
must be an even integer and n + 2 must be an odd integer.
(ii) Since the ending digit of n2 is 9, then n can be one of the following:

3, 7, 13, 17, 23, 27, . . . .

 Integers’ Characteristics  51

(iii) As the ending digit of (n + 1)2 is 4, then n + 1 can be one of the corre-
sponding values:
8, 18, 28, . . . .

Via (ii) and (iii) we obtain the cognate values of n + 2:

9, 19, 29, . . . . (4.24)

Hence via (4.24) the ending digit of (n + 2)2 must be 1.

From Example 4.10 we will transition to an ending digit of an integer in the
form nk , where n, k ∈ N.

4.4 Integers’ Ending Digits

This section’s aims are to study the ending digit of an integer in the form nk ,
where n, k ∈ N. For instance, how do we determine the ending digit of the
following integers without the use of calculators or any computing devices?

(i) 1120
(ii) 2251
(iii) 4366

In order to determine the ending digit of nk , we will need to get acquainted

with the following periodic traits of nk relative to the terminating digit of
n and the power of k. First note that an integer n may have ten possible
terminating digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Second of all, we decompose the
ending digit of nk into three different groups:

(1) Same ending digit of nk if an integer n ends in a 0, 1, 5 or 6. Then for

k ∈ N we obtain the corresponding ending digits of 0k , 1k , 5k and 6k :

0k = 0, for all k ∈ N, (4.25)

1k = 1, for all k ∈ N, (4.26)

k
5 = 5, for all k ∈ N, (4.27)
6k = 6, for all k ∈ N. (4.28)

(2) Period-2 pattern of nk if an integer n ends in a 4 or 9. Then for k ∈ N

we procure the cognate ending digits of 4k and 9k :

4 if k = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . ,
4k = (4.29)
6 if k = 2, 4, 6, 8 . . . .

and 
k 9 if k = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . ,
9 = (4.30)
1 if k = 2, 4, 6, 8 . . . .
52  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

(3) Period-4 pattern of nk if an integer n ends in a 2, 3, 7 or 8. Then for

k ∈ N we acquire the corresponding ending digits of 2k , 3k , 7k and 8k :


 2 if k = 1, 5, 9, 13, . . . ,
4 if k = 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . ,

k
2 = (4.31)

 8 if k = 3, 7, 11, 15 . . . ,
6 if k = 4, 8, 12, 16 . . . ,



 3 if k = 1, 5, 9, 13, . . . ,
9 if k = 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . ,

k
3 = (4.32)

 7 if k = 3, 7, 11, 15 . . . ,
1 if k = 4, 8, 12, 16 . . . ,



 7 if k = 1, 5, 9, 13, . . . ,
9 if k = 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . ,

k
7 = (4.33)

 3 if k = 3, 7, 11, 15 . . . ,
1 if k = 4, 8, 12, 16 . . . ,



 8 if k = 1, 5, 9, 13, . . . ,
4 if k = 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . ,

8k = (4.34)

 2 if k = 3, 7, 11, 15 . . . ,
6 if k = 4, 8, 12, 16 . . . ,


The next sequence of examples will render the use of (4.25)−(4.34) to deter-
mine the ending digit of an integer.
Example 4.11. Determine the ending digit of 3518 .
Solution: The ending digit of 35 is 5. Hence via (4.27) the ending digit of
3518 must be 5 as for all k ∈ N the ending digit of 5k is 5.
Example 4.12. Determine the ending digit of 1426 .
Solution: The ending digit of 14 is 4. Hence via (4.29) the ending digit of
1426 must be 6 as for all k ∈ N the ending digit of 42k must be 6.
Example 4.13. Determine the ending digit of 3747 .
Solution: The ending digit of 37 is 7. Hence via (4.33) the ending digit of
3747 must be 3 as for all k ∈ N the ending digit of 74k+3 must be 3.
Example 4.14. Determine the ending digit of 2334 · 3247 .
Solution: Observe that the ending digit of 23 is 3 and the ending digit of 32
is 2. Then:
(i) Via (4.32) the ending digit of 2334 must be 9 as for all k ∈ N the ending
digit of 34k+2 must be 9.
(ii) Via (4.31) the ending digit of 3247 must be 8 as for all k ∈ N the ending
digit of 24k+3 must be 8.
Hence via (i) and (ii), the ending digit of 2334 · 3247 must be 2.
 Integers’ Characteristics  53

4.5 Chapter 4 Exercises

In problems 1−2, determine the prime factors and sketch the prime factoriza-
tion tree of the corresponding integers:

1: 210
2: 900

In problems 3−6 express the sum S of all the factors of the following integers
as combinations of geometric summations:

3: 48
4: 80
5: 144
6: 240

In problems 7−10 determine

7: Φ(15)
8: Φ(24)
9: Φ(35)
10: Φ(40)

In problems 11−14 determine

11: 5 consecutive integers whose sum is 210.

12: 10 consecutive integers whose sum is 195.
13: 4 consecutive odd integers whose sum is 48.

14: 6 consecutive even integers whose sum is 66.

In problems 15−18 simplify the following expressions:

124
15: 83

203
16: 164

184
17: 123

155
18: 124
54  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

In problems 19−26 determine the ending digit of the corresponding integers:

19: 5763
20: 7275
21: 14980

22: 84495
23: 5744 + 6540
24: 4933 · 8467
25: 5830 · 9357
26: 8250 + 9760

In problems 27−28 prove the associated characteristics of perfect squares:

27: 72 , 92 , 152 , 172 , 192 , 212 , . . . are 1(mod16).

28: 42 − 22 , 102 − 82 , 162 − 142 , . . . are divisible by 3.

In problems 29−38 prove the following traits:

29: For n ≥ 1, prove that the sum of 2n + 1 consecutive integers is divisible

by 2n + 1.
30: For n ≥ 2, prove that the sum of 2n consecutive integers is divisible by
n.
31: For k ≥ 1, 5k − 1 is divisible by 4.
32: For k ≥ 1, 6k − 1 is divisible by 5.
33: For k ≥ 1, and p ≥ 3, pk − 1 is divisible by p − 1.
34: For k ≥ 0, 22k+1 + 1 is divisible by 3.
35: For k ≥ 0, 32k+1 + 1 is divisible by 4.
36: For k ≥ 0, 42k+1 + 1 is divisible by 5.

37: For k ≥ 0, 52k+1 + 1 is divisible by 6.

38: For k ≥ 1 and p ≥ 2, p2k+1 + 1 is divisible by p + 1.
 CHAPTER 5
Pascal’s Triangle Identities

In Chapter 1, we convened with the corresponding Pascal’s triangle.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

Figure 5.1 Seven rows of the Pascal’s triangle.

This chapter’s aims are to derive various traits of the Pascal’s triangle and
prove them by applying the Definition of Combinations (5.1) and by Induc-
tion. We will examine Figure 5.1 in the horizontal direction to analyze the
triangle’s horizontally oriented identities and in the diagonal direction to
examine the triangle’s diagonally oriented identities. To obtain the trian-
gle’s horizontally oriented identities, we will decompose Figure 5.1 into blue
and red horizontal rows (the blue rows are even-ordered rows and the red rows
are odd-ordered rows) as illustrated in the proceeding diagram (Figure 5.2).

55
56  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.2 The Pascal’s triangle decomposed into blue and red rows.
Analogously, to acquire the triangle’s diagonally oriented identities, we will
break up Figure 5.1 into blue and red diagonals as indicated in Figure 5.3.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.3 The Pascal’s triangle decomposed into blue and red diagonals.

Furthermore, using the Definition of Combinations (5.1) we can reformulate

Figure 5.1 as rendered in the diagram in Figure 5.4.

 
0
  0  
1 1
  0   1  
2 2 2
  0   1   2  
3 3 3 3
  0   1   2   3  
4 4 4 4 4
  0   1   2   3   4  
5 5 5 5 5 5
  0   1   2   3   4   5  
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0
    1   2   3   4   5   6  
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 5.4 The Pascal’s triangle expressed in Combinations.

 Pascal’s Triangle Identities  57

Figure 5.4 guides us to the definition of Combinations expressed in terms

of factorials.
Definition 5.1. For all n ≥ 0 and k ∈ [0, 1, . . . , n], the number of k-
combinations out of n elements is defined as the corresponding binomial
coefficient:  
n n!
= . (5.1)
k k!(n − k)!
Note that for k ∈ [0, 1, . . . , n], (5.1) characterizes the number of k-
combinations out of the n elements. Throughout this chapter we will apply
(5.1) to determine and describe several Pascal triangle’s properties by coa-
lescing Figure 5.2 together with Figure 5.4 that will examine the triangle’s
horizontal rows that lead to the horizontally oriented identities. In addition,
we will combine Figure 5.3 together with Figure 5.4 that will decipher the
triangle’s diagonals that will direct to the diagonally oriented identities. The
upcoming example will portray the applications of (5.1) to calculate the tri-
angle’s elements.
Example 5.1. Figure 5.2 decomposes the Pascal’s triangle into blue and red
rows as shown in the corresponding sketch below:

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

From Figure 5.4, our aim is to compute each element of the Pascal’s triangle
by applying (5.1). For instance, by applying (5.1), we obtain all the elements
of the triangle’s third row:
       
3 3! 3 3! 3 3! 3 3!
= = 1, = = 3, = = 3, = = 1.
0 0!3! 1 1!2! 2 2!1! 3 3!0!

The consequent example will apply (5.1) to enumerate all the combinations 2
out of 5. Furthermore, we will coalesce (2.36) together with (5.1).
Example 5.2. List all the 2-combinations out of 5 from the set {a, b, c, d, e}
and express all the combinations in terms of (5.1) and (2.36).
Solution: We structure all the possible combinations in four rows in the fol-
lowing configuration:
{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {a, e}
{b, c}, {b, d}, {b, e}
{c, d}, {c, e}
{d, e}
58  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

By adding all the terms from each row we procure the following sum:
 
4·5 5 5!
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 = = = . (5.2)
2 2 2!3!

Therefore for all n ∈ N we can extend (5.2) to the following result:

n  
X n · [n + 1] n+1
i = = . (5.3)
i=1
2 2

(5.3) will emerge as one of the triangle’s properties in Example 5.7 and di-
rect us to supplemental diagonally oriented identities. The next section will
examine the triangle’s horizontally oriented identities.

5.1 Horizontally Oriented Identities

This section will focus on the triangle’s horizontally oriented identities
by applying Figure 5.2 together with Figure 5.4. We will commence with the
first example that renders the triangle’s Symmetry Identity.
Example 5.3. The diagram in Figure 5.5 depicts the Symmetry Pattern
with the blue, green and red colors.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.5 Pascal’s triangle Symmetry Property.

From Figure 5.5 and via (5.1), the triangle’s blue terms render the following
configuration:

3 = 3, 4 = 4,
  5 =
 5, 6 = 6, 7  = 7  
3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
= , = , = , = , = .
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6
(5.4)
 Pascal’s Triangle Identities  59

Notice from (5.4) we acquire 1 + 2 = 3, 1 + 3 = 4, 1 + 4 = 5, 1 + 5 = 6 and

1 + 6 = 7. In addition, via (5.4) and (5.1) we obtain
           
3 3! 3 4 4! 4 5 5! 5
= = , = = , = = .
1 1!2! 2 1 1!3! 3 1 4!1! 4

From Figure 5.5 and via (5.1), the triangle’s green terms resemble the corre-
sponding structure

10 = 10, 15 = 15,

  21
  = 21
 
5 5 6 6 7 7 (5.5)
= , = , = .
2 3 2 4 2 5

From (5.5) we procure 2 + 3 = 5, 1 + 3 = 4, 2 + 4 = 6 and 2 + 5 = 7. Via

(5.5) and (5.1) we get
           
5 5! 5 6 6! 6 7 7! 7
= = , = = , = = , ....
2 2!3! 3 2 2!4! 4 2 2!5! 5

From Figure 5.5 and via (5.1), the triangle’s red terms depict the correspond-
ing pattern
35 = 35
7 7 (5.6)
= ,
3 4
where 3 + 4 = 7. Via (5.6) and (5.1) we obtain
   
7 7! 7
= = .
3 3!4! 4

Hence via (5.4), (5.5) and (5.6), for all n ≥ 0 and k = 0, 1, . . . , n we procure
   
n n
= , (5.7)
k n−k

where k + (n − k) = n for all k = 0, 1, . . . , n. Thus via (5.1) we obtain

   
n n! n! n
= = = .
n−k (n − k)![n − (n − k)]! (n − k)!k! k

Hence the result follows.

The consequent example will depict the triangle’s Pascal’s Identity by
adding two neighboring horizontal terms in each row.

Example 5.4. The diagram in Figure 5.6 renders the Pascal’s Identity
with blue and red colors (where each red term is the sum of the two adjacent
horizontal blue terms).
60  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.6 Representation of the triangle’s Pascal’s Identity.

When adding two adjoining horizontal blue terms in each row in Figure 5.6
together with (5.1) we procure the following pattern:

1 + 2 = 3, 6 + 4 = 10, 15 + 6 = 21, . . .
                  (5.8)
2 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7
+ = , + = , + = ,...
0 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5

By applying (5.1), we acquire

     
6 6 6! 6! 6!5 6!2 6![5 + 2] 7! 7
+ = + = + = = = .
4 5 2!4! 5!1! 2!5! 5!2! 5!2! 5!2! 5

In addition from (5.8), for all n ∈ N and k ∈ [0, 1, . . . , n − 1], we obtain the
corresponding Pascal’s Identity:
     
n n n+1
+ = . (5.9)
k k+1 k+1

Proving Eq. (5.9) (Pascal’s Identity) will be left as an end of the chapter
exercise. Eq. (5.9) will also be used to prove further identities.
In Example 5.4 we added two horizontal neighboring terms in each row and
obtained the Pascal’s Identity. The next example will affix all the horizontal
terms in each row and produce the triangle’s Power Identity (adding up to
a power of 2).
Example 5.5. In Example 5.4 we added two neighboring horizontal terms.
We will decompose the triangle’s rows where the blue terms render the even-
ordered rows while the red terms depict the odd-ordered rows.
 Pascal’s Triangle Identities  61

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.7 Representation of the triangle’s Power Identity.

Now we will combine all the terms in each row. Via Figure 5.7, by combining
all the terms in each row starting with the 0th row and by applying (5.1), we
obtain the following properties:
 
0
1= = 20 (0th row),
0
   
1 1
1+1= + = 21 (1st row),
0 1

(5.10)
     
2 2 2
1+2+1= + + = 22 (2nd row),
0 1 2
       
3 3 3 3
1+3+3+1= + + + = 23 (3rd row),
0 1 2 3
..
.

Notice that the power of 2 corresponds directly to the order of each row. For
n ∈ N, (5.10) extends to the corresponding Power Identity:
n  
X n
= 2n . (5.11)
i=0
i

Note that the blue even-ordered rows have an odd number of terms while the
red odd-ordered rows have an even number of terms. Thus proving (5.11) will
require two cases when n is even and when n is odd. In addition (5.11) is
proved by induction by applying the Symmetry Identity and the Pascal’s
Identity. Furthermore, via Figure 5.7 and via (5.10) and (5.11), by adding
all the elements of the Pascal’s triangle we procure
n
X
20 + 21 + 21 + · · · + 2n = 2i = 2n+1 − 1.
i=0
62  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

5.2 Diagonally Oriented Identities

This section will focus on the triangle’s diagonally oriented identities by
applying Figure 5.3 together with Figure 5.4. The succeeding examples will
combine the adjacent diagonal terms in comparison to combining horizontal
terms as we did in the previous section. In Example 5.4 we added two hori-
zontal neighbors and obtained the Pascals’ Identity. Analogously, the next
example will initiate the Square Identity by adding two neighboring terms
in the second diagonal.
Example 5.6. Our aim is to derive the Square Identity by combining two
neighboring blue diagonal terms in the second diagonal as shown in the dia-
gram in Figure 5.8.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.8 Triangle’s Second Diagonal and the Square Identity.

Applying Figure 5.8 and implementing (5.1) to express the sum of two adjacent
blue terms, we procure the following identities:
   
2 3
1+3= + = 22 ,
0 1
   
3 4
3+6= + = 32 ,
1 2

(5.12)
   
4 5
6 + 10 = + = 42 ,
2 3
   
5 6
10 + 15 = + = 52 ,
3 4
..
.

Hence via (5.12), for all n ≥ 2 we acquire the following Square Identity:
   
n n+1
+ = n2 . (5.13)
n−2 n−1
 Pascal’s Triangle Identities  63

Verifying (5.13) will be left as an end of chapter exercise.

The upcoming example will evince (2.36) as one of the properties of the Pas-
cal’s triangle by summing all the consecutive diagonal terms in the first diag-
onal starting with 1.

Example 5.7. The corresponding scheme renders the red terms of the trian-
gle’s first diagonal and lists all the consecutive positive integers.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Figure 5.9 Triangle’s First Diagonal indicated in red.

In Figure 5.9, by summing all the consecutive red terms in the first diagonal
and applying (5.1), we procure the following relations:
     
1 2 3
1+2= + = = 3,
0 1 1
       
1 2 3 4
1+2+3= + + = = 6,
0 1 2 2
         
1 2 3 4 5
1+2+3+4= + + + = = 10,
0 1 2 3 3
           
1 2 3 4 5 6
1+2+3+4+5= + + + + = = 15,
0 1 2 3 4 4
..
.
(5.14)
From the relations in (5.14), for all n ≥ 2 we reformulate (2.36) as
          n−1
X i + 1   
1 2 3 4 n n+1
+ + + + ... + = = .
0 1 2 3 n−1 i=0
i n−1
(5.15)
We will prove (5.15) by induction together with the Pascal’s Identity and
will be left as an end of chapter exercise.
64  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Analogous to (5.15) in Example 5.7, by combining all the blue terms in the
triangle’s second diagonal we obtain
          n−1
X i + 2  
2 3 4 5 n+1 n+2
+ + + + ··· + = = .
0 1 2 3 n−1 i=0
i n−1
(5.16)
By summing all the red terms in the triangle’s third diagonal we procure
          n−1
X i + 3  
3 4 5 6 n+2 n+3
+ + + + ··· + = = .
0 1 2 3 n−1 i=0
i n−1
(5.17)
By adding all the blue terms in the triangle’s fourth diagonal we acquire
          n−1
X i + 4  
4 5 6 7 n+3 n+4
+ + + + ··· + = = .
0 1 2 3 n−1 i=0
i n−1
(5.18)
Therefore for all k ∈ N, by affixing all the terms in the kth diagonal, via
(5.15)−(5.18) we produce the corresponding identity
        n−1
X i + k  n + k 
k k+1 k+2 n+k−1
+ + + ··· + = = .
0 1 2 n−1 i=0
i n−1
(5.19)
Proving (5.19) by induction will be left as an end of chapter exercise.

5.3 Binomial Expansion

In this section, for n ≥ 2 we will derive the binomial expansion for (x + y)n
and show the correspondence with the binomial coefficients of the nth row of
the Pascal’s triangle. First using the distributive property we obtain
(x + y)2 = 
x2 + 2xy + y 2 ,  
2 2 2 2 2 (5.20)
= x + xy + y .
0 1 2
The coefficient of the powers of x and y in (5.20) describes the binomial
coefficients of the 2nd row of the Pascal’s triangle. Using (5.20) together with
the distributive property we get
(x + y)3 = (x + y)2 · (x + y),
= (x2 + 2xy + y 2 ) · (x + y),
3 2 2 3
= x
 + 3x y+3xy + y  ,   (5.21)
3 3 3 2 3 3 3
= x + x y + xy 2 + y .
0 1 2 3
The coefficient of the powers of x and y in (5.21) renders the binomial coef-
ficients of the 3rd row of the Pascal’s triangle. Now applying (5.21) together
 Pascal’s Triangle Identities  65

with the distributive property we procure

(x + y)4 = (x + y)3 · (x + y),
= (x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 ) · (x + y),
4 3 2 2 3
= x
 + 4x y+6x y + 4xy  + y 4 ,   
4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4 3 4 4
= x + x y + x y + xy + y .
0 1 2 3 4
(5.22)
The coefficient of the powers of x and y in (5.22) depicts the binomial coef-
ficients of the 4th row of the Pascal’s triangle. Therefore for n ≥ 2, (5.20),
(5.21) and (5.22) generalize to the corresponding binomial expansion:
n  
n
X n n−i i
(x + y) = x y. (5.23)
i=0
i

In (5.23), the powers of x descend by 1, the powers of y ascend by 1, and the

sum of the powers of x and y adds up to n for all i ∈ [0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n]. The
upcoming examples will portray the use of (5.23)
Example 5.8. Determine the binomial expansion of
(a2 + b2 )6 . (5.24)
Solution: Applying (5.23) with n = 6 we get
6  
6
X 6 6−i i
(x + y) = x y. (5.25)
i=0
i

Next we substitute x = a2 and y = b2 into (5.25) and obtain

6  
X 6
(a2 + b2 )6 = (a2 )6−i (b2 )i ,
i=0
i

6  
X 6 12−2i 2i
= a b .
i=0
i

Observe that the powers of a descend by 2 while the powers of b ascend by

8 4
2. For instance,

we get a b when i = 2 with the corresponding binomial
6
coefficient 2 .
Example 5.9. Determine the binomial expansion of
(x + x−1 )8 . (5.26)
Solution: Applying (5.23) with n = 8 we get
8  
8
X 8 8−i i
(x + y) = x y. (5.27)
i=0
i
66  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Next we substitute y = x−1 into (5.27) and procure

8  
X 8
(x + x−1 )8 = (x)8−i (x−1 )i ,
i=0
i

8   8  
X 8 8−i −i X 8 8−2i
= x x = x .
i=0
i i=0
i

Note that the power of x starts with 8 and descends by 2 from term to term.
0
For instance,

we obtain x when i = 4 with the corresponding binomial co-
8
efficient 4 .

5.4 Chapter 5 Exercises

In problems 1–10, simplify the following expressions:
9!
1: 3!6!
10!
2: 5!5!
6

4

3: 4 2
8 6



4: 2 4

7 6


5: 3 2

5 8


6: 8 3

(k+2)!
7: k! , k∈N
(k+3)!
8: k! , k∈N
(k+n)!
9: k! , k, n ∈ N
10: k · [k! + (k − 1)!] , k ∈ N
8!
11: 4!
12!
12: 6!

(2k)!
13: k! , k∈N
n
(k+1 )
14: , k, n ∈ N
(nk)
n n−1 n−1




15: k−1 + k + k−1

n+1 n n−1 n−1

16: k+1 + k−1 + k + k−1
 Pascal’s Triangle Identities  67

In problems 17−26, using the binomial expansion determine:

17: (x + y + z)2
18: (x + y + z)3
19: (a3 + b3 )6
20: (a + b2 )8
21: (x + x−2 )12
22: (x − y)n
23: The binomial coefficient of x3 in (x + x−2 )18
24: The binomial coefficient of x4 in (x − x−3 )16
25: The binomial coefficient of x0 in (x + x−1 )2n
26: The binomial coefficient of x3 in (x + x−1 )2n+1

In problems 27−34, using Eq. (5.1) prove the following expressions:

2k


27: k is even, k ∈ N
2k k


2
28: 2 =2 2 +k , k ∈N
3k k k



3
29: 3 = 3 3 + 6k 2 + k , k ∈ N
n

n n−1

30: k = k k−1 , k, n ∈ N

n n n−1



31: k = n−k k , k, n ∈ N

n n n+1




32: k + k+1 = k+1 , k, n ∈ N

n k n n−j





33: k j = j k−j , j ≤ k ≤ n

n n+1


2
34: n−2 + n−1 = n , n ≥ 2

In problems 35−40, prove the following expressions by induction:

Pn−1 i+1
n+1


35: i=0 i = n−1 , n≥2
Pn−1 i+2
n+2


36: i=0 i = n−1 , n≥2
Pn−1 i+3
n+3


37: i=0 i = n−1 , n≥2
Pn−1 i+4
n+4


38: i=0 i = n−1 , n≥2
Pn−1 i+k

= n+k


39: i=0 i n−1 , n ≥ 2, k ∈ N
68  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Pn n


40: i=0 i = 2n , n ∈ N
41: Using Exercise 40, prove
n  
X n i
2 = 3n , n ∈ N
i=0
i

42: Using Exercise 40, prove

n  
X n
[i + 1] = 2n + n2n−1 , n ∈ N
i=0
i

43: Using Exercise 40, prove

n  
X 2n + 1
= 22n , n ∈ N
i=0
i
 CHAPTER 6
Geometry

In Greek, geometry is defined as the measurement of the earth. Our chapter’s

aims are to get acquainted with the fundamentals of triangular geometry and
area and perimeter geometry and how to apply them to solve complex multi-
step problems. We will first commence with the triangular geometry.

6.1 Triangular Geometry

In Chapter 1, we commenced our studies of triangular geometry with the
triangle’s interior angles α, β, γ rendered in Figure 1.6 as:

where α + β + γ = 180. Throughout this section we will solve problems by

decomposing a triangle into several subtriangles. We will encounter isosceles
triangles which will then lead us to 30−60−90 triangles and 45−45−90 trian-
gles. The upcoming example will implement the decomposition of a triangle
into two smaller subtriangles.
Example 6.1. Using the diagram in Figure 6.1 solve for y + z

69
70  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 6.1 Two neighboring triangles.

Solution: First we will decompose Figure 6.1 into two neighboring trian-
gles, the left-neighboring triangle and the right-neighboring triangle.
Using the left-neighboring triangles we will solve for x, and using the right-
neighboring triangle we will solve for y + z. Note that from the left-neighboring
triangle we obtain x = 100 as shown in the diagram below:

Now we assemble the corresponding right-neighboring triangle:

 Geometry  71

Therefore using the right-neighboring triangle we obtain y + z = 100.

Now we will transition to isosceles triangles.

6.1.1 Isosceles Triangles

We define an isosceles triangle as a triangle with two equal sides y described
in the cognate diagram in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Isosceles triangle.

Observe that in Figure 6.2 the two sides y are equal with the corresponding
two equal angles α. In addition, Figure 6.2 is decomposed into two equal
neighboring right triangles. The succeeding example will decipher an isosceles
triangle as a system of isosceles subtriangles.
Example 6.2. Using the diagram in Figure 6.3 solve for β − α

Figure 6.3 System of isosceles triangles.

where AB = AC, ZY = ZC, XZ = XY and XY = BY .

72  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Solution: First of all, as AB = AC, then 4ABC is an isosceles triangle and

we obtain the corresponding diagram

Second of all, as ZY = ZC, then 4Y ZC is an isosceles triangle and hence

α = 50. Now note that XY = BY , then 4XY B is an isosceles triangle and
we acquire the following diagram:

Finally since XY = XZ, then 4Y XZ is an isosceles triangle and we obtain

the associated diagram:

and β = 80. Therefore β − α = 80 − 50 = 30.

 Geometry  73

We will next examine two special cases of isosceles triangles, an equilateral

triangle and a 45−45−90 triangle. The corresponding sketch renders an equi-
lateral triangle (Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4 Equilateral triangle.

In Figure 6.2, an equilateral triangle is a special case of an isosceles trian-

gle where all three sides and three angles are equal. The upcoming diagram
in Figure 6.5 decomposes an equilateral triangle into two equal 30−60−90
triangles.

Figure 6.5 Isosceles triangle as two symmetrical 36–60–90 triangles.

74  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Another special case of an isosceles triangle is a 45−45−90 triangle depicted

in the associated sketch:

30−60−90 and 45−45−90 triangles are special cases of right triangles and we
will study their traits in subsections 6.1.2, 6.1.3 and 6.1.4.

6.1.2 30−60−90 Triangles

Our goals are to examine, recognize and apply the pattern of the 30−60−90
triangles depicted in the cognate diagram.

Figure 6.6 30−60−90 right triangle.

The succeeding example will decipher a 30−60−90 triangle as a system of two

30−60−90 subtriangles.
Example 6.3. Using the diagram in Figure 6.7 solve for AD given that
4ABC is a 30−60−90 triangle and BC = 6.
 Geometry  75

Figure 6.7 System of 30−60−90 triangles.

Solution: Note that via Figures 6.6 and 6.7, 4ADB and 4BDC are both
30−60−90 triangles.
√ First by applying Figure 6.6 on 4BDC we obtain DC =
3 and BD = 3 3 and the corresponding diagram:

√
Now by applying Figures 6.6 and 6.7 on 4ADB we procure BD = 3 3 and
AD = 9 and the following diagram:

Hence via Figure 6.6 and 30−60−90 triangle, we acquire AD = 9.

76  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

6.1.3 45−45−90 Triangles

Our aims are to analyze, recognize and apply the pattern of the 45−45−90
triangles depicted in the cognate diagram.

Figure 6.8 Isosceles 45−45−90 right triangle.

Observe Figure 6.8 renders an isosceles right triangle√with two equal perpen-
dicular sides of length X and diagonal of length X 2. Similar to Example
6.3, the upcoming example will analyze a 45−45−90 triangle as a system of
several 45−45−90 subtriangles.
Example 6.4. Using the diagram in Figure 6.9, solve for AB given that
DE = EB = GF = F A, CD = DB = CG = GA and EB = 2.

Figure 6.9 System of 45−45−90 triangles.

 Geometry  77

Solution: Note that via Figures 6.8 and 6.9, 4AF G and 4BED are both
45−45−90 triangles as shown in the corresponding sketch:

√ √
As we assumed that CD = DB = CG = GA, then AC = 4 2 and BC = 4 2.
Thus we see that 4ABC must also be a 45−45−90 triangle portrayed by the
cognate sketch:

Hence via Figure 6.8 and 45−45−90 triangle’s traits, we acquire AB = 8.

6.1.4 Additional Right Triangles

Recall in subsection 6.1.2, Figure 6.6 renders the characteristics of the
30−60−90 triangle while in subsection 6.1.3, Figure (6.8) describes the traits
of the 45−45−90 triangle. In fact, Figures 6.6 and 6.8 are both special cases
of right triangles and the Pythagorean Theorem.
This subsection’s aims are to extend our knowledge of right triangles to 3−4−5
right triangles, to 5−12−13 right triangles and the Pythagorean Theorem. The
Pythagorean Theorem is rendered by the corresponding diagram in Figure
6.10.
78  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 6.10 Pythagorean Theorem.

where
A2 + B 2 = C 2 . (6.1)
Hence we see that Figures 6.6 and 6.8 are special cases of Figures 6.10 and
6.1. The consequent sketch is also a special case of Figures 6.10 and 6.1 and
depicts a 3−4−5 right triangle as in Figure 6.11.

Figure 6.11 3−4−5 right triangle.

The upcoming sketch is also a special case of Figures 6.10 and 6.1 and describes
a 5−12−13 right triangle as in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12 5−12−13 right triangle.

 Geometry  79

The succeeding example deciphers two 3−4−5 triangles at different scales and
proportions.
Example 6.5. Using the diagram in Figure 6.13 solve for DB and EC given
that AD = 4, DE = 3 and BC = 12.

Figure 6.13 System of 3−4−5 triangles.

Solution: Notice that via Figures 6.11 and 6.13, 4ADE and 4ABC are
3−4−5 triangles as shown in the corresponding diagrams in Figures 6.14 and
6.15.

Figure 6.14 Small 3−4−5 triangle 4ADE.

80  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 6.15 Big 12−16−20 triangle 4ABC.

Next via Figures 6.14 and 6.15 we obtain the cognate sketch:

Hence we see that DB = 12 and EC = 15.

 Geometry  81

6.2 Area and Perimeter Geometry

This section’s aims are to get familiarized with additional traits of area and
perimeter of various figures. In Section 1.3, Eq. 1.10 describes the area of a
circle with radius r (A = πr2 ) depicted in Figure 1.7.

Eq.
√ (1.11) describes the area of a square with length x, width x and diagonal
x 2 (A = x2 ) rendered in Figure 1.8:

Via Figure 6.8 the diagonal decomposes the square in Figure 1.8 into two
equal 45−45−90 triangles. The next sketch
√ depicts the area of a rectangle
with length l, width w and diagonal d = l2 + w2
82  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 6.16 Area of a rectangle.

whose area is

A = l · w. (6.2)
Notice that Figure 1.8 is a special case of Figure 6.16 when l = w. In addition,
the diagonal d decomposes the rectangle in Figure 6.16 into two equal right
triangles. The upcoming diagram in Figure 6.17 describes the area of a triangle
with base b and height h (where b⊥h)

Figure 6.17 Area of a triangle.

whose area is
b·h
A = . (6.3)
2
The consequent example determines the area of a triangle inside a parabola.
Example 6.6. Using the diagram in Figure 6.18, determine the area of a
triangle 4ABC inside the parabola y = 4 − x2 .
 Geometry  83

Figure 6.18 Triangle ABC inside the parabola y = 4 − x2 .

Solution: The cognate sketch portrays the y-intercept (0,4) and two x-
intercepts (−2,0) and (2,0) of the parabola y = 4 − x2 ,

Figure 6.19 The x and y intercepts of the parabola y = 4 − x2 .

Hence via Figure 6.19 we acquire the corresponding triangular diagram with
base b = 4 and height h = 4:
84  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

4·4
whose area is 2 = 8.

The upcoming example determines the area and perimeter of a triangle as-
sembled partially inside and outside a circular region.
Example 6.7. Suppose the area of the circular area in the corresponding
sketch is 9π.

Figure 6.20 Triangle ABC and blue circle.

Determine the area and the perimeter of the equilateral triangle ABC.
Solution: Figure 6.20 depicts an overlapping triangle and circle. As the area
of the blue circle in Figure 6.20 is 9π, then we obtain radius r = 3 and
diameter d = 6 (AD = 6) rendered by the cognate diagram in Figure 6.21.

Figure 6.21 Triangle ABC and the blue circle with diameter 6.

Since ABC is an equilateral triangle, then we acquire AB = BC = CA and

the corresponding diagram.
 Geometry  85

Figure 6.22 Equilateral triangle ABC.

According to Figure 6.5, the equilateral triangle ABC in Figure 6.22 is de-
composed into two 30−60−90 triangles ADB and ADC. Thus via Figure
6.22 we see that the area of ABC is
√
4 3·6 √
A = = 12 3,
2
while the perimeter of ABC is
√ √
P = 3 · 4 3 = 12 3.

The upcoming example examines the areas of squares together with Eq. (2.36):
n
 n · [n + 1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = i = .
i=1
2

Example 6.8. Using the diagram in Figure 6.23 determine the dimensions
of each individual square given that the area of all the squares is 900.

Figure 6.23 System of pyramid-shaped squares at the same scale.

86  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Solution: Notice that Figure 6.23 is assembled as a system of pyramid-shaped

squares in eight rows. So using Eq. (2.36), the total number of squares in
Figure (6.23) is
8
8·9
i = = 36.
i=1
2
Hence the area of each square is the total area divided by the total number of
squares:
900
= 25.
36
Therefore the dimensions of each square are 5X5.
The next example investigates the areas of triangles together with Eq. (2.37):
n

1 + 3 + 5 + 9 + · · · + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1) = (2i − 1) = n2 .
i=1

Example 6.9. The cognate sketch renders a system of triangles at the same
scale.

Figure 6.24 System of triangles at the same scale.

Suppose that the area of ABC is 15. Determine the area of ADE.
Solution: Notice that Figure 6.24 is assembled as a system of triangles in
eight rows. So by applying Eq. (2.37), the total number of triangles in Figure
6.24 is
 8
(2i − 1) = 82 = 64.
i=1

Hence the area of ADE is

15 · 64 = 960.
 Geometry  87

The consequent example analyzes the area and perimeter of a system of

squares together with Eq. (2.36):
n
 n · [n + 1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = i = .
i=1
2

Example 6.10. The corresponding diagram renders a system of step-shaped

squares at the same scale.

Figure 6.25 System of step-shaped squares at the same scale.

Solve for k when the dimension of each small square is k and the perimeter P
(the sum of all the red sides) is equal to the area A of all the squares.
Solution: Observe that Figure 6.25 is assembled as a system of step-shaped
squares in five rows. So via Eq. 2.36, Figure 6.25 has 15 squares and we
acquire
A = 15k 2 and P = 20k.
Now we set A = P and we obtain

15k 2 = 20k

and
20 4
k = = .
15 3
Figure 6.25 can be extended to a system of step-shaped squares at the same
scale with n rows. This will be left as an end of chapter exercise. The suc-
ceeding subsection will examine proportions of areas of triangles and squares
at different scales.
88  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

6.3 Geometry and Proportions

Figure 6.13 in Example 6.5 examined the proportion of sides between two
3−4−5 triangles. This subsection’s intents are to get familiarized with the
proportions of areas of triangles and squares at different scales. Throughout
this subsection we will remit the corresponding question: if the sides of a
figure increase by a certain ratio, by what proportion will the area increase
by? The upcoming example will decipher the proportions of areas of squares
at different scales.
Example 6.11. Suppose that 2ABCD and 2XY ZW are squares and sup-
pose that AX = XB, BY = Y C, CZ = ZD, and DW = W A as shown in
the diagram in Figure 6.26.

Figure 6.26 System of two squares.

Given that the area of the green square 2XY ZW is 6, then determine the
area of blue square 2ABCD.
Solution: First note that in Figure 6.26 X is the midpoint of AB, Y is the
midpoint of BC, Z is the midpoint of CD and W is the midpoint of DA.
Therefore we obtain four symmetrical 45−45−90 triangles 4XW A, 4XY B,
4ZY C and 4ZW D.
Next assume that area the green square 2XY ZW is 6. Then√ via Figure 6.26
and Eq. (1.11) we see that W X = XY = Y Z = ZW = 6 rendered by the
corresponding sketch:
 Geometry  89

Now using the properties of 45−45−90 triangles in Figure 6.8 we acquire the
consequent diagram:

which then guides us to the cognate sketch:

90  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

√
Hence we see that the area of the blue square 2ABCD is [2 3]2 = 12.
The succeeding example will inspect the proportions of triangular areas at
different scales.
Example 6.12. Suppose that 4ABC and 4ADE are right triangles as shown
in the diagram in Figure 6.27.

Figure 6.27 System of two right triangles at different scales.

Furthermore, suppose that DF = 4, BD BF

= 15 and AE
AC
= 34 . Given that the
area of 4ADE is 24, then determine the area of 4ABC.
Solution: Via Figure 6.27 and Eq. (6.3) we see that AE = 12 depicted by the
following sketch:
 Geometry  91

BD
First of all, as DF = 4 andBF
= 51 then we obtain BD = 1 and BF = 5.
and AE
Second of all, as AE = 12 AC
= 34 then we acquire EC = 4 and AC = 16.
This then leads us to the upcoming diagram:

Therefore we see that via Eq. (6.3) the area of 4ABC is 40. Moreover we
obtain the corresponding ratios of areas of triangles 4ADE and 4ABC:
Area 4 ADE 24 3
= = .
Area 4 ABC 40 5
The upcoming example will determine the square’s dimensions and area of a
square inscribed inside an equilateral triangle.
92  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Example 6.13. Suppose that ABC is an equilateral triangle and suppose

that XY ZW is a square inscribed inside ABC as shown in the correspond-
ing sketch

Figure 6.28 Square inscribed inside an equilateral triangle.

Furthermore, suppose that AB = BC = CA = 3. Determine the dimensions

and area of the square XY ZW .
Solution: Since we assumed that ABC is an equilateral triangle and
XY ZW is a square, then via Figure 6.28 we acquire the cognate diagram:

Since XY ZW is a square then we set XY = Y Z = ZW = W X = a and

procure the consequent sketch:
 Geometry  93

Now using the properties of equilateral triangles and 30−60−90 triangles we

obtain the associated diagram:

Notice that from the figure above we obtain

2a
AB = AX + XB = a + √ = 3. (6.4)
3
Solving for a in (6.4) we acquire
√
3 3
a = √ . (6.5)
2+ 3
94  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems
√
Now by multiplying top and bottom (6.5) by the conjugate 2 − 3, we refor-
mulate (6.5) as
√ h √ i
a = 3 3· 2− 3 . (6.6)

Therefore we acquire the corresponding area of 2XY ZW :

 √ h √ i2 √
A = a2 = 3 3· 2− 3 = 27 · [7 − 4 3].

6.4 Chapter 6 Exercises

√
1: Given that AB = 24, determine the area of the green circle:

DC 3
2: Given that AD
= 2, determine the ratio of the areas of 4ABC and
4ABD:

3: Solve for α given that AB = 8, AD = 3 and BC = 3:

 Geometry  95

4: Express γ in terms of α and β:

5: If the area of XY ZW is 5, then determine the area of ABCD:

6: If the area of ABCD is 8, then determine the area of XY ZW and

the area of the green circle surrounding XY ZW :
96  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

7: Suppose that ABC is an equilateral triangle and AB = 12. Solve for

AD, BD and CD provided that AD = BD = CD:

8: Using Exercise 3, suppose that the area of the blue circle is 4π, then
determine the area of the green equilateral triangle ABC:
 Geometry  97

9: Solve for k when the dimension of each small square is k and the perime-
ter P (the sum of all the red sides) is equal to the area A of all the
squares:

10: Suppose that ABC is an equilateral triangle and AB = 6. In addition

suppose that AX = XB, BY = Y C and CZ = ZA. Determine the area
of XY Z:

11: Using Exercise 8, suppose that ABC is an equilateral triangle and

AB = 8. Determine the circumference of the green circle:
98  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

12: Using Exercises 6 and 7, suppose that the circumference of the red circle
is 8π, then determine the area of the blue equilateral triangle:

13: Write a formula that determines the number of inscribed blue triangles
inside the main triangle:

14: Write a formula that determines the number of inscribed blue triangles
inside the main triangle:
 Geometry  99

15: Write a piecewise sequence that describes the areas of the green and
blue squares given that the area of the largest green square is 4:

16: Write a piecewise sequence that describes the areas of the blue squares
and green circles given that the area of the largest blue square is 4:
 CHAPTER 7
Graph Theory

Graph theory examines a graph G as a sequence of vertices and edges such as

Figure 1.13 rendering a Cartesian Product of Sets and Figure 1.14 describ-
ing a Partition of Sets in Chapter 1 and Figure 4.1 in Chapter 4 as prime
factorization. This chapter’s aims are to get acquainted with the basic fun-
damentals of graph theory such as degree of vertices, cycles of graphs, regular
graphs, semi-regular graphs and Hamiltonian graphs. We will first commence
with the degrees of vertices and cycles of graphs with various lengths.

7.1 Degrees of Vertices and Cycles

Analogous to (1.18) and Figure 1.13 in Chapter 1, we will consider the Carte-
sian Product of the following sets A and B:

A = {a, b},
B = {α, β},

where we match each English letter a and b with each Greek letter α and β.
We then acquire the following Cartesian Product A × B:

{a, α}, {a, β},

(7.1)
{b, α}, {b, β},

and the cognate graph rendering (7.1).

101
102  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 7.1 Cartesian Product rendered as a Bi-Partite Graph K2,2 .

Observe that Figure 7.1 has four vertices a, b, α and β. In addition, each vertex
has degree 2 as each vertex has two edges adjacent to it. We can restructure
Figure 7.1 as the corresponding cycle graph C4 .

Figure 7.2 Cycle graph C4 with length-4.

Figure 7.2 is a cycle graph C4 where each vertex vertices v1 , v2 , v3 and v4

has degree 2 and Figure 7.2 depicts a 2-regular graph. Cycle graph C4 also
consists of exactly one cycle with length-4 or a 4-cycle.
Figure 7.2 has four vertices and four edges. The number of edges |E(G)| in
Figure 7.2 is 4
4·2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = . (7.2)
2 2
The upcoming graph renders the cycle graph C3 of length-3 or a 3-cycle.
 Graph Theory  103

Figure 7.3 Cycle graph C3 with length-3.

Figure 7.3 is a cycle graph C3 where vertices v1 , v2 and v3 have degree 2 and
depicts a 2-regular graph that consists of exactly one cycle with length-3 or a
3-cycle.
Figure 7.3 has three vertices and three edges. Analogous to Figure 7.2 and
7.2, the number of edges |E(G)| in Figure 7.3 is
3
3·2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = . (7.3)
2 2
Similar to Figures 7.3 and 7.2, the succeeding sketch depicts the cycle graph
C6 of length-6 with six vertices and six edges.

Figure 7.4 Cycle graph C6 with length-6.

Figure 7.4 is a cycle graph C6 where each vertex vertices v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 and

v6 have degree 2, that is

deg(vi ) = 2 for all i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6},

104  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

and portrays a 2-regular graph that consists of exactly one cycle with length-
6 or a 6-cycle. Mimicking Figures 7.2 and 7.3 and via (7.4) and (7.2), the
number of edges |E(G)| in Figure 7.4 is
6
6·2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = . (7.4)
2 2
For n ≥ 3, Figures 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4, extend to the 2-regular cycle graph Cn of
length-n or an n-cycle and consists of n vertices vi for i ∈ {1, 2, ...., n}, where
each vertex has degree 2 or
deg(vi ) = 2 for all i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n},
and the number of edges |E(G)| in the cycle graph Cn is
n
n·2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = . (7.5)
2 2
The upcoming example portrays a semi-regular graph with six vertices where
each vertex has either degree 2 or 3 and with various cycles of length-4 and
length-6.
Example 7.1. Using Figure 7.5 determine the degrees of all the vertices and
all the cycles of the corresponding graph G in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5 Graph with six vertices.

Solution: First note that Figure 7.5 consists of six vertices where each vertex
has either degree 2 or degree 3. In fact we obtain
deg(v2 ) = deg(v5 ) = 3 and deg(v1 ) = deg(v3 ) = deg(v4 ) = deg(v6 ) = 2,
and the number of edges |E(G)| in Figure 7.5 is
6
2·3 + 4·2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = 7. (7.6)
2 2
Second of all note that Figure 7.5 has exactly one 6-cycle in red rendered by
the corresponding sketch (v1 –v2 –v3 –v4 –v5 –v6 –v1 ):
 Graph Theory  105

and two 4-cycles in red (v1 –v2 –v5 –v6 –v1 ) and (v2 –v3 –v4 –v5 –v2 ) resembled by
the following two diagrams:

The next example will focus on the 4-cycles of the Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 .
106  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Example 7.2. Using Figure 7.6 determine the degrees of all the vertices and
all the cycles of the corresponding Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 in Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6 Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 .

Solution: Figure 7.6 consists of five vertices where each vertex has either
degree 2 or degree 3. In fact we obtain

deg(v1 ) = deg(v2 ) = 3 and deg(v3 ) = deg(v4 ) = deg(v5 ) = 2,

and the number of edges |E(G)| in Figure 7.6 is

5
2·3 + 3·2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = 6. (7.7)
2 2

Also Figure 7.6 has 32 = 3 cycles with length-4 depicted by the consequent
three sketches. All 4-cycles will have vertices v1 and v2 but will first combine
v3 and v4 , then combine v3 and v5 and finally combine v4 and v5 .
The first sketch is a 4-cycle v1 –v3 –v2 –v4 –v1 and skips v5 and hence combines
vertices v3 and v4 :
 Graph Theory  107

The second sketch is a 4-cycle v1 –v3 –v2 –v5 –v1 and skips v4 and hence com-
bines vertices v3 and v5 :

The next sketch is a 4-cycle v1 –v4 –v2 –v5 –v1 and skips v3 and hence combines
vertices v4 and v5 :

The upcoming example will examine the 4-cycles, 6-cycles and an 8-cycle of
the Lattice Graph L2,4 .

Example 7.3. Using Figure 7.7 determine the degrees of all the vertices and
all the cycles of the cognate Lattice Graph L2,4 in Figure 7.7.
108  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Figure 7.7 Lattice Graph L2,4 .

Solution: Figure 7.7 is composed of eight vertices as two rows and four
columns. Note that vertices v1 , v2 , v3 and v4 are in the first row and ver-
tices v5 , v6 , v7 and v8 are in the second row. Analogous to Figures 7.5 and
7.6 each vertex has either degree 2 or degree 3. In fact we obtain
(i) deg(v1 ) = deg(v4 ) = deg(v5 ) = deg(v8 ) = 2,
(ii) deg(v2 ) = deg(v3 ) = deg(v6 ) = deg(v7 ) = 3,
and the number of edges |E(G)| in Figure 7.7 is
8
4·2 + 4·3 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = 10. (7.8)
2 2
From Figure 7.7 we then acquire the following three 4-cycles:
(1) v 1 − v2 − v7 − v8 − v1 .

(2) v 2 − v3 − v6 − v7 − v2 .
(3) v 3 − v4 − v5 − v6 − v3 .
We also obtain the corresponding two 6-cycles:
(1) v 1 − v2 − v3 − v6 − v7 − v8 − v1 .
(2) v2 − v3 − v4 − v5 − v6 − v7 − v2 .
Furthermore we procure the cognate 8-cycle:

v1 − v2 − v3 − v4 − v5 − v6 − v7 − v8 − v1 .
Now we will direct our focus on regular graphs.
 Graph Theory  109

7.2 Regular Graphs

We define a regular graph as a Graph G where each vertex has same degree
or has the same number of edges adjacent to it. In Section 7.1 cycle graphs
rendered 2-regular graphs in Figures 7.3, 7.2 and 7.4 as each vertex has degree
2. The upcoming sketch depicts a complete 3-regular graph K4 .

Figure 7.8 Complete 3-regular graph K4 .

In Figure 7.8 each vertex has degree 3 and the number of edges |E(G)| in K4
in Figure 7.8 is
  4
4·3 4 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = . (7.9)
2 2 2
In addition, the complete graph K4 has several 3-cycles and 4-cycles. The
upcoming sketch renders a complete 5-regular graph K6 .

Figure 7.9 Complete 5-regular graph K6 .

Analogous to Figure 7.8, in Figure 7.9 each vertex has degree 5 and the number
of edges |E(G)| in K6 in Figure 7.9 is
  6
6·5 6 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = . (7.10)
2 2 2
110  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

In addition, the graph K6 has several 3-cycles, 4-cycles, 5-cycles and 6-cycles.
For n ≥ 3, via Figures 7.8 and 7.9 and from (7.9) and (7.10), the number of
edges |E(G)| in a complete (n − 1)-regular graph Kn is
  n
n · (n − 1) n i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = . (7.11)
2 2 2

The complete graph Kn has numerous k-cycles (k ∈ [3, n]). Now we define a
Graph G with n vertices (n ≥ 3) as a k-regular graph (k ∈ [2, n − 1]) if each
vertex has degree k. Then the number of edges |E(G)| is
n
n·k i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = . (7.12)
2 2
Observe that n · k must be even in (7.12). Now we will examine additional
examples of regular graphs. The upcoming sketch describes the 3-regular Bi-
Partite Graph K3,3 .

Figure 7.10 3-regular Bi-Partite Graph K3,3 .

In Figure 7.10 each vertex has degree 3 and the number of edges |E(G)| in
K3,3 in Figure 7.10 is
6
6·3 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = 9. (7.13)
2 2
Must a regular graph be a Hamiltonian graph? Next we will transition to
semi-regular graphs.

7.3 Semi-Regular Graphs

In this section we will direct our focus on semi-regular graphs. In Section 7.2
in a regular graph every vertex has the same degree. On the contrary, in a
semi-regular graph, one of group of vertices has degree d1 and the remaining
group of vertices has degree d2 . In fact, k out of n vertices has degree d1 and
 Graph Theory  111

the remaining n − k vertices have degree d2 . Therefore the number of edges

|E(G)| in a semi-regular graph is
n
k · d1 + (n − k) · d2 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = . (7.14)
2 2
The first sketch describes a semi-regular Bi-Partite Graph K3,4 with seven
vertices.

Figure 7.11 Semi-regular Bi-Partite Graph K3,4 .

In Figure 7.11 each vertex either has degree 3 or degree 4:

(i) deg(v1 ) = deg(v2 ) = deg(v3 ) = 4,

(ii) deg(v4 ) = deg(v5 ) = deg(v6 ) = deg(v7 ) = 3,

and the number of edges |E(G)| in Figure 7.11 is

7
4·3 + 3·4 i=1 deg(vi )
|E(G)| = = = 4 · 3. (7.15)
2 2
The succeeding diagram describes a semi-regular graph with six vertices.

Figure 7.12 Semi-regular graph with six vertices.

112  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

In Figure 7.12 each vertex either has degree 3 or degree 4:

(i) deg(v1 ) = deg(v2 ) = deg(v4 ) = deg(v5 ) = 4,

(ii) deg(v3 ) = deg(v6 ) = 3.

The upcoming sketch portrays a semi-regular graph with eight vertices.

Figure 7.13 Semi-regular graph with eight vertices.

In Figure 7.13 each vertex either has degree 2 or degree 4:

(i) deg(v1 ) = deg(v2 ) = deg(v4 ) = deg(v5 ) = deg(v7 ) = deg(v8 ) = 2,

(ii) deg(v3 ) = deg(v6 ) = 4.

Figures 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12 and 7.13 will guide us to Hamiltonian graphs with
the following question: must every graph with cycles be a Hamiltonian graph?

7.4 Hamiltonian Cycles

In this section we will examine Hamiltonian cycles. For n ≥ 3, a Graph G
with n vertices has a Hamiltonian cycle if it either has Cn as a subgraph
or has a cycle with length n or an n-cycle. In addition, a Hamiltonian cycle
visits each vertex exactly once without any repetitions. For instance, we can
show that Kn has at least one Hamiltonian cycle. The succeeding example
will show the existence of several Hamiltonian cycles of K4 .
Example 7.4. Determine the Hamiltonian cycles of the cognate graph K4
below:
 Graph Theory  113

Solution: The next three sketches will trace three Hamiltonian cycles of K4 .
The first sketch describes a 4-cycle (v1 -v2 -v3 -v4 -v1 ) with two horizontal and
two vertical edges:

The second sketch renders a 4-cycle (v1 -v2 -v4 -v3 -v1 ) with two horizontal and
two diagonal edges:
114  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

The next sketch depicts a 4-cycle (v1 -v4 -v2 -v3 -v1 ) with two vertical and two
diagonal edges:

From Example 7.4 we can show that for all n ≥ 3 the complete graph Kn will
have several Hamiltonian cycles. The next example will examine the existence
of Hamiltonian cycles in a Bi-Partite Graph K3,3 .
Example 7.5. Determine a Hamiltonian cycle of the corresponding graph
K3,3 below:

Solution: Note that K3,3 has six vertices. Our goal is to determine a cycle
that visits all six vertices. The associated sketch traces the corresponding cycle
(v1 –v4 –v2 –v5 –v3 –v6 –v1 ) with length-6 or a 6-cycle:
 Graph Theory  115

The succeeding example will analyze the existence of Hamiltonian cycles in a

Lattice Graph L3,4 .
Example 7.6. Determine a Hamiltonian cycle of the following Lattice Graph
L3,4 :

Solution: Note that L3,4 has 12 vertices. Our aim is to find a cycle that visits
all 12 vertices. The corresponding diagram renders cycle with length-12 or a
12-cycle:
116  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

The consequent two examples will portray graphs that do not have a Hamilto-
nian cycle or Cn as a subgraph. We will commence with the Bi-Partite Graph
K2,3 .
Example 7.7. Explain why the cognate Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 below has no
Hamiltonian cycles or cycles with length-5:

Solution: In Example 7.3 we showed that the Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 has
exactly three 4-cycles:

(i) v1 –v3 –v2 –v4 –v1 ,

(ii) v1 –v3 –v2 –v5 –v1 ,
(iii) v1 –v4 –v2 –v5 –v1 .

Therefore we conclude that the Bi-Partite Graph K2,3 has five vertices and
only has 4-cycles and cannot have 5-cycles or odd-length cycles.
 Graph Theory  117

Example 7.8. Explain why the associate Graph G in Figure 7.14 has no
Hamiltonian cycles or cycles with length−5.

Figure 7.14 Semi-regular graph with five vertices.

Solution: Note that the given Graph G in Figure 7.14 has five vertices and
exactly two 3-cycles:

(i) v1 –v2 –v3 –v1 ,

(ii) v4 –v5 –v3 –v4 .

Therefore we conclude that the given Graph G in Figure (7.14) only has
3-cycles only and cannot have 5-cycles.

7.5 Chapter 7 Exercises

1: Determine the number of edges |E(G)| of a Graph G with 12 vertices
where three vertices have degree 4, three vertices have degree 6 and the
remaining six vertices have degree 8.

2: Determine the number of edges |E(G)| of a Graph G with seven ver-

tices where four vertices have degree 5, one vertex has degree 2 and the
remaining vertices have degree 4.
3: Determine the number of edges |E(G)| of a Bi-Partite Graph Kn,m .
4: Determine the number of edges |E(G)| of a Lattice Graph Ln,m .

5: Determine the maximum number of edges |E(G)| of a Bi-Partite Graph

Kn,m when n + m = 8.
6: Using Exercise 5, determine the maximum number of edges |E(G)| of a
Bi-Partite Graph Kn,m when n + m = even.
118  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

7: Determine the maximum number of edges |E(G)| of a Bi-Partite Graph

Kn,m when n + m = 11.
8: Using Exercise 7, determine the maximum number of edges |E(G)| of a
Bi-Partite Graph Kn,m when n + m = odd.
9: Sketch a non-regular Graph G with six vertices where each vertex has
either degree 2 or 4.
10: Sketch a non-regular Graph G with eight vertices where each vertex has
either degree 3 or 5.
11: Sketch a non-regular Graph G with five vertices where each vertex has
either degree 2, 3 or 4.
12: Sketch a non-regular Graph G with eight vertices where each vertex has
either degree 2, 4 or 6.
13: Sketch a 4-regular graph with eight vertices with no 3-cycles.
14: Sketch a 4-regular graph with eight vertices with at least one 3-cycle.
15: Consider a k-regular graph with n vertices. Prove k · n must be even.
16: Determine the longest cycle of the Bi-Partite Graph Kn,m .
17: Determine for what values n and m the Bi-Partite Graph Kn,m is Hamil-
tonian.
18: Determine the longest cycle of the Lattice Graph Ln,m .
19: Determine for what values n and m the Lattice Graph Ln,m is Hamil-
tonian.
20: Sketch a semi-regular Graph G with eight vertices where each vertex
either has degree 2 or 4 that is not Hamiltonian.
21: Determine all the cycles of the cognate 3-regular Graph G:
 Graph Theory  119

22: Determine all the cycles of the cognate 3-regular Graph G:

23: Determine all the cycles of the cognate Bi-Partite Graph K2,2,2 :

24: Determine all the cycles of the cognate Bi-Partite Graph K3,3,3 :
 CHAPTER 8
Answers to Chapter Exercises

8.1 Answers to Chapter 1 Exercises

1. {4n}∞
n=1

3. {11 + 6n}∞
n=0

5. {2 + 5n}∞
n=0

7. {(2n − 1)2 }∞
n=1

9. For all n ≥ 0:

(2n + 1) if n is even,
xn =
2(n + 1) if n is odd.

11. For all n ≥ 0:

2n

if n is even,
xn = n+1
3 2 if n is odd.

13. For all n ≥ 0:

( n
[6] 2 if n = 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . ,
{xn }∞
n=0 = n−1
2 [6] 2
if n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . .

15. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + 4,
x0 = 3.

17. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + 2(n + 2),
x0 = 2.

19. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = 2xn ,
x0 = 9.

121
122  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

21. 2 and 3

23. 2, 3 and 7
25. 3, 5 and 7

27. We obtain the corresponding Bi-Partite Graph K3,3 :

29. We obtain the corresponding Bi-Partite Graph K2,2,2 :

31. The following Hasse Diagram:

 Answers to Chapter Exercises  123

33. The following Hasse Diagram:

35. x = 40 and y = 140

37. x = 30, y = 60 and z = 90
25
39. 4

41. 90 + 40 − 10 = 120
43. 300 − [100 + 30 − 10] = 180
45: BC
47: AC ∩ BE = BC

8.2 Answers to Chapter 2 Exercises

1. {4n − 1}∞
n=0

3. {9n − 1}∞
n=1

5. {(2n − 1)2 }∞
n=1

7. {(4n − 1)2 }∞
n=1

9. {(4n + 2)2 }∞
n=1

11. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + 5,
x0 = 2.

13. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + (2n + 3),
x0 = 4.

15. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + 2(n + 1),
x0 = 5.
124  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

17. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = xn + 4(n + 1),
x0 = 3.

19. For all n ≥ 0: 

xn+1 = 34 xn ,
x0 = 64.

21. For all n ≥ 0:   

xn+1 = 2n+5
2n+1 xn ,
x0 = 1 · 3.

23. xn = (n + 1)2 for all n ≥ 0

2
25. xn = 2n for all n ≥ 0
27. For all n ≥ 0:

[n + 1] if n = 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . ,
{xn }∞
n=0 = − [n + 1] if n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . .

29. 3,925

31. 2,010

8.3 Answers to Chapter 4 Exercises

1. The cognate prime factorization tree is the prime factorization of 210:

3. 5 · [1 + 2 + 4 + 8]
5. 11 · [1 + 2 + 4 + 8] + 3 · [1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16]

7. Φ(15) = 8

9. Φ(35) = 24
 Answers to Chapter Exercises  125

11. 40, 41, 42, 43, 44

13. 9, 11, 13, 15
81
15. 2
243
17. 8

19. 3
21. 1

23. 6
25. 2

8.4 Answers to Chapter 5 Exercises

1. 84
3. 90
5. 73

7. [k + 2] · [k + 1]
Qn
9. i=1 [k + i]
Q3
11. 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 = i=0 [8 − i]
Qk−1
13. i=0 [2k − i]
15. n+1


k

17. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2[xy + xz + yz]

P6 6 18−3i 3i


19. i=0 i a b
P12 12 12−3i


21. i=0 i x

23. 18


5

25. 2n


n
126  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

8.5 Answers to Chapter 6 Exercises

1. 12π

3. 80
5. 40
√
7. 4 3
9. k = 1
11. 8π

13. {3i + 1}ni=0

15.   n−2
1
if n is even,
{An }∞
n=0 =  21 n−2
2 if n is odd.

8.6 Answers to Chapter 7 Exercises

1. 48 edges.
3. n · m edges.
5. The maximum number of edges occurs when n = m = 4 which gives us
42 = 16 edges.
7. The maximum number of edges occurs when n = 6 and m = 5 which
gives us 6 · 5 = 30 edges.
9. The cognate non-regular Graph G has six vertices where every vertex
has either degree 2 or 4.

11. The cognate non-regular Graph G has five vertices where every vertex
has either degree 2, 3 or 4.
 Answers to Chapter Exercises  127

13. The cognate Bi-Partite Graph K4,4 has eight vertices where every vertex
has degree 4.

n
deg(vi ) k·n
15. |E(G)| = i=1
2 = 2

17. when n = m
19. when n · m is even

21. 4-cycles and 6-cycles

23. 4-cycles only:

(23.1) v 1 − v3 − v6 − v4 − v1 .
(23.2) v3 − v5 − v4 − v 2 − v3 .
(23.3) v1 − v3 − v5 − v4 − v1 .
(23.4) v2 − v4 − v6 − v3 − v 2 .
 CHAPTER 9
Appendices

9.1 Venn Diagram

1. Venn Diagram of Two Sets:

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| .
2. Venn Diagram of Three Diagram:

|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − [|A ∩ B| + |A ∩ C| + |B ∩ C|]

+ |A ∩ B ∩ C| .

129
130  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

9.2 Angular Geometry

1. Supplementary Angles:

2. Alternate Interior Angles:

 Appendices  131

9.3 Right Triangles

1. Pythagorean Theorem:

A2 + B 2 = C 2 .
2. 3−4−5 Triangle:

3. 5−12−13 Triangle:
132  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

4. 45−45−90 Triangle:

5. 30−60−90 Triangle:
 Appendices  133

9.4 Isosceles Triangles

9.5 Equilateral Triangles

134  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

9.6 Area of Figures

1. Area of a Circle:

A = π r2

2. Area of a Square:

A = x2
 Appendices  135

3. Area of a Rectangle:

A = l·w

4. Area of a Triangle:

b·h
A =
2

9.7 Patterns (Sequences)

1. Linear Patterns:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . = {n}∞
n=1

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, . . . = {2n}∞

n=1

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, . . . = {2n + 1}∞

n=0

3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, . . . = {3n}∞

n=1

4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, . . . = {4n}∞

n=1
136  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

2. Quadratic Patterns:

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, . . . = {n2 }∞

n=1

4, 16, 36, 64, 100, 144, 196, . . . = {(2n)2 }∞

n=1

1, 9, 25, 49, 81, 121, 169, . . . = {(2n − 1)2 }∞

n=1

1, 25, 81, 169, 289, 441, 625, . . . = {(4n + 1)2 }∞

n=0

3. Geometric Patterns:

1, r, r2 , r3 , r4 , r5 , r6 , . . . = {rn }∞
n=0

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, . . . = {2n }∞

n=0

1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, . . . = {3n }∞

n=0

1, 4, 16, 64, 256, 1,024, 4,096, . . . = {4n }∞

n=0

9.8 Alternating Patterns (Sequences)

1. Alternating Linear Patterns:

1, −2, 3, −4, 5, −6, 7, . . . = {(−1)n+1 n}∞

n=1

−1, 2, −3, 4, −5, 6, −7, . . . = {(−1)n n}∞

n=1

1, −3, 5, −7, 9, −11, 13, . . . = {(−1)n [2n + 1]}∞

n=0

−1, 3, −5, 7, −9, 11, −13, . . . = {(−1)n+1 [2n + 1]}∞

n=0

2. Alternating Quadratic Patterns:

1, −4, 9, −16, 25, −36, 49, . . . = {(−1)n+1 n2 }∞

n=1

−1, 4, −9, 16, −25, 36, −49, . . . = {(−1)n n2 }∞

n=1

3. Alternating Geometric Patterns:

1, −r, r2 , −r3 , r4 , −r5 , r6 , . . . = {(−1)n rn }∞

n=0

−1, r, −r2 , r3 , −r4 , r5 , −r6 , . . . = {(−1)n+1 rn }∞

n=0
 Appendices  137

9.9 Summation Properties

1. Sigma Notation:
n
X
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + · · · + an = ai
i=1

2. Addition of a Constant:
n
X
c = c·n
i=1

3. Distributive Property of Summations:

n
X n
X n
X
[ai ± bi ] = ai ± bi
i=1 i=1 i=1

4. Alternating Sums:
n
X
(−1)i ai = −a1 + a2 − a3 + a4 − · · · ± an
i=1

n
X
(−1)i+1 ai = a1 − a2 + a3 − a4 + · · · ± an
i=1

9.10 Finite Summations

Pn n[n+1]
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ··· + n = i=1 i = 2

Pn
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + · · · + [2n − 1] = i=1 (2i − 1) = n2
138  Introduction to Math Olympiad Problems

Pn n[n+1][2n+1]
1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + · · · + n2 = i=1 i2 = 6

Pn n[n+1][n+2]
1·2 + 2·3 + 3·4 + 4·5 + · · · + n·[n+1] = i=1 i·[i+1] = 3

1 1 1 1 1
Pn 1 n
1·2 + 2·3 + 3·4 + 4·5 + ··· + n·[n+1] = i=1 i·[i+1] = n+1

1−r n+1
Pn
1 + r + r2 + r3 + r4 + r5 + · · · + rn = i=0 ri = 1−r

Pn
1 · 20 + 2 · 21 + 3 · 22 + · · · + n · 2n−1 = i=1 i · 2i−1 = [n − 1]2n + 1

n

n

n

n

n

Pn n


0 + 1 + 2 + ··· + n−1 + n = i=0 i = 2n

9.11 Laws of Exponents

1. Sum of Exponents:
xn · xk = xn+k

2. Difference of Exponents:
xn
= xn−k
xk

3. Product of Exponents:

[xn ]k = xn·k

4. Inverse of Exponents:
1
= x−n
xn
 Appendices  139

5. Distribution of Multiplications:
[x · y]n = xn · y n

6. Distribution of Divisions:
 n
x xn
= n
y y

9.12 Factoring Methods

1. Difference of Squares (Conjugates):

x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)

2. Difference of Cubes:
x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 )

3. Sum of Cubes:
x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )

9.13 Binomial Expansion

1.
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2

2.
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3

3.
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4

4. For all n ∈ N:
n  
X n
(x + y)n = xn−i y i
i=0
i
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141
Index

Additive form 27 Edge 11, 12, 107–117

Algebraic proofs 37–39 Ending digit of an integer 4, 49–52,
Alternating geometric sequence 25 54
Alternating piecewise sequence 25, 26 Equilateral triangles 73, 84, 92–94
Angular geometry 4, 5 Euler’s Phi Function 47
Area geometry 6–8, 81–87 Even integers 3, 37, 45
Even-ordered row of the Pascal’s
Bi-Partite Graph Kn,m 11, 15, 16, Triangle 11, 55, 60, 61
102, 106, 107, 110, 114–116 Even perfect squares 21, 49, 51
Binomial coefficient 57, 64–67 Explicit solution 29
Binomial expansion 64–67
Bisector 5 Factorial 10, 23, 28, 29
Factorial-type pattern 23, 24
Cartesian Product 11, 15, 101, 102 Factoring tree 3, 47
Circle 6, 81, 84 Factors 3, 47, 48
Column of a Lattice Graph Ln,m First diagonal of the Pascal’s triangle
107, 108 63
Combinations 10, 56–66 Fourth diagonal of the Pascal’s
Consecutive even integers 3, 37, 40, triangle 64
45, 46
Consecutive integers 1, 29, 37, 38, Geometric sequence 2, 18, 22, 23, 27
45, 54 Geometric summation 4, 19, 20, 29,
Consecutive odd integers 19, 37, 38, 31, 32, 40–42, 48, 49
40, 41, 45, 47 Geometry 4–8, 69–94
Complete graph Kn 109, 110, Geometry and proportions 88–94
112–114 Graph theory 11, 12, 101–119
Cycle graph Cn 102–104
Cycle of a graph 102–117 Hamiltonian cycle 112–117
Hamiltonian graph 112–117
Degree of a vertex 11, 12, 101–117 Hasse Diagram 12, 15
Diagonal of the Pascal’s triangle 56, Horizontally-oriented identities 55,
62, 63, 81 56, 58
Diagonally-oriented identities 55, 56,
62–64 Initial value problem 26–30, 34–35,
Diameter 84 39
Diminishing rectangles 18 Integers 1–4, 45–54
Distributive property of summations Interior angles 5, 69
33 Intersection of sets 8, 9, 16
Divisors 47, 48 Isosceles triangles 71–74

143
144  Index

Lattice Graph Ln,m 107, 108, 115, Recursive formula 1, 2, 14, 34

116 Recursive relation 1, 2, 14
Left-neighboring triangle 6, 70 Recursive sequence 1, 2, 14, 26–30
Length of a rectangle 81, 82 Regular graph 12, 102–104, 109, 110
Linear sequence 1, 3, 17, 18, 20, 21 Right-neighboring triangle 6, 70, 71
Linear summation 4, 18, 19, 31–33, Right triangles 75–80, 90, 91
35, 38–41, 45–47, 58, 77, 30–60–90 triangles 73–75, 85
85–87 45–45–90 triangles 8, 17, 74, 76,
77, 81, 88, 89
Mid-point 88 3–4–5 triangles 78–80
Multiplicative factor 22 5–12–13 triangles 78
Multiplicative form 29 Row of a Lattice Graph Ln,m 107,
108
Number of edges |E(G)| 102–111
Second diagonal of the Pascal’s
Odd integers 19, 37–39, 41, 45 Triangle 64
Odd-ordered row of the Pascal’s Semi-regular graph 104, 111, 112
Triangle 11, 55–61 Sequence 1, 2, 10, 12, 13, 17–33
Odd perfect squares 22, 39, 49, 50 Sigma notation 4, 31–33, 40–42,
Overlapping figures 84, 90, 96, 97 45–48
Overlapping sets 8–10 Square 7, 8, 81, 94
Square identity 62, 63
Partition of sets 12
Starting index 21, 22, 32
Pascal’s Identity 59–61, 63
Starting term 22
Pascal’s triangle 10, 11, 55–66
Sub-sequence 12, 13
Pascal’s triangle diagonals 56, 62–64
Summation of consecutive integers 3,
Pascal’s triangle rows 10, 11, 55–61
4, 31, 40, 58, 63, 85, 87
Pattern 1, 2, 4, 10, 17–31
Summation of consecutive odd
Perfect squares 4, 21, 22, 39, 49–51,
integers 19, 31, 40, 41, 47,
54
86
Perimeter geometry 81–87
Summations & summation-type
Permutations 10, 46
sequence 4, 27, 31–33,
Piecewise sequence 10, 12, 13, 23–26
40–42, 45–48
Power Identity 60, 61
Supplementary angles 4, 5
Prime factorization 12, 47
Symmetry identity 58, 59, 61
Prime factorization tree 3, 47
System of diminishing 45-45-90
Prime factors 3, 47
triangles 17
Prime numbers 3, 47
System of diminishing squares 17,
Proof by induction 40–42, 61–67
88, 89
Proper factors (Divisors) 48
System of diminishing triangles 17,
Pythagorean Theorem 78
98, 99
Quadratic sequence 21, 22 System of equilateral triangles 97
System of isosceles triangles 86
Radius 6, 81 System of right triangles 75
Rectangle 82 System of right 30–60–90 triangles 75
 Index  145

System of right 45–45–90 triangles Union of sets 8–10, 16

17, 77
System of squares 17, 85, 87–89, 95, Venn diagram 8–10, 16
97, 99 Vertex 11, 12, 101–107
System of squares and circles 7, 96,
99 Width of a rectangle 81, 82

Triangular geometry 5, 6, 69–80, 82 x-intercept 83

Third diagonal of the Pascal’s
y-intercept 83
Triangle 64