Description of Cam-Clay and Modified-Cam-Clay Critical State Strength Models

Introduction
The first critical state models for describing the behaviour of soft soils such as clay, the Cam-Clay (CC) and
Modified Cam-Clay (MCC) were formulated by researchers at Cambridge University. Both models describe three
important aspects of soil behaviour:
(i) Strength
(ii) Compression or dilatancy (the change of volume that occurs with shearing), and
(iii) Critical states in which soil elements can experience unlimited deformations without any changes in
stress or volume.

A large proportion of the volume occupied by a soil mass consists of voids that may be filled by fluids (primarily air
and water). As a result, deformations in soil are accompanied by significant, and often non-reversible, volume
changes. A major advantage of cap plasticity models, a class to which the CC and MCC formulations belong, is their
ability to model volume changes more realistically.

The primary assumptions of the CC and MCC models are described next. In critical state mechanics, the state of a
soil sample is characterized by three parameters:
• Effective mean stress p '
• Deviatoric (shear stress) q ' , and
• Specific volume v.
Under general stress conditions, the mean stress p ' can be calculated in terms of principal stresses σ 1' , σ 2' and σ 3'
as
p' =
3
(σ1 + σ 2' + σ 3' ) ,
1 '

while triaxial shear stress is defined as

1
(σ − σ 2' ) + (σ 2' − σ 3' ) + (σ 3' − σ 1' ) ).
2 2 2
q' = '
1
2

Virgin Consolidation Line and Swelling Lines

The models assume that when a soft soil sample is slowly compressed under isotropic stress conditions
(σ 1' = σ 2' = σ 3' = p' ) , and under perfectly drained conditions, the relationship between specific volume, v, and ln p'
consists of a straight virgin consolidation line (also known as the normal compression line) and a set of straight
swelling lines (see Figure 1). Swelling lines are also called unloading-reloading lines.

The loading and unloading behaviour of the CC and MCC models is best described with an example. When a soil
element is first loaded to isotropic stress pb' , in the space of specific volume – mean stress, it moves down the virgin
consolidation line from point a to point b. If the sample is unloaded the specific volume–mean stress behaviour
moves up the swelling line bc to the point c.

If the sample is now reloaded to a stress pd' , it will first move down the swelling line for stress values up to pb' .
Once pb' is exceeded, the sample will again move down the virgin consolidation line to the point d. If the sample is
then unloaded to a stress value of pa' , this time it will move up the swelling line de .

The virgin consolidation line in Figure 1 is defined by the equation

v = N − λ ln p ' ,
while the equation for a swelling line has the form
v = vs − κ ln p ' .

The values λ , κ and N are characteristic properties of a particular soil. λ is the slope of the normal compression
(virgin consolidation) line or the critical state line (which is described below) in v − ln p ' space, while κ is the slope
of swelling line in v − ln p ' space. N is known as the specific volume of normal compression line at unit pressure,
and is dependent on the units of measurement. As can be seen on Figure 1, vs differs for each swelling line, and
depends on the loading history of a soil.

If the current state of a soil is on the virgin consolidation (normal compression) line the soil is described as being
normally consolidated. If the soil is unloaded such as is described by the line bc , it becomes overconsolidated. In
general, soil does not exist outside the virgin consolidation line; when it does that state is unstable.

The Critical State Line

Sustained shearing of a soil sample eventually leads to a state in which further shearing can occur without any
changes in stress or volume. This means that at this condition, known as the critical state, the soil is distorting at
constant state. This state is characterized by the Critical State Line (CSL).

The location of this line relative to the normal compression line is shown on Figure 2. As seen in the picture, the
CSL is parallel to the virgin consolidation line in v − ln p ' space. The parameter Γ is the specific volume of the CSL
at unit pressure. Like N , its value depends on measurement units.

There is a relationship between the parameter N of the normal compression line and Γ . For the Cam-Clay model
the two parameters are related by the equation
Γ = N − (λ − κ ) ,
while for the Modified Cam-Clay model the relationship is
Γ = N − (λ − κ ) ln 2 .
Due to this relationship between N and Γ , only one of them needs to be specified when describing a Cam-Clay or
Modified Cam-Cam material.

Yield Functions
Under increasing triaxial shear loading, q, CC and MCC soils behave elastically until a yield value of q is attained. The
yield values are determined from the following equations:
Cam-Clay
 p' 
q + Mp ' ln  '  = 0
 po 

Modified Cam-Clay
q2  p' 
'2
+ M 2  1 − o'  = 0
p  p 

In p ' − q space, the CC yield surface is a logarithmic curve while the MCC yield surface plots as an elliptical curve
(Figure 3). The parameter po' (known as the yield stress or pre-consolidation pressure) controls the size of the yield
surface, and is different for each swelling line. The parameter M is the slope of the CSL in p ' − q space. A key
characteristic of the CSL is that it intersects the yield curve at the point at which the maximum value of q is attained.

In three-dimensional space v − p ' − q the yield surface defined by the CC or MCC formulation is known as the State
Boundary Surface. The State Boundary Surface for the Modified Cam-Clay model is shown on Figure 4.

Hardening and Softening Behaviour

If yielding occurs to the right of the point at which the CSL intersects a yield surface, hardening behaviour,
accompanied by compression, is exhibited. This side of the yield surface is known as the wet or subcritical side.

Figure 5a illustrates soil behaviour on the wet side for the case of simple shearing. When a sample is sheared, it
behaves elastically until it hits the initial yield surface. From then on the yield surface begins to grow (get larger) and
exhibits hardening behaviour (yielding and plastic strain is accompanied by an increase in yield stress). The figure
shows two intermediate growth stages of the yield surface. At the point C, the sample reaches critical state at which
it will continue to distort without any accompanying changes in shear stress or volume. Figure 5b portrays the stress-
strain hardening behaviour that occurs for the sample loaded on the wet side.

If yielding occurs to the left of the left of the intersection of the CSL and yield surface (called the dry or supercritical
side), the soil material exhibits softening behaviour, which is accompanied by dilatancy. In softening the yield stress
curve decreases after the stress state touches the initial envelope. To depict the reduction in yield stress curve, the
loading line in Figure 6a doubles back. The yield curve and sustained load move downwards until the sample attains
critical state. The softening stress-strain curve for dry side loading is shown on Figure 6b.

Elastic Material Constants for Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay

In geotechnical engineering, the elastic material constants commonly used to relate stresses to strains are Young’s
modulus, E, shear modulus, G, Poisson’s ratio, µ , and bulk modulus, K. Only two of these parameters must be
specified in an analysis.

In soil modelling, the more fundamental elastic parameters of shear modulus, G , and bulk modulus, K , are
preferred. This is because they allow the effects of changing size and changing shape to be decoupled.

For Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay soils, the bulk modulus is not a constant. It depends on mean stress, p ' ,
specific volume, v, and swelling line slope, κ , and is calculated at a point in a soil as
vp
K= .
κ

Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay formulations require specification of shear modulus G or Poisson’s ratio µ , but
not both. When G is supplied then µ is no longer a constant, but is calculated from the formula
3K − 2G
µ= .
2G + 6 K
When µ is specified then G is determined using the relationship
K (3 − 6µ )
G= .
2(1 + µ )

If Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for a material are known, then shear modulus G can be determined from the
equation
E
G= .
2(1 + µ )

The Overconsolidation Ratio

The current state of a soil can be described by its stress state (mean effective stress p ' ), specific volume, v, and yield
stress, po (also known as preconsolidation pressure is a measure of the highest stress the soil has ever experienced).
The ratio of preconsolidation pressure to current mean effective stress is known as the overconsolidation ratio
(OCR), i.e.
po
OCR = .
p'
The in-situ distribution of preconsolidation pressure for a Cam-Clay or Modified Cam-Clay material can be
generated using the OCR. An OCR value of 1 represents a normal consolidation state; a state in which the
maximum mean stress previously experienced by a material was not larger than the current mean stress. OCR > 1
describes an overconsolidated state whereby past mean stress was larger than present mean stress.
Calculation of M, λ , and κ from Lab Tests
The slope M of the CSL in q − p ' space can be calculated from the friction angle ϕ ' (measured in triaxial
compression test) of the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion as
6sin ϕ '
M = .
3 − sin ϕ '
The slopes λ and κ of the normal compression and swelling lines in v − ln p ' space are related to the compression
index, Cc , and swelling index, Cs , measured in oedometer tests through the equations
Cc
λ= , and
ln10
C
κ= s
ln10
Often κ is chosen to be in the range of 15 λ to 1 3 λ .

Specification of Initial States for Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay Models

To compute models involving Cam-Clay or Modified Cam-Clay materials, non-trivial initial effective stresses must
be specified. Phase2 allows specification of gravity in-situ stresses or a constant stress field.
Next, the initial state of consolidation (initial yield surfaces for all stress states) must be specified. This can be done
in one of two ways:
(a) Specification of the OCR, or
(b) Specification of a pre-consolidation stress, po
If a current stress state completely lies within a specified yield surface, the soil will initially respond elastically to
loading. This implies that it is overconsolidated. If, however, the initial stress state is located on the yield surface, the
soil will respond plastically upon loading, indicating that it is normally consolidated.
Since initial stress states that lie outside yield surfaces have no physical meaning for Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-
Clay models, Phase2 will not allow them. If such stress states are specified, Phase2 will change the pre-consolidation
stress to a value (see below) that makes the soil normally consolidated. If in a model an initial mean effective
pressure is negative, Phase2 warn about the occurrence and will not compute the model.
Specification of Initial Consolidation State for Gravity Loading
Case I: When OCR is specified
(a) Determine vertical stress distribution, σ v '
(b) Determine horizontal stresses, σ h ' , using K o
(c) For each element, calculate mean effective stress, p ' , and deviatoric stress, q
(d) Calculate pre-consolidation pressure, po* , such that F ( p ', q, po* ) = 0
q

For Cam-Clay: po* = p ' e Mp '

q2
For Modified Cam-Clay: po* = + p'
M 2 p'
(e) Set initial element pre-consolidation pressure, po , equal to
po = po* ⋅ OCR
(f) Set initial element specific volume, vinit , to be consistent with po and the specified parameters M, λ , and κ
 p' 
vinit = N − λ ln po − κ ln  
 po 

Case II: When pre-consolidation pressure, po , is initially specified

(a) Determine vertical stress distribution, σ v '
(b) Determine horizontal stresses, σ h ' , using K o
(c) For each element, calculate mean effective stress, p ' , and deviatoric stress, q
(d) Calculate pre-consolidation pressure po* such that F ( p ', q, po* ) = 0
q

For Cam-Clay: po* = p ' e Mp '

q2
For Modified Cam-Clay: po* = + p'
M 2 p'
 (e) Set initial element pre-consolidation pressure, po , equal to
po = max ( po* , po , specified )
(f) Set initial element specific volume, vinit , to be consistent with po and the specified parameters M, λ , and κ
 p' 
vinit = N − λ ln po − κ ln  
 po 

Specification of Initial Consolidation State for Constant In-situ Stress Field

The specification of initial states for a constant stress field is the same as for gravity loading except that initial
effective vertical and horizontal stresses do not have to be determined.

Summary of Input Parameters for Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay Materials

Specification of Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay models requires five material parameters. These parameters are
outlined below.
1. λ – the slope of the normal compression (virgin consolidation) line and critical state line (CSL) in v − ln p '
space
2. κ – the slope of a swelling (loading-unloading) line in v − ln p ' space
3. M – the slope of the CSL in q − p ' space

N – the specific volume of the normal compression line at unit pressure

4. or
Γ – the specific volume of the CSL at unit pressure

µ – Poisson’s ratio
5. or
G – shear modulus.

The initial state of consolidation of such materials must also be specified. This is accomplished by indicating
OCR – the overconsolidation ratio: the ratio of the previous maximum mean stress to the current mean stress
or
po – the preconsolidation pressure.
 v
Virgin consolidation line
a
N (Normal compression line)

λ
c
vs1 1 Swelling lines
κ
vs2 e 1 b

1 pb pd ln p
Figure 1. Behaviour of soil sample under isotropic compression.

N
Virgin compression

CSL

ln
Figure 2. Location of CSL relative to virgin compression line.
 Critical State Line
(CSL)

1
M
Modified Cam-Clay (MCC)
yield curve
q

Cam-Clay (CC)
yield curve

p po

Figure 3. Cam-Clay and Modified Cam-Clay yield surfaces (in p ' − q ' ) space. The parameter M is the slope of the
CSL.
 CSL

q
State boundary
surface

Figure 4. The State Boundary Surface for the Modified Cam-Clay model.
 wet or subcritical
(hardening behaviour)

CSL
Line of loading
C
Yield surface at
critical state
q

Initial yield surface

Figure 5a. Evolution of the yield curve on the wet side of Modified Cam-Clay under simple shearing.
q

shear strain

Figure 5b. Hardening stress-strain response on wet side of Modified Cam-Clay material under simple shearing.
 Dry or supercritical
(softening behaviour) CSL

Line of loading

C
q

Initial yield surface

Yield surface at
critical state
Figure 6a. Evolution of the yield curve on the dry side of Modified Cam-Clay under simple shearing.
q

shear strain

Figure 6b. Softening stress-strain response on dry side of Modified Cam-Clay material under simple shearing.