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Tutor Next Door O Level Chemistry (6092) Summary Notes 1 Experimental Chemistry

This document summarizes key concepts in experimental chemistry. It discusses common units of measurement like time, temperature, mass and volume. It also describes common laboratory equipment used to measure these quantities like stopwatches, thermometers and balances. Finally, it outlines various techniques for separating and analyzing mixtures, including filtration, distillation, crystallization, chromatography and more. It provides details on obtaining solids and liquids from mixtures and separating different types of mixtures like solid-liquid, liquid-liquid and solid-solid combinations.

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Arvin Liangdy
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338 views4 pages

Tutor Next Door O Level Chemistry (6092) Summary Notes 1 Experimental Chemistry

This document summarizes key concepts in experimental chemistry. It discusses common units of measurement like time, temperature, mass and volume. It also describes common laboratory equipment used to measure these quantities like stopwatches, thermometers and balances. Finally, it outlines various techniques for separating and analyzing mixtures, including filtration, distillation, crystallization, chromatography and more. It provides details on obtaining solids and liquids from mixtures and separating different types of mixtures like solid-liquid, liquid-liquid and solid-solid combinations.

Uploaded by

Arvin Liangdy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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TUTOR NEXT DOOR

O Level Chemistry (6092)


Summary Notes 1
Experimental Chemistry
1.1. Quantities in Experimental Chemistry

The units used for scientific measurement are those of metric system.
The metric units for use in scientific measurements are called the SI units.

Table 1.1 summaries the four quantities commonly measured in experimental chemistry.

Table 1.1. Quantities and their Units


Quantity SI Unit Other Units
Time s min, h
Temperature K ºC
Mass kg g
Volume m3 cm3, dm3, l, ml

1.2. Experimental Design

Table 1.2 summarises some of the common laboratory apparatuses used in measuring the quantitative
properties in an experiment.

Table 1.2. Apparatus and their Uses


Apparatus Smallest Division Uses
Digital stopwatch 0.01 s To measure time
Laboratory thermometer 1ºC To measure temperature
Electronic mass
0.01 g To measure mass
balance
Beaker Variable To estimate the volume of liquid
Measuring cylinder Variable To estimate the volume of liquid
Burette 0.1 cm3 To measure and transfer an exact volume of liquid
To measure and transfer a fixed volume of liquid,
Pipette NA
such as 10.0 cm3 and 25.0 cm3
Gas syringe Variable To measure the volume of gas

1.3. Methods of Purification and Analysis

Techniques for separation and purification include:


 Filtration
 Evaporation and crystallisation
 Sublimation
 Magnetism
 Simple distillation and fractional distillation
 Use of separating funnel
 Paper chromatography

In chemistry, a solvent is the medium in which chemical substances are dissolved. These substances are
termed solutes.

A solution is a mixture containing one or more solutes which are completely dissolved in the solvent.

1.3.1. Obtaining Solids from a Solid-Liquid Mixture

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A solid can be obtained from its solid-liquid mixture by filtration or crystallisation.
Filtration
Small insoluble particles can be separated from a liquid by filtration. The solid-liquid mixture is passed
through a filter paper, which is folded and fitted into a filter funnel. The solid particles are collected as
residue on the filter paper and the liquid as the filtrate in a container.

Evaporation to Dryness
Small soluble particles can be separated from its solution by evaporation. The solution is heated to
evaporate all its water content and the residual solids are collected. However, this technique is not suitable
for collecting solids that decompose upon direct heating. In such instances, crystallisation is generally
preferred.

Crystallisation
Small soluble particles can be separated from its solution by crystallisation. The solution is heated to
evaporate most of its water content until a hot saturated solution is formed. The resulting solution can cool
so that the dissolved solids can form as pure crystals.

1.3.2. Obtaining Liquids from a Solid-Liquid Mixture

A liquid can be obtained from its solid-liquid mixture by distillation or decanting.

Simple Distillation
Distillation is the process of boiling a liquid and condensing its vapour for collection.

A solvent can be separated from a solution by simple distillation. The solvent is vaporised by heating and is
passed through a condenser where it condenses to form a liquid. The liquid is collected at the receiver end.

Decanting
A liquid can be separated from a mixture of large insoluble solids by decanting. The liquid is carefully
transferred from the original container to another, leaving behind the solid sediments and a minimal
amount of liquid in the original container.

1.3.3. Separating Solid-Solid Mixtures


Solid-solid mixtures can be separated by sublimation, magnetism or a combination of filtration and
crystallisation.

Sublimation
Sublimation is used to separate solid substances which sublime (such as ammonium chloride and iodine)
from those which have high melting point.

Magnetism
Magnetism is used to separate magnetic materials from a mixture containing nonmagnetic materials.

Filtration and Crystallisation


A mixture containing soluble and insoluble solids may be separated by a combination of filtration and
crystallisation.
The mixture is first dissolved in a suitable solvent. The insoluble solids can be obtained as the residues
upon filtration of the partially dissolved mixture. The soluble solids are crystallised from the filtrate.

1.3.4. Separating Liquid-Liquid Mixtures


Liquid-liquid mixtures can be separated by fractional distillation or by using a separating funnel.

Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is used to separate miscible liquids, which mix together completely to form a
solution.

In this technique, a fractionating column is incorporated between the solution flask and the condenser. The
fractionating column allows repeated condensation of vaporised solvents so that only the less volatile
solvent is collected at the receiver end first.

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Use of Separating Funnel
A separating funnel functions like a tap and is used to separate immiscible liquids, which do not mix
together.

1.3.5. Paper Chromatography


Chromatography is the technique of using a solvent to separate a mixture into its constituents.

The start line, where the mixture is placed, is marked out on the chromatography paper in pencil. The
chromatography paper is then steeped into a suitable solvent up to a region just before the start line.

The absorbed solvent dissolves the mixture and carries it across the paper. The less soluble constituent of
the mixture is carried a shorter distance than the more soluble constituent.

The chromatography paper with the separated mixture is termed the chromatogram. The maximum
distance reached by the solvent is the solvent front.

Locating agents may be used to locate colourless compounds.

The Rf Values
The Rf value of a substance is a constant ratio between the distance moved by the substance and the
distance moved by the solvent (i.e. the solvent front). This allows us to identify substances in the mixtures
by comparing with known references.

1.4. Collection of Gases

The method chosen to collect a gas depends on the physical properties of the gas, including its solubility in
water and its density compared to air.
Table 1.3 summarises the solubility and density of common gases.

Table 1.3. Solubility and Density of Common Gases


Gas Solubility in Water Density Compared to Air
Ammonia Soluble Less dense
Carbon dioxide Slightly soluble Denser
Chlorine Soluble Denser
Hydrogen Insoluble Less Dense
Hydrogen Chloride Soluble Denser
Oxygen Slightly Soluble Slightly Denser
Sulfur Dioxide Soluble Denser

1.4.1. Displacement of Water

The method of displacing water can be used when the gas to be collected is insoluble or slightly soluble in
water. The gas is delivered into a gas jar containing water using a delivery tube, displacing water out of the
gas jar.

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1.4.2. Upward Delivery
Upward delivery is used when the gas to be collected is less dense than air. The gas is delivered into a gas
jar using a delivery tube, displacing the air out of the gas jar.

1.4.3. Downward Delivery


Downward delivery is used when the gas to be collected is denser than air. The gas is delivered into a gas
jar using a delivery tube, displacing the air out of the gas jar.

1.4.4. Dry Sample of a Gas


To collect a dry sample of a gas, we can pass the moist gas through a drying agent, such as concentrated
sulfuric acid, quicklime (calcium oxide) and fused calcium chloride.
However, the drying agent chosen should not react with the gas. For example, ammonia reacts with
concentrated sulfuric acid but does not react with quicklime. In this case, quicklime should be used.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

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