VACUUM SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

History and Development of Vacuum

 Vacuum derived from the Greek word vacuua meaning empty.

 Research started in 17th century when Galileo observed that whatever be

the pipe diameter a suction pump would not lift water more than 10m high.

 Further in 1643 Torricelli discovered that atmosphere produced a pressure

equal to the force exerted by a column of mercury about 760 mm high.

Also during the same time Pascal deviced a barometer.

In honor of both Torricelli and Pascal, we have the two units of vacuum namely
Torr and Pascal.
In 1650 Otto Von Guricke invented the first mechanical air pump.
lThe need for vacuum in industry and research began to be felt seriously only
after the demonstration of electricity.
In the field of vacuum measurement, Mcleod who invented a gauge in 1874,
Pirani invented electrical resistance gauge in 1909, Buckiey invented an
ionization gauge in 1916.
A tremendous amount of research is carried out and vacuum levels upto 1x10 -15
Torr could be achieved.
In 1904 Dewar proposed a method for producing vacuum where gases were
absorbed by activated charcoal.
Vacuum Technology Today

Vacuum technology in its broadest sense means a way to carry out a process or
making a physical measurement under condition of below normal atmospheric
pressure.

Absolute Pressure= Atmospheric pressure + Gauge Pressure.

Vacuum Pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Absolute Pressure.

The 7 main reasons for producing vacuum

 Removing constituents of atmosphere like oxygen that could cause a

physical or chemical reaction.
 Disturbing an equilibrium condition that exists at normal room conditions.
 Evaporating a solvent at a lower temperature.
 To extend the mean free path.
 To prevent gaseous ionization.
 To reduce thermal conduction of gases as well as radiant energy
absorption.
 To reduce the number of molecular impacts per second.

Fundamental Concepts in Vacuum Technology

 Pressure –The quotient of the perpendicular force on a surface and

the area of this surface.
 Torr – Most used unit in vacuum technology.

Few conversions :

1 Torr = 1 mmHg.
=1 Microns.
=1/ 760 Std. Atmosphere.
= 133 N/m2.
= 1.33mbar.
= 1.36 cm of water column.

The lowest attainable pressure in a vacuum container is called Ultimate

pressure.

Degrees of Vacuum
Vacuum systems can be classified on the basis of operating pressure as follows:

Rough Vacuum (RV) : 760 to 25 Torr.

Medium Vacuum (MV) : 25 to 10-3 Torr.
High Vacuum (HV) : 10-3 to 10-7 Torr.
Ultra High Vacuum : 10-7 Torr and less.

Mean Free Path

It is the average distance traveled by a gas molecule between collisions with
other molecules.
Mean free path increases as pressure decreases.

An empirical formula for air at ambient temperature is:

ë = 5x10-3 / P.
Where,
ë - mean free path length in cms.
P – Pressure in Torr.

Throughput and Speed

In case of compressible gases, the volumetric flow rate and the mass flow rate
are not the same.That is the volumetric flow rate indicating nothing about the
quantity of gas flowing unless the pressure and temperature are specified.
 Throughput is the product of the pressure and the volume of gas which flows
through a conducting element divided by the time.

Throughput (Q) = ( P x V ) / T

Conventional vacuum nomenclature uses the term speed (s) lit/sec in place of
volumetric flow.

The quantity of the gas pumped is, important in the determination of the size of
the backing pump in relation to the size of the fore pump.

A few useful laws

Ideal Gas Law: In scientific sense the pressure of a gas is a function of kinetic
energy of the gas molecules striking the walls of the containing vessel, which
in turn is related to the temperature , the number of molecules and their mass.
Daltons law of Partial pressure: The resultant total pressure of a mixture of a
number of gases is the sum of the pressure exerted by its components.
P = p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 +…….+ p n

Avogadro’s Law: All perfect gases at the same pressure and temperature
contain the same number of molecules per unit volume.
Boyle’s Law: The pressure of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its volume
provided its temperature is constant.
Gay Lussac’s Law: It states that the pressure of a given mass of gas will vary
directly with change of temperature.
( P x V ) / T = constant
Using this law it can be shown that for a given mass of a light gas , a higher
pressure is exerted than for the same mass of a heavier gas.
Production of Vacuum

In order to reduce the gas density and there by pressure the pressure in a given
gas filled volume, gas particles must be removed from the volume; this is the
purpose of vacuum pumps. Depending on the ultimate pressure needed,
combinations of different types of vacuum pumps have to be used for different
applications.

These pumps are classified according to their nature of operation:

 Positive displacement vacuum pumps: varying the volume of the

vacuum chamber at a regular interval displaces the gas.
Eg: Rotary oil sealed pump, Roots pump, and Water ring pump.

 Ejectors: The gas pumped is entrained in a jet of the working medium.

Eg: Steam ejector, Diffusion pump.
 Molecular Vacuum Pump: The pumped gas molecules are imparted an
additional speed in a specified direction.
Eg: Turbo molecular pump.

 Sorption Vacuum Pump: The gas is pumped by either physi-sorption or

chemi-sorption onto the surface of a sorbing material, such as molecular seives,
activated charcoal or other materials.

 Ion pumps: These work on the principle of ionization of the gas and
further directing the ions towards the neutral surfaces where ions adsorbed or
trapped.

 Cryogenic Vacuum pumps: The gases and vapors are frozen in low
vapor pressure species in refrigerated cryo- panels.

Working of Vacuum producing Systems used in our plant.

Water - Ring Vacuum Pumps
It belongs to the class of positive displacement pumps.
The rotor fitted with radial blades rotates at high speed, water is forced towards
the periphery of the casing and produces a water –ring of an approximately
constant thickness. As a result, the pockets between rotor blades are
hermetically sealed from one another, because the rotor is eccentrically
mounted relative to pump casing, the volumes chunked by the vanes as the
rotor spins vary in magnitude in such a way that vacuum is produced. Owing to
this vacuum, the pumped gas is drawn in through the inlet and compressed
before it is discharged through the outlet into the atmosphere.
The excess water is discharged through the outlet so that the water ring remains
constant at any time during the pump operation.
The ultimate pressure of the water ring pump is limited by the water vapor
pressure and is about 40 to 60 Torr.

These pumps are commercially available with a capacity upto 50,000 lit/min.
Applications: Driers, Distillation, Rough vacuum lines.

Advantages of Water Ring Pumps

 Simple design than other vacuum pumps employs only one rotating
assembly.
 Fabricated from any castable metal.
 Minimal Noise and vibration.
 Little increase in temperature of discharged gas.
 Ability to handle condensable loads.
 No damage from liquids or small particulates entrained in the process
fluid.
 Easy maintenance than other vacuum pumps.
 Can use any type of fluid for the sealant fluid.

Draw backs of liquid ring vacuum pumps

 Inevitable mixing of the evacuated gas with the sealing fluid.
 Risk of cavitations.
 High power requirement to form and maintain the liquid ring, resulting in
large motors.
 Achievable vacuum is limited by the vapor pressure of the sealant fluid at
the operating pressure.

Steam Ejectors
The simplest and probably the most widely used vacuum producer is ejector,
sometimes called a jet pump.
An ejector works by converting pressure energy of a motive fluid (steam) into
kinetic energy as it flows through a relatively small converging –diverging
nozzle.
The lowered pressure of the motion fluid creates suction in a mixing chamber,
with which the process fluid is drawn from the vessel being evacuated. The
process fluid mixes with and becomes entrained in the motive fluid stream.
This mixed fluid then passes on through a converging – diverging diffuser,
when the velocity is converted back to pressure energy. The resultant
pressure is higher than the suction pressure of the ejector.

The choice of the motive fluid is based mainly on the fact that it should be
compatible with the process fluid.
Advantages of Ejectors

 Simple design with no moving parts and particularly no wear and tear.
 Can be mounted in any orientation.
 Can be fabricated of virtually any metal as well as any types of plastics.
 Low capital cost among vacuum producing devices.
 Offers largest throughput capacity of any vacuum-producing device, can
handle more than 17x105 m3/ hr of process fluid.
 No special start up or shut down procedures required.
 Can handle condensable loads.
 Simple repair and maintenance.

Disadvantages of Ejectors

 The requirement of a pressurized motive fluid.

 The inevitable contamination of the motive fluid by the process gas and
vice versa.
 Can be noisy; may require discharge silencers or sound insulation.
 In most cases, the need of cooling fluid source to condense the mixture of
motive and process fluid vapors.
Measurement of Low Pressure
Pressure measurements can be made by using direct or indirect
techniques.
In direct method, the pressure is measured directly as force upon a solid
surface or liquid column. In vacuum work, such measurements involving
force per unit area are almost non-existent. Instead, one is interested in the
related parameters, namely gas density and its molecular concentration.

Classification of Gauges:
Classified in two broad categories:
1) Total Pressure Gauges
a) Mechanical gauges
b) Thermal conductivity gauges.
c) Ionization gauges.
2) Partial Pressure Gauges
a) Mass spectrometer

Mechanical Gauges
These gauges measure pressure from atmosphere to 1 Torr. The working
principle of these gauges is that an elastic element deforms in response to a
change in the applied pressure difference.

Advantages:
Their response is independent of the type of gases involved since they work
on the basis of the force exerted by a gas. They measure total pressure of the
mixture of gases and vapors and are called total pressure gauges

Eg: Bourdon gauge, this is most commonly used in industries.

Bourdon Gauge
In this the pressure-sensing element is a tube, which is sealed off at one end
with the other end leading to the connection for vacuum system. The tube is
usually elliptical cross-section and bent with an arc or spiral. One end of the
tube is rigidly fixed, so a change of pressure inside the tube makes it change
its curvature. The closed end is connected to a system of levers and gears to a
needle, which moves over a graduated circular scale. Thus, any change in the
shape of the tube activates, through the gear system, motion in the pointer.
The scale marking over which the pointer moves indicates the difference
between atmospheric and the unknown pressure.
The calibration of the scale is generally based on inches or mm of Hg from 0
to 30 or 0 to 760 mm, where 0 represents atmospheric pressure and 30 or 760
represents very good vacuum.

The accuracy of the measured value of the pressure also depends on the
hysteresis characteristics of the tube material.
Vacuum systems and components
The basic requirements in the properties of materials used in the construction of
vacuum system and their components are:
1) Good mechanical strength.
2) Easy Fabrication.
3) Good Vacuum properties
a) Low vapor pressure.
b) Low out- gassing.
c) Low permeability.
d) No Porosity.
e) Ability to make good leak tight joints.

The important materials of construction are:

1) Mild Steel. 2) Stainless Steel. 3) Aluminium.

4) Copper.

Leak Detection
The tightness of the vacuum system is the ability of all its elements and joints
to keep the gas inflow to a value that may be neglected in practice.
In dynamic equilibrium when the pump is connected to the system, let the
equilibrium pressure be P1 and the minimum achievable pressure by the
associated pump be Pm. Then a system may be assumed to be leak tight if P1
approximates Pm. However P1 > Pm the system is not leak free due to any of
the following reasons or their combination.
1) A faulty vacuum Pump.
2) Out gassing inside the vacuum system (virtual leak)
3) Inflow of atmospheric air (real leak)

Leak detection is needed only when there is a inflow of atmospheric air into
the system.

Methods of Leak detection

Different methods for leak test
1) Pressure Test
2) Spark Coil test
3) Leak test using vacuum gauges
4) Halogen Leak – Detector
5) Mass- Spectrometer Leak Detector

Application of Vacuum Technology in Chemical Industry

 Degassing
 Vapor Distillation
 Evaporation
 Crystallizer
 Vacuum Filters