Vacuum Technology

Vacuum regions mbar Pa

Rough vacuum 10 - 13
10 - 102
5

Fore vacuum (Medium vacuum) 1 – 10-3 102 – 10-1

High vacuum 10-3 – 10-7 10-1 – 10-5
Ultra high vacuum (UHV) below 10-7 below 10-5
Extreme high vacuum (EHV) below 10-11 below 10-9
Extreme vacuum (EV)

Vacuum units:
PASCAL 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
BAR 1 bar = 105 Pa or 1 mbar = 102 Pa
TORR 1 torr (mm Hg) = 133.332 Pa
ATMOSPHERE 1 atm = 760 torr = 1.01325 x 105 Pa

Mean molecular mass for air =

where Mi – molecular weight of constituents of air

Pi - % of the constituents by volume

The number of molecules hitting a unit area of surface per second

or

where mean velocity of molecules , m – mass of a molecule, k – Boltzmann

constant, T – absolute temperature and P - pressure

Sticking probability () – The fraction of incident molecules, which absorb upon a
surface.
The monolayer coverage time,
where S – number of sites per unit area of a monolayer, v – rate at which molecules
strike a unit area of a surface, and  – sticking probability

Gas exposure – Exposure of gas at room temperature at a pressure of 1 x 10 -6 torr for a

second = 1 x 10-6 torrsec [or 1 Langmuir (L)]

Mean free path ; where n – number of molecules per unit volume,

d – diameter of a molecule
For ion-molecule collision i = 2  and for electron-molecule collision e = 42 
Flow regimes

Flow type Knudsen number Collisions

K = /d
Continuum flow or Less than 0.01 Molecule-molecule and molecule –
viscous flow walls of the vessel collisions are
dominant (Rough vacuum)
Knudsen flow or 0.01 to 3.0
intermediate flow or
transition flow
Molecular flow Greater than 3.0 Molecule-molecule and molecule –
walls of the vessel collisions are
negligible (HV, UHV. EV)
where  - mean free path and d – diameter of the tube

Flow of gas through vacuum systems

Mass flow rate (rate of change of mass)
where M – total mass of molecules, m- mass of a molecule, P – pressure, V – volume,
k – Boltzmann constant, and T – absolute temperature

Gas flow rate

Q has units [Pam3s-1]

Conductance (C)
Q = C (P1 – P2)

C has units [m3s-1] or [ls-1]

In general: (not valid for all cases)

C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ……….. for parallel connections
………. For series connections

Conductance of an orifice – molecular flow

or ; where A – cross sectional area of the orifice

Conductance through long circular tubes – molecular flow

or for L>>d
where d – diameter of the tube, L – length of the tube, and - mean velocity
Conductance through short circular tubes – molecular flow

or

Coupling conductances of short tubes with equal diameters – molecular flow

or

Kundsen’s transmission factor (K) – the probability that a molecule incident at one end
will pass through the tube

For a single short tube :  experimental accuracy is less than 12%

[Note - More accurate transmission factors with an uncertainty 1% could be obtained
from Monte-Carlo calculations.]
For a two short tubes with equal diameters:

For n-short tubes of equal diameters:

or

 Oatley’s formula

Coupling conductances of short tubes with different diameters – molecular flow

Haefer’s formula

where i,i+1 = 0 if Ai+1  Ai and i,i+1 = 1 if Ai+1 < Ai

Conductance of an elbow – Molecular flow

 Can be treated as tube with (1.5 x diameter)
longer length than the length through its
elbow center.

The pumping speed of a pump

where Q – gas flow rate and P0 – pressure measured directly over the pump.

The effective pumping speed of a pump, Seff

; where C – total conductance of the system

Net gas flow rate into the system

where gas load and throughput

Ultimate pressure
Simple pump down equation (assuming Qin = constant)

Vacuum Pumps

Definition: A pump that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave
behind a partial vacuum.
Two main categories: Mechanical pumps and High vacuum pumps

 Mechanical pumps
Operating pressure range: Atmospheric pressure to 10-3 mbar

General operating mechanism: Repeatedly expand a cavity, allow gases to flow in from
the chamber, seal off the cavity, and exhaust it to the atmosphere.

This mechanism is called Positive displacement and is effective for low vacuums (rough
and fore vacuum range).

These pumps are also called Backing pumps or Rough pumps

Types of pumps:

 Rotary vane pump

 Rotary Piston pump
 Diaphragm or membrane pump
 Liquid ring pump
 Scroll pump
 Lobe or Roots pump
 High vacuum pumps

Operating pressure range: 10-3 to high vacuum ranges

A high vacuum pump cannot be operated directly from atmospheric pressure and
should be “backed” by a mechanical pump. Some high vacuum pumps require
continuous backing and some need only at the start up.

High Vacuum Pump General operating mechanism

Diffusion pumps Momentum transfer pumps, or molecular pumps -
Turbomolecular pumps Use high-speed jets of dense fluid or high speed
rotating blades to knock gaseous molecules out of the
chamber
Cryosorption pumps Entrapment pumps - Capture gases in a solid or
Getter pumps absorbed state
Ion pumps (sputter-ion pumps)

1
5 Rotary vane (RV) pump
Operational Principle

2
4

3
 Single-stage RV pump
Main parts
AB – Vane
1. Inlet
2. Spring
3. Cylindrical stator
4. Rotor
5. Outlet valve

Two-stage RV pump Lobes pump

(Positive displacement blower
or lobe blower)

Maximum pumping speed ~ 10 m3/h  ODP cannot eject gas to

Ultimate pressure atmospheric pressure
Single-stage RV pump ~ 10-2 torr  Inlet pressure and fore
Double-stage RV pump ~ 10-4 torr Rotor speed
pressure : 3000
should be –less
3500 rpm a
than
critical value
 Max. pumping
inletspeed ~ 100ism0.1 /h
3
Critical pressure
Pa (or 10 torr)
-3

 Pressure
Criticalrange:fore
10 – 10pressure
torr
-5

(exhaust pressure or foreline

Oil Diffusion pump (ODP)
pressure) ranges from 0.2 – 0.6
torr
 As the critical fore pressure is
exceeded, the inlet pressure will
rise sharply
 Can pump down to 3 x 10-7
torr (without trapping) and < 3 x
10-11 torr (with liquid nitrogen
 Turbo molecular pump Manufacturer: Leybold TMP360V

Rotor speed: 24,000 – 80,000 rpm

Pumping speed: 300 to 2,000 Ls-1

A molecular turbine that compresses gas by momentum transfer from high speed rotating
blades to gas molecules. Requires a backing pump initially to reduce the pressure in the
order ~10-1 mbar, then the pump can pump down to ~ 10-10 mbar

Getter Pumps

“Gettering” is the process of tying up gases by some means (physically or chemically)

that would result in removing them from the vacuum vessel. The word “getter” is most
often refer to chemical getters and it provides the pumping action by a chemical reaction.
Chemically active gas combines with a chemically active metal to form a low vapor
pressure solid compound.

Chemical getters are of two types:

 Evaporable getters
 Non-evaporable getters (NEG)

Evaporable getters
The getter material is heated to a high enough temperature. It evaporates and
subsequently condenses on the tube’s inner surfaces and forms a high surface area
reactive coating to bind gases.

Examples: tantalum, columbium, zirconium, thorium, titanium, Molybdenum etc.

Non-evaporable getters (NEG)

It remains in the solid state instead of being evaporated and condensed on a surface.
Usually found as either chunks or pellets, or as thin films bonded to metallic substrates.

Examples: Alloys of Zirconium

When the getter material is exposed to air, the material’s surface will “skin over” with
reacted gases. “skin over” means the NEG will be totally enclosed in an envelope of
oxides, nitrides, and the bulk of the material will be saturated with dissolved H 2 and the
NEG will be inert. Therefore, it requires Activation.

Activation is done by heating under vacuum after being installed. This process is two-
fold:
(i) During heating, the reacted “skin” layer will diffuse into the NEGs bulk in an
attempt to achieve a constant concentration equilibrium throughout the bulk.
(ii) The H2 will be driven out of solid solution into the chamber where it can be
pumped away by an appropriate high vacuum pump.

The time and temperature required for activation into bulk by heating depends on the
specific getter alloy. A pressure of at least 10-4 torr is required and pumping time must be
long enough to ensure that the released H2 is pumped away.
Types of Getter pumps
 Getter-ion pump or Ion-getter pump
 Titanium Sublimation Pump (TSP)
 Non Evaporable getter (NEG) pump
 Titanium Sublimation Pump (TSP)
Sublimation is the transition from solid to gaseous state. The Getter is a material that
chemically binds unwanted gases or impurities.

Principle: Titanium/ Molybdenum filament is heated ~ 1,4500 C by an electric current so

that Titanium sublimates. A thin Titanium film deposits on the walls of the pump
chamber. Titanium chemically binds residual gases.

For this purpose, the chamber wall should be designed to have a large surface area. Once
the film has reacted it must be replaced by re-evaporation from the TSP. The time gap
between these regenerative evaporations depends on the pressure of the system and the
gas types being pumped.

Example: Almost continuous at 10-5 mbar; once every 12 hours in the 10-11 mbar region

To enhance the pumping speed of the Titanium film, the condensing wall can be cooled
to liquid N2 temperatures.

Temperature Effect of Titanium Film

Gas Species CO H2O Inert
H2 N2 O2 CO2 CH4
Temperature gases
+ 20°C 3 4 9 9 8 3 0 0
- 196°C 10 10 11 11 9 14 0 0
Temperature is of condensing wall and shows resultant pumping speed of Ti film.
Pumping Speed in L s-1cm-2

Even though approach doesn't work with noble gases, they are also bound in the pump —
not chemically but instead by being shot so deep into the titanium walls that they remain
trapped there.

Manufacturer: TSP by Varian

Filament type

Ball type
Operating pressure range: 10-4 to 10-12 mbar
Cryogenic Pumps

The principle of operation is that gaseous substances are bound to the cold surfaces (cryo
panels) within the pump by means of cryocondensation, cryosorption or
cryotrapping.  A surface that is maintained at a temperature colder than its environment
removes (i.e., "pumps") gases from the environment by the physical processes of
condensation and/or adsorption. This pumping on a cold (i.e., "cryogenic") surface is
termed "cryopumping" from the Greek word "kryos" meaning "cold". The process of
condensation on a cryogenic surface is termed "cryocondensation", and the process of
adsorption on a cold surface is termed "cryosorption".

A cryogenic apparatus
comprises refrigeration means
utilizing a two-stage expansion
of compressed helium gas that
circulates in a closed loop,
whereby a first pumping stage
can be maintained at a
temperature in the range from
50 K. to 80 K. and a second
pumping stage can be
maintained at a colder
temperature in the range from
10 K. to 20 K.

The first pumping stage gases such as water vapor, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide are
such that their cryocondensation can occur at the higher first-stage temperature, and gases
that require a lower temperature for cryocondensation or cryosorption (e.g., hydrogen
helium, argon and neon) are pumped at the second stage.

The characteristics of cryopumps:


The pressure range: 10-3 to 10-11 mbar

Insensitivity to mechanical disturbances from particles coming from the process
or external vibrations.

Maximum pumping speed: 1500 L s-1

Backing pump is only required during start-up and during regeneration 

Regeneration is the process of warming the interior of the cryopump to revaporize the
frozen gases and vent them to atmosphere.

Ion pumps (sputter-ion pump)

Sputter ion pumps operate by ionizing gas within a magnetically confined cold cathode
discharge. Types of sputter ion pumps are as follows:

 Standard Diode Pumps

 Noble Diode Pumps
  Hydrogen Diode
 Triode Pumps

Cross-section of an triode pump

Main parts
1. Permanent magnets
2. Pump envelope
3. Titanium strip cathodes
4. Anode cell array

The events that combine to enable pumping of gases under vacuum are:
 Entrapment of electrons in orbit by a magnetic field.
 Ionization of gas by collision with electrons.
 Sputtering of titanium by ion bombardment.
 Titanium gettering of active gases.
 Pumping of heavy noble gases by ion burial.
 Diffusion of hydrogen and helium into titanium.
 Dissociation of complex molecules into simple ones for pumping ease.

Vacuum Gauges
 U-tube manometer (oil or mercury)
 Bourdon gauge or diaphragm gauge
 Capacitance manometer
 Thermal conductivity gauges
Thermocouple gauge
Pirani gauge
  Ionization gauges
Hot cathode gauges
Bayard Alpert (BA) Gauge
Triode gauge
Cold cathode gauges
Penning gauge

U-tube manometer Bourdon gauge

Hg manometer Bourdon Gauge

Pressure range: 103 to 10-3 torr Pressure range: 103 to 10-2 torr

Capacitance manometer

The diaphragm deflects due to

pressure difference, which changes
the capacitance according to

Pressure range: 103 to 10-4 torr

Limitation:
A temperature change will cause a
large source of error
Pirani gauge Thermocouple gauge
Two filaments act as The resistances in two gauge also uses
thermocouple
arms of a Wheatstonethebridge.thermalThe ref.
conductivity of gases to
filament is at a fixed-gas pressure and the
measure pressure. It measures the
measurement filamentvoltage
is in the of system
a thermocouple spot-
gas. The Pirani gauge uses the
welded to thermal
a filament exposed to
conductivity of gases systemtogas.measure
pressure. The current through the bridge
heats both filaments.A constant
Gas molecules
current supply feeds the
hitting the heated filaments conduct
filament, and away
the filament reaches a
some of the heat. When the system
temperature dependant is on thermal
pumped down, there are lesser
losses molecules
to the gas.
and lesser collisions so lesser heat is
removed from the wire. WhenThe theelectrical
system is pumped down,
resistance of a wire increases as its
lesser molecules heats
hit the filament and
up. Resistances of two remove filaments are energy, changing
lesser heat
theunbalanced.
thermocouple voltage.
unequal & the bridge is
Pressure range: 102 - 10-3 mbar
The constant current type - power
supply gives a constant current all the
time to the filament and the filament
resistance changes are measured.

The constant resistance type - power

supply changes the current supplied to
keep the resistances of the filaments
the same. (i.e. the current is a measure
of the pressure.

Latter type has a higher linearity of Hot cathode ionization gauges

Electrons emission of from a hot cathode (i.e. thermonic emission)

Triode Gauge
Bayard Alpert (BA) Gauge

GF F G T
 o

f
i
l
a
C C
m
Tungsten filament (FF),e cathode is at
the potential + 20 V ton+ 50 V , the grid
(GG), anode is at + 150 V to + 250 V
t
and the ion collector (CC) is grounded The configuration of the triode gauge
(or biased – 30 V w.r.t. was modified by R.D Bayard and
s FF).
D. Alpert in 1950.
Electrons from the electrically heated
filament FF are accelerated towards the They overcome the X-rays problem by
a
grid GG and these electrons ionize gas replacing the large area collector with a
c be collected by
molecules and they will fine wire
CC. The ion currentt is a function of
electron current and the former is VCC = - 30 V
measured as a function of pressure. VGG = + 150 V
For example: VF =0V
a
At 10-3 torr  1 to 10 mA;
At 10-7 torr  ~1 nA s Pressure range: 10-3 to 10-11 mbar

Limitations: At pressures below 10-8 Limitations:

r GG generate
mbar, Electrons striking Cannot measure pressures greater than
X-rays (bremsstrahlung) and this 10-3 mbar due to space charge effect.
e
produce photoelectrons in the CC and
s at the GG in
photocurrent is produced
addition to the electron
i current due to Important:
thermonic emission. Thus due to the Should not expose either these gauges
photocurrent, there s is a minimum to atmospheric pressure because the
reading value of t pressure, even oxidation of tungsten filament in hot
conditions causes immediate fusing.
a
though the actual pressure is lower.
n
Cold cathode ionization gauges
Pressure range: 10-2 to 10-7 mbar
Electron emission due toc an electric discharge at room temperature
e
Penning gauge
s
Developed by Penning in 1937. It consists of two parallel-plate cathodes with a central
ring anode.

i
n
1. Anode : V= 2-10 kV
2. Cathode - grounded
t 3. Magnet (0.1-0.2 T)
4. Resistor
w
o
 r
m
s

o
f

a
Principle
W
The use of electric & magnetic fields result in electrons travel long distances in spiral
h gas molecules. Thus the ionization probability increases. The
paths before colliding with
total current is the sumeof the electron and positive ion currents, which is a function of
pressure
a
Pressure range: 10 to 10
-2
t mbar
-11

s
t
1. Electrons leaving the
o cathode
n
2. Electron going back and
e forth through the anode.

3. Electron colliding with a

b molecule and ionizing it
r
i
d
g
e
.

T
h
e

r
e
f
.