ELEVATED WORK AREAS AND SCAFFOLDS

Purpose
This section establishes the minimum safety-related technical requirements for temporary elevated
work areas and scaffolds.

Definitions
Where possible, the scaffold terminology used in this document is based on GS 217/ 1994, OSHA
1926.450, and ANSI A10.8. Equivalent BS 5973 scaffold terms, where an equivalent term exists, are
shown in brackets.

Anchorage Safe points of anchorage for lifelines or lanyards, which are part of a personal fall arrest
system, including fixed, substantial structural members. Anchorage points shall be fixed and able to
support a load of at least 2,300 kilograms (5,000 pounds).

Base Plate A steel plate providing a flat bearing surface with a spigot or screwjack for distributing the
load from posts (standards). It has an integral spigot and fixing holes for use with sills.
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TYPICAL BASE PLATE

Bearer (Transom) A horizontal transverse scaffold member, that may support platform units, and
which is supported by at least two runners (ledgers) or connected directly to at least two posts
(standards).

Board Bearer (Intermediate Transom) A horizontal transverse scaffold tube upon which the scaffold
platform partially rests. Board bearers are supported by runners (ledgers) and are not installed near a
transverse line of posts (standards).

Body Belt (Safety Belt) A strap with means both for securing it about the waist and for attaching it (with
a lanyard) to a lifeline or anchorage. Used to provide personnel positioning limits against a fall (i.e., keep
wearer away from edge of a roof). Body belts shall not be used as part of a personal fall arrest system.

Box Tie An assembly of tubes and couplers forming a frame around a column or other part of a building
to provide an anchor point for scaffold tie tubes. Also known as a column box tie.

Brace A rigid connection of scaffold tubing that holds one scaffold member in a fixed position with
respect to another member to give the scaffold rigidity.

Cross Bracing. Two diagonal braces joined at their center to form an “X.” Also called “X”
bracing or cross braces.

Diagonal Brace. A scaffold tube placed diagonally with respect to the vertical and horizontal
members of a scaffold and fixed to them to give the scaffold stability.

Longitudinal (Facade or Sway) Bracing. Diagonal braces installed in the plane of the longer
dimension (length) of the scaffold.
 Plan Bracing. Diagonal braces installed in a horizontal plane, particularly used in mobile and
tower scaffolds.

Transverse (Sectional or Ledger) Bracing. Diagonal braces installed in the plane of the shorter
dimension (width) of the scaffold.

Zig-Zag (Dog-leg) Bracing. Diagonal braces placed end-to-end and that alternate back and
forth.

Caster (Castor) A pivoting wheel, containing a wheel lock, which is attached to a vertical post (standard)
of a mobile scaffold to allow for manual movement of the scaffold.

Coupler (Fitting, Clamp) A component or device used to fix scaffold tubes together. Types of couplers
include:

Adjustable (Swivel) Coupler A device used for connecting two tubes together at an angle other
than 90 degrees

Bearer (Single or Putlog) Coupler A device used for fixing a bearer (transom or putlog) to a
runner (ledger), or to connect a tube used only as a guardrail to a post (standard).

Check (Safety) Coupler A Right-angle coupler added to a loaded joint on an underhung scaffold
to give supplementary security against slip to the coupler carrying the load.

End-to-End (Sleeve) Coupler A device used for externally joining two (2) scaffold tubes co-
axially end to end. The steel divider is located centrally to ensure equal insertion of each tube.

Girder Coupler A device used for connecting a scaffold tube to a steel wideflange beam (I-
beam). Girder couplers shall only be used in pairs, one on each opposite flange. Also called an
“SK” (Steel-Klamp).

Right-Angle (Double, 90 Degree, Load Bearing, or Standard) Coupler A load bearing coupler
used for connecting two tubes together at right angles. It is a critical component in the scaffold
structure and must resist both slip and distortion.

Fabricated Scaffold Plank, Deck, or Platform A scaffold platform unit equipped with end hooks that
engage the scaffold bearer (transom).

Failure Load refusal, buckling, breakage, slip, or separation of component parts. For a simply supported
bending member (such as a bearer), load refusal may be taken as the point at which a full depth plastic
hinge forms at the midspan (plastic moment = yield stress times plastic section modulus).

Full Body Harness A design of straps that may be secured about an individual in a manner to distribute
the fall arrest forces over the thighs, pelvis, waist, chest and shoulders, with means for attaching it to
other components of a personal fall arrest system.

Guardrail System A barrier consisting of toprails, midrails, toeboards, and supporting uprights, erected
to prevent workers from falling off an elevated work area and to prevent objects from falling onto
workers below. Consists of:

Toprail The uppermost horizontal rail of a guardrail system.

 Midrail A horizontal rail approximately midway between the toprail of a guardrail system and
the platform.

Toeboard A barrier secured along the sides and the ends of a platform to guard against the
falling of material, tools, and other objects.

Guys Tension members (i.e., wire ropes) used between the scaffold and the ground, building, or
structure to enhance the scaffold’s lateral stability.

Hanger Tube Vertical tube similar to and serving the same load-carrying purpose as posts (standards),
except that hanger tubes are hung from an existing structure and loaded in tension.

Hot Surface The surface of a structure or equipment that is hotter than 70 degrees C or 160 degrees F.

Joint Pin (Expanding Spigot) An expanding fitting placed in the bore of a scaffold post (standard) to
connect one post to another coaxially. This device is used to connect posts (standards) in tube and
coupler scaffolds vertically and handles compression, but not tension, loads.

Lanyard A flexible line with a positive means to lock end connections closed (i.e., locking type
snaphooks or carabineers with a self-closing, self-locking keeper) that is used to secure the wearer of a
full body harness to a lifeline or a point of anchorage.

Shock-absorbing Lanyard A specially designed lanyard with a built-in shock absorber (to allow
dissipation of energy) that elongates during a fall so that fall arresting forces are significantly
reduced (by 65 – 80%) when compared to a traditional webbing or rope lanyard. A shock-
absorbing lanyard limits the maximum arresting force on the individual to less than 8,000
Newtons (1,800 pounds).

Lifeline A component that consists of a flexible line that connects to an anchorage at one end to hang
vertically (vertical lifeline), or that connects to anchorages at both ends to stretch horizontally
(horizontal lifeline), and which serves as a method to connect other components of a personal fall arrest
system to the anchorage. Lifelines are also called static lines, drop lines, safety lines, rat lines, scare
lines, etc.

Lift The assembly of runners (ledgers) and bearers (transoms) forming a horizontal level of a scaffold. A
lift is similar to a floor in a building.

Base Lift A lift erected near to the ground consisting of the first set of runners (ledgers) and
bearers (transoms). Also known as “foot lift”, “foot tie”, and “kicker lift.”

Lift Head Room The clear distance between a platform and the tubular assembly of the lift
above.

Lift Height The vertical distance between two lifts and is similar to a story in a building.

Load Rating Live load for scaffold design and maximum intended loading shall be per the following
categories:

Light-duty: Scaffold designed and constructed to carry the weight of workmen only, with no
material storage other than the weight of tools. Commonly used for inspection, painting, access
 and light cleaning. Uniformly distributed maximum intended load is 120 kg/m2 (1.2 kN/m2) (25
lb./ft2).

Medium-duty: Scaffold designed and constructed to carry the weight of light materials, tools
and workmen. Scaffolds used for abrasive blast cleaning (“sandblasting”) shall be classified
Medium-duty if there is potential for buildup of abrasive on the platforms (all platforms are not
continuously cleaned of abrasive). Uniformly distributed maximum intended load is 240 kg/m2
(2.4 kN/m2) (50 lb./ft2).

Special-duty: Scaffold specially designed and constructed to carry maximum intended loads
greater than 240 kg/m2 (2.4 kN/m2) (50 psf), such as masonry work, piping or equipment, and is
classified as a Special Scaffold.

Lower Level Areas below the level where a person is located and to which he could fall. Such areas
include, but are not limited to, ground levels, floors, roofs, ramps, runways, excavations, pits, tanks,
materials, water, and equipment.

Maximum Intended Load The maximum load of all persons, equipment, tools, materials, transmitted
loads, and other live loads reasonably anticipated to be applied to a scaffold or scaffold component at
any one time (does not include scaffold or plank self-weight).

Node Point The intersection point of a post (standard) and runner (ledger), or a post (standard) and
bearer (transom).

Personal Fall Arrest System A system used to arrest an individual’s fall. It consists of a substantial
anchorage, connectors, full body harness, and may include a lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline, or
suitable combinations of these

Plank (Scaffold Board) An individual timber board or fabricated component (without end hooks) that
serves as a flooring member of a platform.

Platform An elevated work area composed of one or more platform units and a guardrail system.

Platform Unit An individual wood plank, fabricated plank, fabricated deck, or fabricated platform.

Post (Standard) Vertical scaffold tube that bears the weight of the scaffold.

Puncheon (False Upright) A vertical tube supported at its lower end by another scaffold tube or beam
and not by the ground or deck.

Raker An inclined load bearing tube that braces the scaffold against the ground.

Reveal Tie An assembly of a reveal tube, reveal pin, and pads, if required, fixed between opposing
faces of an opening in a wall to provide an anchor point for scaffold tie tubes.

Reveal Pin A fitting used for tightening a reveal tube between two opposing surfaces.

Reveal Tube A tube fixed by means of a threaded fitting (reveal pin) between two opposing
surfaces of a building or structure to form a solid anchorage to which a scaffold may be tied.
 Runner (Ledger) A lengthwise horizontal scaffold tube that extends from post (standard) to
post, that supports the bearers (transoms) and that forms a tie between the posts.

Safe Working Load (SWL) The manufacturer’s specified maximum load to be applied to a scaffold
component.

Scaffold A temporary elevated platform (supported or underhung) and its supporting components
(including ties) used for supporting workmen, materials, or both. Types of scaffolds include:

Base-Supported Scaffold A scaffold with posts (standards) supported at their base (not
underhung).

Bracket (Tank Builder’s) Scaffold A scaffold supported by bracket straps welded to the tank
wall. Upright brackets are hooked to the straps.

Fabricated Tubular Frame Scaffold A scaffold consisting of platform(s) supported on fabricated

end frames with integral posts, horizontal bearers, and intermediate members.

Mobile Scaffold A rigid scaffold assembly supported by casters that can be manually moved
horizontally.

Tower Scaffold A supported scaffold consisting of only four (4) posts (standards) connected
together longitudinally with runners (ledgers) and bearers (transoms) at right angles to each
other, forming a square or rectangular tower. A tower scaffold may be constructed of tube and
coupler, fabricated tubular frame, or system scaffolding.

Tube and Coupler Scaffold A scaffold constructed of steel tubing that serves as posts
(standards), runners (ledgers), bearers (transoms), braces, and ties; a base supporting the posts;
and specially designed scaffold couplers that serve to connect the various members.

Scaffold Measurements Dimensions of a scaffold.

Bay The space between the centerlines of adjacent posts (standards) along the face of a
scaffold.

Bay Length The horizontal, longitudinal distance between centers of two adjacent posts
(standards).

Height The vertical distance between the scaffold base and the topmost assembly of runners
(ledgers) and bearers (transoms).

Length The horizontal distance along the runners (ledgers) between the scaffold’s extreme
longitudinal posts (standards); sometimes designated by the number of bays.

Longitudinal The long direction of the scaffold, usually parallel to the scaffold’s planks.

Transverse The short direction of the scaffold, usually perpendicular to the scaffold’s planks.

Width The maximum horizontal transverse distance of a scaffold measured at right angles to
the runners (ledgers) from center of the posts (standards) that are the farthest apart.
Sometimes designated by the number of planks that can fit within the posts.
Screwjack A load-carrying device used at the base of the scaffold to compensate for variations in
ground levels.

Sill (Sole Board or Sole Plate) A timber spreader used to distribute the load from a base plate to the
ground.

Special Scaffold A scaffold that meets any of the following conditions and for which a structural
engineering review of the scaffold plan is required:

• higher than 38 meters (125 feet), or a tube and coupler scaffold that exceeds the maximum
height limits in Section 9.11, or

• cantilevered by more than 3 meters (10 feet), or

• over 30 sq. meters (320 sq. ft.) total platform area and supported by or hung from an existing
structure or building (e.g., roof, pipe rack, offshore platform), or

• supporting loads greater than 240 kg/sq.m. (50 psf), including piping, equipment, masonry,
new or existing structures, or loads other than workers and their materials, or

• supported by or hung from one or more outrigger beams, or

• supported by or hung from wind girders or roofs of floating roof tanks.

Spigot A pinned or bolted internal fitting to join one post (standard) to another coaxially. Used in
system scaffolds.

Spigot Pin A pin or bolt placed transversely through the spigot and the scaffold post (standard) to
prevent the spigot from pulling out of the tube. Also known as tension pin, dowel pin, and coupling pin.

Tie Scaffold components installed to provide an anchor point for a scaffold to a building or structure,
including tie tubes attached to the scaffold. Used to provide lateral stability to the scaffold.

Tie Tube A tube used to connect the scaffold to a tie anchor point (i.e., box tie, reveal tie, two-way tie).

Two-Way Tie An assembly of scaffold components through an opening in a wall or other solid structure
to provide an anchor point for scaffold tie tubes. Also known as a through tie.

Working Level An elevated platform supporting equipment, workmen and/or materials.

ELEVATED WORK AREAS - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Fall Protection

A. Each person who could fall more than 1.8 meters (6 feet) shall be protected from falling by a fall
protection system. Fall protection systems include guardrail systems and personal fall arrest systems.
Fixed fall protection, such as guardrails, are preferred over the use of personal fall arrest systems.

B. Each scaffold craftsman shall continuously wear a full body harness with a shock absorbing lanyard
while erecting, altering, or dismantling a scaffold. If possible to do so, each scaffold craftsman shall
properly anchor his lanyard whenever he is not protected by a guardrail system and could fall more than
1.8 meters (6 feet). The lanyard shall be anchored to the scaffold only if it’s not possible to anchor to a
stronger anchorage (including a lifeline).

Guardrail Systems

A. Guardrail systems (consisting of toprails, midrails, toeboards, and support uprights) shall be installed
on all open sides and ends of all elevated work areas (including scaffold platforms and stair landings)
where a person could fall 1.8 meters (6 feet) or more.

B. The top edge height of toprails shall not be less than 0.95 meter (38 inches) and not more than 1.15
meters (45 inches) above the walking/working surface of a platform.

C. Midrails shall be installed approximately halfway between the walking/working surface and the
toprail.

D. Toprails and midrails shall be securely fixed to the inside of vertical uprights (i.e., posts). Vertical
uprights supporting guardrails shall not be spaced more than 2.7 meters (9 feet) apart.

E. Guardrail systems shall be able to withstand, without failure, a force of at least 90 kilograms (200
pounds) applied in any downward or horizontal direction at any point on the toprail or equivalent
member.

F. Guardrail systems shall be installed before an elevated work area may be used by anyone other than
the scaffold craftsmen.

G. The ends of all horizontal guardrails shall not overhang the end uprights except when such overhang
does not constitute a projection hazard to workers.

H. Holes or gaps in elevated work areas shall have a guardrail system erected around them or they shall
be securely covered with structurally substantial material.

I. Whenever the horizontal distance from the edge of an elevated work area (including scaffold
platforms) to the face of the wall or structure exceeds 360 mm (14 inches), a guardrail system shall be
erected along the edge or personal fall arrest systems shall be used.

J. At hoisting areas, a guardrail system at least 1.2 meters (4 feet) long shall be erected (if possible) on
each side of the access point through which material is hoisted. A chain or gate shall be properly secured
across the opening between the guardrail sections when hoisting operations are not taking place.

Personal Fall Arrest Systems

A. Where a complete guardrail system cannot be implemented, a personal fall arrest system shall be
continuously used by anyone on an elevated work area or platform. A personal fall arrest system
includes a full body harness, lanyard, substantial anchorage(s), and possibly a lifeline.

B. At no time shall body belts or safety belts be used as part of a personal fall arrest system.

C. Before each use, the user shall inspect all components of the personal fall arrest system he will be
using.
D. Full body harnesses (including D-rings), lanyards (including snap hooks), lifelines, and other
components of personal fall arrest systems shall be rated and labeled for a capacity of at least 2,300
kilograms (5,000 pounds) by the manufacturer.

E. When used, personal fall arrest systems shall be attached by lanyard to a vertical lifeline, horizontal
lifeline, or overhead structural anchorage capable of supporting 2,300 kilograms (5,000 pounds).

F. Lanyards shall, if feasible, be tied-off to an anchorage point or lifeline that is high enough (preferably
above shoulder height) to prevent the worker from free falling more than 6 feet (1.8 meters) or striking
any lower level should a fall occur.

G. Lanyards shall have a maximum length of 1.8 meters (6 feet). Two or more lanyards may be
connected together (hook to eye) provided the total possible free fall distance is not more than 1.8
meters (6 feet). However, self-retracting lanyards (inertia reels) are preferred for these situations.

H. Locking type snap hooks or carabineers with self-closing, self-locking keeper shall be attached to the
end of each lanyard to prevent rollout. D-rings and snap hooks shall be compatible to prevent rollout.

When lifelines are used, they shall be fastened to fixed safe point(s) of anchorage capable of supporting
2,300 kilograms (5,000 pounds), shall be independent, and shall be protected from sharp edges and
abrasion. Safe points of anchorage may include structural members, but do not include guardrails,
standpipes, vents, other small diameter piping systems, electrical conduit, outrigger beams, or
counterweights.

J. Horizontal and vertical lifelines shall be made from 10 mm (3/8-inch) min. diameter wire rope. Other
materials such as manila, nylon, or polypropylene rope shall not be used as a lifeline.

K. Horizontal lifelines shall be installed at the highest feasible point, preferably above shoulder height.
Horizontal lifelines shall be maintained with a sag at the center no greater than 300 mm (12 inches) for
every 10 meters (33 feet) of lifeline length between attachment points.

L. Supervision shall ensure continuous monitoring of employees wearing a personal fall arrest system so
that prompt assistance is possible in the event of a fall.

M. Personal fall arrest system components shall not be used for any other purpose and shall not be re-
used after stopping a fall or if any component has any sign of damage.

Falling Object Protection

A. Toeboards shall be installed along all edges of elevated work areas (including scaffold platforms) more
than 1.8 meters (6 feet) above lower levels, unless personnel access to the lower level under the
elevated work area is physically prevented.

B. Toeboards shall conform to the following requirements:

• The vertical distance from the top edge of the toeboard to the level of the walking/ working
surface shall be at least 100 mm (4 inches).

• Wood toeboards shall be at least 25 mm (1 inch) thick.

 • Toeboards shall be securely fastened in place along the outermost edge(s) of the platform and
have not more than 6 mm (1/4-inch) clearance above the walking/ working surface.

• Toeboards shall be solid and capable of withstanding, without failure, a force of at least 23
kilograms (50 pounds) in any downward or horizontal direction at any point along the toeboard.

C. Where tools, materials, or equipment are piled to a point higher than the top edge of the toeboard
and where there is the danger of objects falling through guardrails and striking workers or equipment
below, a protective screen consisting of a minimum No. 18 gauge wire with a maximum 13 mm (½-inch)
mesh, shall be securely fixed to the toeboard, midrail, and toprail.

D. In addition to wearing hardhats, additional protection from falling objects may be provided by:

• barricading the area below into which objects can fall and not permitting workers to enter the
hazard area, or

• erection of debris nets, catch platforms, or canopy structures sufficient to catch falling objects.

E. A debris net catch platform or canopy structure shall be strong enough to withstand the impact
forces of potential falling objects.

F. Materials are not to be piled, stacked, or grouped unless they are stable and self-supporting.

Entry and Exit

A. A safe means of entry and exit shall be provided and used whenever the elevated work area or
scaffold platform is 0.6 meters (2 feet) above or below a point of access. Ladders, stairs/stairways,
ramps, or walkways shall be used.

B. Climbing of scaffold braces, runners, etc. is not permitted, except as required by scaffold craftsmen
during scaffold erection, alteration, and dismantling.

C. Whenever the horizontal travel distance exceeds 15 meters (50 feet), each elevated work area shall
have at least two means of exit. A means of exit shall be provided at least every 30 meters (100 feet).

D. Except for scaffolds, the minimum clear headroom above walking/working surfaces, including
stairways, shall be 2 meters (6.5 feet). The minimum clear headroom above scaffold platforms and
landings shall be 1.8 meters (6 feet).

Temporary Ramps

A. Ramps and walkways 1.8 meters (6 feet) or more above lower levels shall have guardrail systems that
comply with

B. No temporary ramp or walkway shall be inclined more than a slope of one (1) vertical unit to three (3)
horizontal units (20 degrees above the horizontal). A slope of not over 15 degrees is preferred.

C. If the slope of a ramp or walkway is steeper than one (1) vertical in four (4) horizontal, the ramp or
walkway shall have cleats not more than 350 mm (14 inches) apart which are securely fastened to the
planks to provide footing.

Slipping and Tripping

Good housekeeping shall be maintained to help prevent slipping, tripping, and falls. Oil spills, mud,
scrap, and other debris shall be cleared up immediately. All chords, leads, hoses, etc. shall, if possible, be
supported at least 2.4 meters (8 feet) above walkways and platforms by non-conductive material.

Roof Work

A. For work within 1.8 meters (6 feet) of the edge of a (flat or sloped) roof or for work at any location on
roofs with a slope of 1:4 (vertical : horizontal) or greater, either installation of temporary (rigid or wire
rope) guardrails or use of a personal fall restraint system is required.

B. Roofs shall be reinforced where necessary to bear the load of workers and materials.

C. Workers shall not work on a roof that is exposed to the weather during storms or high winds.

D. Materials shall not be stored within 1.8 meters (6 feet) of the roof edge unless a guardrail system,
including toeboards, is erected along the edge.

Lighting

Every work area and every means of access to and exit from an elevated work area used during
nighttime shall be provided with properly maintained and adequate lighting.

High Winds

Personnel shall not be on any scaffold or other temporary elevated work area during storms or high
winds – sustained winds more than 65 kph (40 mph) - unless the scaffold or working level is indoors or
otherwise unaffected by the weather conditions. Outdoor scaffolds or elevated work platforms shall not
be used during thunderstorms or when there is likelihood of lightning.

Hot Surfaces

Suitable precautions shall be taken to prevent workers from coming into contact with any hot surface.
Barriers shall be erected. Signs shall be posted warning: “Hot Surfaces.” If these are not possible, then a
standby man shall be assigned to warn other workers of the hazard.

Unstable Buildings and Structures

No wall sector more than one story high shall be permitted to stand alone without lateral bracing, unless
such wall was originally designed to be self-supporting and is in a safe condition. All walls shall be left in
a stable condition at the end of each shift by bracing with support jacks, timbers and/or guy-wires,
taking wind force and storm conditions into consideration.

Forklift-Supported Temporary Work Platforms

Forklifts shall not be used to support temporary work platforms, including scaffolds.

SCAFFOLD COMPONENTS

General

A. The components used to assemble scaffolds shall be inspected before each use and shall conform to
requirements of this section regarding materials, strength, dimensions, etc.
B. Scaffold components manufactured by different manufacturers shall not be intermixed unless the
components are compatible (fit together without mechanical force) and the scaffold’s structural
integrity is maintained. Scaffold components manufactured by different manufacturers shall not be
modified in order to intermix them.

C. Scaffold components shall be free from detrimental corrosion.

D. Any scaffold component that is obviously damaged, excessively corroded, defective, or does not meet
the applicable codes and standards shall be marked with bright fluorescent orange paint and
immediately removed from the facility. Defective couplers shall be immediately destroyed and shall not
be re-used on any TIIC property or project site. However, if possible, defective sections of planks or
tubing may be cut off. In this case, the plank or tubing may be reused.

E. Scaffold components made of dissimilar metals shall not be used together because of the potential for
galvanic corrosion.

F. Scaffold components shall not be exposed to acids or other corrosive substances, unless adequate
precautions have been taken to protect the scaffold from damage.

G. Where a built-in ladder is part of a scaffold system, it shall conform to the requirements for ladders.

H. Scaffold components shall be properly stored to prevent damage.