CARBURETION

4.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Spark-ignition engines normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air mixture is done
outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous mixture is normally not completed
in the inlet manifold. Fuel droplets which remain in suspension continue to evaporate and mix
with air even during suction and compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is
extremely important for spark-ignition engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a
combustible mixture of fuel and air in the required quantity and quality for efficient operation of
the engine under all conditions.
4.2.2 DEFINITION OF CARBURETION
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper amount of fuel
with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion and the device which does this
job is called a carburetor.
4.2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CARBURETION
Of the various factors, the process of carburetion is influenced by
(i) the engine speed
(ii) the vaporization characteristics of the fuel
(iii) the temperature of the incoming air and
(iv) the design of the carburetor
Since modern engines are of high speed type, the time available for mixture formation is very
limited. For example, an engine running at 3000 rpm has only about 10 milliseconds (ms) for
mixture induction during intake stroke. When the speed becomes 6000 rpm the time available is
only 5 ms. Therefore, in order to have high quality carburetion (that is mixture with high vapor
content) the velocity of the air stream at the point where the fuel injected has to be increased.
This is achieved by introducing a venturi section m the path of the air. The fuel is discharged
from the main metering jet at the minimum cross section of the venturi (called throat)
Other factors which ensure high quality carburetion within a short period are the presence of
highly volatile hydrocarbons in the fuel. Therefore suitable evaporation characteristics of the fuel
indicated by its distillation curve, are necessary for efficient carburetion especially at high engine
speeds.
The temperature and pressure of surrounding air has a large influence on efficient carburetion.
Higher atmospheric air temperature increase the vaporization of fuel (percentage of fuel vapor
increases with increase in mixture temperature and produces' a more homogeneous mixture. An
increase m atmospheric temperature, however, leads to a decrease in power output of the engine
when the air-fuel ratio is constant due to reduced mass
Flow into the cylinder or, in other words, reduced volumetric efficiency. The design of the
carburettor, the intake system and the combustion chamber have considerable influence on
uniform distribution of mixture to the various cylinders of the engine. Proper design of
carburetor elements alone ensures the supply of desired composition of the mixture under
different operating conditions of the engine.
4.4 AIR-FUEL MIXTURES
An engine is generally operated at different loads and speeds. For this, p:operai:-fuel mixture
should be supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel and air are mixed to form three different types of
mixtures.
(i) Chemically correct mixture
(ii) Rich mixture and
(iii) Lean mixture
Chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture is one in which there is just enough air for
complete combustion of the fuel. For example, to burn one kg of octane completely 15.12 kg of
air is required. Hence chemically correct AI F ratio for Octane is 15.12:1; usually approximated
to 15:1. This chemically correct mixture will vary only slightly in numerical value between
different hydrocarbon fuels. It is always computed from the chemical equation for complete
combustion for a particular fuel. Complete combustion means all carbon in the fuel is converted
to CO2 and all hydrogen to H2O
A mixtu.re which contains less air than the stoichiometric requirement is called a rich
mixture (example, A/F ratio of 12:1, 10:1 etc.).
A mixture which contains more air than the stoichiometric requirement is called a lean
mixture (example, A/F ratio of 17:1,'20:1 etc.).
There is, however, a limited range of AI F ratios in a homogeneous mixture, only within which
combustion in an SI engine will occur. Outside this the ratio is either too rich or too lean to
sustain flame propagation. This range of useful AI F ratio runs from approximately 9:1 (rich) to
19:1(lean) as indicated in Fig.4.1

Fig. 4.1 Useful Air-Fuel Mixture Range of Gasoline

The carburetor should provide an AI F ratio in accordance with engine operating requirements
and this ratio must be within the combustible range.
8.5 MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS AT DIFFERENT LOADS AND SPEEDS
The air-fuel ratio at which an engine operates has a considerable influence on its performance.
Consider an engine operating at full throttle and constant speed with varying AI F ratio. Under
these conditions, the A/F ratio
will affect both the power output and the brake specific fuel consumption, as indicated by the
typical curves shown in Fig.4.2. The mixture corresponding to the maximum output on the curve
is called the best power mixture with an AI F ratio of approximately 12:1. The mixture
corresponding to the minimum point on the bsfc curve is called the best economy mixture. The AI
F ratio is approximately 16:1. It may be noted that the best power mixture is much richer than
the chemically correct mixture and the best economy mixture is slightly leaner than the
chemically correct.
Figure 4.2 is based on full throttle operation. The AI F ratios for the best power and best
economy at part throttle are not strictly the same as at full throttle. If the AI F ratios for best
power and best economy are constant over the full range of throttle operation and if the influence
of other factors is disregarded, the ideal fuel metering device would be merely a two position
carburetor. Such a carburetor could be set for the best power mixture when maximum
performance is desired and for the best economy mixture when the primary consideration is the
fuel economy. These two settings are indicated in Fig.4.3 by the solid horizontal lines X-X' and
ZZ', respectively. Actual engine requirements, however, again preclude the Use of such a simple
and convenient arrangement. These requirements are discussed in the succeeding section. Under
normal conditions it is desirable to run the engine on the maximum economy mixture, viz.,
around 16:1 air-fuel ratio: For quick acceleration and for maximum power, rich mixture, viz.,
12:1 air-fuel ratio is required.

Fig. 4.2 Variation of Power Output and bsfc Fig. 4.3 Anticipated Carburettor Performance to
with A/F ratio for an SI Engine fulfill Engine Requirements

4.6 AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE AIR-FUEL MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS

Actual air-fuel mixture requirements in an automotive engine vary considerably from the ideal
conditions discussed in the previous section. For successful operation of the engine, the
carburetor has to provide mixtures which follow the general shape of the curve ABCD (single
cylinder) and A'B'C'D' (multicylinder) in Fig.4.3 which represents a typical automotive engine
requirement. The carburetor must be suitably designed to meet the various engine requirements.
As indicated in Fig.4.3 there are three general ranges of throttle operation. In each of these, the
automotive engine requirements differ. As a result, the carburetor must be able to supply the
required air-fuel ratio to satisfy .these demands. These ranges are:
(i) Idling (mixture must be enriched)
(ii) Cruising (mixture must be leaned)
(iii) High Power (mixture must be enriched)
4.6.1 Idling Range
An idling engine is one which operates at no load and with nearly closed throttle. Under idling
conditions, the engine requires a rich mixture, as indicated by point A in Fig.4.3. This is due to
the existing pressure conditions within the combustion chamber and the intake manifold which
cause exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge. The pressures indicated in Fig.4.4 are
representative values which exist during idling. The exhaust gas pressure at the end of the
exhaust stroke does not vary greatly from the value indicated in Fig.4.4, regardless of the throttle
position. Since, the clearance volume is constant, the mass of exhaust gas in the cylinder at the
end of the
exhaust stroke tends to remain fairly constant throughout the idling range. The amount of fresh
charge brought in during idling, however, is much less than that during full throttle operation,
due to very small opening of the throttle (Fig.4.4). This results in a much larger proportion of
exhaust gas being mixed with the fresh charge under idling conditions. Further, with nearly
closed' throttle the pressure in the intake manifold is considerably below atmospheric due to
restriction to the air flow. When the intake valve opens, the pressure differential between the
combustion chamber and the intake manifold results in initial backward flow of exhaust gases
into the intake manifold. As the piston proceeds down on the intake stroke, these exhaust gases
are drawn back into the cylinder, along with the fresh charge.

Fig. 4.4 Schematic Diagram of Combustion Chamber and Induction System at the start of
Intake Stroke
As a result, the final mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber is diluted more by
exhaust gas. The presence of this exhaust gas tends to obstruct the contact of fuel and air
particles - a requirement necessary for combustion. This results in poor combustion and, as a
result, in loss of power. It is, therefore, necessary to provide more fuel particles by richening the
air-fuel mixture. 'This richening increases the probability of contact between fuel and air
particles and thus improves combustion. As the throttle is gradually opened from A to B,
(Fig.4.3), the pressure differential between the inlet manifold and the cylinder becomes smaller
and the exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge diminishes. Mixture requirements then proceed
along line AB (Fig.4.3) to a leaner A/ F ratio required for the cruising operation.
4.6.2 Cruising Range
In the cruising range from B to C (Fig.4.3), the exhaust gas dilution problem is relatively
insignificant. The primary interest lies in obtaining the maximum fuel economy. Consequently,
in this range, it is desirable that the carburetor provides the engine with the best economy
mixture.
8.6.3 Power Range
During peak power operation the engine requires a richer mixture, as indicated by the line CD
(Fig.4.3), for the following reasons
(i) To provide best power: Since high power is desired, it is logical to transfer the economy
settings of the cruising range to that mixture which will produce the maximum power, or a
setting in the vicinity of the best power mixture, usually in the range of 12:1.
(ii) To prevent overheating of exhaust valve and the area near it: At high power, the increased
mass of gas at higher temperatures passing through the cylinder results in the necessity of
transferring greater quantities of heat away from critical areas such as those around the exhaust
valve. Enrichening the mixture reduces the flame temperature and the cylinder temperature. This
reduces the cooling problem and also reduces the tendency to damage exhaust valves at high
power. In the cruising range, the mass of charge is smaller and the tendency to burn the exhaust
valve is not as high. In an automobile engine, indication of knocking is available in the form of
an audible sound and the operator can of an au make the engine operating conditions less
stringent by releasing the throttle or by shifting to a lower gear. Furthermore automobile engines
generally operate well below full power, and a complicated and expensive system for enrichment
for this purpose is not economically feasible, although some means of richening at high power is
usually incorporated. For aircraft engine installations, the complication and expense is justified
because of the necessity to increase power during takeoff.
Figure 4.3, then, is better representative of typical engine requirements of the carburetor.
Automobile engine requirements are similar in the idling and cruising ranges but tend to be
relatively lower or less rich, in the power range (C to D in Fig.8.5). A more representative engine
requirement curve for automobiles is shown in Fig.4.5. The portion of the curve from D to E
indicates the requirements after the throttle is wide open and the load is further increased.
 Fig. 4.5 Performance Curve of an Automobile Carburettor

4.7 PRINCIPLE OF CARBURETION

Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine cylinders by the
suction created by the downward movement of the piston. This suction is due to an increase in
the volume of the cylinder and a consequent decrease in the gas pressure in this chamber. It is the
difference in pressure between the atmosphere and cylinder that causes the air to flow into the
chamber. In the carburetor, air passing into the combustion chamber picks up fuel discharged
from a tube. This tube has a fine orifice called carburetor jet which is exposed to the air path.
The rate at which fuel is discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or pressure
head between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi and on the area of the outlet of the
tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly atomized; the suction effect
must be strong and the nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order to produce a strong suction,
the pipe in the carburetor carrying air to the engine is made to have a restriction. At this
restriction called throat due to increase in velocity of flow, suction effect is created. The
restriction is made in the form of a venturi as shown in Fig.4.6 to minimize throttling losses. The
end of the fuel jet is located at the venturi or throat of the carburetor.
The geometry of venturi tube is as shown in Fig.4.6. It has a narrower path at the centre so that
the flow area through which the air must pass is .considerably reduced. As the same amount of
air must pass through every
point in the tube, its velocity will be greatest at the narrowest point. The smaller the area, the
greater will be the velocity of the air, and thereby the suction is proportionately increased (see
the manometer in the Fig.4.6).
 Fig. 4.6 Operation of the Venturi Tube

As mentioned earlier, the opening of the fuel discharge jet is usually located where the
suction is maximum. Normally, this is just below the narrowest section of the venturi tube. The
spray of gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through the venturi tube are mixed together
in this region and a combustible mixture is formed which passes through the intake manifold into
the cylinders. Most of the fuel gets atomized and simultaneously a small part will be vaporized.
Increased air velocity at the throat of the venturi helps the rate of evaporation of fuel. The
difficulty of obtaining a mixture of sufficiently high fuel vapor-air ratio for efficient starting of
the engine and for uniform fuel-air ratio in different cylinders (in case of multicylinder engine)
cannot be fully met by the increased air velocity alone at the venturi throat.
4.8 THE SIMPLE CARBURETTOR
Carburetors are highly complex. Let us first understand the working principle of a simple or
elementary carburetor which provides an air-fuel mixture for cruising or normal range at a single
speed. Later, other mechanisms to provide for the various special requirements like starting,
idling, variable load and speed operation 'and acceleration will be included. Figure 4.7 shows the
details of a simple carburetor. The simple carburetor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel
discharge nozzle and a metering orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a
needle valve system maintains a constant level of gasoline in
the float chamber. If the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed level, the
float goes down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting fuel. When the designed
level has been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping additional fuel flow
from the supply system. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the upstream side
of the venturi. During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. As already described,
venturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at the throat. Venturi tube is
also known as the choke tube and
is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. As the air passes through the
venturi, the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the venturi throat. Correspondingly, the
pressure decreases reaching a
minimum. From the float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in
the throat of the venturi. Because of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the
throat of the venturi, known as carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The
fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is chosen to give the required air-
fuel ratio. The pressure at the throat at the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of
Hg, below atmosphere and seldom exceeds 8 cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid overflow of
fuel through the Jet, the level of the fluid in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly
below the tip of the discharge jet. This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height
between the top of the nozzle and the float chamber level is marked z in Fig.4.7.
The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output is to be varied at
a particular speed, the amount of charge to be delivered to the cylinder is varied. This is achieved
by means of a throttle.

Fig. 4.7 The Simple Crburetor

valve usually of the butterfly type which is situated after the venturi tube. As the throttle is
closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered
to the cylinder and hence power
output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more air flows through the choke tube resulting in
increased quantity of mixture being delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power
output.
A simple carburetor of the type 'described above suffers from a fundamental drawback in
that it provides the required A/ F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle positions
the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is opened less or more. As
the throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies and creates a certain pressure differential
between the float chamber and the venturi throat. The same pressure differential regulates the
flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore, the· velocity of flow of air and fuel vary in a similar
manner. At the same time, the density of air decreases as the pressure at the venturi throat
decreases with increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This results in a
simple carburetor producing a progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle opening. The
mathematical analysis of the performance of a simple carburetor is given in the next section.
4.9 CALCULATION OF THE A/F RATIO
A simple carburetor with the tip of the fuel nozzle h meters above the fuel level in the float
chamber is shown in Fig.4.7. It may be noted that the density of air is not the same at the inlet to
the carburetor (section A-A, point 1) and the venturi throat (section B-B, point 2). The
calculation of exact air mass flow involves taking this change in density or compressibility of air
into account. Applying the steady flow energy equation to sections A-A and B-B and assuming
unit mass flow of air, we have
In order to calculate the air-fuel ratio, mass flow of air and mass of fuel are to be calculated.
Air mass flow: When the air is considerd as incompressible, Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable to
air flow. Hence assuming U1 ≈ 0

p 1 p 2 C22
- =
ρa ρ a 2

√[ ]
C2 = 2
P1−P 2
ρA

ṁa= A 2 C 2 ρ a=A 2 √2 ρa ( p1− p2 )

ṁaactual = Cda A2 √ 2 ρ a ( p1− p2 )

Fuel mass flow: Applying Bernoulli’s theorem, we get

p 1 p 2 C2f
- = + gz
ρf ρf 2
where ρf is the density of fuel, Cf is the fuel velocity at the nozzle exit and z is the height of the
nozzle exit above the level of fuel in the float bowl

Cf = √ 2 ¿¿

Mass flow rate of fuel, ṁf = Af Cf ρf = Af √ 2 ρf ( p1− p2−gz ρf ) (4.1)

where Af is the cross-section of the nozzle and ρ f is the density of fuel.

ṁf = C df A f √ 2 ¿¿
where C df is the coefficient of dischargefor fuel nozzle

ṁ a
A/F ratio =
ṁ f

=
Cda A 2
C df A f √ ρa ( p 1−p 2 )
ρf ( p1− p2−gz ρf )

If z = 0

√
ṁa ṁa A 2 ρa
=
ṁf ṁf A f ρ f
4.9.2 Air-Fuel Ratio Provided by a Simple Carburetor
(i) It is clear from expression for ṁf (Eq.4.1) that if (p1 –p2) is less than gzpf there is no fuel
flow and this can happen at very low air flow. As the air flow increases, (p 1 –p2) increases and
when (p1 – p2) > gzpf the fuel flow begins and increases with increase in the differential pressure.
(ii) At high airflows where (p1 –p2) is large compared to gzpf,the fraction gzpf/ (p1 –p2)
becomes negligible and the air-fuel ratio approaches

√
ṁa ṁa A 2 ρa
=
ṁf ṁf A f ρ f

. (iii) A decrease in the density of air reduces the value of air-fuel ratio (i.e. mixture becomes
richer). It happens at
(a) high air flow rates where (p1 –p2) becomes large and ρf decreases
(b) high altitudes where the density of air is low.
4.9.3 Size of a Carburetor
The size of a carburetor is generally given in terms of the diameter of the venturi tube in mm and
the jet size in hundredths of a millimeter. The calibrated jets have a stamped number which gives
the flow in ml/min under a head of 500 mm of pure benzol.
For a venturi of 30 to 35 mm size (having a jet size which is one sixth of venturi size) the
pressure difference (PI - P2) is about 50 mm of Hg. The velocity at throat is about 90- 100 mls
and the coefficient of discharge for venturi C dais usually 0.85.
4.10 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CARBURETOR
A carburetor consists essentially of the following parts:
(i) fuel strainer
(ii) float chamber
(iii) main fuel metering and idling nozzles
(iv) choke and throttle
The various parts mentioned above are discussed briefly in the following sections.
8.10.1 The Fuel Strainer
As the gasoline has to pass through a narrow nozzle exit there is every possibility that the nozzle
may get clogged during prolonged operation of the engine. To prevent possible blockage of the
nozzle by dust particles, the gasoline is filtered by installing a fuel strainer at the inlet to the float
chamber (Fig.4.8). The strainer consists of a fine wire mesh or other type of filtering device,
cone shaped or cylindrical shaped. The strainer is usually removable so that it can be taken out
and cleaned thoroughly. It is retained in its seat by a strainer plug or a compression spring.
8.10.2 The Float Chamber
The function of a float chamber in a carburetor is to supply the fuel to the nozzle at a constant
pressure head. This is possible by maintaining a constant level of the fuel in the float bowl. The
float in a carburetor is designed to control the level of fuel in the float chamber. This fuel level
must be maintained slightly below the discharge nozzle outlet holes in order to provide the
correct amount of fuel flow and to prevent leakage of fuel from the nozzle when the engine is not
operating. The arrangement of float mechanism in relation to the discharge nozzle is shown in
Fig.4.9.

Fig. 4.8 Strainer Fig. 4.9 Float Chamber

When the float rises with the fuel coming in, the fuel supply valve closes and stops the flow of
fuel into the chamber. At this point, the level of the fuel is correct for proper operation of the
carburetor. As shown in Fig.4.9, the float valve mechanism includes a fuel supply valve and- a
pivot. During the operation of the carburetor, the float assumes a position slightly below its
highest level to allow a valve opening sufficient for replacement of the fuel as it is drawn out
through the discharge nozzle.
4.10.3 The Main Metering and Idling System
The main metering system of the carburetor controls the fuel feed for cruising and full throttle
operations (Fig.4.1O). It consists of three principal units:
(i) the fuel metering orifice through which fuel is drawn from the float chamber
(ii) the main discharge nozzle
(iii) the passage leading to the idling system
The three functions of the main metering system are:
(i) to proportion the fuel-air mixture
(ii) to decrease the pressure at the discharge nozzle exit
(iii) to limit the air flow at full throttle
The automobile fitted with SI engine requires a rich mixture for idling and low speed operation
(Fig.4.3). Figure 4.10 shows a schematic diagram of a carburetor highlighting the main metering
and idling system. Usually
air-fuel ratio of about 12:1 is required for idling. In order to provide such rich mixture, during
idling, most of the modern carburetors incorporate special idling system in their construction.
'This consists of idling fuel passage
and idling ports as shown m Fig.4.1O. This system gets operational at starting, idling and very
low speed running of the vehicle engine and is non-operational when throttle is opened beyond
15% to 20%. When the throttle is practically closed or marginally open, the very small quantity
of air creates very little depression at the throat of the venturi, and that is not enough to suck any
fuel from the nozzle. .But very low pressure caused on the down- stream side of the throttle due
to suction stroke of the piston makes the fuel rise in the idling tube and the same is discharged
through the idling discharge port, directly into the engine intake manifold. Due to the low
pressure through idling air-bleed a small amount of air also is sucked. The idling air-bleed mixes
air with gasoline drawn from float chamber and helps it to vaporize and atomize it and pass on
through the idle passage. The air bleed also prevents the gasoline in the float chamber getting
drained off through the idling passage due to syphon action,
when the engine is not in operation. With the opening of throttle and the engine passing through
the idling range of operation, the suction pressure at the idle discharge ports is not sufficient to
draw the gasoline through the idling passage. And the idling system goes out of action. There
after main air flow increases and the cruising range of operation is established. The desired fuel-
air ratio for ratio for idling can be regulated by idling adjustment shown in Fig.4.1O.

Fig. 4.10 The Main Metering and Idling System Fig. 4.11 The Choke and the Throttle

Hot Idling Compensator. Some modern automobiles have this system the carburetor unit. Under
certain extremely hot operating conditions (with increased engine room temperature and also a
high carburetor body temperature) there is a tendency for the idling mixture to become too rich.
This causes idling instability. The hot idling compensator system (HIC) incorporates bi-metallic
valve which admits air directly into the manifold in correct quantity when needed. Thus the
mixture richness is adjusted and stable idling is ensured.
4.10.4 The Choke and the Throttle
When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period during cool winter seasons, may be
overnight, starting becomes more difficult. As already explained, at low cranking speeds and
intake temperatures a very rich
mixture is required to initiate combustion. Sometimes air-fuel ratio as rich as 9:1 is required. The
main reason is that very large fraction of the fuel may remain as liquid suspended in air even in
the cylinder. For initiating
combustion, fuel-vapor and air in the form of mixture at a ratio that can sustain combustion is
required. It may be noted that at very low temperature vapor fraction of the fuel is also very
small and this forms combustible
mixture to initiate combustion. Hence, a very rick mixture must be supplied. The most popular
method of providing such mixture is by the use of choke valve. This is simple butterfly valve
located between the entrance to the carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig.4.11. When
the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the venturi throat that would normally
result from the quantity of air passing through the venturi throat. The very large depression at the
throat inducts large amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture so that
the ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the combustible limits. Sometimes,
the choke valves are spring loaded to ensure that large carburetor depression and excessive
choking does not persist after the engine has started, and reached a desired speed. This choke can
be made to operate automatically by means of a thermostat so that the choke is closed when
engine is cold and goes out of operation when engine warms up after starting. The speed and the
output of an engine is controlled by the use of the throttle valve, which is located on the
downstream side of the venturi. The more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction to
the flow of the mixture placed in the passage and the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to
the cylinders. The decreased quantity of mixture gives a less powerful impulse to the pistons and
the output of the engine is reduced
accordingly. As the throttle is opened, the output of the engine increases. Opening the throttle
usually increases the speed of the engine. But this is not always the case as the load on the engine
is also a factor. For example,
opening the throttle when the motor vehicle is starting to climb a hill may or may not increase
the vehicle speed, depending upon the steepness of the hill and the extent of throttle openirig. In
short, the throttle is simply a means to regulate the output of the engine by varying the quantity
of charge going into the cylinder (Fig.4.11). Able to operate the vehicle between 25 to 60% of
the throttle only. During such conditions the carburetor must be able to supply nearly constant
air-fuel ratio mixture which is economical (16:1). However, the tendency of a simple carburetor
is to progressively richen the mixture as the throttle starts.
4.11 COMPENSATING DEVICES
An automobile on road has to run on different loads and speeds. The road conditions play a vital
role. Especially on city roads, one may be able to operate the vehicle between 25 to 60% of the
throttle only. During such conditions the carburetor must be able to supply nearly constant air-
fuel ratio mixture which is economical (16:1). However, the tendency of a simple carburetor is to
progressively richen the mixture as the throttle starts opening. The main metering system alone
will not be sufficient to take care of the needs of the engine. Therefore, certain compensating
devices are usually added in the carburetor along with the main metering system
so as to supply a mixture with the required air-fuel ratio. A number of compensating devices are
in use. The important ones are
(i) Air-bleed jet
(ii) Compensating jet
(iii) Emulsion tube
(iv) Back suction control mechanism
(vi) Auxiliary air port
As already mentioned, in modern carburetors automatic compensating devices are provided to
maintain the desired mixture proportions at the higher speeds. The type of compensation
mechanism used determines metering system of the carburetor. The principles of operation of
various compensating devices are discussed briefly in the following sections.

Fig. 4.12 Air-bleed principle in Typical Modern Carburetor

4.11.1 Air-bleed jet
Figure 4.12 illustrates a principle of an air-bleed system in a typical down-draught carburetor. As
could be seen it it contains an air-bleed into the main nozzle. The flow of air through this bleed is
restricted by an orifice and therefore it is called restricted air-bleed jet which is popular. When
the engine is not operating the main jet and the air-bleed jet will be filled with fuel. When the
engine starts, initially the fuel starts coming through the main as well as the air bleed jet (A). As
the engine picks up, only air starts coming through the air bleed and mixes with fuel at B making
air-fuel emulsion.' Thus the fluid stream which has become an emulsion of air and liquid has
negligible viscosity and surface tension. Thus the flow rate of fuel is augmented and more fuel i$
sucked at low suctions. By proper design of hole size at B compatible with the entry hole at A, it
is possible to maintain a fairly uniform mixture ratio for the entire power range of the operation
of an engine. If the fuel flow nozzle of the air-bleed is placed in the center of the venturi, both
the air-bleed nozzle and the venturi are subjected to the same engine suction resulting
approximately same fuel-air mixture for the entire power range of the operation.
4.11.2 Compensating Jet
The principle of compensating jet device is to make the mixture leaner as the throttle opens
progressively. In this method, as can be seen from Fig. 4.13 in addition to the main jet, a
compensating jet is incorporated. The compensating jet is connected to the compensating well.
The compensating well is vented to atmosphere like the main float chamber. The compensating
well is supplied with fuel from the main float chamber through a restricting orifice. With the
increase in air flow rate, there is increase of fuel level in the compensating well, with the result
that fuel supply through the compensating jet decreases. When compensating jet thus
progressively makes the mixture leaner, the main jet progressively makes the mixture richer. The
sum of the two tends to keep the fuel-air mixture more or less constant as shown in Fig.4.14. The
main jet curve and the compensating jet curve are more or less reciprocals of each other.
8.11.3 Emulsion Tube
The mixture correction is attempted by air bleeding in modern carburetor. In one such
arrangement as shown in Fig.4.15, the main metering jet is kept at a level of about 25 mm below
the fuel level in the float chamber.
Therefore, it is also called submerged jet. The jet is located at the bottom of a well. The sides of
the well have holes. As can be seen from the figure these holes are in communication with the
atmosphere. In the beginning
the level of petrol in the float chamber and the well is the same. When the throttle is opened the
pressure at the venturi throat decreases and petrol is drawn into the air stream. This results in
progressively uncovering the
holes in the central tube leading to increasing air-fuel ratios or decreasing richness of mixture
when all holes have been uncovered. Normal flow takes place from the main jet. The air is drawn
through these holes in the well, and the fuel is emulsified and the pressure differential across the
column of fuel is not as high as that in simple carburetor.
4.11.4 BACK SUCTION CONTROL MECHANISM
Figure 4.16 gives the details of back suction control device. In this device, the top of the fuel
float chamber is connected to air entry by means of a large vent line fitted with a control valve.
Another line with a small orifice
connects the top of the fuel float chamber with the venturi throat. When the control valve is
completely open, the vent line is unrestricted and the pressure (p1) in the float chamber is
atmospheric and the throat pressure
will be P2. So the pressure differential acting on the orifice is (P 1 – P2). If the valve is closed, the
float chamber pressure will equalize with the pressure at the venturi throat and no fuel can flow.
By proper adjustment of the control valve, the required pressure differential can be obtained in
the float chamber. Thus altering the quantity of fuel discharged from the nozzle the required air-
fuel ratio mixture can be achieved. This method is employed only in large carburetors.
8.11.5 Auxiliary Valve
Figure 4.17 shows a simplified picture of an auxiliary valve device for understanding the
principle. When the engine is not operating the pressure, P1 acting on the top of the auxiliary
valve is atmospheric. The vacuum at the
Venturi throat increases (the throat pressure, P2 decreases) with increase in load. This pressure
differential
(P1 – P2 lifts the valve against the tension of the spring. And as a result, more air is admitted and
the mixture is
prevented from becoming rich.
8.11.6 / Auxiliary Port
Figure 8.18 shows an auxiliary port employed in a downdraught carburetor. If the butterfly valve
is opened, additional air passes through this port reducing the flow of air through the venturi.
This means that ∆ p will be
comparatively smaller. As a result fuel drawn is reduced. This method was popular for aircraft
carburetors to compensate for the loss in density of air at high altitudes.

Fig. 4.13 Compensating Jet Device Fig. 4.14 Effect of Compensating Device on
Fuel-Air Ratio

4.12 ADDITIONAL SYSTEMS IN MODERN CARBURETORS

Apart from the above compensating devices there are few other systems normally used in
modern carburetors for meeting the requirement of vehicles. The details of the various systems
are explained in the following sections.
4.12.1 Acceleration Pump System
Acceleration is a transient phenomenon. In order to accelerate the vehicle and consequently its
engine, the mixture required is very rich and the richness of the mixture has to be obtained
quickly and very rapidly. In automobile engines situations arise when it is necessary to accelerate
the vehicle. This requires an increased output from the engine in a very short time. If the throttle
is suddenly opened there is a corresponding increase in the air flow. However, because of the
inertia of the liquid fuel, the fuel flow does not increase in proportion to the increase in air flow.
This results in a temporary lean mixture causing the engine to misfire and a temporary reduction
in power output. To prevent this condition, all modern carburetors are equipped with an
accelerating system. Figure 4.19 illustrates simplified sketch of one such device. The pump
comprises of a spring loaded plunger which takes care of the situation with the rapid opening of
the throttle valve. The plunger moves into the cylinder and forces an additional jet of fuel at the
venturi throat. When the throttle is partly open, the spring sets the plunger back. There is also an
arrangement which ensures that fuel in the pump cylinder is not forced through the jet when
valve is

Fig 4.15 Emulsion Tube Fig. 4.16 Back Suction Control Method
Fig 4.17 Auxiliary Valve Fig. 4.18 Auxiliary Port

slowly opened or leaks past the plunger or some holes into the float chamber. Mechanical
linkage system, in some carburetor, is substituted by an arrangement whereby the pump plunger
is held up by manifold vacuum. When this vacuum is decreased by rapid opening of the throttle,
a spring forces the plunger down pumping the fuel through the jet.
4.12.4 Economizer or Power Enrichment System
At the maximum power range of operation from 80% to 100% load, richer air-fuel ratio of about
12 to 14 is required and at the maximum power, an air-fuel ratio of approximately 12 is
expected. An economizer is a valve
which remains closed at normal cruise operation and gets opened to supply rich mixture at full
throttle operation. It regulates the additional fuel supply during the full throttle operation. The
term economizer is rather misleading. Probably as it does not interfere during cruising operation
where an economy mixture is supplied it is called economizer! It should more appropriately be
called power enrichment system. Figure 4.20 shows the skeleton outline of a metering rod
economizer system. It allows a large opening to the main jet only when the throttle is opened
beyond a specified limit. The metering rod may be tapered or stepped.
 Fig 4.19 Acceleration Pump System Fig. 4.20 Economizer or Power Enrichment System

4.13 TYPES OF CARBURETORS

4.13.1 Depending on the direction of flow of air:
There are three types of carburetors depending on the direction of flow of air.
(i)Up draught type: Fig.4.21 (a) in which the air enters at the bottom and leaves at the top so
that the direction of its flow is upwards. The disadvantage of the up draught carburetor is that it
must lift the sprayed fuel droplet by air friction. Hence, it must be designed for relatively small
mixing tube and throat so that even at low engine speeds

Fig 4.21 Types of Carburetors

the air velocity is sufficient to lift and carry the fuel particles along. Otherwise, the fuel droplets
tend to separate out providing only a lean mixture to the engine. On the other hand, the mixing
tube is finite and small then it cannot supply mixture to the engine at a sufficiently rapid rate at
high speeds. In order to overcome this drawback (ii) Downdraught type: [Fig.4.21 (b)]. It is
placed at a level higher than the inlet manifold and in which the air and mixture generally follow
a downward course. Here the fuel does not have to be lifted by air friction as in the up draught
carburetors but move into the cylinders by gravity even if the air velocity is low. Hence, the
mixing tube and throat can be made large which makes high engine speeds and high specific
outputs possible.
(iii) Cross-draught type: It consists of a horizontal mixing tube with a float chamber on one side
of it [Fig.4.21(c)]. By using a cross-draught carburetor in engines, one right-angled turn in the
inlet passage is eliminated and the resistance to flow is reduced.
8.13.2 Constant Choke /Constant vacuum Carburetor
(i) Constant Choke: In the constant choke carburetor, the air and fuel flow areas are always
maintained to be constant. But the pressure difference or depression which causes the flow of
fuel and air is being varied as per the demand on the engine. Solex and Zenith carburetors belong
to this class.
(ii)Constant Vacuum Carburetor
In the constant vacuum carburetor, (sometimes called variable choke carburetor) air and fuel
flow areas are being varied as per the demand on the engine, while the vacuum is maintained to
be always same. The S.U. and
Carter carburetors belong to .this class.
8.13.3 Multiple Venturi Carburetors
Multiple venturi system uses double [Fig.4.22 (a)] or triple' [Fig.4.22 (b)] venturi. The boost
venturi is located concentrically within the main venturi. The discharge edge of the boost venturi
is located at the throat of the
main venturi. The boost venturi is positioned upstream of the throat of the larger main venturi.
Only a fraction of the total air flows though the boost venturi. Now the pressure at the boost
venturi exit equals the pressure at
the main venturi throat. The fuel nozzle is located at the throat of the boost venturi. This
arrangement results in the following:
(i) High depression is created in the region of the fuel nozzle. Hence, better control over the
fuel flow and improved atomization are possible. At the boost venturi throat, velocity of air is as
high as 200 m/s.
(ii) An annular blanket of air is formed. This blanket keeps the fuel (droplets of fuel) off the
walls of the induction tract.
(iii) Excellent low speed full throttle operation is possible.
(iv) More efficient mixing of the air and fuel is obtained without incurring an acceptable
reduction in volumetric efficiency. Volumetric efficiency reduces only slightly since only the
portion of the incoming air is subjected to the increased pressure drop.
Instead of two, three venturis arranged in series, are used in certain carburetors. Figure
4.22(b) shows a triple venturi ·carburetor. There are three venturis namely, the primary venturi,
the secondary venturi and the main venturi. The outlet of the primary venturi is placed in the
throat of the secondary venturi. The outlet of the secondary venturi is situated in the throat of the
main venturi.

Fig 4.22 Double Venturi Carburetor

8.13.4 Advantages of a Multiple Venturi System

(i) Reducing condensation of the fuel: In a multiple venturi system, the main jet discharges the
fuel in .upward direction into the primary venturi against the downward air stream. The fuel is
atomized by the air stream. The fuel thus atomized in the primary venturi is kept centrally
located in the air stream by the primary venturi.
 Besides, a blanket of air surrounding the primary venturi and passing into the secondary
venturi, keeps the atomized fuel centrally located m the air stream. By this process, the
carburetor walls are protected from coming into contact with the fuel for some distance there by
reducing condensation.
(ii)High speed system: When the speed is to be increased from low to is opened wider, the air
flows faster through the primary venturi. This air flow produces a vacuum in the portion of the
jet orifice. Due to this increase in vacuum, additional fuel will be discharged from the main jet. A
nearly constant air-fuel ratio is maintained by the high speed system.
8.13.5 Multi-jet Carburetors
A single barrel carburetor has only one barrel, whereas a dual carburetor has two barrels. Each of
these two barrels in a, dual carburetor contains a fuel jet, a venturi tube, an idling system, a
choke and a throttle. The float chamber and the accelerating pump are common to both the
barrels .
Passenger cars with six or more cylinders, are provided with dual carburetors. Each
venturi supplies the air-fuel mixture to half the cylinders.
Certain advantages of a dual carburetor over a single barrel carburetor are:
(i) The dual carburetor supplies a charge of the mixture to the cylinders which is uniform
in quality.
(ii) Volumetric efficiency is higher in case of a dual carburetor.
(iii) The charge of the air-fuel mixture is distributed to each cylinder in a better manner.
(iv) The dual carburetor is compact in its design.
4.13.6 Multi-barrel Venturi Carburetor
Most of the automotive engines are fitted with single barrel carburetors. A single barrel
carburetor has one outlet connected to the intake manifold of the engine. This type of carburetor
is used extensively on engines of six and less number of cylinders.
Carburetor with two 'outlets connected to two intake manifolds are known as two barrel or
two throat carburetors. Such a unit is basically one with two carburetors. As such, it has two
numbers of idling, high
speed, power and accelerating systems, two throttles, two chokes but with alternate cylinders in
the firing order (i.e. in the case of a six cylinder engine, one barrel supplies cylinders 1, 3 and 2
while the other barrel supplies
cylinders5, 6 and 4. A four barrel carburetor is used on V8 engine. It has four openings
connected to the intake manifold. Float system is common to all the four barrels.
In some designs, half of the multi-barrel carburetor operates as a unit during light load and
cruising speeds. This usually occurs up to 50° throttle plate opening. The other half of the
carburetor acts as a supplementary unit
during top speed and full throttle operation. That portion of the carburetor which takes care of
light load:::is called primary side and the other portion is called secondary side. The throttle of
the secondary unit remains closed
at lower engine speeds. It. starts to open when the air flow exceeds about 50% of the maximum
engine air flow. It is opened either mechanically or automatically by a vacuum operated
diaphragm. The primary carburetor has all the carburetor systems. The secondary carburetor does
not contain idle, part throttle or choke systems. The secondary barrel is usually larger cross
sectional area.
The MIKUNI DIDS carburetor used in popular automobiles is a twin barrel, down draught,
progressive carburetor of modern design. Such a design ensures satisfactory low end flexibility at
the same time achieving maximum top end power. During low speed road driving conditions,
when the air quantities inhaled by the engine are small, only the primary barrel works. This
ensures high venturi air velocity for proper atomization of the fuel. Beyond certain
predetermined operating conditions, when the air quantity increases, the throttle in the secondary
barrel is opened by the pneumatic compounding device. At high speed, full load conditions, both
barrels are open, and this provides adequate passage for the air flow. Multiple venturi devices are
there in both the primary and secondary barrels of the carburetor. The .secondary inner venturi
helps to achieve a stronger depression at the main jet/emulsion system thereby ensuring better
atomization of the fuel.
Base on the principles discussed above different manufacturers of carburetors either for
automobile or for air-craft application have come out with different designs. It is beyond the
scope of the present endeavor to discuss the details of these devices.
MECHANICAL FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The fuel-injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI engines. The engine
performance viz., power output, economy etc. is greatly dependent on the effectiveness of the
fuel-injection system. The injection system has to perform the important duty of initiating and
controlling the combustion process. Basically, the purpose of carburet ion and fuel-injection is
the same viz., preparation of the combustible charge. But in case of carburetion fuel is atomized
by processes relying on the air speed greater than fuel speed at the fuel nozzle, whereas, in fuel-
injection the fuel speed at the point of delivery is greater than the air speed to atomize the fuel. In
carburetors, air flowing through a venturi picks up fuel from a nozzle located there. The amount
of fuel drawn into the engine depends upon the air velocity in the venturi. In a fuel-injection
system, the amount of fuel delivered into the air stream going to the engine is controlled by a
Pump which forces the fuel under pressure.
When the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber towards the end of compression
stroke, it is atomized into very fine droplets. These droplets vaporize due to heat transfer from
the compressed air and form a fuel-air mixture. Due to continued heat transfer from hot air to the
fuel, the temperature reaches a value higher than its self-ignition temperature. This causes the
fuel to ignite spontaneously initiating the combustion process.
4.2.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN INJECTION SYSTEM
For a proper running and good performance from the engine, the following requirements must be
met by the injection system:
(i)Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle. This is very critical due to the fact that very
small quantities of fuel being handled. Metering errors may cause drastic variation from the
desired output. The quantity of the fuel metered should vary to meet changing situations of speed
and load requirements of the engine.
(ii) Timing the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle so that maximum power is obtained
ensuring fuel economy and clean burning.
(iii) Proper control of rate of injection so that the desired' heat-release pattern is achieved during
combustion.
(iv) Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets.
(v) Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air.
(vi) Uniform distribution of fuel droplets throughout the combustion chamber.
(vii) To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders in case of multi cylinder engines.
(viii) No lag during beginning and end of injection i.e., to eliminate dribbling of fuel droplets
into the cylinder.
4.2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF INJECTION SYSTEMS
In a constant-pressure cycle or diesel engine, only air is compressed in the cylinder and then fuel
is injected into the cylinder by means of a fuel injection system. For producing the required
pressure for atomizing the fuel either air or a mechanical means is used. Accordingly the
injection systems can be classified as:
(i)Air injection system
(ii) Solid injection system
4.2.3.1 Air Injection System
In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. This system is little
used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air compressor. This causes an increase
in engine weight and reduces the
brake power output further. One advantage that is claimed for the air injection system is good
mixing of fuel with the air with resultant higher mean effective pressure. Another is the ability to
utilize fuels of high viscosity which are less expensive than those used by the engines with solid
injection systems. These advantages are off-set by the requirement of a multistage compressor
thereby making the ,air-injection system obsolete.
9.3.2 Solid lnjection System
In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber without the aid of
compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical injection or solid injection system.
Solid injection systems can be
classified into four types.
(i) Individual pump and nozzle system
(ii) Unit injector system
(iii) Common rail system
(iv) Distributor system
All the above systems comprise mainly of the following components.
(i)Fuel tank.
 (ii) Fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection system,
(iii)Injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection.
(iv) Governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with variation in load,
(v) Injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in. the combustion chamber by
atomizing it into fine droplets,
(vi) fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and injectors
thereby minimizing the wear and tear of the components.
A typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection system used in a CI
engine is shown in Fig.4.!. Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the coarse filter from which is
drawn into the plunger feed pump where the pressure is raised very slightly. Then the fuel enters
the fine filter where all the dust and dirt particles are removed. From the fine filter the fuel enters
the fuel pump where it is pressurized to about 200 bar and injected into the engine cylinder by
means of the injector. Any spill over in the injector is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief
valve is also provided for the safety of the system. The above functions are achieved with the
components listed above.

Fig. 4. Typical Fuel Feed System for a CI Engine

. The types of solid injection system described in the following sections differ only in the
manner of operation and control of the components mentioned above.
4.2.3.3 Individual Pump and Nozzle System
The details of the individual pump and nozzle system are shown in Fig.4.2 (a) and (b). In this
system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector. In this arrangement a separate
metering and compression pump is provided for each cylinder. The pump may be placed close to
the cylinder as shown in Fig.4.2 (a) or they may be arranged in a cluster as shown in Fig.4.2 (b).
The high pressure pump plunger is actuated by a carn, and produces the fuel pressure necessary
to open the injector valve at the correct time. The amount of fuel injected depends on the
effective stroke of the plunger. .
9.3.4 Unit Injector System
The unit injector system, Fig.4.2(c), is one in which the pump and the injector nozzle are
combined in one housing. Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit injectors. Fuel is
brought up to the injector by a low pressure pump, where at the proper time a rocker arm
actuates the plunger and thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The amount of fuel injected is
regulated by the effective stroke of the plunger. The pump and the injector can be integrated in
one unit as shown in Fig.4.2(c).
9.3.5 Common Rail System
In the common rail system, Fig.4.2 (d); a HP pump supplies fuel, under high pressure, to a fuel
header. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzles located in the cylinders.
At the proper time, a
mechanically operated (by means of a push rod and rocker arm) valve allows the fuel to enter the
proper cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in the fuel header must be that, for which the
injector system was designed,
i.e., it must enable to penetrate and disperse the fuel' in the combustion chamber. The amount of
fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying

Fig. 4.2. Injection Systems with Pump and Nozzle Arrangements used in CI Engines
 A high pressure pump is used for supplying fuel to a header, from where the fuel is metered
by injectors (assigned one per cylinder). The details of the system are illustrated in Fig.4.2(d).
4.3.6 Distributor System
Figure 4.3 shows a schematic diagram of a distributor system. In this system the pump which
pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it. The fuel pump after metering the required amount
of fuel supplies it to a rotating
distributor at the correct time for supply to each cylinder. The number of injection strokes per
cycle for the pump is equal to the number of cylinders. The details of the system are given in
Fig.4.3.
Since there is one metering element in each pump, a uniform distribution is automatically
ensured. Not only that, the cost of the fuel-injection system also reduces to a value less than two-
thirds of that for individual pump
system. A comparison of various fuel-injection systems is given in Table 4.1

Fig. 4.2. Schematic Diagram of Distributor System

4.2.4 Fuel Feed pump

A schematic sketch of fuel teed pump is shown in Fig.4.4. It is of spring loaded plunger type.
The plunger is actuated through a push rod from the cam shaft. At the minimum lift position of
the cam, the spring force on
the plunger creates a suction which causes fuel flow from the main tank into the pump. When the
cam is turned to its minimum lift position, the plunger is lifted upwards. At the same time the
inlet valve is closed and the fuel is forced through the outlet valve. When the operating pressure
gets released, the plunger return spring ceases to function resulting in varying of the pumping
stroke under varying engine loads according to the quantity of fuel required by the injection
pump.
4.2.5 INJECTION PUMP
The main objectives of fuel-injection pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel
under high pressure (in the range from 120 to 200 bar) at the correct instant to the injector fitted
on each cylinder.

Fig. 4.2.4 Schematic Diagram of Fuel Feed Pump

Injection pumps are of two types, viz. (i) Jerk type pumps (ii) Distributor type pumps
4.3.5.1 Jerk Type Pump
It consists of a reciprocating plunger inside a barrel. The plunger is driven by a camshaft. The
working principle of jerk pump is illustrated in Fig.9.5.
(a) A sketch of a typical plunger is shown.
(b) A schematic diagram of the plunger within the barrel is shown. Near the port A, fuel is
always available under relatively low pressure. While the axial movement of the plunger is
through cam shaft, Its rotational movement about its axis by means of rack D. Port B is the
orifice through which fuel is delivered to the injector. At this stage it is closed by means of a
spring loaded check valve. When the plunger is below port A, the fuel gets filled in the barrel
above it. As the plunger rises and closes the port A the fuel will flow out through port C. This is
because it has to overcome the spring force of the check valve in order to flow through port B.
Hence It
takes the easier way out via port C.
 (c) At this stage rack rotates the plunger and as a result port C also closes. The only escape
route for the fuel is past the check valve through orifice B to the injector. This is the beginning of
injection and also the effective stroke of the plunger.
(d)The injection continues till the helical indentation on the plunger uncovers port C. Now the
fuel will take the easy way out through C and the check valve will close the orifice B. The fuel-
injection stops and the effective stroke ends. Hence the effective stroke of the plunger is the axial
distance traversed between the time port A is closed off
and the time port A is uncovered.
(e) & (f) The plunger is rotated to the position shown. The same sequence of events occurs.
But in this case port C is uncovered sooner. Hence the effective stroke is shortened.

Fig. 4.3.5 Diagrams illustrating an actual method of controlling Quantity of Fuel injected
 It is important to remember here that though the axial distance traversed by the plunger is
the same for every stroke by the rack determining the length of the effective stroke and thus the
quantity of fuel injected. A typical example of this type of pump is the Bosch fuel-injection
pump shown in Fig. 4.3.6.

4.3.5.2 Distributor Type Pump

This pump has only a single pumping element and the fuel is distributed to each cylinder by
means of a rotor (Fig.4.3.7). There is a central longitudinal passage in the rotor and also two sets
of radial holes (each equal
to the number of engine cylinders) located at different heights. One set is connected to pump
inlet .via central passage whereas the second set is connected to delivery lines leading to
injectors of the various cylinders.
Fig. 4.3.6 Single Cylinder Jerk Type Fuel-Injection System
The fuel is drawn into the central rotor passage from the inlet port when the pump plunger moves
away from each other. Wherever, the radial delivery passage to the rotor coincides with the
delivery port for any cylinder the
fuel is delivered to each cylinder in turn. Main advantages of this type of pump lies in its small
size and its light weight. A schematic diagram of Roosa Master Distributor pump is shown in
Fig.4.3.8.
4.3.6 INJECTION PUMP GOVERNOR
In a CI Engine the fuel delivered is independent of the injection pump characteristic and the air
intake. Fuel delivered by a pump increases with speed whereas the opposite is true about the air
intake. This results in over
fueling at higher speeds, and at idling speeds (low speeds) the engine tends to stall due to
insufficiency of fuel.

Fig. 4.3.7 Arrangement showing the control of Fuel Delivery

Quantity of fuel delivered increases with load causing excessive carbon deposits and high
exhaust temperature. Drastic reduction in load will cause over speeding to ·dangerous values. It
is the duty of an injectlon pump governor to take care of the above limitations. Governors are
generally of two types, viz.,
(i) Mechanical governor
(ii) Pneumatic governor

I
4.3.7 MECHANICAL GOVERNOR
The working principle of mechanical governor is illustrated in Fig.4.3. When the engine speed
tends to exceed the limit the weights fly apart. This causes the bell crank levers to raise the
sleeve and operate the control lever in
downward direction. This actuates the control rack on the fuel-injection pump in a direction
which reduces the amount of fuel delivered. Lesser fuel causes the engine speed to decrease. The
reverse happens when engine
speed tends to decrease.

Fig. 4.3.8 Principle of Working of Distributor Type of Fuel-Injection Pump

Fig. 4.3.9 Schematic of Roosa Master Distributor Pump

Fig. 4.3.9 Principle of Mechanical Governor

 Fig. 4.3.10 Principle of Pneumatic Governor

4.3.8 PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR

The detail of a pneumatic governor is shown in Fig.4.3.10. The amount of vacuum applied to the
diaphragm is controlled by the accelerator pedal through the position of the butterfly valve in the
venturi unit. A diaphragm
is connected to the fuel pump control rack. Therefore, position of the accelerator pedal also
determines the position of the pump control rack and hence the amount of fuel injected.
4.3.9 FUEL INJECTOR
Quick and complete combustion is ensured by a well designed fuel injector. By atomizing the
fuel into very fine droplets, it increases the surface area of the fuel droplets resulting in better
mixing and subsequent combustion.
Atomization is done by forcing the fuel through a small orifice under high pressure.
The injector assembly consists of
(i) A needle valve
(ii) A compression spring
(iii) A nozzle
(iv) An injector body

A cross sectional view of a typical Bosch fuel injector is shown in Fig.4.3.11. When the fuel
is supplied by the injection pump it exerts sufficient force against the spring to lift the nozzle
valve, fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber in a finely atomized particles. After, fuel
from the delivery pump gets exhausted; the spring pressure pushes the nozzle valve back on its
seat. For proper lubrication between nozzle valve and its guide a
small quantity of fuel is allowed to leak through the clearance between them and then drained
back to fuel tank through leak off connection. The spring tension and hence the valve opening
pressure is controlled by adjusting the
screw provided at the top.

Fig. 4.3.11 Fuel Injector (Bosch)

4.3.10 NOZZLE
Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is sprayed into the combustion
chamber.
The nozzle should fulfill the following functions:
(i) Atomization: This is a very important function since it is the first phase in obtaining proper
mixing of the fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
(ii) Distribution of fuel: Distribution of fuel to the required areas within the combustion chamber.
Factors affecting this are:
(a) Injection pressure. Higher the injection pressures better the distribution and penetration of the
fuel into all the desired locations in combustion chamber.
(b) Density of air in the cylinder: If the density of compressed air In e combustion chamber is
high then the resistance to the movement of the droplets is higher and dispersion of the fuel is
better.
(c) Physical properties of fuel: The properties like self-ignition temperature, vapor pressure
viscosity etc. play an important role in the distribution of fuel.
(iii)Prevention of impingement on walls: Prevention of the fuel from impinging directly on the
walls of combustion chamber or piston. This is necessary because fuel striking the walls
decomposes and produces carbon deposits. This causes smoky exhaust as well as increase fuel
consumption. "
(iv) Mixing: Mixing the fuel and air in case of non-turbulent type combustion chamber should be
taken care of by the nozzle.
4.3.10.1 Types of Nozzle
The design of the nozzle must be such that the liquid fuel forced through the nozzle will be
broken up into fine droplets, or atomized, as it passes into the combustion chamber. This is the
first phase in obtaining proper
mixing of the fuel and air in the combustion chamber. The fuel must then be properly distributed,
or dispersed, in the desired areas of the chamber. In this phase, the injection pressure, the density
of the air in the cylinder and the physical qualities of the fuel in use, as well as the nozzle design,
become important factors. Higher injection pressure results in better dispersion as well as greater
penetration of the fuel into all locations in the chamber where its presence is desired. It also
produces finer droplets which tend to mix more readily with the air. The greater the density of
the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the greater the resistance offered to the travel of
the fuel droplets across the chamber, with resultant better dispersion of the fuel. The physical
qualities of the fuel itself, such as viscosity, surface tension, etc. also enter into the dispersion of
the fuel.
The nozzle must spray the fuel into the chamber in such a manner to minimize the
quantity of fuel reaching the surrounding walls. Any striking the walls tends to decompose,
producing carbon deposits, unpleasant odour and a smoky exhaust, as well as an increase in fuel
consumption. The design of the nozzle is closely interrelated to the type of combustion chamber
used. It is sufficient to state here that the turbulent type of combust ion chamber depends upon
chamber turbulence to produce the required mixing of the fuel and air. The non-turbulent type of
combustion chamber on the other hand, depends almost entirely on both the nozzle design
injection pressure to secure the desired mixing in the combustion chamber; consequently, with
this type of chamber, the nozzle must accomplish additional function of mixing the fuel and air.
Various types of nozzles are used in CI engines. These types are shown in Fig.4.3.12.
The most common types are:
(i) the pintle nozzle, (ii) "the single hole nozzle (iii) the multi-hole nozzle, (iv) pintaux nozzle
(i) Pintle Nozzle: The stem of the nozzle valve is extended to a pin or pintle which protrudes
through the mouth of the nozzle [Fig.9.12 (a)]. The size and shape of the pintle can be varied
according to the requirement. It provides a spray operating at low injection pressures of 8-10
MPa. The spray cone angle is generally 60°. Advantage of this nozzle is that it avoids weak
injection and dribbling. It prevents the carbon deposition on the nozzle hole.

Fig. 4.3.12 Types of Nozzles

(ii) Single Hole Nozzle: At the centre of the nozzle body there is a single hole which is closed by
the nozzle valve [Fig.4.3.12(b)]. The size of the hole is usually of the order of 0.2 mm. Injection
pressure is of the order of 8-10 MPa and spray cone angle is about 15°. Major disadvantage with
such nozzle is that it tends to dribble. Besides, its spray cone angle is too narrow to facilitate
good mixing unless higher velocities are used.
(iii)Multi-hole Nozzle: It consists of a number of holes bored in the in the tip of the nozzle
[Fig.9.12(c)]. The number of holes vanes from 4 to 18 and the size varies from 35 to 200 μm.
The hole angle may be from 200 upwards. These nozzles operate at high injection pressures of
the order of 18 M Pa. Their a vantage lies In the ability to distribute the fuel properly even with
lower air motion available in open combustion chambers.
(iv)Pintaux Nozzle: It is a type of pintle nozzle which has an auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle
body [Fig.9.12(d)]: It injects a small amount of fuel through this additional hole (pilot injection)
in the upstream
direction slightly before the main injection. The needle valve does not lift fully at low speeds and
most of the fuel is injected through the auxiliary hole. Main advantage of this nozzle is better
cold starting performance. (20 to 25°C lower than multi-hole design). A major drawback of this
nozzle is that its injection characteristics are poorer than the multi-hole nozzle.

4.3.10.2 Spray Formation

The various phases of spray formation as the fuel is injected through the nozzle are shown in
Fig.4.3.13. At the start of the fuel-injection the pressure difference across the orifice is low.
Therefore single droplets are formed as
in Fig.4.3.13(a). As the pressure difference increases the following process occur one after the
other.
(i)A stream of fuel emerges from the nozzle, [Fig. 4.3.13 (b)].
(ii) The stream encounters aerodynamic resistance from the dense air present in the combustion
chamber (12 to 14 times the ambient pressure ) and breaks into a spray, say at a distance of l 3,
[Fig.4.3.13(c)]. The distance of this point where this event occurs from the orifice ice is called
the break-up distance.
(iii)With further and further increase in the pressure difference, the break-up distance decreases
and the cone angle increases until the apex of the cone practically coincides with the orifice
[Fig.4.3.13(d), (e) and (f).
 Fig. 4.3.13 Successive phases of Spray formation

At the exit of the orifice the fuel jet velocity, Vf, is of the order of 400 m/s. It is given by the
following equation

Vf = C d
√ 2 ( pinj−p
ρf
cyl
)

where Cd = coefficient of discharge for the orifice

pinj = fuel pressure at the inlet to injector, N/m2

pcyl = pressure of charge inside the cylinder, N/m2

ρf = fuel density, kg/m3

The spray from a circular orifice has a denser and compact core, surrounded by a cone of fuel
droplets of various sizes and vaporized liquid. Larger droplets provide a higher penetration into
the chamber but smaller droplets are required for quick mixing and evaporation of the fuel. The
diameter of most of the droplets in a fuel spray is less than 5 microns. The droplet size depends
on various factors which are listed below:
(i) Mean droplet size decreases with increase in injection pressure.
(ii) Mean droplet size decreases with increase in air density.
(iii) Mean droplet size increases with increase in fuel viscosity.
(iv) Size of droplets increases with increase in the size of the orifice.
4.3.10.3 Quantity of Fuel and the Size of Nozzle Orifice
The quantity of the fuel injected per cycle depends to a great extent upon the power output of the
engine. As already mentioned the fuel is supplied into the combustion chamber through the
nozzle holes and the velocity of
the fuel for good atomization is of the order of 400 m/s. The velocity of the fuel through nozzle
orifice in terms of 'h can be given by where h is the pressure difference between injection and
cylinder pressure measured in m of fuel column.
The volume of the fuel injected per second, Q, is given by
Q = Area of all orifices x fuel jet velocity x time of one injection x number of injections
per second for
one orifice

Q= ( π4 d × n) × V × ( 360θ × 60N ) × ( 60N )

2
f
i

Where N i for four-stroke engine is rpm/2 and for a two-stroke engine N i is rpm itself and d is
the diameter
of one orifice in m, n is the number of orifices, θ is the duration of injection in crank angle
degrees and Ni is the number of injections per minute. Usually the rate fuel injection is expressed
in mm3/degree crank angle/liter cylinder displacement volume to normalize the effect of engine
size.
The rate of fuel injected/degree of crankshaft rotation is a function of' injector camshaft
velocity, the diameter of the injector plunger, and flow area of the tip orifices. Increasing the rate
of injection decreases the
duration of injection for a given fuel input and subsequently introduces a change in injection
timing. A higher rate of injection may permit injection timing to be retarded from optimum
value. This helps in maintaining fuel economy without excessive smoke emission. However, an
increase in injection rate requires an increased injection pressure and increases the load on the
injector push rod and the cam. This may affect the durability of the engine.
4.3.11 INJECTION IN SI ENGINE
Fuel-injection systems are commonly used in CI engines. Presently gasoline injection system is
coming into vogue in SI engines because of the following drawbacks of the carburetion.
(i) Non uniform distribution of mixture in multi cylinder engines.
(ii) Loss of volumetric efficiency due to restrictions for the mixture flow and the possibility of
back firing.
A gasoline injection system eliminates all these drawbacks. The injection of fuel into an
SI engine can be done by employing any of the following methods which are shown in
Fig.4.3.14.
(a) Direct injection of fuel into the cylinder
(b) Injection of fuel close to the inlet valve
(c) Injection of fuel into the inlet manifold
There are two types of gasoline injection systems, viz.,
(i)Continuous Injection: Fuel is continuously injected. It is adopted when manifold injection is
contemplated.
(ii) Timed Injection : Fuel is injected only during induction stroke over a limited period. Injection
timing is not a critical factor in SI engines.
The use of petrol injection is limited by its high initial cost, complex design and
increased maintenance requirements. It is believed that the petrol injection has a promising future
compared to carburet ion and may replace carburetor in the near future.
Fig. 4.3.14 Location of Injection Nozzle