ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Syllabus:

Unit I SPARK IGNITION ENGINES

• Air-fuel ratio requirements ,

• Design of carburettor –fuel jet size and venture size,
• Stages of combustion-normal and abnormal combustion,
• Factors affecting knock,
• Combustion chambers,
• Introduction to thermodynamic analysis of SI Engine
combustion process.

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Syllabus:

Unit II COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

• Stages of combustion-normal and abnormal combustion

• Factors affecting knock,
• Direct and Indirect injection systems,
• Combustion chambers,
• Turbo charging ,
• Introduction to Thermodynamic Analysis of CI Engine
Combustion process.

Unit II
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Syllabus:

Unit III ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSION CONTROL

• Formation of NOX , HC/CO mechanism , Smoke and

Particulate emissions,
• Green House Effect ,
• Methods of controlling emissions ,
• Three way catalytic converter and Particulate Trap,
• Emission (HC,CO, NO and NOX , ) measuring equipments,
Smoke and Particulate measurement,
• Indian Driving Cycles and emission norms

Unit III
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Syllabus:

Unit IV ALTERNATE FUELS

• Alcohols , Vegetable oils and bio-diesel, Bio-gas, Natural Gas

, Liquefied Petroleum Gas ,Hydrogen ,
• Properties , Suitability, Engine Modifications, Performance ,
• Combustion and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI
Engines using these alternate fuels.

Unit IV
 ME6016Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Syllabus:

Unit V RECENT TRENDS

• Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine, Lean

Burn Engine, Stratified Charge Engine, Surface Ignition
Engine , Four Valve and Overhead cam Engines,
• Electronic Engine Management, Common Rail Direct
Injection Diesel Engine, Gasoline Direct Injection Engine ,
• Data Acquisition System –pressure pick up, charge amplifier
PC for Combustion and Heat release analysis in Engines.

Unit V
 ENGINE
• An engine is a machine designed to convert one form
of energy into another form of energy, which generates
motive power by the burning of petrol, oil, or other
fuel with air inside the engine, the hot gases produced
being used to drive a piston or do other work as they
expand.
• SPARK IGNITION ENGINE (S.I ENGINE)
• Gasoline or petrol engines are also known as spark-
ignition (S.I) engines. Petrol engines take in a
flammable mixture of air and petrol which is ignited by
a timed spark when the charge is compressed.
 SI ENGINE
• TYPES
• 1. TWO STROKE S.I ENGINE
• The two stroke spark-ignition (S.I) engine completes the
cycle of events - induction, compression, power, and
exhaust - in one revolution of the crankshaft or two
complete piston strokes.
• 2. FOUR STROKE S.I ENGINE
• Four stroke Spark-ignition (S.I) engines require four piston
strokes to complete one cycle: an air-and-fuel intake stroke
moving outward from the cylinder head, an inward
movement towards the cylinder head compressing the
charge, an outward power stroke, and an inward exhaust
stroke.
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines
• Carburetion
The process of formation of combustible air-fuel mixture, by
mixing correct amount of fuel and air in a device called
carburetor, before it enters the engine cylinder.
• Factors Affecting Carburetion
1. Carburetor Design
has influence on distribution of air-fuel mixture to cylinders.
2. Ambient Air condition
Ambient pressure and temperature influence the efficiency of
carburetion. Higher ambient temperature increases the vaporization rate
of fuel forming a homogeneous mixture.
3. Fuel Characteristics
Evaporation characteristics (indicated by distillation curve) is critical for
carburetion; presence of volatile HC also is important for quick
evaporation

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

4. Engine Speed and Load

• At higher engine speed, the carburetion time is less causing strain on carburetor
to deliver uniform mixture in a short time; thus provision of venturi has to be
such that the carburetion is done efficiently at higher pressure drops
• Higher loads will demand richer mixture and lower load leaner mixtures.

• Types of Air-Fuel Mixtures

1. Chemically Correct Mixture
Stoichiometric or balanced chemical mixture in which air is provided to
completely burn the fuel; the excess air factor is unity
2. Rich Mixture
Fuel is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel completely. The
excess air factor is less than unity.
3. Lean Mixture
Air is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel completely. The excess
air factor is greater than unity.

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Range of Air-Fuel Ratio in SI Engines

9:1 (rich) to 19:1(lean) ; The stoichiometric value for gasoline is
14:1, The SI engine will not run for too rich or too lean
mixtures.
The air fuel ratio affects the power output and brake specific
fuel consumption of the engine as shown in the Figure1.

Power
Power BSFC
Output (kg/kWh)
(kW)

BSFC

A/F ratio

Unit I • Mixture Requirements at Different Engine

Conditions
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Mixture Requirements at Different Engine Conditions

(Contd.)
• The mixture corresponding to maximum output on the curve
is called best power A/F mixture, which is richer than the
stoichiometric mixture.
• The mixture corresponding to maximum BSFC on the curve is
called best economy mixture, which is leaner than the
stoichiometric mixture.
• The actual A/F ratio requirement for an automative
carburetor falls in 3 ranges:
 Idling (rich)
 Cruising (lean)
 High Power (rich)

Unit I
• Mixture Requirements at Different Engine Conditions
(Contd.)
Idling Cruising Power
1 4

A/F
Ratio

2 3

0 50% 100%

Throttle Opening

Figure 2. A/F Ratio Vs Throttle opening

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Mixture Requirements at Different Engine Conditions

(Contd.)
Idling Range (1-2)

• During idling, engine operates at no load and closed throttle.

• The engine requires rich mixture for starting at idling.
• Rich mixture is required to compensate for the charge dilution due to exhaust
gases from the combustion chamber.
• Also, the amount of fresh charge admitted is less due to smaller throttle
opening.
• Exhaust gas dilution prevents efficient combustion by reducing the contact
between the fuel and air particles.
• Rich mixture improves the contact of fuel and air by providing efficient
combustion at idling conditions.
• As the throttle is opened further, the exhaust gas dilution reduces and the
mixture requirement shifts to the leaner side.
Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines
• Mixture Requirements at Different Engine Conditions
(Contd.)
Cruising Range (2-3)
• Focus is on fuel economy.
• No exhaust gas dilution.
• Carburetor has to give best economy mixture i.e.. Lean mixture.

High Power Range (3-4)

• As high power is required, additional fuel has to be supplied to achieve rich
mixture in this range.
• Rich mixture also prevents overheating by reducing the flame temperature and
cylinder temperature.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor

• The carburettor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower
its static pressure, and the higher its dynamic pressure.
• The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel.
Instead, it actuates carburettor mechanisms which meter the flow of air being
pulled into the engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure,
determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.
• A simple carburetor consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle, a metering
orifice, a venturi a throttle valve and choke.
• The float and needle valve maintain the fuel level
• Fuel strainer is used to trap debris from the fuel and prevent choking of the fuel
nozzle. It is removed periodically for cleaning.
• During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi.
• Venturi accelerates the air causing a pressure drop.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor

• This pressure drop provides vacuum necessary to meter the air-fuel mixture to
the engine manifold.
• Fuel is fed to the fuel discharge jet, the tip of which is located at the throat of the
venturi
• Pressure drop is proportional to the throttle opening or load on the engine.
• Throttle valve achieves governing of SI engine by varying the A/F ratio. It is a
butterfly valve located after the venturi tube. When the load is less, the throttle
is in near closed position and if the load is high throttle is fully opened.
• The choke valve is located between the entrance and venturi throat. It is also of
butterfly type. When choke is partly closed, a large pressure drop occurs at the
venturi throat, which provides a rich mixture by induction of large amount of
fuel as required during idling or high load conditions. Choke valves are spring
loaded to prevent excessive choking and are sometimes automatically controlled
by thermostat.
• For providing rich mixture during idling, an idling adjustment is provided. It has
an idling passage and idling port.

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor

• The system operates at starting and shuts off when 20% throttle opening is
reached.
• Normal venturi depression is not sufficient to provide rich mixture due to lower
throttle opening. But this low pressure causes fuel rice in idling passage and it is
discharged through idling port downstream of the throttle valve.
• The idling air bleed sucks some air for mixing with the idling fuel and vaporizes
the mixture. The additional fuel-air supply makes the mixture rich for idling.
• Simple carburettor has the drawback of providing rich mixture with increasing
throttle opening.

Unit I
 ME6016Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Compensating systems in Carburettors

• For part load conditions, the carburettor must supply economic air-fuel ratio
mixture. The main metering system will not satisfy this requirement. The
following compensating systems are used to achieve this:
• Air Bleed Jet
• Compensating Jet
• Emulsion Tube
• Back Suction Control Mechanism
• Auxiliary Air Valve
• Auxiliary Air Port
• Altitude Compensating Device

Unit I
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Compensating systems in Carburettors

Air Bleed Jet
• It contains an air bleed to the main nozzle.
• Air flow through the bleed passage is
restricted by orifice.
• When engine is not operating the bleed
passage is filled with fuel.
• When the engine starts the fuel from the
bleed passage is displaced by air flow from
the orifice.
• The air and fuel form an emulsion at the tip
of the bleed passage.
• This causes faster delivery of fuel due to
low viscosity and fuel discharged rises.
• Thus uniform mixture ratio is supplied.

Unit I
 Fuel Injection System
• What is Fuel Injection System:
• The fuel system is made up of the fuel tank, pump, filter, and injectors or carburetor, and is
responsible for delivering fuel to the engine as needed.

• The fuel injection types used in newer cars include four basic types:
• Single-point or throttle body injection.
• Port or multipoint fuel injection.
• Sequential fuel injection.
• Direct injection.
• The goals of fuel injection:
• Get the correct amount of fuel to the combustion chamber at the right time and to the right place
• • Evaporate the liquid fuel
• • Mix the fuel vapor with oxygen to obtain good ignitable mixture
• *Injection system used into SI engines for complete combustion and reduction of exhaust emissions
in the case of alcohol and petrol alcohol mixtures feed.
• This is Divided in to two types,
• Direct injection system and Indirect injection and Direct Injection System.
•
Mono point $ Multipoint Fuel Injection
• The Mono point stands out for having a single Injection valve for the
several engine cylinder.
• 1 - Fuel input
• 2 - Air
• 3 - Throttle Butterfly
• 4 - Intake manifold
• 5 - Injection valve
• 6 - Engine
•
• *The Mono point stands out for having a single Injection valve for the
several engine cylinder.
• *The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply
replaces the carburetor with one or two fuel-injector nozzles in the
throttle body, which is the throat of the engine’s air intake manifold
•
 Multipoint Fuel Injection
• Multipoint fuel injection devotes a separate
injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside its
intake port, which is why the system is
sometimes called port injection.
• *MPFi is a fuel injection technique used in
gasoline engines.
• *Multi port fuel injection injects fuel into the
intake ports of each cylinder's intake valve, rather
than at a central point within an intake manifold
like in spark plug.
• Compensating systems in Carburettors
Compensating Jet
• The purpose of this is to make the mixture
leaner as the throttle opens progressively.
• An additional jet called compensating jet is
provided with the main jet.
• This jet is also connected to the fuel well
and the fuel is metered through
compensating orifice.
• As the throttle opening increases the main
jet makes the mixture richer by adding
more fuel.
• The compensating jet makes the mixture
leaner proportionately. The total mixture
will make A/F ratio constant.
• When the main jet is lean, compensating jet
is rich.

Unit I
• Compensating systems in Carburettors
Emulsion Tube
• It is also known as submerged jet device.
• Here, the main metering jet is kept at a
level 25 mm below the fuel level in float
chamber.
• The jet is called submerged jet. The jet is
placed in a well that has holes exposed to
atmosphere.
• When the throttle opening increases, the
holes in the well are uncovered causing
additional fuel and air to enter the air-fuel
stream, causing the faster A/F mixture
delivery during part load operation.

Unit I
• Compensating systems in Carburettors
Back Suction Control Mechanism
• In this device, the top of the fuel chamber is
connected to air entry by means of a large
vent line fitted with a control valve.
• The second line connects the fuel float
chamber to venturi throat via a metering
orifice.
• When the control valve is opened, the
pressure in float chamber is p1 and the
throat pressure is p2 which is lower than p1.
This causes the fuel to flow. When the valve
is closed, there is no difference in pressure
and hence no fuel flow.
• Thus the control valve achieves the desired
air fuel ratio during part load operation.

Unit I
• Compensating systems in Carburettors
Auxiliary Air Valve
• When the engine is not in operation, the
pressure p1 acting on the valve is ambient.
The pressure p2 acting at the venturi is
negative (vacuum). This pressure
differential lifts the auxiliary valve against
the spring tensile force.
• Additional air is thus infused in the air-fuel
mixture preventing rich mixture during part
load operation.

Unit I
• Compensating systems in Carburettors
Auxiliary Air Port
• If the butterfly valve is opened, additional
air passes through this port, reducing air
flow through venturi. Thus pressure
differential is comparatively smaller. Thus
fuel drawn is reduced to compensate for
loss in density of air at high altitudes.

Unit I
• Compensating systems in Carburettors
Altitude Compensation Device
• This was used in high altitude car driving and for aircrafts.
• At high altitudes, air density decreases and hence engine power output is
affected.
• A/F ratio is affected at high altitudes as carburettors are designed to operate
on sea level.
• To compensate for the change in air density, fuel flow has to be reduced
from the calibrated value at sea level.
• A mixture control system comprising a needle valve, which restricts fuel flow
in proportion to altitude change acts as an altitude compensating device.

Unit I
 COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINES

• COMBUSTION IS THE PROCESS OF OXIDATION OF FUEL

RESULTING INTO THE RELEASE OF ENERGY EQUIVALENT
TO CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL.
• ENERGY RELEASED IN COMBUSTION IS IN THE FORM OF
HEAT.

• Combustion process in spark ignition engine has

requirement of the
• mixture of fuel and air in right proportion
• mechanism for initiation of combustion process and
• stabilization and propagation of flame for complete
burning

Unit I
• Engine
• An engine is a machine designed to convert one form
of energy into another form of energy, which generates
motive power by the burning of petrol, oil, or other
fuel with air inside the engine, the hot gases produced
being used to drive a piston or do other work as they
expand.
• SPARK IGNITION ENGINE (S.I ENGINE)
• Gasoline or petrol engines are also known as spark-
ignition (S.I) engines. Petrol engines take in a
flammable mixture of air and petrol which is ignited by
a timed spark when the charge is compressed.
• Engine
• An engine is a machine designed to convert one form
of energy into another form of energy, which generates
motive power by the burning of petrol, oil, or other
fuel with air inside the engine, the hot gases produced
being used to drive a piston or do other work as they
expand.
• SPARK IGNITION ENGINE (S.I ENGINE)
• Gasoline or petrol engines are also known as spark-
ignition (S.I) engines. Petrol engines take in a
flammable mixture of air and petrol which is ignited by
a timed spark when the charge is compressed.
• TYPES
• 1. TWO STROKE S.I ENGINE
• The two stroke spark-ignition (S.I) engine completes the
cycle of events - induction, compression, power, and
exhaust - in one revolution of the crankshaft or two
complete piston strokes.
• 2. FOUR STROKE S.I ENGINE
• Four stroke Spark-ignition (S.I) engines require four piston
strokes to complete one cycle: an air-and-fuel intake stroke
moving outward from the cylinder head, an inward
movement towards the cylinder head compressing the
charge, an outward power stroke, and an inward exhaust
stroke.
• For complete combustion of every fuel there is chemically correct fuel-air ratio

also called stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.

• This fuel air ratio may be rich or lean depending upon the proportion of fuel

and air present in mixture. In SI engine this fuel air ratio generally varies

between 1 : 7 to 1 : 30 with lean mixture at 1 : 30 and rich mixture at 1 : 7.

• Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is around 1 : 14 to 1 : 15 for hydrocarbon fuel. The

extreme values of fuel-air ratio permissible in SI engine on both rich and lean

ends put limits as ‘lower ignition limit’ and ‘upper ignition limit’.
 ME6016 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Combustion in SI Engines

• Varying fuel-air ratio is required in SI engine due to varying loads on engine

between no load to full load on engine. The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to

stoichiometic fuel-air ratio is given by ‘equivalence ratio’ or ‘relative fuel-air

ratio’.

• Appropriate fuel-air ratio is maintained in SI engines through ‘carburettor’

(the fuel metering system).

Unit I
 ME6016Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Stages of Combustion in SI Engines

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Stages of Combustion in SI Engines

Combustion in SI engine may be described to be occurring in following significant
phase:
(i) preparation phase
• After compression of fuel-air mixture in cylinder the high temperature spark is
delivered by spark plug in the compressed fuel-air mixture. Temperature at the
tip of spark plug electrode may go even more than 10,000ºC at the time of
release of spark.
• Sparkles released have sufficiently high temperature to initiate the combustion
of fuel. For complete combustion of fuel mere initiation of combustion does not
serve the purpose instead a sustainable combustion process is required.
• After setting up of combustion, a sustainable flame front or flame nuclei is
needed so that it proceeds across the combustion space to ensure complete
combustion. Thus, this phase in which spark is first released followed by setting
up of sustainable flame front is called “preparation phase” and may consume
around 10º of crank angle rotation.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Stages of Combustion in SI Engines

• Crank angle rotation consumed in “preparation phase” depends upon the speed of
engine, constructional feature of cylinder, piston, location of spark plug, strength
of spark, characteristics of fuel, fuel-air ratio etc.
• Preparation phase is shown to occur from ‘a’ to ‘b’ with small or negligible
pressure rise as initially rate of burning is very small.

(ii) Flame Propagation Phase

• After sustainable combustion flame is set up, then the flame nuclei get scattered
due to excessive turbulence in combustion space causing pressure to rise from ‘b’
to ‘c’.
• This phase of combustion depends upon the turbulence inside cylinder, strength of
combustion nuclei, fuel-air ratio, strength of spark, cylinder geometry, fuel
properties etc.
• This phase of combustion is called as “flame propagation phase” and is
accompanied by the excessive pressure rise. Flame propagation phase should also
be as small as possible.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Stages of Combustion in SI Engines

(iii) After Burning Phase
• After the maximum amount of fuel-air mixture is burnt, the residual gets burnt
after the piston has moved across the TDC.
• This last phase is termed as “after burning phase” and occurs during the expansion
stroke.

• Hence, it can be summarised that the complete combustion in SI engine occurs in

three distinct zones i.e. preparation phase, flame propagation phase and after
burning phase.
• In order to have complete combustion in smallest possible time the flame
propagation phase and preparation phase should be shortened.
• Out of total distance travelled in combustion space in first phase i.e. Preparation
phase about 10% of combustion space length is covered in about 20–30% of total
time for combustion.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

• Stages of Combustion in SI Engines

• Flame propagation phase is spread in about 80% of combustion space length and
is covered in 60–70% of total time of combustion.
• ‘After burning’ occurs in less than 10% of combustion space in less than 10% of
total combustion time.

• Abnormal Combustion

• Combustion may also sometimes occur abnormally. “Abnormal combustion” is said

to occur when combustion begins inside the cylinder on its’ own before the
stipulated time for it.
• This abnormal combustion may be due to pre-ignition (i.e. ignition of fuel even
before spark plug ignites it) or auto-ignition (i.e. Ignition of fuel due to hot spots in
the combustion space like valve seats, spark plug) and results in uncontrolled
pressure rise.
• Abnormal combustion is also termed as detonation or knocking and can be felt by
jerky operation of engine, excessive noise, reduced power output etc

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines
• Factors affecting knock
• Fuel
A ‘low self ignition temperature’ fuel promotes knock.
• Induction pressure
Increase of pressure decreases SIT and increases induction time; tendency of knock increases.
Eg. At full throttle knock tends to occur more.
• Engine Speed
Low engine speed will give low turbulence and low flame velocity and hence knock tendency
is more.
• Ignition Timing
Advancing ignition timing increases peak pressure and promotes knock.
• Compression Ratio
High compression ratio increases cylinder pressures and increases the tendency for knock.
• Combustion Chamber Design
Poor design results in long flame path, low turbulence and insufficient cooling all of which
increase knock tendency.
• Cylinder Cooling
Poor cylinder cooling increases the temperature and hence the chances of knock
temperature’ fuel promotes knock.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SI ENGINE COMBUSTION

• Burned and Unburned Mixture States

Because combustion occurs through a flame propagation process, the changes in

state and the motion of the unburned and burned gas are much more complex
than the ideal cycle analysis.
The gas pressure, temperature and density changes as a result of changes in
volume due to piston motion.
During combustion, the cylinder pressure increases due to the release of the fuel's
chemical energy.
As each element of fuel-air mixture burns, its density decreases by about a factor
of four.
This combustion-produced gas expansion compresses the unburned mixture ahead
of the flame and displaces it toward the combustion chamber walls.
The combustion-produced gas expansion also compresses those parts of the
charge which have already burned, and displaces them back toward the spark
plug.

Unit I
 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SI ENGINE COMBUSTION

• Burned and Unburned Mixture States

During the combustion process, the unburned gas elements move away from the
spark plug; following combustion, individual gas elements move back toward the
spark plug.
Further, elements of the unburned mixture which burn at different times have
different pressures and temperatures just prior to combustion, and therefore end
up at different states after combustion.
The thermodynamic state and composition of the burned gas is, therefore, non-
uniform.
A first law analysis of the spark-ignition engine combustion process enables us to
quantify these gas states.
Work transfer occurs between the cylinder gases and the piston (to the gas
before TC; to the piston after TC).

Unit I