PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

FSPP0042

NAME:

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Items Page
Guidelines For Students 2–4
Error Analysis 5 – 15
O1: Resonance And The Speed Of Sound In Air 16 – 20
O2: Ohm’s Law – Resistance in Series and Parallel 21 – 31
O3: Charging and Discharging Of A Capacitor 32 – 36
O4: Refractive index of glass 38 – 41
O5 : Concave Mirror 42 – 48
O6: Measuring Wavelength With A Diffraction Grating 49 – 52
O7 : Determination Of Focal Lengths Of Thin Lenses 53 – 57

1
 GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS

A. Experimental guidelines in laboratory

1. Students are advised to read and understand experimental guides first before going
to laboratory.

2. Students must be present at the designated time. If a student is delayed 15 minutes it

should provide reasonable to the lecturer on duty. The lecturer on duty reserves the right
to prevent the student from conducting experiments if the underlying reason is
unacceptable.

3. The student should enter the laboratory properly, dress neat (shorts and sandals
should not be worn in the lab) and go straight to the designated table.

4. When conducting an experiment, the student is allowed to be in his or her place and
is prohibited from making noise.

5. For experiments using high voltage devices all the connection devices have been
made must be verified correctly by the lecturer on duty prior before the students start the
experiment.

6. Turn off the switch and remove any connection that has been made after finish the
experiment.

7. The data obtained must be signed by the lecturer on duty. Students are also not
allowed to bring in the laboratory any other data as a reference.

8. Every practice report should follow the format below:

a) Title
b) Objectives
c) Work Procedures
d) Data
e) Processed Data (Analysis) - including related graphs
f) Discussion – including introduction / related theory
g) Conclusion
h) References

2
 B. Assessment:

In making the report, the original data that has been confirmed by the lecturer on duty should
be accompanied. Data processing is required for calculations and graphs. While in the
conclusion section it must include experimental results, percent of uncertainty and
percentage difference with standard / theory value.

Program
Related Course
Criteria Outcomes Full Mark
Outcome CLO
PLO
Lecturer's Observation 20%
Psychomotor (ability of students to
PLO 2 C02 10
conduct the experiments)
Team working PLO 4 C02 10
Lab Reports 80%
Aims of experiment PLO 1 C01 4
Work procedure PLO 1 C01 6
Data collection PLO 3 C02 15
PLO 3 C03 15
Analysis
PLO 5 C03 5
P02 C04 15
Discussion
P04* C04 5
Conclusion P02 C04 5
Questions and Answers P04* C04 5
References, neatness, and
P04* C05 5
formatting

Grand Total/100

3
C. Preparing and Submitting Practical Reports

1. Students are required to conduct seven (7) experimental titles in groups. Each group
consists of two (2) students.

2. Students are given one (1) week from the date of the experiment to complete the
report.

3. Each student must submit one (1) report. The report is in the form of handwriting
(not typed) and in English.

4. Students are required to submit their report directly to the Laboratory Assistant who
is in charge or put them in the collection box that has been provided outside their
respective laboratory.

5. For missed students submitting a report without reasonable excuse a 30% mark will
be deducted.

***Deduction of mark will also be implemented for plagiarism.

4
 ERROR ANALYSIS

I. Introduction

Experimental error can be defined as a mistake that occurs during experiment

or/and as the difference that exists between the measured value and the actual
(theoretical) value to be determined in the experiment. The error of the first type
can be minimized when the experiment is well planned and carried out carefully
by the experimenter. The error of the second type however is much harder to
handle/control because it depends not only on the experimenter but also on the
apparatus/system in use as well as the surroundings.

The main objective in any experiment is always to determine/ascertain the actual

(theoretical) value of certain physical quantity of interest whose real value in
theory can be stated with infinite precision, in other words, can never be known
precisely. Therefore, based on the second definition of error mentioned
previously, error in experimental data (measured value) in any experiment is not
always equal to the actual (theoretical) value to be ascertained. Thus it is very
important to take into consideration the amount of error involved in any
experiment so that the validity of the data, results, and conclusions of the
experiment will not be questioned. Furthermore, the knowledge about the errors
that might affect any experiment is also important because it can help one to
plan and design the experiment in the most effective and efficient ways.

II. Types of Errors

In general, there two types of errors that occur in any experiment. The first type
is known as the systematic error which is due to the imperfection of the
apparatus/system/components used in the experiment as well as that of the
experimenter who carries out the experiment. The second type of error is called
the random error which appears when repeated measurements on the same
quantity will result with some different values in unpredictable manner. In short
factors that contribute to errors in experiment can be summarized as follows.

1. Systematic Errors
Common sources of errors of this type;
(a) Instrument with some imperfection in the components or with zero error
i.e instrument with non-zero reading even before any measurement is
made.
(b) Instrument not properly calibrated.
Mistakes on the part of the experimenter/observer, for examples, taking
reading when parallax exists, incorrect arrangement or alignment of
components etc.

5
 2. Random Errors
Typical sources of errors of this kind;
(a) Disturbance in the surroundings such as vibrations of the track or table,
influence of cosmic rays on the particle counter etc.
(b) Problem/limitation to read the instrument scales.
(c) Problem/limitation to adjust instrument.

Note that, in general, in any experiment both types errors exist but it is quite
common that one is more dominant than the other. In this case it is the
experimenter who has to decide which type error that has to be dealt with in
his/her experiment.

III. Uncertainties in Experiment

It is clear from previous discussion that, in any measurement, there is no
guarantee that the measured/experimental value (data) is equal to the actual
(theoretical) value to be determined whenever the experimental error exists.
However, one can relate the experimental value (data) to the actual value by
stating or assigning an uncertainty value to the data involved. Thus while one is
unsure about the equality of the measured and the actual data, one can always
state with some amount of certainty where the actual value lies relative to the
experimental one. Therefore, it is essential that every experimental data is
assigned some amount of uncertainty value so that all the experimental data can
always be related to the actual data that one is interested in. In general, there are
a few approaches normally adopted in assigning or estimating, calculating and
writing the value of the uncertainty of an experimental data during the
experiment.

1. Single Measurement
In this case the uncertainty is needed in order to take into consideration the
presence of the systematic error in the measurement. In most cases the
experimental error is attributed to the limited sensitivity (smallest scale
division) of the instrument in use and the uncertainty for the data taken from
the instrument is quoted either as a fraction or multiples of the smallest scale
division. So if x the physical quantity to be measured and Δx is its
uncertainty, the experimental data then is normally written in the following
format,

(x + x ) measurement unit
In this format the x value represent as the best estimate (value) for the
measured quantity and it is hoped that the actual value lies in the range of
(x − x ) to (x − x ) .

6
 For example, let the length l of a piece of rope measured using a standard
ruler as 20.0 cm. The smallest scale division of a standard ruler is 0.1 cm.
Assuming that the uncertainty of the measurement is equivalent to one
smallest scale division of the ruler, that is Δl = 0.1cm, the length l of the rope
thus can be written as

l = (20.0  0.1) cm

Note that the uncertainty is written only to one significant figure (t.o.s.f) and
the numbers of decimal points in both the measured value (data) and the
uncertainty are the same.

2. Repeated Measurements
In this case the uncertainty is needed to handle the random outcomes of
repeated measurements due to presence of some random errors. Since
measurement carried out on a physical quantity should give a single
measured value and, in the presence of random errors, the measured value is
different every time the measurement is repeated, one has to find a way to
represent all those values by a single value which can be considered the
measured value of the quantity of interest. This is where the concepts and
principles of statistics come into play. For example if x is the physical
quantity to be determined and x1, x2 , x3,…., xN are the measured values
when the measurements are repeated N times, then the best estimate for x is
its average value x normally given by

N
1
x=
N
x
i =1
i (1)

The uncertainty of x can be estimated from the standard deviation ( x ) of x

which can be calculated from a standard formula given by the following
equation

N
x   x =
1
 (xi − x )2 (2)
(N − 1) i =1

Thus for repeated measurements the measured value (data) is commonly

written as follows

(𝑥̅ ± ∆𝑥) measurement unit

7
 For example, say the diameter d of a wire is measured six times with a micrometer and the
outcomes are given in the following table,

Reading No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

𝑑 ± 0.01 mm 2.61 2.59 2.60 2.59 2.58 2.61

From Equation (1) the average diameter d for the wire is

1 6
d i = (2.61 + 2.59 + 2.60 + 2.59 + 2.58 + 2.61) =
1 15.58
d = 
6 i =1 6 6
= 2.597 mm

And the standard deviation  d can be calculated from Equation (2), that is,
2

 d i = (d i − d )
1 6
d2 =
6 − 1 i =1
1 (2.610 − 2.597 ) + (2.590 − 2.597 ) + (2.600 − 2.597 ) + (2.590 − 2.597 ) 
2 2 2 2

=  
(6 − 1) + (2.580 − 2.597 )2 + (2.610 − 2.597 )2 
7.34  10−4
= = 1.47  10−4 mm2
5

and

d =  d = 1.47  10 −4 = 0.0121 mm  0.01 mm (t.o.s. f )

*t.o.s.f = to one significant figure

Thus the measured average diameter d of the wire can be written as follows
d = (2.60 ± 0.01) mm

3. Indirect Measurements
In some cases, due to some constraints, the physical quantity of interest cannot be measured
directly and its value thus has to be determined from measurements carried out some other
related/relevant quantities. In such situation one can only determine the quantity of interest
through some mathematical calculations and the value of its uncertainty has to be estimated
from the uncertainties of the directly measured quantities. For example, if one wants to
determine the area A of a rectangular plate, one probably has to measure the length l and
width w of the plate. Since the area A of the plate is calculated is calculated from the product
of l and w, the uncertainty ΔA of the area will have to be determined from the uncertainties
Δl and Δw of the length and width, respectively.

8
 In general if R a physical quantity which is know to be dependent on other
quantities such as x, y, z, ….. with uncertainties Δx, Δy, Δz, …., respectively
then the uncertainty ΔR can be determined using the calculus of function with
multiple variables as follows
R = R (x, y, z, ….)

R R R
R = x + y + z + ...
x y z

R
where is known as the partial derivative of R with respect to variable x, etc.
x
Thus if the actual mathematical relationship between R and all the variables is
known each of the partial derivative can be calculated and the uncertainty ΔR can
be determined.

(a) Addition and Subtraction

The following example the case when the dependence of R on variables x
and y is in the form of addition or subtraction. The uncertainty ΔR can be
determined as follows,
R(x , y) = x + y or R(x , y) = x – y

R dx R dy
= = 1 and = =1
x dx y dy

R = 1 x + 1 y = x + y

Thus it can be seen that the uncertainty ΔR is just the sum of the uncertainties in
variables x and y.

Example I
The sides of a metal plate, l1 and l2, are measured with standard ruler and the
outcomes are 151.0 cm and 204.0 cm, respectively. The uncertainty of plate
perimeter Δs can be calculated as follows assuming the uncertainties of the
measurements Δl1 = Δl2 = 0.1 cm.

The measured value (data) of each side can be written as

l1 = (151.0 ± 0.1) cm and l2 = (204.0 ± 0.1) cm

The perimeter of the metal plate s = l1 + l2

= (151.0 + 204.0) cm
= 355.0 cm

9
 The uncertainty of the perimeter Δs = Δ l1 + Δ l2
= (0.1 + 0.1) cm
= 0.2 cm

Thus plate perimeter can be recorded as, s = (355.0 ± 0.2) cm

(b) Multiplication and Division

If the dependence of R on the variables x, y, z .. now comes in the form of
multiplication and division of the variables, the uncertainly ΔR can be
calculated from the uncertainties of the variables in the following manner.

R(x , y) = xy R(x , y) = x/y

R dx y 1dx 1
= y =y = =
x dx x ydx y

R
= x
dy
=x
R
= x
d 1 (− 1) x
= x 2 = 2
y dy y dyy y y

1 x
R = yx + xy R = x + 2 y
y y

R yx xy R x xy

= + = +
R xy xy R y x  y 2  x 
 y  y
x y x y
= + = +
x y x y

R
The ratio R is called the relative uncertainty of R.

It is obvious from the above analysis that relative uncertainty of R is

equal to the sum of the relative uncertainties of the variables involved.

(c) Power or Exponential Dependence

Similarly, when the dependence comes in the form of power or exponent
the uncertainty can be determined from the partial derivative variables
involved. For example, if R is equal to xn then the uncertainty ΔR can be
calculated as follows.

10
 R = xn

R dx n
= x = n x n−1 or R = n x n−1x
x dx

n −1
R n x x x
= n
=n
R x x
Thus the relative uncertainty of R is equal to n times the relative uncertainty of x.

Example II
In order to determine the value of the coefficient of viscosity η of water, the
following physical quantities related to water flowing in a pipe were measured.
a) Water flow rate Q
b) Pressure difference between the pipe ends P
c) Length of the pipe l
d) Radius of the pipe r

The relative uncertainties of the quantities are 0.03, 0.02, 0.004 and 0.05,
respectively and the coefficient of viscosity η can be calculated from the
following formula,
r 4 P
=
81Q

The uncertainty Δη of the coefficient can then be determined as follows

 r P l Q
=4 + + +
 r P l Q
= 4(0.05) + 0.02 + 0.004 + 0.03
= 0.254

If the coefficient calculated from formula above is η = 1.126 x 10-3 kgm-1 s-1
then its uncertainty can be determined as follows


= 0.254

Δη = 0.254 x η = 0.254 x 1.126 x 10-3
= 2.84 x 10-4 ≈ 0.3 x 10-3 kgm-1s-1 (t.o.s.f)

Thus the measured value of the coefficient of viscosity η of water can be stated as

η = (1.1 ± 0.3) x 10-3 kgm-1s-1

Note that in this example the result is written in the format known as scientific
notation. It is strongly encouraged that the scientific notation format should be
used when one is dealing with very small or very large numbers

11
4. Methods of Plotting Graphs.
In most cases one would like to study and establish the relationship between
two or more physical quantities, for example, quantity A and B. In laboratory this
is done by measuring the values of quantity B at some fixed values of quantity
A. In order to see how quantity A varies with quantity B, the measured values
normally are arranged in table from and then plotted on a graph. Thus plotting a
graph is the most common and effective way of displaying the trend in the
relationship between two physical quantities. The trend that describes the
relationship between the measured quantities can be one of the two kinds: linear
or nonlinear.

(i) Among the essential features of a good graph:

(a) Title describing what is being plotted.

(b) Names and symbols of the physical quantities involved, including their units.
(c) Appropriate scale factors such as 5, 10, 20 etc. not 3, 7, 13, etc.
(d) Marks for data points, normally + or Θ or*.
(e) Data points distributed evenly throughout the whole area of graph.

(ii) Linear Graphs ( y = mx + c)

A linear dependence between two quantities can be represented by a straight line

when plotted on a graph. A linear equation relating an independent quantity
(variable) x to the dependent quantity (variable) y is normally written as y = mx
+ c, where m represents the slope of the straight line and c is the intercept. Thus
any relationship between two variables that can be transformed in to this format,
in general, can be plotted as a straight line.

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Example 1
It is well known that the image distance v and the object distance u of a thin lens is related
1 1 1
to the length focal length f through the thin lens equation = + . This equation in its
f v u
present form is nonlinear but it can be converted into a linear form if one carries out the
change of variables as follows
1 1 1
=− +
v u f
1 1
with y = and x =
v u
1 1
y = − x + , where m = −1 and c =
f f

Example 2
The following equation is used to determine the acceleration due to gravity g,

M + s 
T 2 = 4 r  3
 gk 
 

with T = period of a spring oscillations, s = mass of the spring, k = spring constant, and
M = mass of the load.
Again in its current form the equation does not look like a linear equation. The variables
in this equation are the period T (dependent variable) and the mass M (independent
variable) with s and k as known parameters. The graph of T2 versus M will be a straight
line if rewrite the equation and carries out the change of variables as follows

4 2 M 4 2 s
T =
2
+ , with y = T 2 , x = M
gk 3gk

4 2 4 2 s 4 2 4 2 s
y= + , with m = , and c =
gk 3gk gk 3gk

Thus the value of the acceleration due to gravity g can be determined either from the
slope m of the graph or from the point of intercept c.

The linear equation for the best straight line that fits the set of data can be written as

y = 5.0 x 10-2 x -1.3

and the best line as well as the equation are shown in the following Figure 1. Note that
one can always draw the straight line once the line equation is established, that is, by
choosing any to points that satisfy the linear equation and drawing a straight line
connecting them.

13
 Figure 1

iii) Nonlinear Graph

There are also cases where the relationship between the physical quantities under study
comes in a nonlinear form. For example, one might want to see the nonlinear trend in the
raw data without doing any sort of manipulations or when one likes to determine the point
of minimum or maximum in the curve. These are among the situations when one needs to
draw a nonlinear graph or curve and this is when some basic knowledge and skill of plotting
can be useful.

Drawing a Nonlinear Graph

All basic guidelines used to draw a good linear graph discussed earlier such as the choice
and naming of axes, scale factors and data points are still applicable for the nonlinear case.
One of the essential feature of a nonlinear graph is that one should try to plot a smooth curve
which passes through or near a maximum number of data points. The curve should be drawn
using a flexible curve/ruler and avoid the practice of joining a straight line from point to
point. The Figure 2 shows how a good nonlinear graph.

14
Figure 2

15
 O1: RESONANCE AND THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

Objectives
1. To examine the relationship between the wave speed, frequency and wavelength of
sound.
2. To determine the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube.

Apparatus
Glass column connected to a water reservoir, three tuning forks of known frequencies 384 Hz,
440 Hz and 512 Hz, thermometer.

Theory
A sound wave is a longitudinal wave in which the wave oscillates along the direction
of propagation. For a travelling wave of speed 𝜈, frequency 𝑓 and wavelength 𝜆, the following
relationship holds.

𝜈 = 𝑓𝜆 (1)

It is possible to investigate sound waves by creating standing waves in a column of air.

A standing wave occurs when as sound wave is reflected from an end of the air column so that
the returning wave interferes with original wave. A node (N) is a point along a standing wave
where the wave has minimum amplitude and an antinode (A) is a point where the wave has
maximum amplitude.

Consider a glass tube partially filled with water as shown in Figure 1. The water level
represents a closed end of the air column and can be varied in order to adjust the length of the
column. Vibration of a tuning fork above the open end of the tube generates sound wave. These
sound waves travel down the tube and reflected upon reaching the water surface. For sound
waves, resonance is indicated by an increase in the loudness of the sound.

16
 1
𝐿= 𝜆
N 4 N N

3
𝐿= 𝜆
4
A A
5
𝐿= 𝜆
4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 The waveform for the open-closed tube in its (a) first resonance (n = 0), (b) second
resonance (n = 1) and (c) third resonance conditions (n = 2).

The resonance occurs when the column length is 𝜆⁄4, 3𝜆⁄4, 5𝜆⁄4, etc. Because the
position of the antinode at the open end of the tube cannot be precisely located, the distance
from the open end to the first node is not measured. The distance is measured from one node
to the next adjacent node.

The resonance conditions can only be satisfied when the length of the tube L is such
that
1
𝐿𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆 (2)
4

where n = 0,1, 2, …..and Ln = the distance measured from the open end of the tube to the water
surface. The speed of sound in air depends upon the temperature of the air through the
following relationship
𝜈 = (331.5 + 0.606𝑇)m/s (3)
where T is the temperature in Celcius.

17
Procedures
1. Fill the tube and the reservoir with water until the water level in the tube is within 10 cm of
the top of the tube. Be sure that the reservoir is not full because it will be lowered and water
will flow into the reservoir.
2. Hold the thermometer in the tube and measure the temperature T of the air.
3. Strike the 480 Hz tuning fork on something soft like rubber strike plate or your knee and
place it just above the open end of the tube. The vibrating fork should not touch the tube.
4. Starting with the water in the tube at its highest level, gradually lower the water level by
lowering the reservoir until resonance is achieved. Record the water level position, L0, and
its uncertainty.
5. Again strike the tuning fork and hold it over the tube. Lower the water supply container
further and again determines the water level position for resonance, L1, and its uncertainty.
6. Repeat the measurements for the other tuning fork with a different frequency.
7. Record all readings in Table 1.

Figure 2 The resonance tube apparatus.

18
 Table 1

Diameter of Resonance Tube,

Temperature of air, T = (  ) °C
d=(  ) mm
Position at resonance,
L (m)  (m)
(L  )m
Frequency
Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial
(Hz) Trial Trial Trial
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3
     
L0
L1
L0
L1
L0
L1

19
Analysis
1. Use equation 1 to calculate the average speed of sound for each tuning fork using the
value for each wavelength. Determine the uncertainty.
2. Calculate the percentage error for each of the speed

Discussion
1. Do the experimental results agree with what is predicted from equation 3?
2. Discuss the most probable sources of errors in your measurements.

Questions
1. If the temperature in the room suddenly increased, what would happen to the speed of
wave?
2. Predict the length of the air column where the next resonance will occur.
3. If other liquid is used, what will be the speed of air? Briefly explain your answer.

20
 O2: OHM’S LAW- RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Objectives
1. To evaluate the value of resistance (Ω) based on different color ring codes.
2. To perform the electrical connection using wire, ammeter and voltmeter on breadboard
3. To analyse the relationship of voltage, current and resistance in series and parallel
circuit connections according to Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Law

Apparatus
Resistors : 5 different resistance values (in different color ring codes).
Voltage Supply : Witeg Regulated DC Power Supply Model ZS3202.
Digital Multimeter : GW Multimeter Model GDM354A.

Theory
The analysis of the DC circuits is based on the Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws. The main
equations describing the relationship between electrical quantities such voltage V, current I and
resistance R as follows:

1. Ohm’s Law. The voltage V (in Volt, V) across a resistor is linearly proportional to the
electric current I (in Ampere, A) flowing through it. The constant of proportionality is
called the resistance R (in Ohm, Ω) of the resistor.

V = IR (1)

2. Resistors in series combination (refer Figure 1).

• The electric current Is flowing through each of N circuit elements (in this case is series
of resistor) that connected in series connection is identical to one another, and can be
expressed as in equation below;

Is = I1= I 2 = I3……= I N (2)

21
 • The voltage across the ith circuit element can be expressed by RiIi. According to
Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL), the total voltage VS for series connection is a sum of
all voltages across the individual elements in the circuit), and can be expressed as in
equation below;
𝑁

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑁 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖 (3)
𝑖=1

• The equivalent resistance Req of N resistors connected in series is the sum of all the
resistances in the circuit, can be expressed as in equation below;

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖 (4)
𝑖=1

3. Resistors in parallel combination (refer Figure 2).

• The voltage VS across each of the N circuit elements connected in parallel is equal to
one another, and can be expressed as in equation below;
V S = V 1 = V 2 = V 3…. = V N (5)

• The current flowing through the ith circuit element is expressed as Vi / Ri. The total
current according to the Kirchhoff current law (KCL) is the sum of all the currents
flowing through the individual elements in the circuit, and can be expressed as in
equation below;
𝑁

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑁 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖 (6)
𝑖=1

• The inverse of the equivalent Req resistance of resistors in parallel connection is

the sum of all inverse resistances of each of the resistors, and can be expressed as in
equation below;
𝑁
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ….+ =∑ (7)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅𝑁 𝑅1
𝑖=1

22
Procedures

1. Resistance value
The resistance value (in Ohm, Ω) of each resistor is given by the code of colour band
labeled on the resistor body. The resistance value can be quantified by reading the first
colour band to last. The international standard of colour codes of resistor are defined and
listed in Appendix 1. Complete the Table 1 by evaluating the resistance value for each of
the resistor given in the experiment based on their colour band codes.

Table 1
Resistor Color ring 1 Color ring 2 Color ring nth Value of R
1
2
3
4
5
6

23
2. Resistors in series
According to schematic circuit in Fig 1, start the experiment by executing the resistor
connections in series using wires and digital meter on the breadboard. Record the observed
values of RN, VRN, and IS and complete the other values (theoretical values, VS, REq & error
%) in the Table 2 based on discussed Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws.

Figure 1

Table 2
Parameters R1 R2 R3 Req Vs VR1 VR2 VR3 Is
Unit kΩ V mA
Theoretical 1 2.2 5.6 10
Values
Experimental
Values
%
Error

24
3. Resistors in parallel
For resistor connection in parallel, please refer the schematic circuit in Fig. 2. Record the
measured values of RN, VS, and IRN and complete the other values (theoretical values, IS,
REq & error %) in the Table 3 based on discussed Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws.

Figure 2

Table 3
Parameters R1 R2 R3 Req Vs IR1 IR2 IR3 Is
Unit kΩ V mA
Theoretical 1.5 6.8 8.2 10
Values
Experimental
Values
%
Error

25
4. Resistors in series-parallel combination connection
Based on schematic circuit connection in Figure 3, execute the experiment by connecting
the resistors in series-parallel combination connection and set voltage Vs = 10 V. Record
the measured values of RN, Ra-c, Vab, Vbc, and IRN and complete the other values (theoretical
values, IS, REq & error %) in the Table 4 based on discussed Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws.

Figure 3

Table 4
Para- Unit Theo Exp. % Para- Unit Theo Exp. %
meter Val. Val. Error meter Val. Val. Error
R1 1.0 IR1
R2 2.2 IR2
R3 kΩ 5.6 IR3 mA

R4 8.2 IR4
Ra-c Is
Vab V Vbc V

26
Tasks
In this section the theoretical and experimental values will be compared. Answer the following
questions.

1. Calculate the percentage error between the theoretical and experimental data and
complete Table 2 to Table 4. The percentage error is defined as follows,

% error =

Where dt and de are the theoretical and experimental data respectively.

2. From the results above, give your comments regarding the three parameters with the
highest percentage errors and the parameters with the lowest errors. Discuss the sources
of these errors.

3. From results in Table 4, which of the following expressions are TRUE based on Ohm’s
and Kirchhoffs laws principle of resistance in series-parallel combination:

(a)

(b)

(c)

27
 APPENDIX 1

Resistor colour code

Colour bands of resistor are used to signify the resistance value with each colour signifying a
number and these colour bands are closer to one end of the resistor than the other. The reason
for this is that any numbers printed on the component would very easily be removed and they
would not be easy to read. The figures below showed the chart of colour band of resistor in
order determine the magnitude of resistance in ohm. As a result, one manufacturer’s brown
looks like another’s orange. When in doubt use a meter to measure the value.

28
 APPENDIX 2

Important Notes
1. NEVER use an ohmmeter on a live circuit. Voltage from a circuit can
damage an ohmmeter.
2. Always use the measured value of resistance for all calculations.
3. Always adjust the power supply voltage with the circuit connected.
4. When measuring current, you must break the circuit and the current meter
must be inserted into the circuit (in series).
5. When measuring voltage, the voltmeter must be connected across the circuit.
6. Voltage is a measure of potential difference between point A-B is VAB. When
measuring VAB, the voltmeter probe should be connected to point A and the common
lead to point
B. This would be expressed as VAB. Note that in the subscript “AB”, the first letter
“A” is the point to which the probe is connected and the second letter “B” is the point
to which the common lead is connected. Therefore, the expression VAB means the
voltage at point “A” in respect to point “B”.
Schematic circuit for VAB and current measurement.

29
 APPENDIX 3

Using the Breadboard

The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the board.
The metal strips are laid out as shown below.

These strips connect the holes on the top of the board. This makes it easy to connect
components together to build circuit. To use the bread board, the legs of components are
placed in the holes (the sockets). The holes are made so that they will hold the component in
place. Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips running underneath the board.

Each wire forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected.
Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common
node. On the bread board, a node is the row of holes that are connected by the strip of metal
underneath.

The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The rest
of the circuit is built by lacing components and connecting them together with jumper wires.
Then when a path is formed by wires and components from the positive supply node to the

30
 negative supply node, we can turn on the power and current flows through the path and the
circuit comes alive.

For chips with many legs (ICs), place them in the middle of the board so that half of the legs
are on one side of the middle line and half are on the other side.

Example 1: Resistors in series

Circuit Diagram:

Connection on a breadboard:

31
 O3: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

Objectives
1. To determine the time constant of a charging and discharging of a resistor- capacitor
(RC) circuit.
2. To determine the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in series and
parallel combinations.

Apparatus
Ammeter or galvanometer, DC power supply, a stopwatch, 120 kΩ resistors, and capacitors
(470 µF and 1000 µF).

Theory
A. Charging a Capacitor
Referring to Figure 1 when switch S is closed, that is in position 1, the galvanometer
would instantly give some maximum reading indicating that electric current I is
flowing in the circuit. This also indicates the beginning of the charging process of the
capacitor whereby some electric charges Q are being stored in the capacitor and
consequently the voltage Vc across the capacitor will increase in accordance to the
following equation

𝑄 (1)
𝑉𝑐 =
𝐶

where C is a constant and called the capacitance of the capacitor measured in F/m.
As the charging process goes on, the amount of charge Q stored as well as the voltage
Vc across the capacitor will increase with time t. The relationship between the amount
of charge Q stored in the capacitor and the charging time t is given by

−𝑡 (2)
𝑄 = 𝑄0 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

where Q0 = CƐ is the maximum amount of charge in the capacitor, Ɛ is the applied

voltage of the power supply, and R is the resistance of the RC circuit.
32
 Figure 1.

The charging curve for circuit, based on Equation (2), is shown in Figure 2(a).
Combining the definition of electric current, I and Equation (2), the dependence of
the electric current I in the RC circuit with time t can be derived as follows,

𝑑𝑄 𝑄0 −𝑡
𝐼= = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

−𝑡
= 𝐼0 𝑒 𝜏 (3)

where τ = RC is the time constant of the circuit, and = is the maximum

current that flows in the RC circuit. From Equations (2) and (3), it is obvious that
while the amount charge Q accumulated at the capacitor is increasing with time t, the
amount of current I flowing in the circuit is decreasing with time t.

33
B. Discharging a Capacitor
When the power supply Ɛ is by-passed or shorted while the switch S is closed, the
galvanometer will also give a maximum reading but in the opposite direction. This
indicates that current I is flowing in opposite direction and the capacitor is
discharging. The amount of charge Q stored in the capacitor will be decreasing with
time t and their relationship can be written as follows,

−𝑡 −𝑡 (4)
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑄0 𝑒 𝜏

and the discharging curve for the circuit is shown in Figure 2(b) below.

Figure 2

The time it takes to fully charge or discharge a capacitor in an RC circuit depends on

the value of the capacitance C as well as that of the resistance R. In fact, a parameter
known as the time constant τ, that is the product of R and C, can fully describe the
charging and discharging curves of the circuit. It is formally defined as the time it
takes for a charging capacitor to store about 63% of the maximum charge Q0.
Similarly, it can also be defined as the time it takes for a discharging capacitor to lose
about 37% of the maximum charge Q0 stored in the capacitor. The time constant τ is
shown in both Figure 2(a) and 2(b). Clearly the bigger the time constant τ, the longer
the time it takes to fully charge or discharge a capacitor and vice versa.

34
Procedures
1. Connect the power supply (with power switch in OFF position), ammeter A,
capacitor C1 = 470 µF and resistor R = 120 kΩ in series as shown in Figure 3 with
the switch S set to OFF position. Switch ON the power supply and set the applied
voltage Ɛ to 5 V DC.
2. Estimate the maximum current Io will be flowing in the circuit based on the ratio ϵ/R
and set the range/scale of the ammeter A to the one that is suitable for the value of
the calculated Io.
3. Charge the capacitor by setting the switch S to position 1 and record the current I and
the time t every time the current I drops to about 10-15 % level of the actual maximum
current Io.
4. Get at least 8 pairs of current I and time t reading throughout the charging process,
that is, until the capacitor is fully charged.

I (μA) t (s)

5. Move the switch S to position 2 and record the current I and time t for the discharging
process.

35
6. Get at least 8 pairs of current I and time t readings throughout the discharging process,
that is, until the capacitor is fully discharged.

I (μA) t (s)

7. Replace capacitor C1 with a combination of capacitors C1 and C2 connected in series.

Repeat steps 3 and 4 above.

I (μA) tseries (s) tparallel (s)

8. Repeat step 7 with capacitors C1 and C2 connected in parallel combination and repeat
steps 3 and 4.

36
 Figure 3

Tasks
1. Plot graphs of the electric current I versus the time t for both the charging and
discharging processes of capacitor C1. Discuss the shapes of the graphs and estimate
the time constants τ of the circuit for both processes.
2. Plot graphs of ln (I) versus time t for both the charging and discharging processes of
capacitor C1 and determine the slopes m and their uncertainties σ m from both
graphs. Calculate the time constants τ of the circuit and their uncertainties for both
processes and compare them to theoretical values.
3. Plot graphs of ln (I) versus time t for the charging process of the capacitors C1 and
C2 connected in series as well as in parallel combinations. Determine the slopes m
and their uncertainties σ m and calculate the time constants τ of the circuit and their
uncertainties and compare them to theoretical values.
4. Estimate the amount of the electrical energy stored in the capacitor when it is fully
charged.

37
 O4: REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

Objectives
1. To determine the minimum deviation angle for a prism.
2. To determine the refractive index of glass prism and glass block

Apparatus
Prism 60o, glass block, soft board, 4 needles, protractor, ruler, sharp pencil.

Theory
When a light ray passing through a prism, the ray directed to the first surface/layer will
experience the refraction so that the refracted ray will be refracted with incident ray. Then, this
refracted ray will be directed onto the second surface/layer and refracted out with the incident
ray. This situation is shown in Figure 1 with the total refracted angle between refracted ray in
first and second layer is D.

First layer

Normal, N

Figure 1: Pathway of ray through prism

The refracted angle D from this incident ray become minimum, Dm, when the ray passing
through the prism symmetrically (that is incident angle on the layer of entering ray) is
equal with refracted angle on the layer of ray that goes out. This is shown in Figure 2.

38
 Figure 2: Pathway of ray through prism symmetrically

From Figure 2, we obtain

𝐷𝑚 = 𝑖 − 𝑟 + 𝑖 − 𝑟
= 2𝑖 − 2𝑟 (1)

And
𝐴 = 2𝑟 (2)

By solving equation (1) and (2)

𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 (3)
𝑖=
2

Known that refraction index can be written as

sin 𝑖 (4)
𝑛=
sin 𝑟

Therefore, by using equation (2), (3) and (4), we obtain

𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 (5)
sin ( )
𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin
2
39
Procedures
1. Place a piece of paper on top of the soft board and sketch a straight line, LE as shown
in Figure 3. Place a glass prism on top of the paper with one of the edge of the prism
located along the LE line.
2. Poke needles F and G on top of the paper as shown in Figure 3. Both needles act as
objects which are inline. Connecting line of both needles act as an incident light to the
first surface of the prism. Distance between both needles cannot be too close.
3. While observing from the direction of the surface of other prism, poke needles H and
K so that all of the needles F, G, H and K appear to be inline. All of the needles appear
to look overlapped between each other.
4. Move the prism and connect line FG and line KH as shown in Figure 3.
5. Measure incident angle, i and deviation angle, D with protractor.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for different values of incident angle, i and deviation angle, D for
i = 0 - 90o.
7. Record the data in the table as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Values of D at different i

No (i ± )° (D ± )°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Attention: The ray diagram on the piece of paper must be attached in the lab report.

8. Repeat step 1- 5 by using glass block for incident angle at 30°.

40
 Figure 3: Prism arrangement on line LE

Tasks
1. Draw graph of deviation angle, D against incident angle, i.
2. State a value of minimum deviation angle, Dm..
3. Can Dm value of a prism obtained by using other method? Explain.
4. By using Equation (5), calculate refractive index of glass n for this prism.
5. Calculate the refractive index of glass n for the glass block.
6. Write a conclusion and comment.

41
 O5: Concave Mirror

Objectives
1. Determination of focal length of concave mirror by the approximation method.
2. Determination of focal length of concave mirror by the u-v method.
3. Determination of magnification and image location with the mirror and magnification
equations.

Apparatus
Concave mirror, screen, lamp-box with crosswire, plasticine and meter ruler.

Theory
Concave mirrors (Figure 1) have the reflecting surface that bulges inward. They are
also called converging mirrors because it converges all parallel beam of light incident on it.
Unlike a flat mirror, concave mirrors can form real images that are projected out in front of the
mirror at the place where the light focuses.

Hard surface

Figure 1

42
The equation connecting the distance between mirror and object (u), distance between mirror
and image (v), and the focal length of the mirror (f) is called mirror formula.

2 1 1
= + (1)
𝑅 𝑢 𝑣

𝑅 = 2𝑓 (2)

where R is the mirror’s radius of curvature. The magnification of the mirror (M) is given by:

ℎ𝑖 𝑣
𝑀= =− (3)
ℎ𝑜 𝑢

where hi and ho are the image and object heights respectively.

Procedures
Part-I: Determination of radius of concave mirror by the approximation method
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 2 with the concave side of the mirror facing
the light source.

(a)

43
 (b)
Figure 2: (a) Experiment set up Part I (b) Formation of image on the screen.

2. The light source is switched on and a concave mirror, mounted in a holder, is moved to
and from in front of the screen until a sharp (same size) image of the cross wire (object)
is formed on the screen adjacent to the object. When this has been done both object and
image are at the same distance from the mirror, 𝑢 = 𝑣. The distance between mirror
and screen is measure and record. This gives the radius of curvature, R, of the mirror.

Part-II: Determination of focal length of concave mirror by the u-v method

3. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 3 with the concave side of the mirror facing
the light source.
4. Using the value of R in Part I. Choose at least 6 distances, u between mirror and
1 3
crosswire (object) in the range of 𝑅 < 𝑢 < 𝑅. Record the distance u in Table 1.
2 2

5. Place your mirror on one of the chosen distances from crosswire (u) and placed the
screen in front the mirror and its position is adjusted such that a clear image is obtained.

44
 (a)

(b)
Figure 3: (a) Experiment set up Part II and III (b) Formation of image on the screen.

6. Measure and record the distance v from the screen to the mirror.
7. Calculate the focal length of the mirror using Equation 1.
8. Repeat step 4 – 6 for different values of u.
9. Calculate f each time and then find an average value.
10. Record all your reading in Table 1.
11. Repeat step 1-9 for the second mirror.
45
 Table 1: Concave Mirror
Distance between object Distance between image Focal length of concave
No.
and mirror, u (cm) screen and mirror, v (cm) mirror, f (cm)
1
2
.
.
Average value of focal length (cm)

Part-III: Determination of magnification and image location with the mirror and
magnification equations.
11. Use the same mirrors and the focal length, f value you found for each mirror in Part II.
12. Choose only one distance, u in the range of 2f < u <3f, f < u < 2f and u = f and record
in Table 2.
13. Measure the object and image distance (u and v) and object and image height (hi and
ho; distance between two crosswire).
14. Record all your reading in Table 2.
15. Repeat step 11 – 14 for the second mirror.

46
 Table 2: Magnification of image from concave mirror
2f < u <3f f < u < 2f u=f

Experimental u (cm)

v (cm)

ho

hi

ℎ𝑖
𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
ℎ𝑜

Calculated v (cm)

𝑣
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = −
𝑢

% Difference % diff. in v

% diff. in M

47
Questions
Part I:
1. Calculate the focal length, f from approximation method.
2. Explain another way to determine the focal length of the mirror in approximation
method.

Part II:
3. How do you know that the images you saw in this part of the lab were real images?
4. Why there are two images overlapped on the screen as you monitored?
5. As the object approached the mirror, what direction did you notice the image move?
6. For graphical method, plot a graph 1/v versus 1/u for both mirrors. From the graph,
calculate the focal length and its uncertainties.
7. Place the results for Part I, Part II and graphical method in the table you made for
your observations and address your results in the conclusion.

Part III:
8. Calculate the percent difference between each of your calculated values (𝑣𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 )
and your measured value (𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 ). Percent Difference: Applied when comparing
two experimental quantities, 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 and 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 , neither of which can be
considered the “correct” value. The percent difference is the absolute value of the
difference over the average times 100%.

|𝑣𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 |
% 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
1
(𝑣 + 𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 )
2 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

9. Describe what you saw when you put the object on the 2f < u <3f, f < u < 2f and focal
point of the mirror. What did it look like?

48
 O6: MEASURING WAVELENGTH WITH A DIFFRACTION GRATING

Objective
1. To measure wavelength of laser light by using diffraction grating

Apparatus
Laser source, meter stick, diffraction gratings (600 lines/mm, 300 lines/mm and 100
lines/mm), white screen

Theory
The diffraction of classical waves refers to the phenomenon wherein the waves
encounter an obstacle that fragments the wave into components that interfere with one another.
Interference simply means that the wavefronts add together to make a new wave which can be
significantly different than the original wave. For example, a pair of sine waves having the
same amplitude, but being 180o out of phase will sum to zero, since everywhere one is positive,
the other is negative by an equal amount.
Although the diffraction of light waves ostensibly appears the same as the diffraction
of classical waves such as water or sound waves, it is an intrinsically quantum mechanical
process. Indeed, while the diffraction pattern of a wave of water requires the simultaneous
presence of a macroscopic number of water molecules, (of the order of 1024), an optical
diffraction pattern can be built up over time by permitting photons to transit the diffracting
obstacle one at a time!. This is really pretty amazing if you think about it.
It is important to understand the physical processes that are occurring that give rise to
the diffraction phenomenon. For the sake of concreteness, we will consider the diffraction of
light through a diffraction grating, which is the device that we will be using in today’s lab. A
diffraction grating consists of a transparent material into which a very large number of
uniformly spaced wires have been embedded. One section of such a grating is shown in Figure
1. As the light impinges on the grating, the light waves that fall between the wires propagate
straight on through. The light that impinges on the wires, however, is absorbed or reflected
backward. At certain points in the forward direction the light passing through the spaces (or
slits) in between the wires will be in phase, and will constructively interfere. The condition for
constructive interference can be understood by studying figure 1: Whenever the difference in
path length between the light passing through different slits is an integral number of

49
wavelengths of the incident light, the light from each of these slits will be in phase, and the it
will form an image at the specified location. Mathematically, the relation is simple:
d sin θ = mλ
where d is the distance between adjacent slits (which is the same is the distance between
adjacent wires) [1], θ is the angle the re-created image makes with the normal to the grating
surface, λ is the wavelength of the light, and m = 0, 1, 2, . . . is an integer.

Figure 1: Geometry determining the conditions for diffraction from a multi-wire grating

Diffraction gratings can be used to split light into its constituent wavelengths (colors).
In general, it gives better wavelength separation than does a prism, although the output light
intensity is usually much smaller.
By shining a light beam into a grating whose spacing d is known, and measuring the
angle θ where the light is imaged, one can measure the wavelength λ. This is the manner in
which the atomic spectra of various elements were first measured. Alternately, one can shine
a light of known wavelength on a regular grid of slits, and measure their spacing. You can use
this technique to measure the distance between grooves on a CD or the average spacing
between the feathers on a bird’s wing.

50
 Consider Figure 2, which shows the set-up for a diffraction grating experiment. If a
monochromatic light source shines on the grating, images of the light will appear at a number
of angles θ1, θ2, θ3 and so on. The value of θm is given by the grating equation shown above, so
that
𝑚
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑑

White Screen

Diffraction Grating

Laser Source

Figure 2: Experimental set-up for measuring wavelengths with a diffraction grating

The image created at θm is called the mth order image. The 0th order image is the light
that shines straight through. The image created by this interference pattern appears at an angle
of θ = 0 no matter what the wavelength or grating spacing is. Since it gives you no information
about the wavelength λ, it is not particularly interesting. In this lab we will be looking at the
first and second order diffraction images of a laser and measuring its wavelength. The
diffraction gratings that you will use are 600 lines/mm, 300 lines/mm and 100 lines/mm. Please
remember, once again Do not look into the laser!

51
Procedures

1. Set up the laser and grating as shown in Figure 2.

2. Place the diffraction grating at the position L=5 cm from the white screen.
3. Place a new A4 size paper on the white screen. Turn on the laser and record the
position of 0th, 1st and 2nd order of the diffracted images.
4. Measure the distance S1 between the 1st order images appearing on the left and right
sides of the center line.
5. Measure the distance S2 between the 2nd order images appearing on the left and right
sides of the center line.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 by setting L=7 cm and 9 cm respectively. Write your data in table
7. Repeat the whole procedure with 300 lines/mm and 100 lines/mm gratings. Write your
data in separate tables.

Tasks
1. Draw simple trigonometric from the diffracted rays. Find the values of θ1 and θ2
corresponding to the diffracted angles from 1st and 2nd orders for all three gratings.
2. Based on the equation given, calculate and report the wavelengths of the laser obtained from
your measurements of the first and second order interference maxima, λ1 and λ2. Calculate the
percentage of errors between all three sets of measurements obtained from different gratings.

Table 1: Experimental data from the observation

Distance, L S1 S2
(cm) 1 2 3 Average 1 2 3 Average

Gratings lines/mm= ___________

52
 O7: DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTHS OF THIN LENSES

Objective
1. To determine the focal length of a convex lens
2. To determine the focal length of a concave lens by lens in contact method

Apparatus
Convex lens, concave lens, optical bench, illuminated wires, lens holder, screen

Theory
Lenses are used to modify the light ray passing through it. The modification to the light
ray by the lens can converge or diverge the light ray. Therefore, lenses can be categorized into
types; converging or diverging lens. The converging lens focuses the light rays and it is thicker
at the centre than its edge. On the other hand, the diverging lens diverges the light ray and it is
thinner at the centre than its edge.
When parallel rays strike a converging lens, the rays focused into a point on the axis of
lens as shown in the Figure 1. The point is called as the focal point of the lens. The focal length
of lens is measured between the centre of lens and the focal point. When parallel rays strike
diverging lens, the rays diverge as though the rays are coming from a point behind the lens as
shown in the Figure 2. This point is known as the focal point of lens. The distance between the
focal point and the centre of lens is known the focal length. The focal length is a positive value
for a converging lens and it is a negative value for a diverging lens.

(a) (b)
Figure 1: Converging (a) and diverging lens (b).

53
 When an object is placed behind the lens, it can form the image of the object. The
distance between the object and the centre of lens is called object distance, u. Object distance
is positive when the object is at the same side as the light rays that going into the lens. There
are two types of image can be formed by the lenses, which are real and virtual images. The real
image can be focused on a screen while a virtual image cannot be focused onto a screen. When
a diverging lens used, only virtual image can be formed. For converging lens, both virtual and
real image can be formed. The distance between the image and the centre of lens is called
image distance, v. Image distance v is positive if the image is formed on the side of the lens
where the light rays are coming out from the lens. It is negative if the image is formed on the
same side as the light rays that going into the lens. The relationship between u, v and f is given
by thin lens equation as shown below:

1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

When two lenses placed in contact with each other, the two lenses system act as a single
lens. If the two lenses have focal length of fa and fb, then the effective focal length of two lenses
system is fab. The relationship between fa, fb and fab is given by

1 1 1
= +
𝑓𝑎𝑏 𝑓𝑎 𝑓𝑏

Procedures for Experiment A: Convex lens focal length determination

1. The experimental setup is shown in Figure 2.
2. Place the illuminated cross wires (object) on the optical bench.
3. Place the screen on the optical bench approximately 100 cm from the object.
4. Place the convex lens (no 1) with focal length fa on the lens holder.
5. Put the convex lens and lens holder assembly on the optical bench at 15 cm away
from the object where the object distance u is 15 cm.
6. Adjust the screen until a sharp image of the object is formed on the screen and record
the distance between the lens and the screen as the image distance v.
7. Repeat step 6 at least 4 times and record the distance v.
8. Change the distance u with 20 cm, 25 cm, 30 cm, 35 cm and 40 cm.
9. Add another convex lens (no 2) on the lens holder together with the convex less (no 1).
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 Repeat step 5 to 8. Record all the data into Table 1.

Screen
Light Source Convex lens
Object

u v

Figure 2: Experimental setup A

Table 1: Tabulated data for convex lens focal length determination (single and dwi-lense)
No Object Image distance, v (cm)
distance, u Data 1 Data 2 Data 3 Data 4 Data 5 Average
(cm)
1 15.0
2 20.0
3 25.0
4 30.0
5 35.0
6 40.0
Note: Repeat the table for two convex lens.

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Procedures for Experiment B: Combination of lenses effective focal length
determination
1. The experimental setup is shown in Figure 3.
2. Place the illuminated cross wires (object) on the optical bench.
3. Place the screen on the optical bench approximately 100 cm from the object.
4. Place the convex lens (no 1) and a concave lens (no 3) with focal length fb on the
lens holder.
5. Put the lenses and lens holder assembly on the optical bench at 30 cm away from
the object where the object distance u is 30 cm.
6. Adjust the screen until a sharp image of the object is formed on the screen and record
the distance between the lens and the screen as the image distance v.
7. Repeat step 6 at least 4 times and record the distance v in Table 2.
8. Repeat step 5 to step 7 using u = 35 cm, 40 cm, 45 cm, 50 cm and 55 cm and record
all the data into Table 2.

Figure 3: Experimental setup B

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 Table 2: Tabulated data for combination of lenses effective focal length determination
No Object Image distance, v (cm)
distance, u Data 1 Data 2 Data 3 Data 4 Data 5 Average
(cm)
1 30.0
2 35.0
3 40.0
4 45.0
5 50.0
6 55.0

Tasks
1. Plot a graph of 1/v against 1/u from the data in Table 1 (with 1 convex lens).
2. From the graph in Task 1, determine the focal length fa of convex lens.
3. Calculate the percentage of error between the experimentally determined focal
length fa of convex lens and its manufactured value.
4. Plot a graph of 1/v against 1/u from the data in Table 2 (combination of convex and
concave lens).
5. From the graph in Task 4, determine the effective focal length fab of two lenses
and its uncertainty.
6. From the answer in Task 5, determine the focal length fb of concave lens.
7. Calculate the percentage of error between the experimentally determined focal
length fb of concave lens and its manufactured value.
8. State and discuss the contributing factors that affect the accuracy of the
experiment as well as the steps that should be taken to avoid it.
9. Why combination of convex and concave lenses is used to determine the focal
length of the concave lens in experiment B instead of a single concave lens?
Discuss.

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