Dambi Dollo University

College of Natural and Computational Science

Department of physics
Experiments in Mechanics
Phys 2101
Laboratory Manual

Prepared by:-

Bulcha Bekele (Msc)

Edited by:-

Boka Fikadu (Msc)

May, 2021

Dambi Dollo, Ethiopia

Table of Contents

i
A note to students

The objective of Lab Experiments along with the theory classes is to understand the basic

concepts clearly. The experiments are designed to illustrate important phenomena in different

areas of Physics and to expose you to different measuring instruments and techniques. The

importance of Labs can hardly be overemphasized as many eminent scientists have made

important discoveries in homemade Laboratories. In view of this, you are advised to conduct

the experiments with interest and an aptitude of learning. In order to make full use of lab

periods, you are requested to adhere to the following requirements:

1. You must come well prepared for the experiment.

2. Work quietly and carefully and share your work with your experiment partners.

3. Be honest in recording your data. Never cook up the readings to get desired/ expected

results. You never know that you might be heading towards an important discovery.

4. Presentation of observations in tables/graphs and calculations should be done neatly and

carefully. Always label your graph properly. Be very clear to write the proper units.

5. Bring your Lab book daily. If you finish with your experiment early, spend the

remaining time to do your calculation work. Therefore it is essential that you come

equipped with calculator, scale, pencil etc.

6. Don’t fiddle with the apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any breakage to

the instructor. Return all the equipments that you have taken from the Lab Assistant/

faculty for the purpose of your experiment before leaving the Lab.

ii
1. Introduction

It is known that experiment is necessary for effective teaching for it makes the teaching learning
process fruitful and it helps students to learn by testing. In addition to the ordinary tools like that
of pencils, papers, black board, text books and a few supplementary aids, Sciences like physics,
chemistry and biology have to be experienced through experimentation and demonstration. For
sciences it is unwise to confine its study to the reading of textbooks and listening lectures.
However, performing experiments and learning to make close observation requires special
facilities like equipments and manuals. The manual is written especially for first year students
for Experimental physics-I (Phys 1012). It requires equipment made of manufactures and
materials collected from the surrounding. Each experiment contains; title, objective(s), apparatus,
theory, procedure and questions. After completing each experiment, all students have to answer
the questions based on the result of the experiment.

It is obvious that during any experiment, there will be some errors. It is impossible to perform an
experiment without any error. Because of this fact error is defined first along with its source and
finally some methods how to analyze errors are given. Since report writing has its own format,
although different from university to university in same order and way of analyzing data, a
format is given, and the report has to be written according to this format. The student has to
submit the report to his instructor or laboratory technician before he starts the next experiment.

Finally the department would like to point out that this manual is a compilation of experiments
from different sources. The user of this manual is highly requested to go through all experiments
and answer the questions given at the end of each experiment based on the result he observe.

1.2 What is experiment?

An experiment is an orderly procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, refuting, or
establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by
demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary
greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the
results. An experiment usually tests a hypothesis, which is an expectation about how a particular
process or phenomenon works. However, an experiment may also aim to answer a "what-if"
question, without a specific expectation about what the experiment will reveal, or to confirm

1
prior results. If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or
disprove the hypothesis. In the scientific method, an experiment is an empirical method that
arbitrates between competing models or hypotheses. Experimentation is also used to test
existing theories or new hypotheses in order to support them or disprove them.

It is also defined as the foundation of the scientific method, which is a systematic means of
exploring the world around you. Although some experiments take place in laboratories, you
could perform an experiment anywhere, at any time. Take a look at the steps of the scientific
method:

 Make observations.
 Formulate a hypothesis.
 Design and conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis.
 Evaluate the results of the experiment.
 Accept or reject the hypothesis.
 If necessary, make and test a new hypothesis.

In engineering and other physical sciences, experiments are a primary component of the
scientific method. They are used to test theories and hypotheses about how physical processes
work under particular conditions Experiments might be categorized according to a number of
dimensions, depending upon professional norms and standards in different fields of study

1.3 The experimental results

There is a limit to the accuracy of any measurement, depending on the equipment used and the
skill of the experimenter. All measurement is affected by errors; this means that measurements
are always subject to some uncertainty. In conclusion, before starting any practical work, learn
about experimental errors, accuracy and precision.

1.4 Experimental Error

In any practical work the true value of the reading that you take may not be exactly the value you
record, as the matter of fact no physical measurement is ever exact. Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle shows that there is an irremovable minimum uncertainty in all physical measurements

2
no matter how perfect the instrument or how accurate the experiments are. This uncertainty of
the reading is technically called error. In another word error is the uncertainty between the
measured value and the standard or the true value.

Mathematically:-

Error=|experimental value−true value|

Or E=|xi−T | E=|x−T| , this is commonly called the absolute error. But

Experimental value−true value

R . E= is called the relative error.
True value

It follows that the percentage error of the measurement is:-

error X 100
% Error=
true value

An error is stated as a positive quantity whether the measured value is higher or lower than the
true value.

1.4.1 Types of errors

There are many different types of errors, such as personal, systematical, instrumental and
accidental errors.

1.4.1.1 Personal Errors: - include blunders such as mistakes in arithmetic, in recording the
observation or in reading a scale division. Another important kind of personal error is known as
personal bias, such as personal prejudiced in favor of the first observation.

1.4.1.2 Systematic Errors: - are characterized by their tendency to be in only one direction, either
positive, or negative. For example if a meter stick is slightly worn at an end, and measurements
are taken from this end, then a constant error will occur in all these measurements.

1.4.1.3 Instrumental Errors: - are also those introduced by slight imperfections in the
manufacture or calibration of the instrument.

3
1.4.1.4 Accidental Errors: - are deviations which are beyond the control of the observer. These
errors are due to jarring noise, fluctuations in temperature, variations in atmospheric pressure and
the like.

The accuracy of a measurement, then, depends upon a number of factors, many of which cannot
be easily determined. It will be assumed in these experiments the apparatus is sufficiently
accurate so that instrumental errors are negligible, and that systematic errors personal errors and
personal bias are eliminated. Under these conditions, all variations in the reading are due to
accidental errors. In this case, experience tells us that the arithmetic mean of a number of
observations will give the most probable result.

But this is not still the true value of physical quantity that is being measured, since the true value
is seldom known. Hence, it is important to know how reliable the result is, that is, to set limits,
within which it is probable that the true value lies. It is known from the theory of probability
that:-

 The arithmetic mean will approach the true value as the number of observations
increases.
 One way of increasing the accuracy of measurements is to take a large number of
observations.
There are several ways of expressing the measure of reliability of the arithmetic mean these are:

 The average deviation from the mean

 The average deviation of the mean ( the A.D) and
 The percent deviation of the mean
When the mean of a number of observations is taken, the departures of the individual values
from the mean are called deviations. The average deviation from the mean (the a.d) is the
average of all deviations, without regard to sign. The average deviation of the mean (the A.D) is
equal to the a.d, divided by the square root of the number of observations. Thus,

a.d
A . D=
√n
The A.D is measure of the deviation of the deviation of the arithmetic mean from the true value;
it is the quantity that is generally known as the probable error. The significance of the A.D., from

4
probability theory, is that the chances that the true value M t will lie within the range M+AD., or
outside of that range are one to one; M is the observed arithmetic mean. The percentage
deviation of the mean, or the percent A.D is equal to the A.D. divided by the mean, times 100 %.

A .D.
%A . D .= ×100 %
M

Example: Six measurements of the length of a body have been made.

Readings (cm) Deviations (cm)

7.85 +0.02

7.81 -0.02

7.84 +0.01

7.82 -0.01

7.85 +0.02

7.80 -0.03

sum 46.97cm Sum 0.11cm( without regard to sign)

46 . 97
cm=7 . 83 cm
Mean = 6

0 . 11
= cm=0 .02 cm
a.d. 6

Thus A.D. =

The significance of the A.D is that the chance that the true value of the length will lie within the
range 7.83± 0.08cm is 50% while the chances that it will lie outside of that range are also 50%.

5
That % A.D is thus% A.D. =

1.5 Accuracy
Accuracy may be defined as the correctness of the measurements. it is the closeness of the
measured values to the known or accepted value.

1.6 Precision
Precision may be defined as the closeness or agreement between the measured values of the
same quantity. It indicates the reliability or reproducibility of measurements. A set of
measurements are said to be precise if they are consistent or if they are very closely approach to
the value.

1.7 Significant figures

When physical quantities are measured, the measured values are known only to within the limits
of the experimental uncertainty. The value of this uncertainty can depend on various factors,
such as the quality of the apparatus, the skill of the experimenter, and the number of
measurements performed.
Therefore a significant figure is a reliably known digit (other than a zero used to locate the
decimal point). In a certain digits, the first digit is uncertain. For example in the digits 234, the
first number 4 is uncertain, because we are not sure that which one among the numbers
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, or 9 comes first and that is why it is uncertain.
Now let’s see some rules which are used to determine the number of significant figures.

1. All non zero digits are significant

Example: Given number 123.4, four significant figures
2. All zero between non-zero digits are significant.
Example: Given number 1202.402, seven significant Figures
3. All zero to the right of the right most non-zero digits are not significant if they do not
come from measurement.
Example: Given numbers 34200, three significant Figures

4. All zeros to the left of the left most non-zero digits are not significant.

6
 Example 0.00243, three significant Figures

5. All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant
Example: Given numbers 0.002014 and 10.00, each contains four significant Figures

6. The number of significant figures doesn’t vary with the choice of different units.
Example: if the measurement of a certain distance between two points is 100meters, and
then you can express the distance as 10,000 centimeter or 100,000millimeter. But in each
case the significant figures is three since zeros that comes from measurements is
significant figure. The powers of 10 do not affect the accuracy of the measurement.

1.8 How to round off a number?

To round off a certain measurement, follow the following rules.

1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5 then the preceding digit should be left unchanged

Example: Given number 3.434 →3.43, since the first digit 4 is less than 5.

2. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5,then the preceding digit is to be raised by one

Example: Given number 3.437→ 3.44, because the first digit 7 is greater than 5.

3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit
should be raised by one.

Example: Given number 3.6453→3.65, because the second digit 5 is followed by non zero
digit 3

4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit should
remain unchanged if it is even

Example: Given number 6450→3.64, because the preceding digit of 5 is even which is 4

5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros then the preceding digit should be
raised by one if it is add

Example: Given number 3.6350→3.64, because the preceding digit 3 is odd

7
1.9 How to operate arithmetic with significant figures?
It is advisable to follow the following precautions while performing arithmetic operations.
A. Addition and subtraction
For addition and subtraction, you must consider the number of decimal places when you are
determining how many significant figures to report. When numbers are added or subtracted, the
number of decimal places in the result should equal the smallest number of decimal places of any
term in the sum.

The result of adding or subtracting should be rounded off so as to retain digits only as far as the
first column containing estimated figures.

Example:-

i. Addition ii. Subtraction

32.456
+1.23 42.563
1.2 −1.24
34.886 41.323
here the answer for addition should be rounded off to the correct significant figure which is 34.9
and for the subtraction the answer should be 41.32.

B. Multiplication and division

When multiplying several quantities, the number of significant figures in the final answer is the
same as the number of significant figures in the least accurate of the quantities being multiplied,
where “least accurate” means “having the lowest number of significant figures.” The same rule
applies to division.
The result should be rounded off to contain only as many significant figures as are contained in
the least exact factor.

8
Example:-

i. Multiplication ii. Division

3.241
¿2.3 42 . 64
=3 .553333333333 { 3̇ ¿
7.4543 12

Since the least exact factor for the multiplication is 2.3 which has two significant figure,
therefore the answer should have two significant figure that is 7.5. Similarly for multiplication
the correct rounded off answer should be 3.6.

1.10 How to write a report/report writing format/

Each of the experiment should be provided with laboratory report so that the students can record,
calculate and give experimental results. The form of the report will depend on the experiment
done. But the report for each experiment should be started on a fresh page and should normally
consist of the following basic parts.

Name of the group: those you did together the experiment

Date:-the date in which the experiment was carried on.

Title: - clear statements of the subject of the experiment

Objective: - a short description of the intention of the experiment problem or question to be

answered.

Apparatus list: - the lists of all equipments used for carrying out the experiments are presented
here.

Theory: - this part includes the outline of the theory underlying the experiment as guide in
understanding why certain things are done and how the readings are made use of in calculating
the final results. Do not simply copy the manual when you report your experiment but
summarize the most important parts without the derivations given in the manual.

9
Procedure: - give full details how the experiments are taken. Mention the precautions you took
to obtain accurate measurement, and mention any special methods to undertake the experiment.
You should write in your own words, in past tens or past perfect tens when you report.

Observation: - measurements taken during the experiment. Data should be recorded as soon as it
is obtained. Writing should be readable. Pay attention to significant figures so that the numbers
gives maximum information. In recording data it is a good practice to give the uncertainty of
each measurement son other will know how reliable your data and results are.

Data analysis and graphs:-calculate step by step the different results of your experiment and the
errors. If graph is plotted choose scales and label the two axes and give the unit.

Results, discussion and conclusion:-the main results must be given to sensible source of
accuracy and it must state the units concerned. Errors or uncertainty in the measurements should
be discussed as well as difficulty encountered during the experiment.
Answer of the question given for each experiment:-the question presented at the last of the
given experiment must be replied by the experimenter.
If you do not complete an experiment, a statement of the reasons for discontinuing should also be
given.

In short the report has to be written according to a certain format for it has to contain all
information of the experiment along with your performance on doing the experiment. One should
follow the following basic format while writing a report.

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 DAMBI DOLLO UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS Cover page
Name of students in the group ________________________ID.No___________
Experiment No. ________________________ DATE_______________
Title of the
experiment____________________________________________________________
Objective______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__
Apparatus_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Theory (from manual and other sources)

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__
Procedure (written in reported form)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__ ______________________________________________________________________
Data/observation ( collected during experiment)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________
Data analysis (include each calculation and steps)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Result________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
Sources of error
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

11
Answer to questions
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Conclusion____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
References
1.__________________________________________________________________
2.__________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________

12
Experiment -1: Basic measurements
Measurements of Length, Mass and Volume by using different measure instruments
1. Objectives:

 To make accurate measurements with meter stick, vernier-calipers, micrometer screw

gauge, triple beam balance.
 To compare the accuracy of the measuring devices with each other
 To help student learn basics of measurement and measurement errors

2. Apparatus

 Meter stick (metric ruler), Meter-tape, Beam balance , Vernier caliper, Micrometer screw
gauge, Wire (copper wire), Metallic cylinder, Rectangular block

3. Theory

The first laboratory skill you need to learn is that of making accurate measurements and their
standard expressions. The extent to which you accurately measured a given quantity is also
reflected in the way you record it and the care you take in using it in calculations. So, you also
need to learn performing calculations with measured quantities so that the frequency of
calculated result confirms to the accuracy of measured values. The measurements most
frequently made in physics are those length, mass and time. Most other physical quantities can
be obtained through appropriate combinations of these measurements. Here you are now to learn
the most fundamental care you have to take with any measuring device in this experiment.

3.1 The meter stick

As you can see from the diagram below, a meter stick is usually calibrated in centimeters with
making indicating 0.1cm intervals. So with meter stick you can make measurements to 0.1cm.

13
you cannot use it to measure anything whose size is smaller than 0.1cm. the smallest limit is
known as the least step of the meter stick.

Fig.1: Correct reading of a meter stick

You will see that other devices have other least steps. Similar measuring device are compared
using their least steps. In general, the smaller the least step the better. Besides choosing a
measuring device with a better least step, to obtain maximum accuracy, certain precaution is
needed. Using mater stick, it should be placed on its edges as close as possible to object being
measured (See fig.1) and also you should read from the scale as straight as possible. In addition
to this in general most measuring devices do not exactly start from zero. To avoid incorrect
reading due to inappropriately set zero you should always start from some other point inward.
The part you leave behind is called zero error. For example see the diagram above. The edge of
the body whose length is to be measured is place at 1.0cm mark. So, the zero error in this case is
1.cm. this means, to every reading you make, you have to subtract 1.0cm to obtain the exact
value.

Example

The length of the piece of the stick is

L=Scale reading - zero error = 4.2cm - 1.0cm=3.2cm

3.2 Vernier Calipers

Vernier Caliper is a device which helps us to measure length with an accuracy of length of
millimeter. Vernier Caliper are used for measuring length ranging from 10mm to 120mm with
typical reading accuracy of 0.01mm. It consists of two scales; namely main (fixed) scale- which

14
has a jaw at one end that is divided in to centimeter and millimeter and vernier scale- which is
arranged to slide along the fixed scale.

Fig.2 Vernier calipers

To this scale there is also another jaw. The verneir is divided so that ten divisions on its cover the
9
same interval as nine divisions on the fixed scale. Hence the length of each vernier division is
10
mm or 0.9mm. When the jaws are closed, the zero line of the vernier coincides with the zero line
on the main scale. However, the first vernier division is 0.1mm away from the first 1mm main
scale division; the second vernier division is 0.2mm away from the second main scale division
and so on. A measurement is made with a vernier caliper by closing the jaws on the object to be
measured and then reading the position where the zero line of the vernier falls on the main scale.
The fractional part of the main scale division to be added to the main scale reading is obtained by
noting which line on the vernier coincides with a line of the main scale. In general, to measure
with vernier calipers follows the following procedure.

i. Close the jaws of the instrument. If the zero of the main scale and the zero of the vernier
scale do not coincide record the zero error. This should be added to or subtracted from, as
the case of may be, in all subsequent readings.
ii. Open the jaws of the instrument place the object between them and close the jaws on the
part of the object to be measured. Lock with locking screw (See fig. 3).
iii. Record the position of zero mark of the vernier scale on the fixed scale. If the zero mark
is between two marks on the fixed scale take the smaller one.

15
 Fig.3: Measuring with vernier calipers

Example: In figure 3 the zero mark of vernier scale is between 1.3 and 1.4 cm. thus the main

scale reading you take is 1.3 cm.

iv. Look along vernier scale and identify the mark on the vernier scale that exactly coincides

with any main scale mark. This gives the vernier scale reading. Example: In fig.3 the

vernier scale reading which is indicated by the vernier scale mark that exactly coincides

with the main scale mark is 5.

v. The length of the body put between the two jaws is then determined as

Size = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading x 0.01cm

Example:

Length = 1.3 cm + 5 x 0.01 cm

=1.35 cm

3.3 Micrometer Screw Gauge

This instrument can measure even smaller length than the vernier calipers such as the diameter of
the wire or the thickness of a sheet of metal. It has like vernier calipers, two scales. The main
scale is calibrated in millimeters (0.1cm) and the vernier scale divides 1mm in to 100 parts or

16
0.5mm into 50 parts. This means, using micrometer you can measure a very small length, as
small as 0.001cm

Fig. 4: Micrometer screw gauge

When the spindle rests firmly, but not too tight against the anvil, the zero on the circular scale
should exactly coincide with the zero mark on the barrier of the frame. Remember, you need to
check the zero error of the instrument before using it. That is check whether the zero of vernier
coincide with the zero of the main scale. If it does not, you should make necessary corrections
after obtaining your readings.

To measure with micrometer screw gauge follow the following procedure.

i. Determine the pitch of the screw that is the value of each division on the main scale
(whether 0.5mm or 1mm). Example: For the micrometer screw gauge in the above
diagram the pitch is 0.5nm.
ii. Gently close the jaws of the screw gauge using the ratchet to avoid straining the threads.
Note the zero error.

17
 iii. Carefully unscrew the instrument by suitable amount, place the object to be measured
between the jaws, and screw up gently, using the ratchet, until the object is gripped.
iv. Note the reading of the highest visible graduation on the main scale, and note the reading
of the vernier scale reading.
Example: For micro screw gauge in the above: Main scale reading = 5.5mm
Vernier scale division = 12
v. The size of the body put between the jaws of the gauge is then
Size = Main scale reading + Vernier scale division x0.01mm
Example:
For micrometer screw gauge in the diagram
Size = 5.5mm +12x0.01mm=5.62nm
vi. Add or subtract the zero error as the case may be

3.3 Measuring with triple bean balance

There are several kinds of bean balances that are used in measuring mass. The most common one
is in science laboratory is the triple bean balance. It consists of three set of scales each on the
beam. In using the balance, first see that the sliding weights are at the extreme left, or zero. Then,
touch the pan slightly to start the beam swing. The pan should move far enough so that the
pointer will swing at least three spaces up and down to either side of the central park.

Figure 5: Triple beam balance

If the swings are not approximately of equal spaces, the zero adjustment screw may be turned

until the pointer moves as many spaces up as down. Then, the balance is in equilibrium and

18
ready for use. Place on the pan the object whose mass is to be determined. Move step by step the

middle sliding weight to the right until the pointer moves more space down than up from zero,

then put it back by one step. Now do the same to slide weight at the back. Finally, move step by

step the smallest sliding weight at the front until the pointer moves equal spaces up as down the

zero. You do not need to wait for the pointer to come to rest. The mass of the object is equal to

the sum of the masses indicated by the positions of the sliding weights.

Example

In the figure below the mass of the object is M= 400g +60g+1.9g=461.9g

What is the reading scale of the triple bean balance shown in figure below?

M = 6.70g + 80g +800g =886.70g

Mass is an inherent property of an object and is independent of the object’s surroundings and of

the method used to measure it. Also, mass is a scalar quantity and thus obeys the rules of

ordinary arithmetic. Mass is that property of an object that specifies how much inertia the object

has. The SI unit of mass, the kilogram (kg), is defined as the mass of a specific platinum–iridium

19
alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France. This

mass standard was established in 1887 and has not been changed since that time because

platinum–iridium is an unusually stable alloy. Volume is a derived physical quantity and defined

as the product of width (w), height (h) and length (h) for a rectangular object. The dimension of

volume is meter cube. In general it can be given as

V =whl ................................................................................................... .......1.1

For a right cylinder, the volume is given as

d2
V =πR 2 L=π L
4
....................................................................................................1.2

Where R- radius, d- diameter, L-length of the wire. The density ρ (Greek letter rho) of any
substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. Different substances have different densities
mainly because of differences in their atomic masses and atomic arrangements. It is expressed as

m
ρ= ............................................................................................................1.3
V

For example, aluminum has a density of 2.70 g/cm 3, and lead has a density of 11.3 g/cm 3.

Therefore, a piece of aluminum of volume 10.0 cm 3 has a mass of 27.0 g, whereas an equivalent

volume of lead has a mass of 113 g.

4. Procedure

Perform the following steps carefully

i. Take meter stick/meter tape and record its least step. Determine the zero error of meter
stick/ meter tape. Measure the height of laboratory manual/table/door five times. Take the
five measurements at five different places.
ii. Measure the length and the width of the laboratory manual/table/doom by a meter
stick/tape (each once).

20
iii. Use meter stick/tape to measure the length, the thickness, and the width of rectangular
block. Repeat these measurements using vernier calipers.
iv. Using vernier calipers measure the length once and diameter of a cylindrical piece of wire
ten times. Repeat the measurement of the diameter using micrometer gauge.
v. Set the triple beam balance to zero and record its least step. Measure the masses of the
rectangular block you used in procedure #iii and the cylindrical piece of wire in
procedure #iv.
5. Data
i. Measurement of the height of laboratory manual/table/door.
Least step of meter stick/tape = ______________________
Zero error of the meter stick/tape = ____________________
No. measurement 1 2 3 4 5
Height door (cm)

ii. Determination of the area of laboratory manual/table/door

Length= ________________
Width =_________________
iii. Determination of the volume of the rectangular block.
Meter stick Vernier calipers
MSR* VSR* Size = MSR+VSRX0.01cm
Least step
Zero error
Length
Width
Thickness

iv. Determination of the volume of a rectangular block

Lest step of the vernier calipers =______________
Least step of micro screw gauge =______________
Length of wire (vernier caliper)= _______________

21
 MSR = Main Scale Reading
VSR = Vernier Scale Reading

Vernier calipers Micrometer Screw Gauge

No MSR VSR Diameter MSR VSR Diameter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

v. Lest step of triple beam balance = ________________

Mass of rectangular block = ______________
Mass of cylindrical wire = _____________
6. Data analysis

i. Calculate the average height of the laboratory manual/table/door.

H (cm) Hi- H
1
2
3
4
5

22
 Σ

ΣH i
H = 5
= _______________

averge deviation(a . d)=¿

∑ ¿ H i−H ∨¿ ¿= _______________
5

a.d
Absolute Error (A.E) = = _______________
√5

ii. Calculate the area of laboratory manual/table/door

A = Lx W= ________x __________ = ___________
∆L
Relative error of the length =
L
= __________ = _________
∆w
Relative error of the w = w = __________ = ___________
∆A
Relative error of the area A = A = __________ = _________
Absolute error of area = R.ExA= _______x__________= _____________
iii. Calculate the volume of rectangular block.
With meter stick
V = LxWxt= ____x ____x____ = ___________
∆L
Relative error of the length = = __________ = _________
L
∆w
Relative error of the w = w = __________ = ___________
∆t
Relative error of the t = t = __________ = ___________
∆A ∆ L ∆ w ∆t
Relative error of the thickness A = A = L + w + t = _________

Absolute error of area = R.ExV= _______x__________= _____________

iv. Calculate the average diameter of the piece of wire
Vernier calipers Micrometer Screw Gauge

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 No. d (cm) di - d (cm) d (mm) di - d (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Vernier calipers Micrometer screw gauge

Average diameter = ________ Average diameter = __________

a.d =
∑ ¿ d i−d∨¿ ¿= _____ a.d =
∑ ¿ d i−d∨¿ ¿= _____
12 12

A.E =
√12 = ____ A.E =
√12 = ____
Average volume = _________ Average volume = _________
A.Ev = __________ A.Ev = ___________
v. Calculate the density of the rectangular block using the best volume you could determine
in produce #iii.
M
ρB = = _________
v
Relative error of density = __________
AEdensity = ____________
Calculate the density of the cylindrical piece of wire using the best volume you could
determine in procedure iv.
M
ρB = = _________
v
Relative error of density = __________
AEdensity = ____________
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7. Results
i. The average height of the laboratory manual/table /door = ________________
ii. The area of laboratory manual/table /door = _______________
iii. The area of rectangular block/ meter stick = ______________
The area of rectangular block/ vernier caliper = ______________
vi. The average diameter of wire (Vernier caliper) = ____________

The average diameter of wire (Micrometer screw gauge) = ____________

The average diameter of wire (Vernier caliper) = ____________

The average diameter of wire (Micrometer screw gauge) = ____________

vii. Average density of rectangular block = _________

Average density of rectangular block = _________
8. Questions
1. The thickness of the given irregular objects are measured by

A. Micrometer/ Screw Gauge (if A explains in detail)

B. Vernier Calipers (if B explains in detail)

2. During conducting experiments using Micrometer/ Screw Gauge, what mean:-

A. Least Count (LC)

B. Zero Error (ZE) and Zero Correction (ZC)
3. What are the sources of error in the measurements you took in this experiment?
4. Estimate the reading scale of vernier caliper of the box in the following diagram.

25
Experiment-2: Force table and vector addition
1. Objective

➢To find the equilibrant of one or more known forces using a force table and compare the
resultants to obtain by analytical method.

➢To find the net or resultant force.

2. Apparatus

➢Force table

➢Ruler

➢Strings

➢Weight hangers

➢Assorted weights

26
➢Bubble level

3. Theory

Experiment -2: Simple Pendulum

1. Objectives

27
  To investigate the functional dependence of period of a pendulum on its length
 To determine acceleration due to gravity from simple pendulum.

2. Apparatus List

 Small heavy ball (pendulum bob), light string, meter sticks; stop clock and retort stand with
clamp.

3. Theory

A simple pendulum is an idealized body consisting of a point mass suspended by a weight less in
extensible cord oscillating through a very small angle in the vacuum. But it is impossible to set
up idealized pendulum. However, our own pendulum may be considered approximately ideal,
when pulled to one side of its equilibrium position and released, the pendulum swings in a
vertical plane under the influence of gravity. The motion is periodic and oscillatory.

Fig 1 shows a pendulum of length L, particle of mass M, making an angle θ with the vertical.
The forces acting on M are Mg (i.e. gravitational force) and T (i.e. the tension in the cord). The
time taken to perform one complete cycle is known as period and usually denoted by T. The
amplitude may be expressed in several ways: (1) the maximum height H attained by the bob; (2)
the maximum horizontal displacement X; or (3) the maximum angle of displacement θ . All of
these are measured from the lowest point of the bob's motion. In terms of the suspension length
L, these are related by tanθ = X/ (L-H).

Fig. 1 The simple pendulum

28
We wish to determine the period of the motion. Choose axes tangent to the circle of motion and
along the radius. Resolve Mg in to a radial component of magnitude Mgcosθ and the tangential
component of Mgsinθ. The radial components of the force supply the necessary centripetal
acceleration to keep the particle moving on the circular path (arc). The tangential component is
the restoring force acting on M tending to return it to the equilibrium position. Hence the
restoring force:-

F= -Mgsinθ……………………………………………………………………….2.1

Notice that the restoring force is not proportional to the angular displacement θ but to sinθ
instead. The motion is therefore, not simple harmonic. However, if the angle θ is small sinθ is
very nearly equal to θ in radians. The displacement along the arc is X=Lθ, and for small angles
this is nearly straight line motion. Hence assuming sinθ= θ, We obtain:-

−Mgx −Mgx
F=-Mg θ= = …………………………………………………………….2.2
L L

For small displacements, therefore, the restoring force is proportional to the displacement and is the
Mg
oppositely directed. This is exactly the criterion for simple harmonic motion. The constant presenters
L
the constant K is F= -Kx

The period of the simple pendulum when its amplitude is small is:-

√ √ √
T=2 π m =2 π mL =2 π L ……………….……………………………………………2.3
K Mg g

2
4π
g= 2
L…………………………………..………………………………………………2.4
T

For a system which performs a simple harmonic motion, it is not usually easy to obtain T directly instead,
the time t for n oscillations (n=30, 50 etc,) is found then

29
 t
T= n ……………………………………………………………………………………..…

2.5

4. Procedure

i. Use vernier calipers to measure the diameter of the bob (sphere).

ii. Prepare a pendulum with an initial length of about 1.30cm. Add one half of the diameter
of the bob in order to obtain the correct length L of the pendulum.
iii. Displace the pendulum a small angle and record the time for 20 oscillations by a
stopwatch. Repeat the same procedure for another 9 length.
5. Data

No L Time for 20 oscillation (t)

Length ( )
cm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

6. Data analysis
a) Determine the period of oscillation corresponding to each length of pendulum. Calculate also
the square of period T2 and fill the following table.

No L Time for each T2 4 πL gi - g

Length ( ) g=
cm T
2
oscillation (t/s)

30
b) Using equation (2), calculate the acceleration due to gravity for each length of the pendulum.
Write the calculated values in the above table.
c) Calculate the mean value of the acceleration due to gravity, g

g=
∑ gi = ________
10
c) Calculate the deviation of any measurement gi from the mean value g , gi - g and five the
above table.

a.d =
∑ ¿ g i−g∨¿ ¿ = ________________
10
e) Calculate the absolute error of the main gravitational acceleration.
a.d
A.E = = _____________
√n
f) Plot a graph of L versus T2. From the slope of this graph determine the acceleration due to
gravity.
g) What is the percentage error of acceleration due to gravity determined in (e) from the mean.

7. Result and Discussion

a) The average gravitation acceleration at Dambi Dollo University is g = ________________.
b) Compare and contrast between the length of pendulum and period of the oscillation.
c) Comment on the result of the experiment and the degree of reliability of the results.

31
d) What are the possible sources of error in this experiment and how do they affect the result of
this experiment?
8. Questions
a) Derive T = 2 π √ L/ g.
b) The is the most probable value of acceleration due to gravity at Dambi Dollo University?
c) Calculate the length of pendulum whose period is 3s at Dambi Dollo University.
d) What is the period of pendulum of length 50cm near the surface of the moon?
e) What is the reason for making the angle so small for the simple pendulum?

Experiment -3: The parallel axis theorem for a physical pendulum

32