CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Covalent Bonds
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion

To achieve the electronic configuration of nearest noble gas, He, if the

carbon atom loses four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy
is involved. C 4+ ion hence formed will be highly unstable due to the
presence of six protons and two electrons.

If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic
configuration of the noble gas, Ne, C 4− ion will be formed. But again, a
huge amount of energy is required. Moreover, in C 4+ ion it is difficult for
6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon
shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.

Ionic Bond

Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between

a metal and a nonmetal. The electrostatic attractions between the
oppositely charged ions hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents

Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between

two atoms. It is primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or
between nonmetallic atoms with similar electronegativity.
Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot
structures. These are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in

the centre. The dots around it represent the valence electrons of the
element.

Lewis structures of elements with atomic

number 5-8

Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2

Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:

Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It

requires one more to acquire nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It
requires two electrons to acquire nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double
bond.
Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It
requires three electrons to acquire nearest noble gas configuration
(Ne).Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple
bond.

Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths

A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are
shared between them, i.e., one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are
shared between them, i.e., one pair of electrons from each participating
atom. It is depicted by double lines between the two atoms.

A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are
shared between them, i.e., two pairs of electrons from each participating
atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the two atoms.

Bond strength:

- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy

required to break a bond.
- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is:
Triple bond>double bond>single bond
- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher
than that for two bonds or a single bond.

Bond length

- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two

atoms in a bond.
- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double
bond<single bond The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is
least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each
with the nitrogen atom and form three covalent bonds.

Ammonia has one lone pair.

All the three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair
of electrons lies more towards N atom.
This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H
atom a slight positive charge.

In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the
oxygen atom and form two covalent bonds.
 Water has two lone pairs.
The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair
of electrons lies more towards O atom.
This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge,
and H atom a slight positive charge.

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are

shared with four hydrogen atoms as shown below.

Mp,Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
 4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon

- The phenomenon of existence of the same element in different physical

forms with similar chemical properties is known as allotropy.

- Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this

phenomenon.
- Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
- Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black
and gas carbon.

Diamond

Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each

carbon is connected to four neighbouring carbon atoms via single
covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a crystal. These crystal units
lie in different planes and are connected to each other, resulting in a
rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.

Diamond:

1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.

Graphite

In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon

atoms, leaving each carbon atom with one free valency. This arrangement
results in hexagonal rings in a single plane and such rings are stacked
over each other through weak Van der Waals forces.

Graphite:

1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.

2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.
C60

C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable

form of the known fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in
small quantities in soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20
hexagons, like in a soccer ball.

Chains, Branches and Rings

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon

single bonds. These are known as alkanes. General formula = C nH2n+2
where n = 1,2,3,4…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-
carbon double or triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called
alkenes. General formula = CnH2n where n = 2,3,4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called
alkynes. General formula = CnH2n−2 where n = 2,3,4…..

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or

rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.

Structural Isomers

The compounds with same molecular formula and different physical or

chemical properties are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known
as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their
molecules are called structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as
structural isomerism.

Structural isomers with molecular formula - C5H12

Benzen

Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.

Physical properties:
colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure :
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula, C6H6, i.e., each carbon atom
in benzene is arranged in a six-membered ring and is bonded to only
one hydrogen atom.
It includes 3-double bonds which are separated by a single bond.
Hence this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double
bonds and two stable resonance structures exist for the ring.
Functional Groups and Nomenclature
Functional Groups

An atom or a group of atoms which when present in a compound gives

specific physical and chemical properties to it regardless of the length and
nature of the carbon chain is called a functional group.

Classification of Functional Groups

Main Functional Groups:

(i)Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing - OH

group are known as alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH3OH),
Ethanol (CH3 − CH2 − OH), etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO

group are known as aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal
(CH3CHO), etc.

(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O)

group flanked by two alkyl groups are known as ketones. For example,
Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH 3COCH 2CH3), etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group
(-COOH). Hence they are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH), Propanoic acid
(CH3CH2COOH), etc.

(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than
one hydrogen atom is substituted by - X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as
haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane
(CH3Br), etc.

Homologous Series:

Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same

general formula, similar chemical characteristics but different physical
properties. The adjacent members differ in their molecular formula by
−CH2.
Physical Properties

The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical

properties due to the same functional group. Their physical properties
such as melting point, boiling point, density, etc., show a regular
gradation with the increase in the molecular mass.

Chemical Properties

Combustion Reactions

Combustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in

the presence of air or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.

Flame Characteristics

Saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons

give smoky flame. In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated
hydrocarbons give smoky flame.

Oxidation

Oxidation :
By use of mild oxidizing agent, CrO3 (chromic anhydride), ethanol
CH3CH2OH is oxidised to ethanal (CH3CHO).
Whereas, by use of a strong oxidizing agent like (alkaline KMnO 4 or
acidified K2Cr2O7), ethanol CH3CH2OH is oxidised to ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH).

7
Addition

The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product

having all the atoms of the combining molecules are called addition
reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this
reaction, hydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond in the
presence of a catalyst like nickel, palladium or platinum.

𝑁𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑑
C2 H 2 + H2 C2H2

Substitution

The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced

or substituted by different atoms or group of atoms is called substitution
reaction. In alkanes, hydrogen atoms are replaced by other elements.

CH4 + Cl2 + Sunlight → CH3Cl + HCl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol

(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.

(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.

Uses:
As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
1. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and
synthetic rubber.

2. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine

How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious

poisoning and loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide.
This reaction supports the acidic character of ethanol.

2C2H5OH + 2Na → 2C 2H 5O −Na+ + H2(↑)

Elimination Reaction

An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are

removed from a molecule. These reactions play an important role in the
preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction

Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce

ethylene. This reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in
this reaction, a water molecule is removed from the ethanol molecule.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
CH3CH2OH CH2 = CH2 + H2O

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH

(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in cold climate and therefore it is
named as glacial acetic acid.

Esterification

When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with an alcohol in presence of small

quantity of conc. HSO, a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction
of ester formation is called esterification.
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of conc.H 2SO4, ethyl
ethanoate and Water are formed.

Saponification

A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acids (fatty

acid). The soap molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where
R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group and −COO−Na+ ionic group. When
oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a concentrated
sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place;
soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is
commonly known as saponification.

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and
magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH + 2Na → 2CH3COONa + H2(↑)

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and

water.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates with the

evolution of CO2 gas. For example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, CO2 gas is
evolved.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Friendly Carbon

Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds

Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size,
electronic configuration and unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds.
Tetravalency, catenation and tendency to form multiple bonds with
other atoms account for the formation of innumerable carbon
compounds.

Catenation

Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom

forms covalent bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form
straight or branched chains and rings of different sizes. It is shown by
carbon, sulphur and silicon.

S8

In its native state, sulphur show catenation up to 8 atoms in the form of S 8

molecule. It has puckered ring structure.
 ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

The various physical forms in which an element can exist are called
allotropes of the elements.

The carbon element exist in three solid forms called allotropes. They are

1) Diamond 2) Graphite 3) Bickminster fullerene

Diamond & graphite are two common allotropes of carbon which are known
to us for centuriel, Buckminster fullerence is the new allotrope of carbon which
has been discovered recently

The properties of diamond & graphite are well known but the properties of
buckminster fullerence are still being investigated.

All the allotropes of carbon burns on strong heating to form carbon dioxide,
and the formed carbon dioxide gas if ii pass through lime water. It turns to
milky. It shows that all the allotropes of carbon contain carbon.

DIAMOND

Diamond is a colourless transparent substance having extraordinary

brilliance.

Diamond is quite heavy and extremely hard

It is the hardest natural substance known in the nature

Diamond does not conduct electricity

STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND

Each carbon atom in the diamond

crystal is linked to four other carbon
atoms by strong covalent bonds, the
four surrounding Carbon atoms are at
the four corners of a regular tetra
hedron and which are powerfully
bonded to one another forms network of
covalent bonds, due to this diamond structure is very rigid. This rigid structure
make it very hard, and also responsible for  High density melting point and
boiling point.

Diamond is a non conductor of electricity

Carbon atom has 4 valence electron in it. In a diamond crystal, each carbon
atom is linked to 4 other carbon atoms by covalent bonds, and hence all the A
valence electrons of each carbon atom are used up in forming the bonds.
Since there are “ no free electrons” in a diamond crystal, it does not conduct
electricity.

Diamonds can be made artificially by subjecting pure carbon to very high

pressure & temperature. There are called synthetic diamonds, synthetic
diamonds are small but are otherwise indistinguishable from natural diamonds.

USES OF DIAMONDS:

 In glass cutter

 For making Jewellery

 A sharp, diamond edged knife(called keratoma) is used by eye surgeons

to remove cataract from eye.

 As diamond studded saws & drill bits.

GRAPHITE

The structure of graphite is very

different from that of diamond. A graphite
crystal consists of layers of Carbon
atoms of sheets of carbon atoms

Each carbon atoms in a graphite layer

is joined to three other carbon atoms by
strong covalent bonds to form flat
hexagonal rings. The various layers of
carbon atoms in graphite are quite far
apart so that no covalent bonds can exist between them. The various layers of
 carbon atoms in graphite are held together by weak Vander waals forces.
Since the various layers of carbon atoms in graphite are joined by weak forces.
They can slide over one another.

Due to the sheet like structure graphite is a comparatively soft substance. It

is the softness of graphite which makes it useful as a dry lubricant for machine
parts.

Graphite is a good conductor of electricity it is because in a graphite crystal.

Each carbon atoms is joined to only three other carbon atoms by covalent
bonds, Thus only the three valence electrons of each carbon atoms in graphite
are used in bond formation. The fourth valence electron of each carbon atom is
“free” to move

Due to the “presence of free electrons” in a graphite crystal, it conducts

electricity.

Like diamond, graphite also has very high melting point.

USES OF GRAPHITE

 Due to its softness used as lubricants both dry and wet forms

 Graphite is good conductor of electricity due to which graphite is used for

making carbon or graphite electrode in dry cells & electric arcs.

 Graphite is used in making pencil leads.

BUCK MINISTER FULLERENE

Buckminster fullerene is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60 carbon

atoms joined together to form spherical molecules

It is a dark solid at room temperature

It differs from the other two allotropes of carbon, diamond & graphite are gaint
molecules which consists of an unending network of carbon atoms but
buckminsterfullerene is very small molecule made up of only 60 carbon atoms.
 Diamond is extremely hard where as graphite is soft. On the other hand,
buckminsterfullerene is neither very hard nor soft.

Other properties of buckminsterfullerene are still being investigated.

Soaps and Detergents-

Cleansing Action of Soap

When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves
to form spherical shape micelles.

The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or
oil part of the fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains
attracted to water molecules.

The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt
particles and detach them from the fibres of the fabric.
Hard Water
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as
bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water,
calcium and magnesium ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble
curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa +MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg + 2NaCl

2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2NaCl

These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with
the cleaning ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.