Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Thermodynamic performance evaluation of solar and other thermal

power generation systems: A review
M.K. Gupta a, S.C. Kaushik b, K.R. Ranjan b, N.L. Panwar c, V. Siva Reddy d,n, S.K. Tyagi e
a
Ujjain Engineering College, Ujjain 456010, Madhya Pradesh, India
b
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
c
Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur 313001, Rajasthan, India
d
Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute, Vallabh Vidhyanagar 388120, Gujarat, India
e
Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Renewable Energy, Jalandhar-Kapurthala Road, Wadala Kalan, Kapurthala 144601, Punjab, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this communication, detailed review of the solar thermal power plants based on the available solar
Received 13 July 2013 concentrator systems like parabolic trough, parabolic dish, central tower, linear Fresnel reflector system
Received in revised form are reported. The aim of the paper is to summarize overall research work being carried out worldwide on
12 March 2015
the thermodynamic performance evaluation of solar and other thermal power generation systems using
Accepted 9 May 2015
different thermodynamic cycles. An attempt has also been made to assess as well as compare the
energetic and exergetic performance of such thermal power generation systems. It has been observed
Keywords: that the efficiencies of the solar concentrator aided coal fired thermal power plant, and combined-cycle
Solar thermal power plants are higher as compared to a solar alone thermal power plants. Furthermore, there is much
Exergetic analysis
scope in the areas of solar aided thermal power generation for further research with the aim of
Energetic analysis
quantifying energy and exergy losses, and exergy destructions in the components of the solar thermal
Thermal power plant
Solar concentrators power generation systems.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
2. Performance evaluation through energy and exergy analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
2.1. Exergy of solar energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
3. Solar thermal power generation systems with various solar concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
3.1. Solar thermal power generation systems with parabolic trough concentrator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
3.2. Solar thermal power generation systems with central tower receiver concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
3.3. Solar thermal power generation systems with parabolic dish concentrator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
3.4. Solar thermal power generation system with linear Fresnel reflecting concentrator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
4. Energy and exergy analysis of solar and other thermal power generation systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
4.1. Coal fired thermal power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
4.2. Gas fired combined cycle power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
4.3. Solar aided thermal power generation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

1. Introduction

Owing to exponential population growth, rapid industrializa-

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 9898722118. tion, urbanization, modernization and improvement in the standard
E-mail address: vundelaap@gmail.com (V.S. Reddy). of living, the global electricity consumption is expected to increase

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.034
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
568 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

significantly in coming years [1]. Extensive use of coal and other fossil The aim of exergetic analysis is to perceive and to evaluate
fuels have led to pile of an enormous amount of carbon dioxide in the quantitatively the effect of irreversible phenomena which increases
earth’s atmosphere and a resultant global warming [2]. Increase in the in the thermodynamic imperfection of the considered process [15,16].
capacity of the hydro power plants; however, needs building of large The optimal design criteria for any thermal system can be achieved by
water storages. There is a limitation on building water storages, as maximizing the exergy output/exergy efficiency of the system or by
they involve heavy cost, submerging of large-area, disturbing existing reducing the irreversibility of the system [12]. Thermodynamically
ecological balance, etc. Increase in the capacity of electricity genera- there is a direct relationship between the irreversibility of the process
tion through other renewable energy sources is a matter of further and the amount of useful work dissipated during the process [8].
research and development. Presently, the maximum demand of Exergy is maximum work potential which can be obtained from a
electricity is met by the thermal power generation systems. Any form of energy [8,9,12]. The exergy losses have a significant effect on
modifications in the existing thermal power plants to increase the environmental impact and can be used as a criterion for assessing the
electricity generation capacity by the utilization of renewable-energy depletion of natural resources [15]. Thermodynamic assessment of
sources can lead to sustainable growth in the power production any system is incomplete, unless the exergy concept becomes a part of
capacity. Among the renewable-energy sources, solar energy is one of the analysis [15,17,18–24]. Exergy is a generic term for a group of
the cleanest forms of energy resources and considered as a green concepts that define the maximum work potential of a system, a
source of energy available abundantly. Similar to fossil fuels and stream of matter or a heat interaction; the state of the (conceptual)
nuclear energy, solar thermal energy (solar heat) can be transformed environment being used as the datum state. In an open flow system,
into electricity by the thermodynamic process, which is of the highest there are three types of energy transfer across the control surface,
importance in the present situation. Electricity generation thermal namely work-transfer, heat-transfer, and energy associated with mass
systems added with solar energy source release very low carbon to transfer or flow. The work transfer is equivalent to exergy in every
the environment and have less payback time. The power generation respect as exergy is maximum work which can be obtained from that
from it seems most promising and viable option for the present and form of energy.
future [3,4]. The exergy of heat transfer Q from the control surface at
In this paper, detailed review of the solar thermal power plant temperature Tk is determined from maximum rate of conversion
based on the available concentrator technologies like a parabolic of thermal energy to work Wmax. The Wmax is given by
trough, parabolic dish, central tower, linear Fresnel reflector system
Ta
 
are reported. It provides useful knowledge and aids in development of W max ¼ Q 1 ð1Þ
Tk
solar electricity generation for different climatic conditions.
This review is presented here with the aim to summarize Exergy of the steady flow stream of matter is sum of kinetic,
overall research work being carried out worldwide for solar potential and physical exergy. The kinetic and potential energies
thermal power generation using different generation routes and are again equivalent to exergy. The physical specific exergy Ψ
thermodynamic cycles. An attempt has also been made to assess as depends on initial state point of matter and environmental state
well as compare the energetic and exergetic performance of such and is given by
thermal power generation systems. h  i
Ψ ¼m _ h0 h0a T 0 ðs sa Þ ð2Þ

2. Performance evaluation through energy and exergy analysis 0 C2

h ¼ hþ þ gZ ð3Þ
2
These days, need of improving the efficiency of existing thermal
The subscript a refers to the environmental state, h is specific
power generation systems as well as the systems under design and a
enthalpy; s is specific entropy and Ta is environmental/ambient
development stage has been felt for effective utilization of energy
temperature.
resources. Energy and exergy analysis are thermodynamic tools to
Energy analysis is based on the first law of thermodynamics, which
evaluate and better understand the performance of power generation
is related to the conservation of energy. Exergetic analysis is a method
systems. It also helps in identifying the components and processes
that uses the conservation of mass and conservation of energy
where there is more possibility of improvement.
principles together with the second law of thermodynamics for the
Normally, performance evaluation of thermal power generation
analysis, design and improvement of energy systems. Exergetic
system is performed using the concept of the first law of thermo-
analysis is a useful method to complement, but not to replace energy
dynamics (i.e. through energy analysis). It is found to be inade-
analysis. Unlike the mass and energy, the exergy is not conserved. The
quate, and more meaningful evaluation must include second law
first law of thermodynamics or energy balance for steady flow process
analysis (i.e. exergy analysis). The second law analysis is based on
of an open system is given by
law of degradation of available energy, i.e. quality of energy which ! !
is the more realistic, rational and true measure of the deviation of X
_ Ci2 Co2 _
Q k þ m hi þ
_ þ gZ i ¼ m ho þ
_ þ gZ o þ W ð4Þ
an actual system from the ideal system. 2 2
The first law gives no distinction between heat and work, no
provision for quantifying the quality of heat, no accounting for the where Qk heat transfer to system from source at temperature Tk, and
work lost through a process and no information about the optimal W is the network developed by the system. The other notations C is
conversion of energy [5,6]. The second law of thermodynamics the bulk velocity of the working fluid, Z is the altitude of the stream
applied in the form of exergy balances for components and processes above the sea level, g is the specific gravitational force.
can locate and quantify the irreversibilities which cause loss of work The exergy balance for steady flow process of an open system is
and inefficiency in thermal systems. Identifying the main sites of given by
exergy loss shows the direction for potential improvements. The X Ta _
 X X
1 Qk þ mΨ _ Wþ
_ i ¼ Ex _ o þ _I
mΨ ð5Þ
principles and methods of exergetic analysis are well established [6– Tk in out
11]. Many of the analyses might be more effective if a greater
prominence is given to the exergetic analysis [12]. The second law where Ψi and Ψo are respectively the exergy associated with mass
1 ðT a =T k Þ Q_ k exergy associated with


analysis provides the tool for clear distinction between energy losses inflow and outflow, is
P

to the environment and internal irreversibilities in the process [13,14]. _ W is exergy associated with work transfer and I is
heat transfer, Ex
 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582 569

irreversibility of process. The irreversibility [25] is also given by 3. Solar thermal power generation systems with various solar
Gouy–Stodola theorem as concentrators
_I ¼ T a S_ gen ð6Þ
In a solar thermal power generation system, solar radiation is
Exergetic analysis yields useful results because it deals with collected by using various types of solar concentrator or solar
irreversibility minimization or maximum exergy delivery. The ponds [31]. This solar energy is converted into thermal energy
irreversibility may be due to heat transfer through finite tempera- (heat) by increasing temperature of the fluid (heat transfer
ture difference, mixing of fluids and mechanical friction. Irrever- mediums). This heated fluid may be directly used in any of the
sible energy transfer in a process leads to exergy loss or entropy thermodynamic power cycles such as Reheat and Regenerative
generation. Exergetic analysis is an effective means to pinpoint Rankine Cycle, Brayton/Joule Cycle, and Stirling Cycle, or passes
losses due to irreversibility in a real situation and evaluate various through a heat exchanger to heat a secondary fluid (working fluid)
thermodynamic losses in terms of various entropy generations. which is used in the power cycle to produce mechanical energy.
Exergetic analysis of a complex system can be performed by Finally, mechanical energy is converted into electricity by means
analyzing the components of the system separately. of an alternator.
The energetic or first law efficiency ηI of a system or component The solar concentrator is the major component of the solar thermal
of the system (based on the first law of thermodynamics) is power generation system. There is a temperature limitation of each
defined as the ratio of energy output to the energy input of system solar collector. A temperature up to 100 1C can be achieved with flat-
or component of the system i.e. plate solar collectors applicable for the Organic Rankine Cycle used in
Desired output energy the small solar thermal power plants of about 10 kW. Other four
ηI ¼ ð7Þ types of solar collector are primarily used in the solar thermal power
Input energy supplied
generation systems of medium (up to 400 1C) and high (above 400 1C)
The exergetic or second law efficiency ηII (based on the second temperature ranges:
law of thermodynamics) is defined as
Desired output Exergy output  Parabolic trough concentrator (cylindrical parabolic solar
ηII ¼ or ð8Þ collector).
Maximum possible output Exergy input
 Central tower receiver concentrator.
 Parabolic dish concentrator.
 Linear Fresnel reflecting concentrator.
2.1. Exergy of solar energy

The exergy of radiation differs from exergy of heat by irreversibility A number of studies have been reported in literature on the
occurring during conversion of radiation into heat (i.e. absorption) or design, development and applications of the above solar concen-
reverse conversion (i.e. emission). Absorption and emission phenom- trators, working fluids and use of various power cycles in solar
ena are thermodynamically irreversible, whereas transmission of thermal power generation systems which are discussed in the
radiation is reversible. following sections.
The maximum useful work from solar radiation sets the upper
limit of performance for solar energy conversion devices. The exergy 3.1. Solar thermal power generation systems with parabolic trough
of thermal radiation and in particular, the exergy of solar radiation has concentrator
been the subject of a number of fundamental studies. Petela [26]
derived the formulae related to radiation exergy for different radiation Most cost effective and successfully employed solar collector used
categories. Different relations have been suggested in order to evaluate in the solar thermal plants of medium temperature range is the line-
the exergy of radiation in a period of around 20 years [27–29]. It can focusing parabolic collector. The line focus system, also known as
be concluded from these relations that thermal radiation from the sun trough system consists of long parallel rows of reflectors made by
is relatively rich in exergy. bending a sheet of reflective material into a parabolic shape. The
Gribik and Osterle [28] reported four different expressions for absorber tube or receiver is kept at the focal point of the reflector/
the maximum thermodynamically permitted efficiency of solar concentrator. The receiver is a black treated metal tube covered with a
devices for converting undiluted black body radiation from the sun glass tube, the space between the pipe and glass cover is evacuated to
into useful work. Bejan [27] presented a unified theory to explain reduce convective heat losses. A tracking mechanism is to be used to
the exergy of solar radiation and raised some doubts on Petela’s follow the sun for the collection of maximum solar radiation and must
theory [26]. Later, Van Wylen et al. [25] explained and clarified the be able to track the sun during periods of intermittent cloud cover.
points raised by Bejan [27] and accordingly the exergy of radiation Finally, the parabolic trough concentrator is returned to its original
emitted by a black body, which is at temperature Ts, is calculated position at the end of the day or during the night. At present, tracking
by multiplying the energy of radiation by exergetic efficiency term system for the parabolic trough concentrator is based on “virtual”
ηg, as given by tracking. The traditional sun-tracking unit with sensors that detect the
position of the sun has been replaced by a system based on calculation
"   #
4 Ta 1 Ta 4
 
ηs ¼ 1 þ ð9Þ of the sun position using a mathematical algorithm [32].
3 Ts 3 Ts
The biggest application of this type of system is found in the
The exergetic efficiency ηs term for solar beam radiation is southern California Power Plants known as Solar Electric Generat-
calculated at black body temperature Ts(E 5600 K) of the sun (by ing Systems (SEGS), which have a total installed capacity of
assuming the sun as a black body radiation source). For simplicity 354 MWe [33]. SEGS I is 14 MWe, SEGS II to VII are 30 MWe each,
of the analysis the effective temperature of diffuse solar radiation and SEGS VIII and IX are 80 MWe each. A recent development in
may also be taken equal to that of sun temperature. Since, the cost-effective concentrators is the design of the Euro Trough, a
temperature of radiating surface for the diffused solar radiation is new parabolic trough concentrator in which an advanced light-
unknown and hence the measured data on the spectrum of weight structure is used to achieve cost-efficient solar power
diffused radiation at that instant of time is required for the generation [34,35]. More details on this development of parabolic
determination of exergy of solar diffused radiation [30]. concentrator system are given in Table 1.
570 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

efficiency (%)
peak optical

71

76

80

78
80

Hydraulic or 80
Jack screw
Hydraulic

Hydraulic
Drive

Gear

Gear

gear
Silvered thin glass
Silvered low-iron

Silvered low-iron

Silvered low-iron

Silvered low-iron

Silvered low-iron
Mirror Type

float glass

float glass

float glass

float glass

float glass
Geome-tric concent-

Fig. 1. Parabolic collector with absorber tube of Shiraz solar power plant [41].

The parabolic trough solar power plant can collect up to 60–

ration sun

70% of the incident solar radiation and could reach a peak

electrical conversion efficiency of 20–25% (net electricity genera-
61:1

71:1

82:1

50:1
82:1

71:1

tion to incident solar radiation). Treadwell et al. [36] presented the

performance of single-axis tracking parabolic trough solar collec-
Diameter (m)

tors based on the typical meteorological year input data of 11 sites.

From their results, north south horizontal axis parabolic trough
Receiver

collector performance superiority has been recommended.

0.04

0.07

0.07

0.04
0.07

0.07

Further, Treadwell and Grandjean [37] discussed certain systema-

tic errors in the angle between the reflector vertex-focus axis
vertex-sun axis and systematic receiver location error in the
Mirror Area per

vectorial deviation of a receiver from focus on performance and

therefore, their influence on the design of troughs.
drive (m2)

235–313

To assess the optimal use of available solar energy, scientists

formulated a mathematical derivation of concentration ratio and
545
235

424
128

817

rim angle in parabolic troughs [38] and a rational approach to

multi-objective design and optimization of parabolic trough solar
collectors for different design environments [39]. Odeh and
collector (m)
Length per

Morrison [40] developed a transient simulation model for analysis

of the performance of industrial water heating systems using
49–65
50.2

parabolic trough solar collectors. Tao et al. [41] presented the

150
49

99

49

operation principle and designed method of a new trough solar

concentrator. The influence of important design and characteristic
element (m2)

parameters were analyzed and optimized.

Length per

Mullick and Nanda [42] established a different approach to

evaluate the heat loss factor of a tubular absorber with a concentric
6.3

6.1

glass cover. Kearney et al. [43] carried out the feasibility of utilizing a
8

12

12

molten salt as the heat-transfer fluid and for thermal storage in a

length (m)

parabolic trough solar field to improve system performance. Bakos

et al. [44] developed a simulation program based upon the variation
Focal

0.94

1.49

1.49
1.71

1.71
0.76
Data on one-axis parabolic trough concentrators [27].

of collector’s efficiency as a function of heat transfer fluid flux, pipe

diameter, solar radiation intensity and active area under the parabolic
trough concentrator. Naeeni and Yaghoubi [45] presented a study on
width (m)

heat transfer from a receiver tube of the parabolic trough collector of

Aperture

the 250 kW solar power plants in Shiraz (Iran) as shown in Fig. 1. In

2.55

5.76

5.76
2.3

their study, they considered the effects of variation of collector angel

5

based on wind velocity.

Duke Solar Aluminum space

You and Hu [46] workout the feasibility of a reheat-

Space frame
Torque tube

Torque tube

Euro Trough Square truss

framework

regenerative Rankine power cycle for the parabolic trough collec-

torque box
Structure

V-truss

tor along with the optimal thermal and exergetic efficiencies. Gang
frame

et al. [47] designed a low-temperature solar thermal electric

generation with and without regenerative heat exchanger in
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). The results reveal that, with the
Collector

New IST

regenerative ORC the efficiency was about 8.6% and relatively

Table 1

LS-1

LS-2

LS-3

higher than that of non- regenerative heat exchange by 4.9%.

Fernandez-Garcia et al. [48] presented a survey of concentrating
 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582 571

Fig. 2. Life cycle of a solar thermal power plant [46].

Fig. 3. Power flow diagram in the solar boiler [48].

Table 2 proposed a conceptual design of a solar boiler and found that

Design characteristics of the proposed CSPP [49]. overall efficiency of the conversion of direct solar irradiation
energy to electricity is more than 20% as illustrated in Fig. 3.
Capacity 50 MW
Mohammed et al. [53] proposed and analyzed a prototype of a
Number of collectors 560
Collector type Eurotrough 100 50 MW concentrated solar power plant (CSPP) based on the solar
Number of loops 70 irradiation data for electricity generation in Jordan, and its design
Aperture 305,200 m2 characteristics are presented in Table 2. It was found that Jordan
Land use 1200,000 m2 has an outstanding potential for CSPP, especially in the southern
Full-load hours 2345
Annual electricity yield 117 GW h
locations around the country.
Cooling Dry Birnbaum et al. [54] have done comparative analysis of direct
steam generation parabolic trough power plants with and without
thermal storage facility. They found that depending on the live
steam parameters a reheat is necessary within the power block.
solar system, especially for the steam power cycles for electricity Yan et al. [55] presented a dynamic model of solar parabolic
generation. Kerkeni et al. [49] presented a close analysis and trough collectors using explicit Euler’s method. Different working
evaluation of the long-term performance of the system. Lechon conditions of the collector structure and thermal parameters have
et al. [50] discussed the prospect to improve the performance of been considered in the model. The simulated results are validated
50 MW solar parabolic trough thermal plants in Spain, through life using the selected real test data on typical summer and winter
cycle assessment in order to reduce their environmental impacts, days. Garcia et al. [56] described a simulation model that predicted
and the processes modelled in the life cycle of the solar thermal the performance of parabolic trough solar thermal power plants
power plants are depicted in Fig. 2. with a thermal storage system. Model results for a 50 MW power
Montes et al. [51] described the influence of the solar multiple plant were presented and compared to the real performance data.
on the annual performance of parabolic trough solar thermal Montes et al. [57] analyzed the contribution of solar thermal
power plants with direct steam generation. Munoz et al. [52] power to improve the performance of gas-fired combined cycles.
572 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

Table 3 3.2. Solar thermal power generation systems with central tower
Main characteristics of sensible heat storage capacity mediums [73,74]. receiver concentrator
Heat Temperature Average Average thermal Average heat
carrying density (kg/ conductivity (W/ capacity (kJ/ Central tower receiver concentrators consist of a central tower
medium Cold Hot m3) m K) kg K) surrounded by a large array of sun tracking mirrors called helio-
(K) (K) stats (flat mirrors with a slightly concave mirror segment) to
reflect the incident sunlight onto the receiver. Each heliostat at a
Mineral oil 473 573 770 0.12 2.6
Synthetic 523 623 900 0.11 2.3
central receiver facility has reflective surface area from 50 to
oil 150 m2 mirrors installed on a common pillar. The heliostats track
Silicone oil 573 673 900 0.10 2.1 the sun on two axes (east to west and up and down). There are
Nitrite 523 723 1825 0.57 1.5 different receiver classifications depending on the construction
salts
configuration and the heat-transfer medium. The geometrical
Nitrate 538 838 1870 0.52 1.6
salts configuration can be either external or cavity type. In a cavity
Carbonate 723 1123 2100 2.0 1.8 receiver, the radiation reflected from the heliostats passes through
salts the aperture into a box like structure before impinging on the
Terminal 275 603 726 0.0840 2.60 heat-transfer surface. External receivers can be designed with a
VP1
Terminal 285 673 895 0.1106 2.10
flat plate or cylindrically shaped tubular panels. This is the typical
VP3 solution adopted for surround heliostats fields [67].
Air 223 1473 0.404 0.0622 1.12 Thermal oils are limited to 663 K, and molten salts require
engineering solution across heat tracing and cold spots issues
[68,69]. In volumetric receivers, air acts as a gaseous fluid typically
operating from a 373 to 1073 K. The characteristics of different
An integrated solar combined cycle power plant was proposed, materials used in sensible heat storage/carrying are present in
which consists of a parabolic trough field coupled to the bottom- Table 3. In 1986 under the initiative of SOTEL and DLR, the study of
ing steam cycle of a combined cycle gas turbine power plant. a 30 MWe plant for Jordan was initiated. The international PHOE-
Garcia-Barberena et al. [58] developed SimulCET computer pro- BUS Consortium was formed by companies from Germany, Swit-
gram for analysis of the influence of different operational strate- zerland, Spain, and the USA and the feasibility study completed in
gies on the performance of parabolic trough solar power plants. March 1990 [70]. The plant was successfully operated by DLR and
The results generated by SimulCET were validated with current CIEMAT for a total of nearly 400 h between April and December
experimental data. Feldhoff et al. [59] described and compared 1993, and for shorter periods in 1994 and 1999, demonstrating
two types of plants (direct steam generated system with and that a receiver outlet temperature of 973 K could easily be
without thermal energy storage) based on their design and achieved within twenty minutes of plant start-up [71]. The
performance. The results indicated further effort in the develop- performance data on central tower receiver thermal power plants
ment of a commercial storage system for direct steam generated for different receivers and heat carrying medium (molten salt and
solar power plants. Bonilla et al. [60] developed a dynamic air) have been shown in Table 4.
simulation for design and development of a direct steam genera- A number of researchers have worked on the central tower
tion parabolic-trough solar thermal power plant. The dynamic receiver concentrator based solar thermal power plants. Riaz [72]
simulation is not only the equation-based object-oriented model modeled large area solar concentrators for central receiver power
but also includes features to facilitate the simulation process. plants. They considered two governing factors like steering con-
Kreider [61] explained entropy level of the solar resource as straints on mirror orientations and shadow effects by blocking the
converted to heat in various types of solar collectors. Singh and incident/ reflected solar radiation. Walzel et al. [73] presented the
Kaushik [62] analyzed the solar thermal power system using calculation of solar flux density on the central receiver due to a
finite-time thermodynamics in order to find the optimum operat- large number of flat polygonal reflectors having various orienta-
ing temperature. Singh et al. [63] performed second law analysis tions for the tower concept of solar energy collection. Peterka et al.
based on an exergy concept for a solar thermal power system. [74] discussed mean and peak wind loads on flat rectangular or
Basic energy and exergy analysis for the system components (viz. circular heliostats. Reduced wind loads were demonstrated for
parabolic trough collector/receiver and Rankine heat engine, etc.) heliostats within a field of heliostats and upper bound curves were
are carried out for evaluating the respective losses as well as developed to provide preliminary design coefficients. Ali [75]
exergetic efficiency for typical solar thermal power systems under proposed a mathematical model to identify the starting time of
given operating conditions. the power plant, the height of the tower, the distance between the
Gupta and Kaushik [64] analyzed the possibilities of further tower and the heliostat mirror, and the location of the power plant
improvement in the solar thermal power plant (STPP) efficiency as the design parameters for Iraq. Buck et al. [76] designed and
and evaluated the optimum bleed pressure and mass fraction of built a new secondary concentrator with improved efficiency for
bleed steam for the enhancement of the efficiency of the solar solar hybrid power plants. Several configurations of solar-hybrid
thermal power plant. Montes et al. [65] described a thermo fluid gas turbine cycles in the low to medium power capacity range are
dynamic model for parabolic trough collectors. Based on this examined for their performance and costs.
model they analyzed the influence of factors (heat loss and Schmitz et al. [77] demonstrated six types of heliostat field
pressure drop) for energy, and exergy efficiencies with different layouts for striving maximum efficiencies in solar thermal central
working fluids, such as oil, molten salt, or water/steam. Siva Reddy receiver systems and possible potential improvement due to
et al. [66] have been evaluated the energetic and exergetic losses multiple apertures in central receiver systems with secondary
as well as efficiencies for typical parabolic trough concentrating concentrators. Sanchez and Romero [78] described the optimiza-
solar thermal power plant (PTCSTPP) under specific operating tion procedure to calculate the yearly normalized energy surface
conditions. They reported that, by increasing the operating pres- available for a given tower height. Wu et al. [79] studied different
sures of the solar thermal power plant (STPP) from 90 to 105 bar gap sizes between the facets of the heliostats experimentally and
pressure, the energetic and exergetic efficiencies of PTCSTPP were numerically for the purpose of reduction of wind load on helio-
increased by 1.49% and 1.51%. stats. Zoschak et al. [80] focused on the design and operating
 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582 573

Table 4
Performance data on central tower receiver thermal power plants[67].

Parameter Solar two (Mature) Solar Tres Solar 50/solar Cuatro Solar 100 PS10

Working fluid Molten salt Molten salt Molten salt Molten salt Air
Plant rating 10 15 50 100 10
Annual solar Insolation (kW h/m2) 2700 2067 2067 2700 2063
Capacity factor (%) 20 65 69 70 –
Field area (m2) 81,400 263,000 971,000 1466,000 89,271
Receiver thermal rating (MW) 42 120 466 796 55
Thermal storage size (MW h) 110 610 1850 3820 –
Steam generator rating (MW) 35 37 130 254 5.34
Annual net energy production (MW h) 16,600 75,500 302,000 613,000 19,200
Peak net efficiency 0.13 0.19 0.22 0.22 0.17
Annual net efficiency 0.08 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.12

Fig. 4. Scheme of dual receiver unit [84].

aspects of a 10-MW cavity-type, natural circulation steam gen- their systems, the tubes were installed in front of the volumetric
erating receiver for a central-receiver thermal power plant. receiver and partially cover the receiver, while the volumetric
Wu et al. [81] described the conceptual design of an advanced receiver received irradiation through the gaps between the tubes
water/steam receiver for a commercial-scale solar central receiver as illustrated in Fig. 4. Their new concept showed several benefits;
thermal power system. It consists of four separate cavities in a especially high thermal efficiency of the receiver and the annual
single receiver unit, each cavity receiving concentrated solar output increased by 27%, compared to the solar air heating system.
energy from one quadrant of a surrounding heliostat field. Car- Fang et al. [87] proposed a combined (Monte-Carlo) calculation
otenuto et al. [82] presented a numerical model for an overall heat method for evaluating the thermal performance of the solar cavity
transfer performance of a multi-cavity volumetric solar receiver. receiver. With this method, the thermal performance of a solar cavity
Carotenuto et al. [83] presented studies and design of a prototype receiver, a saturated steam receiver was simulated under different
multi-cavity external flow air receiver was tested at the Platform wind environments. Antonio et al. [88] studied volumetric receivers
Solar de Almeria test facility. A good accordance between mea- and the development of new designs to minimize heat losses and also
sured and predicted results was noticed, within the limits of discussed other important issues, such as the basic plant configura-
accuracy of the data acquisition system of the facility and of the tion, flow stability phenomenon and the main problems of a window
experimental system. Romero et al. [71] proposed a closed loop design for pressurized receivers.
volumetric air technology integrated into combined cycle plants Yu et al. [89] presented the models for the collector and cavity
for the achievement of very high solar to electric conversion receiver and coupled together based on the STAR-90 simulation
efficiencies. Segal and Epstein [84] studied the method of optimi- platform. The results demonstrated that it can provide good control
zation for design parameters of the receiver working temperature system design of the entire solar thermal power tower system. They
and the heliostat field density. also proposed an integrated receiver model for full range operation
Eck et al. [85] presented the dual receiver concept for the conditions in order to simulate and evaluate the dynamic character-
improvement of the performance of the central receiver to the istics of a solar cavity receiver. Based on this model [90], the dynamic
steam cycle in a solar thermal power plant. The water was characteristics of the solar cavity receiver were tested and also
evaporated directly in the tubular steam generator while preheat- calculated thermal loss with different wind conditions. Montes et al.
ing and superheating were done in heat exchangers by using the [91] analyzed a new optimized heat transfer model for the absorber
hot air from the volumetric receiver. The results confirmed the surface of a thermo-fluid dynamic design of a solar central receiver.
benefits of a new concept for the annual mean efficiency which This conceptual scheme has also been applied to the particular case of
was increased from 13% to 16%. Buck et al. [86] studied the concept a molten salt single cavity receiver, although the configuration
of open volumetric receiver technology for the PS10 in Spain. In proposed is suitable for other receiver designs and working fluids.
574 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

Ortega et al. [92] described the basic concept of the demonstra- presented a model for 1 MW Dahan solar thermal power tower plant
tion project on a commercial central receiver solar plant with using mathematical modular modeling method. The dynamic and
molten-salt storage. Alvarez et al. [93] modeled a hybrid renew- static characteristics of the power plant were analyzed based on these
able power plant with two energy sources using a Mixed Logical models [101].
Dynamical Modeling tool for the representation of hybrid systems.
Collado [94] has given a simplified model for quick evaluations of 3.3. Solar thermal power generation systems with parabolic dish
the annual overall energy collected by a surrounding heliostat concentrator
field. Yao et al. [95] presented modeling and simulation of DAHAN,
the pioneer 1 MW central receiver using a software tool HFLD. If the two-dimensional curved mirrors are rotated rather than
Yang et al. [96] investigated the interaction between the heat translated, the resulting geometric figures are spherical and parabolic
transfer performance and the thermal efficiency of a molten salt dishes, respectively. A parabolic dish must be tracked in two dimen-
receiver used in the solar power tower plant. The results of the sions in order to maintain the incident beam insulation normal to dish
experiment show that by using the spiral tube as the heat transfer aperture at all times to allow focusing. Complete two axis tracking of
tube, the heat transfer performance of the molten salt receiver is the concentrator aperture would increase the amount of insulation
obviously improved, and the radiation and convection losses are incidents on by the elimination of the cosine effect [102]. At the focal
significantly reduced. Chacartegui et al. [97] proposed three point, the absorber in the Stirling receiver absorbs solar radiation and
different cycles, the first two of which were stand-alone closed transfers the thermal energy to the Stirling engine. Current Stirling
cycle gas turbines using carbon dioxide, and the third proposal absorbers are typically direct illumination receivers and heat pipe
was a combined cycle that comprises a topping carbon dioxide gas receivers and volumetric receivers. The heat pipe absorbers vaporize a
turbine and a bottoming organic Rankine cycle for central tower liquid metal such as sodium on the absorber surface and condense it
receiver solar thermal power plants. Leonardi and D’Aguanno [98] on the Stirling engine heater tubes to transfer the energy to the
presented a new FORTRAN computer program for the simulation working fluid. Heat pipe receivers yield more uniform temperature
of the optical performance of a central receiver solar plant. The distributions on the heater tubes. There by resulting in longer life for
implemented mathematical algorithm allows for the calculation of the absorbers and engine heater heads in comparison to the direct
the cosine, shading and blocking effects for heliostats arbitrarily illumination receiver absorbers. Volumetric receivers have the poten-
arranged in the solar field. Leonardi [99] presented a pattern of a tial to be more cost effective and reliable than the heat pipe absorbers
beam-down solar power plant. The effect of the hyperboloid and are used in hybrid natural gas Stirling dish systems [103]. Table 5
eccentricity on both the sun shape and the size of the heliostats shows the parameters and detailed descriptions of the specifications
were analyzed. The optimal values of the characteristic parameters and performance parameters of four Dish–Stirling systems that are
of the compound parabolic concentrator were also calculated for currently used in commercial applications. Different authors worked
yearly solar power collection. on the parabolic dish concentrator, the detailed literature review for
Xu et al. [100] presented a theoretical framework for the energy both concentrator and Stirling engine system based on the energy and
and exergy analysis of the solar power tower system using molten salt exergy analysis is described in this section.
as the heat transfer fluid. Both the energy losses and exergy losses in Clausing [104] presented an analytical model for the estimation of
each component and in the overall systems were evaluated to identify convective heat losses from cavity receivers. By these analytical results
the causes and locations of the thermodynamic imperfection. The and experimental evidence, the studies indicated significant convec-
results showed that the maximum exergy loss occurs in the receiver tive loss from cavity receivers. Bannister [105] examined the problem
system, followed by the heliostat field system, although main energy of optimizing the radius of boiler tubes in a radiation-dominated
loss occurs in the condenser of the power cycle system. They also environment such as the parabolic dish solar thermal collector

Table 5
Comparative specifications and performance parameters for parabolic dish concentrator solar Stirling engine systems [101].

Parameters SAICOSTM system SBP system SES system WGA (Mod 1) ADDS WGA (Mod 2) remote
system system

Concentrator
No. of facets 16 12 82 32 24
Glass area (m2) 117.2 60 91.0 42.9 42.9
Proj. area (m2) 113.5 56.7 87.7 41.2 41.2
Reflectivity 0.95 0.94 0.91 0.94 0.94
Height (m) 15.0 10.1 11.9 8.8 8.8
Width (m) 14.8 10.4 11.3 8.8 8.8
Focal length (m) 12.0 4.5 7.45 5.45 5.45
Intercept factor 0.90 0.93 0.97 0.99 0.99
Peak CR (suns) 2500 12730 7500 11000 13000

Power conversion unit

Aperture dia. (cm) engine 38 STM 4–120 double acting 15 SOLO 161 20 Kockums/SES 4–95 14 SOLO 161 kinematic 14 SOLO 161 kinematic
manf/type kinematic kinematic kinematic
No. of cylinders 4 2 4 2 2
Displacement (cm3) 480 160 380 160 160
Op speed (rpm) 2200 1500 1800 1800 800–1890
Working fluid Hydrogen Helium Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen
Power control Variable stroke Variable pressure Variable pressure Variable pressure Variable pressure
Generator 3φ/480v/Induct 3φ/480v/Induc 3φ/480v/Induct 3φ/480v/Induc 3φ/480v/synch

System information
No. systems built 5 11 5 1 1
Rated output (kW) 22 10 25 9.5 8
Peak output (kW) 22.9 8.5 25.3 11.0 8
Net peak energy efficiency 20% 19% 29.4% 24.5% 22.5%
 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582 575

receiver. Chen et al. [106] investigated the performance of the system processes on engine performance. The irreversible cycle has been
based on the linearized heat loss model of the solar collector and the optimized by using the maximum power density technique. Bhat-
irreversible cycle model of the Stirling engine. Optimal operating tacharyya and Blanks [121] evaluated a major theoretical considera-
temperature of the solar collector at the maximum efficiency of the tion concerning the design of an endoreversible Stirling cycle
system was determined. with ideal regeneration. The factors affecting optimum power and
Kaushika and Reddy [107] presented the design, development and efficiency at optimum power were analyzed for the cycle based
performance characteristics of a low cost solar steam generating upon higher and lower temperature bounds. Senft [122] presented
system with the recent design and materials innovations of parabolic combined mechanical efficiency of reciprocating engines with the
dish technology. Kumar and Reddy [108] presented a numerical classic Schmidt thermodynamic model for Stirling engines for
investigation to study the natural convective heat loss from three identifying optimal engine geometry.
types of receivers (cavity receiver, semi-cavity receiver and modified Kaushik et al. [123] presented the performance evaluation of
cavity receiver) for a fuzzy focal solar dish concentrator. irreversible Stirling and Ericsson’s heat pump cycles, including
Reddy and Kumar [109] also presented the numerical study of external and internal irreversibilities along with finite heat capa-
combined laminar natural convection and surface radiation heat cities of external reservoirs. There are extensive reports on the
transfer in a modified cavity receiver of solar parabolic dish Stirling engine on modeling based on the first law of Thermo-
collector. A two-dimensional simulation model for combined nat- dynamics [124]; review on the development of Stirling engines
ural convection and surface radiation was developed. The influence and solar-powered Stirling engines [125]; numerical simulation
of operating temperature, emissivity of the surface, orientation and model to investigate the influence of geometrical and physical
the geometry on the total heat loss from the receiver are investi- parameters on the Stirling engine performance [126]; optimization
gated. The convective heat loss from the modified receiver was of Stirling engine regenerative heat exchanger for a maximum
significantly influenced by the inclination of the receiver whereas possible value of the power output [127]; improvement of the
the radiation heat loss was considerably affected by surface proper- performance of beta-type Stirling engine [128]; Stirling engine
ties of the receiver. A three-dimensional simulation model has also performance by considering the thermodynamic loss due to heat
been developed to investigate the accurate estimation of natural and pressure drop [129]; development of a prototype Stirling
convection heat loss from modified cavity receiver without insula- engine working at the moderate temperature range [130]; math-
tion and a comparison of 2-D and 3-D natural convection heat loss ematical model for the overall thermal efficiency of the solar-
from a modified cavity receiver was carried out. Further, Reddy and powered high temperature differential Dish–Stirling engine with
Kumar [110] found that the 3-D model can be used for accurate finite-rate heat transfer, regenerative heat losses, and conductive
estimation of heat losses from solar dish collector, when compared thermal bridging losses [131]; and atlas of solar electricity poten-
with other well known models. tial of Stirling dish power generation system [132].
Prakash et al. [111] carried out an experimental and numerical
study of the steady state convective losses occurring from a
downward facing cylindrical cavity receiver and developed corre- 3.4. Solar thermal power generation system with linear Fresnel
lations for certain receiver geometries. Wu et al. [112] proposed a reflecting concentrator
parabolic dish/ alkali metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC)
solar thermal power system and evaluated its overall thermal The linear Fresnel reflecting concentrator can be imagined as a
electric conversion performance. Their study revealed that the broken-up parabolic trough reflector, but unlike parabolic troughs
overall conversion efficiency of parabolic dish/AMTEC system the individual strips need not to be of parabolic shape. Flat or
could reach up to 20.6%. A comprehensive review and systematic slightly curved mirrors mounted on trackers on the ground are
summarization of the research progress in the parabolic dish configured to reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube fixed in space
concentrator was also presented by Wu et al. [113]. Lovegrove above these mirrors. A small parabolic mirror/ trapezoidal mirror
et al. [114] gave the new design of a 500 m2 concentrator with are sometimes added at top the receiver to further focus the
13.4 m focal length and altitude–azimuth tracking paraboloidal sunlight. The greatest advantage of this type of system is that it
dish concentrator. uses flat or elastically curved reflectors, which are cheaper than
Li and Dubowsky [115] presented an analytical model to parabolic glass reflectors. Additionally, these are mounted close to
optimize the shape and thickness of the petals. The concept is the ground, thus minimizing structural requirements. One diffi-
demonstrated using Finite Element Analysis and laboratory experi- culty with the linear Fresnel reflecting concentrator technology is
ments. The Monte-Carlo ray-tracing method was utilized to pre- that avoidance of shading and blocking between adjacent reflec-
dict the radiation flux distributions of the concentrator receiver tors leads to increased spacing between reflectors. Blocking can be
system for uniform heater temperature and high optical thermal reduced by increasing the height of the absorber towers, but this
efficiency of a Solar Dish/Stirling engine [116]. increases cost. This technology is under developing stage and at
Wu et al. [117] performed an optimal performance analysis for a present no power plant is running purely upon the linear Fresnel
Stirling engine with heat transfer and imperfect regeneration irre- reflecting concentrator technology.
versibilities and derived a relation between the net power output Optical designs and performance characteristics of linear Fres-
and thermal efficiency. Senft et al.[118] described a mathematical nel reflector solar concentrators (LFRSC) with a flat vertical
model of engines operating with an ideal Stirling cycle and subject to absorber have been studied [133]. In a detailed performance
limited heat transfer/ internal thermal losses and mechanical friction analysis, including the effect of variation in the height of the
losses and analyzed the fundamental effects of these imperfections absorber from the concentrator plane, aperture diameter of the
on the performance of an ideal Stirling engine. Costea et al. [119] concentrator, width of the absorber and the width of the mirror
studied the effect of pressure losses and actual heat transfer on the elements on the concentration on the surface of the absorber has
performance of a solar Stirling engine. Pressure losses due to fluid been included. [134] Optical designs of a reflecting type linear
friction internal to the engine and mechanical friction between the Fresnel solar concentrator employing mirror elements of varying
moving parts were also estimated through the extensive and width and equal width have also been developed for three
rigorous use of the available experimental data. different absorber configurations[135]. The distribution of the
Berrin Erbay and Yavuz [120] theoretically evaluated the effects local concentration ratio on the surfaces of the absorbers has been
of inefficiencies in the compression, expansion and regeneration investigated using the ray traced technique.
576 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

Sootha and Negi [136] presented a comparative study of the optical 4. Energy and exergy analysis of solar and other thermal
designs and solar flux concentrating characteristics of two (equal power generation systems
width and varying width of the reflecting mirror) designs of the linear
Fresnel reflector solar concentrator (LFRSC). Singh et al. [137] devel- The exergetic analysis demonstrates the true measure of loss
oped a linear Fresnel concentrating solar device and studied its which is evident from the results of energy and exergy analysis
performance for various combinations of reflecting mirrors to achieve carried out for various types of thermal power plants of different
the desired temperature at the focus point. Mills and Morrison [138] capacities. The main conclusions of all such investigations are that the
evaluated a concept of compact linear Fresnel reflector (CLFR) suitable major energy loss is in the condenser or during heat rejection, while
for large scale solar thermal electricity generation plants. Velazquez major exergy loss is in the boiler/heat recovery boiler of combined
et al. [139] performed a methodological analysis to design and cycle/combustion chamber/solar collector field or associated with heat
evaluate the technical feasibility of using a Linear Fresnel Reflector supply [19–24]. Limited literature is available on the exergy analysis of
Concentrator (LFRC) as a generator in an advanced absorption solar thermal power generation systems. The results of the energy and
refrigeration system. Abbas et al. [140] presented a new approach to exergy analysis of different types of thermal power generation systems
analyze and optimize the performance of Fresnel arrays to analyze the are grouped in the following three sections. The results reported here
use of different optical designs, including circular-cylindrical and may be very useful for further research and development.
parabolic-cylindrical mirrors with different reference positions. Exer-
getic analysis of the performance of an innovative receiver for linear
Fresnel reflectors has also been carried out [141].
4.1. Coal fired thermal power plants
Negi et al. [142] studied the variation of the overall heat loss
coefficients of three identical tubular absorbers with different types of
The size of the generating unit that has been used in the country in
absorptive coatings of copper for operating in combination with a coal based power stations have progressively increased from 30 MW
prototype linear Fresnel reflector solar concentrator. Zhai et al. [143]
to 600 MW. Increase in steam parameters, i.e. temperature and
investigated experimentally a concentrating solar collector based on pressure in the form of supercritical operation can increase the
linear Fresnel lens and also developed a mathematical model for
efficiency and also capacity. The scarcity of coal and growing demand
evacuated tube absorber heated by linear Fresnel lens. Singh et al. of the electric power all over the world has made the power plants of
[144] studied and compared the thermal performance of the four
identical trapezoidal cavity absorbers for linear Fresnel reflecting solar
device. Schematic of experimental set-up of Fresnel reflecting collector
with absorber for water heating test is shown in Fig. 5. Overall heat
loss coefficients of the trapezoidal cavity absorber with ordinary black
coated and selective coated surface for rectangular and round pipe
have also been evaluated [145].
Facao and Oliveira [146] analyzed and optimized a new trapezoidal
cavity receiver for a linear Fresnel solar collector via raytracing and
CFD simulations. Grena and Tarquini [147] proposed the use of molten
nitrates as heat transfer fluid in a solar Fresnel Linear Concentrator.
Morin et al. [148] compared the electricity generation costs for linear
Fresnel concentrator (Fig. 6) and Parabolic Trough Collector. The
calculations were carried out using cost and hourly simulation
performance models. Depending on the assumptions, the costs for a
linear Fresnel collector solar field should be reasonable as compared to
Parabolic Trough Collector. Flores Larsen et al. [149] studied the heat
loss of a linear absorber with a trapezoidal cavity having a set of pipes
used for a linear Fresnel reflecting solar concentrator. Fig. 6. Fresdemo collector installed at Plataforma Solar de Almería in Spain [146].

Fig. 5. Schematic of experimental set-up of Fresnel reflecting collector with absorber for water heating test.
 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582 577

scientific interest to increase efficiency and it led to decrease in the coal-fired power plants for maximum efficiency by using a process-
pollution level. based computer model. Alobaid et al. [162] presented a static and
The detailed energy and exergy analysis of coal fired thermal dynamic simulation model of a supercritical once-through heat
power plants have been carried out and reported by numerous recovery steam generator and its application to investigate the load
researchers worldwide with the aim to improve the thermodynamic changes and start-up processes for next generation high efficiency
performance. Habib and Zubair [150] examined the performance of combined cycles.
regenerative-reheat power plants in terms of irreversibility analysis. Aljundi [163] studied the energy and exergy analysis of Al-Hussein
The reduction in the irreversible losses with the addition of backward, power plant in Jordan. Aljundi found that the percentage ratio of the
cascade-type feedwater heaters and/or a reheat option were com- exergy destruction to the total exergy destruction was to be maximum
pared. The results showed that most of the irreversible losses occur in in the boiler system (77%) followed by the turbine (13%) and then the
the boiler and that these losses were significantly reduced by the forced draft fan condenser (9%). Saidur et al. [164] analyzed industrial
incorporation of feedwater heating. Habib et al. [151] presented a first boiler using the useful concept of energy and exergy. In the boiler they
and second law analysis for the optimization of the reheat pressure found that the energy and exergy efficiencies of 72.46% and 24.89%,
level in reheat regeneration thermal-power plants. The irreversibilities respectively. From the results they concluded that combustion cham-
in the different components of the steam generator and turbine cycle ber was the major contributor for exergy destruction followed by heat
sections were evaluated and discussed. Rosen and Dincer [18] studied exchanger of a boiler system.
effects of dead-state properties on the results of energy and exergy Regulagadda et al. [165] presented a thermodynamic analysis of a
analyses. A case study of a coal-fired electrical power generating subcritical boiler turbine generator of a 32 MW coal fired power plant.
station is considered to illustrate the actual influences. The results A parametric study was conducted for maximizing plant performance
indicate that dead-state properties do not significantly affect the under various operating conditions, including different operating
energy and exergy analysis. pressures, temperatures and flow rates. The exergy loss distribution
Viswanathan et al. [152] evaluated the materials needed for the indicated that boiler and turbine irreversibilities yield the highest
construction of the critical components of coal-fired boilers cap- exergy losses in the power plant. Feron [166] analyzed the application
able of operating with (1033 K, 350 bar) steam. Srinivas et al. [153] of post combustion capture processes to reduce the CO2 emissions in
analyzed the effect of n feedwater heaters (FWHS) on performance coal fired power stations. The analysis showed that the there was a
of a steam power cycle with a mathematical model. They found quite large potential for improvement of the energy performance.
optimum bleed steam temperature ratio and pressure ratio as Espatolero et al. [167] analyzed the design issues like reduction of
0.4 and 0.2–0.25 (irrespective of the number of heaters). Sengupta boiler exit gas temperature below typical values for advanced super-
et al. [154] presented exergy analysis of a coal-based thermal critical power plants for increasing power output and net efficiency. A
power plant using the design data from a 210 MW thermal power complete simulation of the steam cycle was carried out using Aspen
plant under operation in India. It is observed from the results that Plus and different plant configurations were examined under reduced
a major source of irreversibility in the power cycle is the boiler exit gas temperatures. Erdem et al. [168] proposed a tri-generation
(60% exergy destruction) and part load operation increases the process to recover waste energy from a conventional coal-fired power
irreversibilities and the condenser back pressure decreases the plant. This waste energy could be recovered by modifying the plants in
exergy efficiency. Farhad et al. [155] presented the design method order to meet district heating/cooling demand of their locations.
based on pinch technology and exergy analysis to reduce heat Analysis results have shown that the low-pressure turbine inlet stage
transfer irreversibility of the feedwater heater’s network in steam was the most convenient point for steam extraction for the plant.
power plants. The results showed that applying this method with
a target pinch temperature of 311 K increases the cycle 2nd law
efficiency from 0.3% to 1.3%. 4.2. Gas fired combined cycle power plants
Som and Datta [156] presented a comprehensive review on
fundamental studies on thermodynamic irreversibility and exergy The gas turbine plants are generally combined cycle plants, while
analysis in the processes of combustion of gaseous, liquid and solid few plants are based on open cycle mode. The combined cycle unit
fuels. It was concluded that the optimum operating condition can be combines the Rankine (steam turbine) and Brayton (gas turbine)
determined from the parametric studies on combustion irreversibil- thermodynamic cycle. It uses heat recovery boilers to capture the
ities with operating parameters in different types of flames. Romeo energy from gas turbine exhaust gases for steam production, and this
et al. [157] provided details about a set of modifications of a super- steam is supplied to the steam turbine. A number of energetic and
critical steam cycle to overcome the energy requirements by different exergetic analysis of combined cycle power plants have been carried
alternatives to reduce the heat duty on the re-boiler and the thermal out by the researchers with the aim to find the magnitudes, locations
integration requirements on existing power cycles. Ganapathy et al. and causes of irreversibilities in the processes and components of the
[158] presented an exergy analysis performed on an operating 50 MW plants.
unit of lignite fired steam power plant at Thermal Power Station-I, Seyedan et al. [169] presented the simulation procedure to
Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited, Neyveli, Tamil Nadu, India. It was predict the performance of a combined cycle power plant from
found that the maximum energy losses of 39% occur in the conde- given main components performance characteristics. They have
nser, whereas the maximum exergy losses of 42.73% occur in the also developed a procedure for optimum design of waste heat
combustor. recovery boiler of a combined cycle power plant [170]. Nag and De
Oktay [159] Studied exergy efficiencies, irreversibilities and [171] optimized the design and operation parameter of a heat
improvement factors of turbine, steam generator and pumps circu- recovery steam generator (HRSG) using the minimization of
lating fluidized bed thermal power plant has a total installed capacity entropy generation. Vargas et al. [172] presented the basic ther-
of 2  160 MW. From the energetic and exergetic viewpoint Erdem modynamic optimization process of extracting the power from a
et al. [160] compared the performance of nine thermal power plants stream of hot exhaust at the contact heat transfer area. Vargas
under control governmental bodies in Turkey. Finally, they discussed et al. developed numerical results for a range of design parameters
and identified the main sources of thermodynamic inefficiencies as of applications with either water or toluene on the cold side. Vald
well as the reasonable comparison of each plant. Sanpasertparnich and Rapun [173] presented a Newton–Raphson method for the
and Aroonwilas [161] identified and determined optimal design and optimization of the HRSG based on the application of influence
operating conditions of the subcritical and supercritical pulverized coefficients.
578 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582

Reddy et al. [174] investigated the effect of various non- and the exergy efficiency of the proposed combined cycle by 1.6 and
dimensional operating parameters on the entropy generation 2.84% as compared to those of the conventional combined cycle,
number for a waste heat recovery steam generator (which consists respectively. In and Lee [182] proposed a new approach to obtain the
of an economizer, an evaporator and a super heater). Franco and optimum design parameters of the heat recovery steam generator
Russo [175] presented optimization of the heat recovery steam system to maximize the efficiency of the steam turbine (bottom) cycle
generator (HRSG) by using pinch point method. Leo et al. [176] of the combined cycle power plant.
studied an innovative proposal consisting of use of all the power of Srinivas [183] evaluated the optimum conditions for the heat
the steam turbine to turbocharge the gas turbine in a combined recovery steam generator, deaerator and steam reheater (low pressure
cycle gas turbine power plant with sequential combustion for and high pressure) through the thermodynamic study. Gulen and
increasing efficiency and power output. Smith [184] described an accurate method based on the second law of
Khaliq and Kaushik [177] presented the second-law approach for thermodynamics to estimate the Rankine bottoming cycle power
the thermodynamic analysis of the reheat combined Brayton/Rankine output directly from the gas turbine exhaust exergy. Woudstra et al.
power cycle. Expressions involving the variables for specific power- [185] analyzed combined cycles using the same gas turbine but having
output, thermal efficiency, exergy destruction in components of the the different number of pressure levels in heat recovery steam
combined cycle, second-law efficiency of each process of the gas- generator in the steam bottoming cycles. The evaluation shows that
turbine cycle and second law efficiency of the steam power cycle have increasing number of pressure levels of steam generation will reduce
been derived. From there results, it was found that the exergy the losses due to heat transfer in the heat recovery steam generator.
destruction in the combustion chamber represents over 50% of the
total exergy destruction in the overall cycle. They also investigated the 4.3. Solar aided thermal power generation systems
effects of process steam pressure and pinch point temperature used in
the design of heat recovery steam generator and reheat on energetic It is observed that hybrid power cycles are being proposed for the
and exergetic efficiencies [178]. improvement of thermal performance and cost reduction of the
Cihan et al. [179] performed energy and exergy analysis of conventional solar thermal power plants (STPP). The maximum
operating combined cycle power plant to identify the potential for temperature attained by the concentrators of STPP is generally less in
improving efficiency of the system. The results showed that the comparison to thermal power plant, thus thermal efficiency of STPP is
combustion chambers, gas turbines and heat recovery steam low. The solar thermal energy can be used more efficiently to preheat
generators (HRSG) were the main sources of irreversibilities feed water instead of using it in separate STPP [24]. The intermediate
representing more than 85% of the overall exergy losses. Butcher temperature range can be achieved economically by using a variety of
and Reddy [180] investigated the performance of a waste heat concentrators. Thus, the aim of the following study is to find out the
recovery power generation system based on second law analysis thermodynamic advantage of solar-aided feed water heating.
for various operating conditions. The effect of pinch point on the Very few works are reported in literature in the areas of solar aided
performance of HRSG and on entropy generation rate and second thermal power generation systems. Ying and Hu [186] presented a
law efficiency were also investigated. Butcher and Reddy found new approach for solar power utilization, i.e. using solar heat to
from results that the second law efficiency of the HRSG and power replace the extracted steam to heat the feedwater in the regenerative
generation system decreases with increasing pinch point. Rankine plant. The analysis of a three-stage regenerative Rankine
Shi and Che [181] proposed an improved liquefied natural gas plant revealed that by using solar energy the work generated can be
(LNG) fuelled combined cycle power plant with a waste heat recovery increased up to 30% while the exergy merit index (EMI: the ratio of
and utilization system. Parametric analyses were performed for the the work generated by the saved steam to the exergy supplied by the
proposed combined cycle to evaluate the effects of several factors, solar heat) reaches 101.28%. Gupta and Kaushik [24] studied utilization
such as the gas turbine inlet temperature (TIT), the condenser of solar thermal energy in a Rankine cycle based fuel fired thermal
pressure, the pinch point temperature difference of the condensing power plant (FFTPP) by using the exergy concept. It was also
heat exchanger and the fuel gas heating temperature. Shi and Che investigated the effect of utilizing the same input solar thermal energy
found from the results that there is increased net electrical efficiency of a typical solar thermal power plants (STPP), where an aided source

Fig. 7. Exergy flow diagram, given as the percentage of total exergy input for the ISCCS [186].
 M.K. Gupta et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 567–582 579

in a 220 MW FFTPP for feed water preheating was used. It has been It is also found that though the remarkable initiative are proposed
found that the work output of STPP is 59.312 kW, while the extra work on solar thermal power generation systems all over the world but
output of FFTPP by using solar thermal energy of STPP is 90.27 kW. very limited information is available on actual power cycles and
Suresh et al. [187] analyzed solar aided feedwater heating option for a systems employed, like pressure ranges, temperature ranges, collector
coal-fired subcritical and supercritical power plant. An instantaneous area calculations, exergetic analysis. Year-round performance of such
reduction of about 14–19% in coal consumption is observed by systems for determining the cost value of unit power generation is not
substituting the turbine bleed streams to all the feedwater heaters systematically studied in the literature till date.
including deaerator with solar aided feedwater heating. Baghernejad However, based on the results reported here, various measures
and Yaghoubi [188] performed energy and exergy analysis for an can be suggested to improve the performance of solar and other
integrated solar combined cycle system by integrating a parabolic thermal power generation systems. And authors are in view that
trough solar thermal plant with modern combined cycle power plants. the following research work is required in the areas of solar
They found that the exergy destruction in the plant components like thermal power generation:
losses in combustor, collector, heat exchangers, pump and turbines are
29.62, 8.69, 9.11 and 8% of the total exergy input to the plant, i. Energetic and exergetic analyses of all types of solar thermal
respectively and is shown in Fig. 7. power plants are to be carried out to determine the actual energy
Hu et al. [189] presented the concept of solar aided power and exergy losses, and exergy destructions in the processes and
generation in conventional coal-fired power stations. The authors components with the objective of suggesting ways and means to
have given more focus and attention on the main technical points increase the performance of the systems.
like regenerative Rankine cycle with relatively higher efficiency ii. One of the dominant and decisive elements is optimizing the
and solar heating at relatively low temperature range. operating pressure of the heat engine cycle, which is to be
Popov [190] modelled Solar aided feed water preheating option decided according to the available temperature of the different
for fast and feasible Rankine regenerative steam cycle power plant solar concentrating technologies for power generation. This
with Thermoflow software. In this case, the solar power genera- optimization work needs to be investigated.
tion share can reach up to 23% of the power plant capacity and iii. Year-round performance of the solar thermal power plants for
yields substantial fossil fuel input saving. Yan et al. [191] devel- different tropical climates.
oped Solar aided power generation (SAPG) model to study the iv. Environment-friendly options like solar aided power generation
energy and economic benefits of the SAPG with 200 and 300 MW for coal fired thermal power plants and gas fired combined-cycle
typical, 600 MW subcritical, 600 MW supercritical, and 600 and power plants for increasing the generation capacity have been
1000 MW ultra-supercritical fuel power units, separately. Their proved to be technically feasible. Its economic feasibility needs to
results indicated that the benefits of SAPG are different for be explored.
different steam extracted positions and for different power plants
operating models.
Siva Reedy et al. [192] studied the performance of the solar
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