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Rate Time Analysis

This document discusses rate time analysis techniques for evaluating shale gas reservoirs. It explains that rate and pressure data are measured over various time scales and can be analyzed to estimate reservoir parameters and predict future performance. Different flow regimes are described for vertical and horizontal wells. Dimensionless quantities are introduced and solutions are presented for linear flow under constant rate and constant pressure conditions. The appropriate solution depends on whether the well is producing at a truly constant rate or pressure.

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Smail Kecham
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
383 views162 pages

Rate Time Analysis

This document discusses rate time analysis techniques for evaluating shale gas reservoirs. It explains that rate and pressure data are measured over various time scales and can be analyzed to estimate reservoir parameters and predict future performance. Different flow regimes are described for vertical and horizontal wells. Dimensionless quantities are introduced and solutions are presented for linear flow under constant rate and constant pressure conditions. The appropriate solution depends on whether the well is producing at a truly constant rate or pressure.

Uploaded by

Smail Kecham
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Rate Time Analysis

Mohan Kelkar

Rate Time Analysis - 0 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
What is it?

 We measure rates and pressures as a


function of time
 This includes
» Data measured over fine scale (e.g., well
test data)
» Data measured over coarse scale (e.g.,
monthly or daily production data)
 We can analyze the data
» Estimate reservoir parameters
» Future performance
Rate Time Analysis - 1 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Schematic of Vertical Fracture

After Ozkan
Rate Time Analysis - 2 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Fractures can be ….

Infinite Conductivity
» No resistance inside fracture
Finite Conductivity
» Pressure drop inside fracture
Uniform Flux
» The amount of fluid entering per unit length
of fracture is uniform

Rate Time Analysis - 3 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Pressure Drop
𝜕𝑝 𝜇 𝜇
=𝑞 =𝑞
𝜕𝑦 𝑘𝐴𝑦 4𝑘𝑋𝑓 ℎ
𝜕𝑝 𝜇 𝜇
=𝑞 =𝑞
𝜕𝑥 𝑘𝐴𝑥 2𝑘𝑓 𝑤ℎ
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑞𝜇 1 1
= + = +
𝜕𝐿 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ℎ 4𝑘𝑋𝑓 2𝑘𝑓 𝑤
𝑘𝑓 𝑤
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝐹𝐷 =
𝑘𝑋𝑓
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 1 1
𝐼𝑓 𝐶𝐹𝐷 ≫ 300, ≪ → ≫
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2𝑘𝑋𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝑤
→ 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Rate Time Analysis - 4 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Flow Regimes (Vertical Well)

Early Times

Fracture Flow

Bi-Linear Flow

Rate Time Analysis - 5 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Flow Regimes (vertical well)

Intermediate Times

Linear flow

Elliptical Flow

Rate Time Analysis - 6 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Flow Regimes (vertical well)

Late Times

Radial Flow

Rate Time Analysis - 7 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Flow Regimes (Horizontal Well)

 We do not observe the same flow regimes


in horizontal wells as vertical well
 The geometry of horizontal well is
significantly different than vertical well
 No radial flow behavior can be noted in
horizontal well
 Instead, interference of adjacent fractures
can be noted in many wells

Rate Time Analysis - 8 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Flow Regimes
Horizontal well

Rate Time Analysis - 9 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ozkan Reservoirs
Flux Distribution

Infinite Conductivity Uniform Flux

After Ozkan
Rate Time Analysis - 10 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Mass Balance in 2D

Assume porosity, f, and thickness h

Dy
Dx

Rate Time Analysis - 11 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Mass Balance in 2D

𝜌𝑢∆𝑦ℎ|𝑥 − 𝜌𝑢∆𝑦ℎ|𝑥+∆𝑥 + 𝜌𝑢∆𝑥ℎ|𝑦 − 𝜌𝑢∆𝑥ℎ|𝑦+∆𝑦


𝜕
= ∆𝑥∆𝑦ℎ∅𝜌
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕(∅𝜌)
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔, − − =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝑘 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑘 𝜕𝑝 𝜕(∅𝜌)
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤, 𝜌 + 𝜌 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜇 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜇 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
If we assume homogeneous, slightly compressible
reservoir: 𝜌 ≈ 𝜌𝑐 1 + 𝑐𝑡 ∆𝑝
𝜕 2 𝑝 𝜕 2 𝑝 ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝜕𝑝
2
+ 2=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑘 𝜕𝑡

Rate Time Analysis - 12 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Reservoirs
For gas reservoirs, the assumption of slightly compressible
fluid is not applicable.
𝑝𝑀
Two options: Ideal Gas: 𝜌 = ; 𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑇
𝜕 2 𝑝2 𝜕 2 𝑝2 ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝜕𝑝2
→ 2
+ 2
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑘 𝜕𝑡
𝑝 𝑝
Real gas: m(p) = 2 ‫𝑝׬‬ 𝑑𝑝
𝑏 𝜇𝑧
𝜕 2 𝑚(𝑝) 𝜕 2 𝑚(𝑝) ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝜕𝑚(𝑝)
→ 2 + 2 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑘 𝜕𝑡
If we want to truly linearize this equation, we will need to
𝑡 1
define 𝑡𝑝 = 𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖 ‫𝑜׬‬ 𝑑𝑡
𝜇𝑐𝑡
𝜕 2 𝑚(𝑝) 𝜕 2 𝑚(𝑝) ∅𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖 𝜕𝑚(𝑝)
Then the equation becomes, + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑘 𝜕𝑡𝑝
Rate Time Analysis - 13 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Dimensionless Quantities

0.00708𝑘ℎ
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑠
𝑞𝜇𝐵
0.000703𝑘ℎ
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑚(𝑝𝑖 ) − 𝑚(𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑠
𝑞𝑇

0.000703𝑘ℎ 2
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑠
𝑞𝜇𝑇
0.006328𝑘𝑡
𝑡𝐷 = 2 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑋𝑓
𝑥 𝑦
𝑥𝐷 = ; 𝑦𝐷 =
𝑋𝑓 𝑋𝑓
𝑝𝑤𝐷 = 𝑝𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑤𝑓
Rate Time Analysis - 14 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Dimensionless IBVP

𝜕 2 𝑝𝐷 𝜕 2 𝑝𝐷 𝜕𝑝𝐷
2 + 2 = 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑥𝐷 𝜕𝑦𝐷 𝐷
𝑝𝐷 𝑥𝐷 , 𝑦𝐷 , 𝑡𝐷 = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥𝐷 , 𝑦𝐷 → ∞
𝑝𝐷 𝑥𝐷 , 𝑦𝐷 , 𝑡𝐷 → 0 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝐷 > 0, 𝑦𝐷 < ∞

𝑝𝑤𝐷 = 𝑝𝐷 𝑥𝐷 ≤ 1, 𝑦𝐷 = 0, 𝑡𝐷 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Rate Time Analysis - 15 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Solution
1 1 1
𝑝𝑤𝐷 𝑡𝐷 = 𝜋𝑡𝐷 𝑒𝑟𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖 −
2 𝑡𝐷 2 4𝑡𝐷
Early time approximation (tD → 0) results in Ei(-x) → 0 and
erf(x) → 1 as x → ∞
𝑝𝑤𝐷 ≈ 𝜋𝑡𝐷
This equation corresponds to linear flow period
Late time approximation (tD → ∞)
𝑝𝑤𝐷 𝑡𝐷 ≈ 0.5 ln 𝑡𝐷 + 0.80907 + 1 + 𝜎
Where 1 + 𝜎 = ln 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
This equation corresponds to late time pseudo-radial flow

Rate Time Analysis - 16 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Solution (contd.)

𝑋𝑓2
𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝐷𝑟𝑤 = 𝑡𝐷 2
𝑟𝑤
𝑟𝑤
𝑝𝑤𝐷 𝑡𝐷 ≈ 0.5 ln 𝑡𝐷𝑟𝑤 + 0.80907 + 1 + 𝑙𝑛 +𝜎
𝑋𝑓
We can define the effective well bore radius, rw’ by
writing the above equation
𝑟𝑤 exp(1 + 𝜎)
𝑝𝑤𝐷 𝑡𝐷 ≈ 0.5 ln 𝑡𝐷𝑟𝑤 + 0.80907 + 𝑙𝑛
𝑋𝑓
For the second term in the above equation to be zero,
𝑋𝑓 𝑋𝑓
𝑟𝑤′ = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
exp(1+𝜎) 2

Rate Time Analysis - 17 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Solution (Contd.)

 The above solution is for constant rate. For many


wells, the production can be better approximated by
constant BHP. The solution for linear flow under
these conditions is
1 𝜋
≈ 𝜋𝑡𝐷
𝑞𝐷 2
 Where 𝑞𝜇𝐵
𝑞𝐷 =
0.00708𝑘ℎ 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
𝑞𝑇
𝑞𝐷 =
703 × 10−3 𝑘ℎ 𝑚(𝑝𝑖 ) − 𝑚(𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
 Notice that the solution for constant pressure and
constant rate differs by a ratio of p/2.
Rate Time Analysis - 18 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Which solution to choose?

If the solutions are different for constant


rate vs. constant pressure, how to
decide on the right solution?
The answer is simple if the well is
producing either at constant rate or
constant pressure or if the rate and
pressure are varying smoothly
If there are abrupt changes, then we
need to use superposition principle
Rate Time Analysis - 19 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Flow Regimes and Data Analysis
(Vertical Wells)

Wellbore Storage Dominated Flow


Fracture Linear Flow
Bi-Linear Flow
Early time Matrix Linear Flow
Late time Pseudo-radial Flow
Boundary Dominated Flow

Rate Time Analysis - 20 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Wellbore Storage Dominated

𝑡𝐷
𝑝𝑤𝐷 ≈
𝐶𝐷
Plot of pwD vs. tD should be a straight
line and will have a slope of 1 on log-log
plot
On real scale, plot of Dp (or Dm(p))vs. t
should be a straight line with a slope of
1 on log-log plot
Rate Time Analysis - 21 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Fracture Linear Flow

Over a very short period of time


Relationship between pwD and tD has ½
slope

Rate Time Analysis - 22 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Bi-Linear Flow

Important for finite conductivity fractures


Not very common for unconventional
formations and is rarely observed
Relationship between pwD and tD can be
described by quarter (1/4) slope

Rate Time Analysis - 23 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Linear Flow
(Common for vertical/Horizontal wells)

For unconventional reservoirs, linear


flow is the most common
For many wells, linear flow is observed
for many years
Using the linear flow equation and
making some simplifying assumptions,
we can obtain GIP (Or OOIP) and
fracture length
Rate Time Analysis - 24 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
QUIZ TIME

Rate Time Analysis - 25 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Linear Flow

This approximation
is valid for both
2
vertical and
horizontal wells

Nobakht and Clarkson, SPE 143989


Rate Time Analysis - 26 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Which solution to choose?

If we know that well is producing either


at constant rate or constant pressure, it
is easy to choose the correct solution.
If the pressure and rate are varying
smoothly (gradually), it is better to
choose the constant rate solution

Rate Time Analysis - 27 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
End of Linear Flow

 When the slope starts deviating from ½


significantly, we can consider that to be end
of linear flow (teLF in days). We can determine
ye using the following equation
 For constant rate
𝑘𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹
𝑦𝑒 = 0.1125
∅𝜇𝑖 𝐶𝑡𝑖

𝑘𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹
 For constant BHP 𝑦𝑒 = 0.19
∅𝜇𝑖 𝐶𝑡𝑖
Behmanesh et al., SPE 168981
Rate Time Analysis - 28 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Analysis

For constant BHP, we plot 1/q vs. t1/2


and calculate the slope
For constant rate, we plot Dp or Dm(p)
vs. t1/2 and calculate the slope
For smoothly varying rate and BHP, we
plot Dp/q or Dm(p)/q vs. t1/2 and
calculate the slope; otherwise use
superposition principle
We use m to define the slope
Rate Time Analysis - 29 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Oil Wells

𝑞𝐵 𝜇
𝑋𝐹 𝑘 = 19.9 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚ℎ ∅𝑐𝑡

𝐵 𝜇
𝑋𝐹 𝑘 = 31.3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚ℎ∆𝑝 ∅𝑐𝑡

𝐵 𝜇
𝑋𝐹 𝑘 = 19.9 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚ℎ ∅𝑐𝑡

If k is known, we can calculate half-fracture length (xF)


Rate Time Analysis - 30 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Gas Wells

𝑞𝑇 1
𝑋𝐹 𝑘 = 200.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚ℎ ∅𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖

𝑇 1
𝑋𝐹 𝑘 = 315 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚ℎ∆𝑚(𝑝) ∅𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖
𝑋𝐹 𝑘
𝑇 1
= 200.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚ℎ ∅𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖

If k is known, we can calculate half-fracture length (xF)


Rate Time Analysis - 31 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Additional Analysis

If we assume that the boundary of the


reservoir is indicated when we start
deviation from the straight line (teLF),
using the rectangular geometry of the
reservoir (area = 4yexf, and volume =
area x h), we can calculate either OOIP
or OGIP

Rate Time Analysis - 32 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Oil Wells

𝑞𝐵𝑆𝑜𝑖
𝑂𝑂𝐼𝑃 𝑆𝑇𝐵 = 8.96 𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑐𝑡 𝐵𝑜𝑖
𝐵𝑆𝑜𝑖
𝑂𝑂𝐼𝑃 𝑆𝑇𝐵 = 19.9 𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝑐𝑡 ∆𝑝𝐵𝑜𝑖
𝑂𝑂𝐼𝑃 𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝐵𝑆𝑜𝑖
= 8.96 𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝑐𝑡 𝐵𝑜𝑖

Rate Time Analysis - 33 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Wells

𝑞𝑇𝑆𝑔𝑖 𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹
𝑂𝐺𝐼𝑃 𝑆𝐶𝐹 = 90.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖
𝑇𝑆𝑔𝑖 𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹
𝑂𝐺𝐼𝑃 𝑆𝐶𝐹 = 200.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚∆𝑚(𝑝)𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖
𝑂𝐺𝐼𝑃 𝑆𝐶𝐹
𝑇𝑆𝑔𝑖 𝑡𝑒𝐿𝐹
= 90.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖

Rate Time Analysis - 34 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Wells

 For both constant pressure and constant rate


cases, it has been observed that the slope
may not truly reflect the correct value
because of varying gas properties.
 For constant BHP, Ibrahim and Wattenberger
[SPE 100836] suggested a correction for
slope
𝑚
𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑐 = 1 − .0852𝐷𝐷 − 0.0857𝐷𝐷2
𝑓𝑐
𝑚 𝑝𝑖 −𝑚 𝑝𝑤𝑓
Where 𝐷𝐷 =
𝑚 𝑝𝑖

Rate Time Analysis - 35 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Wells

 For constant rate case, a correction for


pseudo-time has been suggested by Nobakht
and Clarkson [SPE 143990]. They
recommend using a new definition of pseudo-
time. However, the implementation requires
trial and error
 In the absence of such correction, it is
recommended that early production data
should be emphasized more than later
production data
Rate Time Analysis - 36 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Gas Well Example

Rate Time Analysis - 37 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ibrahim and WattenbergerReservoirs
(SPE 100836)
Gas Well Example

Rate Time Analysis - 38 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ibrahim and WattenbergerReservoirs
(SPE 100836)
Gas Well Example

Rate Time Analysis - 39 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ibrahim and WattenbergerReservoirs
(SPE 100836)
Gas Well Example

𝐷𝐷 = 0.971; 𝑓𝑐 = 1 − .0852 .971 − .0857 ×.9712 = 0.836


0.836 × 315 × (230 + 460)
𝑘𝑥𝐹 =
25,000 × 60 0.07 × 0.0244 × 124.5 × 10−6
= 262.7
200.6 × (230 + 460) × 0.88 × 6,640
𝑂𝐺𝐼𝑃 =
25,000
.0244 × 124.5 × 10−6 × 0.003496 × ( )
.836
= 31.25 𝐵𝐶𝐹

Rate Time Analysis - 40 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ibrahim and WattenbergerReservoirs
(SPE 100836)
Analysis for pseudo-Radial flow

For constant BHP, we plot 1/q vs. log(t)


and calculate the slope
For constant rate, we plot Dp or Dm(p)
vs. log(t) and calculate the slope
For smoothly varying rate and BHP, we
plot Dp/q or Dm(p)/q vs. log(t) and
calculate the slope
We use mp to define the slope
Rate Time Analysis - 41 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Oil Wells

𝑞𝐵𝜇
𝑘 = 162.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑝 ℎ
𝐵𝜇
𝑘 = 162.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝑝 ℎ∆𝑝
𝐵𝜇
𝑘 = 162.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝑝 ℎ

𝑝𝑤𝑓 |𝑡=𝑜 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 |𝑡=1 ℎ𝑟 .006328𝑘 1+𝜎


𝑆 = 1.151 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 − 0.351 −
𝑚𝑝 ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑥𝐹 1.151

The constant is different because of log (t) plot.


Rate Time Analysis - 42 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Gas Wells

𝑞𝑇
𝑘 = 1638 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑝 ℎ
𝑇
𝑘 = 1638 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝑝 ∆𝑚 𝑝 ℎ
𝑇
𝑘 = 1638 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑚𝑝 ℎ
𝑆
𝑚(𝑝𝑤𝑓 )|𝑡=𝑜 − 𝑚(𝑝𝑤𝑓 )|𝑡=1 ℎ𝑟 0.006328𝑘
= 1.151 ൥ − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 − 0.351
𝑚𝑝 ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2

The constant is different because of log (t) plot.


Rate Time Analysis - 43 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
QUIZ TIME

Rate Time Analysis - 44 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
PROBLEM 2

Rate Time Analysis - 45 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Superposition Principle

In many practical cases, the rate or


BHP is not constant; or they vary
smoothly
This requires us to use the
superposition method to properly
analyze the data.

Rate Time Analysis - 46 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Linear Operator

We can define a linear operator as the


one which satisfies the two following
conditions
𝐹 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 = 𝐹 𝑈1 + 𝐹 𝑈2
𝐹 𝑎𝑈1 = 𝑎𝐹(𝑈1 )
Where U1 and U2 are functions of a
variable x and a is a constant
We can extend it to state that
𝐹 𝑎𝑈1 + 𝑏𝑈2 = 𝑎𝐹 𝑈1 + 𝑏𝐹 𝑈2
Rate Time Analysis - 47 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Linear Operator

An example of a linear operator is a


derivative (first, second or nth order)
𝐷 𝑎𝑈1 + 𝑏𝑈2 = 𝑎𝐷 𝑈1 + 𝑏𝐷 𝑈1
𝐷 𝑎𝑈1 = 𝑎𝐷(𝑈1 )
Using this definition, we can show that
for a differential equation, if y1 and y2
are solutions to a differential equation,
then c1y1 + c2y2 is also a solution

Rate Time Analysis - 48 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Linear Operator

 If we assume that y1 and y2 are solutions to an


equation
y” + p(x)y’ + q(x) = 0
 We can show that c1y1 + c2y2 is also a solution
𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 ′′ + 𝑝 𝑥 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 ′
+ 𝑞 𝑥 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2
= 𝑐1 𝑦1′′ + 𝑝 𝑥 𝑦1′ + 𝑞(𝑥)𝑦1
+ 𝑐2 𝑦2′′ + 𝑝 𝑥 𝑦2′ + 𝑞(𝑥)𝑦2 = 0

Rate Time Analysis - 49 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Application

If we assume that the well is producing


at a constant rate q, then the solution to
this problem is pwf(q, t). If instead, we
decide to split q = q1 + q2, then we can
show that the solution to this problem is
pwf(q1, t) + pwf(q2, t) which is equivalent
to pwf(q, t).

Rate Time Analysis - 50 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
One Change in the Rate

q2-q1
q2

q
q

q1
q1
t1 t1
t t

The solution to this problem is (for t >t1)


𝑝𝑤𝑓 𝑞1 , 𝑡 + 𝑝𝑤𝑓 𝑞2 − 𝑞1 , 𝑡 − 𝑡1

Rate Time Analysis - 51 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Generalization

Liang et al. (SPE 167124)


Rate Time Analysis - 52 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Superposition Time

If we define Dp =pi – pwf, we can write


∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑝𝑞1 + ∆𝑝 𝑞2−𝑞1 + ∆𝑝 𝑞3−𝑞2
If we assume linear flow (as an example),
we can write Dp = mq√t where m is a
constant. So, extending that equation, we
can write (for t >t2)
∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚 𝑞1 𝑡 + 𝑞2 − 𝑞1 𝑡 − 𝑡1 + 𝑞3 − 𝑞2 𝑡 − 𝑡2

Rate Time Analysis - 53 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Superposition Time

 For multiple rate changes, we can generalize this


equation as
 ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚ൣ𝑞1 𝑡 + 𝑞2 − 𝑞1 𝑡 − 𝑡1 + ⋯ + (𝑞𝑛 −

Rate Time Analysis - 54 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Superposition Time

Liang et al. (SPE 167124)


Rate Time Analysis - 55 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Superposition Time

 Superposition time is a function of pressure drop


relationship. Therefore, depending on the type of
flow regime, the equation for superposition time can
change
 For transient radial flow
𝑛
𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑖−1 log(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖−1 )
log(𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑝 ) = ෍
𝑞𝑛
𝑖=1
 For pseudo-steady state flow (slightly compressible
fluid)[also called material balance time]
𝑄
𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑝 =
Rate Time Analysis - 56 𝑞𝑛 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
What are the limitations?

Superposition time is specific to a


particular flow regime
We need to know the flow regime
beforehand so that we can use
appropriate superposition time
If we use wrong superposition time, it is
possible that we will reach wrong
conclusions regarding the flow regime
as well as reservoir properties.
Rate Time Analysis - 57 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Impact of Superposition Time
choice on Pressure Behavior

Rate Time Analysis - 58 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Smith, K, Private Comm
Reservoirs
Observations

Material Balance time provides the


correct transition point from linear to
BDF, but the solution is not exact
If we use linear flow time, we may not
clearly see the transition from linear to
BDF

Rate Time Analysis - 59 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Recommendations

 Remove outliers since they have disproportionate


impact on superposition time
 Use material balance time to predict the transition to
flow regimes (as long as there are no severe
disruptions in flow and pressures)
 Use transient superposition times to calculate the
reservoir properties (assuming that one has identified
the correct flow regime)
 Ensure that consistent procedures are used when
comparing one well to other wells

Rate Time Analysis - 60 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
QUIZ TIME

Rate Time Analysis - 61 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Pressure Derivative

In some instances, by plotting pressure


derivative instead of pressure provides
a better signature to the pressure data.
It is easier to identify the flow regimes
𝑑∆𝑝 𝑑∆𝑝
∆𝑝′
= = ∆𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑑𝑙𝑛(∆𝑡) 𝑑∆𝑡

𝑑𝑚(∆𝑝) 𝑑𝑚(∆𝑝)
∆𝑚(𝑝 ) = = ∆𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑑𝑙𝑛(∆𝑡) 𝑑∆𝑡

Rate Time Analysis - 62 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Linear Flow

𝑝𝑤𝐷 ≈ 𝜋𝑡𝐷
𝑑𝑝𝑤𝐷 1 𝜋 𝑑𝑝𝑤𝐷 1
= → 𝑡𝐷 = 𝜋𝑡𝐷
𝑑𝑡𝐷 2 𝑡𝐷 𝑑𝑡𝐷 2
This means that a log-log plot of derivative vs. tD
should provide a straight line with a slope of ½.
Also, log-log plot of pwD vs. tD should also provide a
straight line with a slope of ½.

Rate Time Analysis - 63 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Radial Flow

𝑝𝑤𝐷 𝑡𝐷 ≈ 0.5 ln 𝑡𝐷 + 0.80907 + 1 + 𝜎


𝑑𝑝𝑤𝐷 0.5 𝑑𝑝𝑤𝐷
= → 𝑡𝐷 = 0.5
𝑑𝑡𝐷 𝑡𝐷 𝑑𝑡𝐷
This means that a log-log plot of derivative vs. tD
should provide a constant value of 0.5 in pseudo-
radial flow. The log-log plot of pwD vs. tD does not
have any specific signature.

Rate Time Analysis - 64 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Flow Regime Indicators

Vera and Ehlig-Economides, The Way Ahead, No. 2(2014)


Rate Time Analysis - 65 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
A Gas Well Example

A fractured, vertical, well has produced


gas at a constant rate of 1,000 MSCFD
for 1,000 hours. The porosity is 0.15 and
the thickness of the reservoir is 30 feet.
The gas gravity is 0.65 and the reservoir
temperature is 200 F. pr = 5,000 psia.
Determine the reservoir permeability and
half fracture length from the data.
Rate Time Analysis - 66 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Gas Well Example
1.80E+08
1.60E+08
m(pi) - m(pwf), psi2/cp

1.40E+08
1.20E+08
1.00E+08
8.00E+07
6.00E+07
4.00E+07
2.00E+07
0.00E+00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
t, hr

Rate Time Analysis - 67 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Well Example
Analysis
1.00E+09

1.00E+08
Dm(p), Dm(p)'

Pseudo-radial
1.00E+07 Flow

Linear Flow
1.00E+06

1.00E+05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
t, hr

Rate Time Analysis - 68 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Well Example
Pseudo-radial Flow Analysis

1.80E+08
1.60E+08
m(pi) - m(pwf), psi2/cp

1.40E+08
1.20E+08
1.00E+08
8.00E+07
6.00E+07
Slope ≈ 9x107
4.00E+07
2.00E+07
0.00E+00
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
t, hr

Rate Time Analysis - 69 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Well Example
Pseudo-Radial Flow Analysis

1637𝑞𝑇
𝑘=
𝑚𝑝 ℎ
1637 × 1000 × 660
= 7
= 0.4 𝑚𝑑
9 × 10 × 30

Rate Time Analysis - 70 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Well Example
Linear Flow Analysis

1.80E+08
1.60E+08
m(pi) - m(pwf), psi2/cp

1.40E+08
1.20E+08
1.00E+08
8.00E+07
6.00E+07
4.00E+07
2.00E+07
0.00E+00
0 10 20 30 40
t1/2, hr1/2

Rate Time Analysis - 71 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Gas Well Example
Linear Flow Analysis

𝑞𝑇 1 1
𝑋𝐹 = 200.6
𝑚ℎ ∅𝜇𝑖 𝑐𝑡𝑖 𝑘

1,000 × 660 1
= 200.6 ×
4.9 × 107 × 30 0.15 × 130.5 × 106 × 0.026 × 0.4
= 200 𝑓𝑡

Rate Time Analysis - 72 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Ideal Methodology

Conduct either a build up or drawdown


test so that both linear and radial flow
can be observed
From radial flow, determine the
permeability of the formation
From linear flow, determine the fracture
length
Problem: Radial flow is very difficult
to achieve in tight gas reservoirs
Rate Time Analysis - 73 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
An example of Horizontal well
k = 0.005 md, t= 500 days, q = 1mmSCFD

6000

5000

4000
p, psia

3000

2000

1000

0
22-Nov-13 2-Mar-14 10-Jun-14 18-Sep-14 27-Dec-14 6-Apr-15 15-Jul-15 23-Oct-15

Time
Rate Time Analysis - 74 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Pressure and Pressure Derivative

1.00E+10

1.00E+09

1.00E+08
Dp, Dp'

1.00E+07

1.00E+06

1.00E+05

1.00E+04
0.01 1 100 10000
t, hours

Rate Time Analysis - 75 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Possible Solution

DFIT test (Diagnostic Fracture Injection


Test)
Inject water (or fracture fluid), without
proppant, for a short period and observe
shut-in pressure falloff.
Based on the falloff behavior, determine
the permeability and pi (initial pressure)

Rate Time Analysis - 76 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Typical Fracture Job

Nolte et al., SPE 38676


Rate Time Analysis - 77 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Typical DFIT Design

 Equipment Requirements  Fluid type, non-wall building


» Surface pressure gauge with fluid
0.01-0.1 psi resolution, sample  Recommended pump schedule
rate of 1-5 seconds
» Load hole with injection fluid
» Injection rate must be precisely – 5 BPM for 1 min
recorded – 10 BPM for 3 min
» Ability to down load data during – 8 BPM for 1 Min
test – 6 BPM for 1 Min
 Shut-in time – 3 BPM for 1 Min
» Based on required information – Shut-in rig-down pumping
equipment while monitoring
» Minimum times should be fall-off pressure
based on required reservoir
permeability for economic
production

www.Barree.net/fracture_advances/slide180.htm
Rate Time Analysis - 78 Evaluation of Shale Gas
78 Reservoirs
DFIT Rate & Pressure Response
Fracture Initiation
Pressure Casing Pressure
Injection Rate
PRESSURE

Fracture Extension

RATE
Pressure

Fracture Closure Pressure

Matrix Fracture Post- Closure


Injection Injection

Rate Time Analysis - 79


TIME Evaluation of Shale Gas
79 Reservoirs
DFIT Test

During injection
» Can obtain closure pressure
» Can determine leak-off
After Closure Analysis (ACA)
» Can determine k and pi
» Can determine fracture length
We will only concentrate on ACA

Rate Time Analysis - 80 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
ACA Process

Assume that the fracture fluid is injected


instantaneously and we use line source
solution
𝑄𝑜 𝜇 −∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟 2
𝑝 𝑟, 𝑡 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑒 4𝑘∆𝑡
4𝜋𝑘ℎ∆𝑡
When Dt is large, the equation can be approximated
𝑄𝑜 𝜇
as 𝑝 𝑟, 𝑡 − 𝑝𝑖 =
4𝜋𝑘ℎ∆𝑡
1694𝑄𝑜 𝜇
In field units, 𝑝 𝑟, 𝑡 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑝 =
𝑘ℎ∆𝑡

Gu et al., SPE 25425


Rate Time Analysis - 81 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
ACA Process

Plot of log (Dp) vs. log (Dt) should


exhibit -1 slope
𝑑∆𝑝 1694𝑄𝑜 𝜇
Taking derivative =
𝑑 ln(∆𝑡 ) 𝑘ℎ∆𝑡
This means that the Dp’ vs. Dt on log-log
scale would also show -1 slope
From the slope, we can calculate kh
value. We need to know the value of pi
Gu et al., SPE 25425
Rate Time Analysis - 82 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Simplified ACA

 Simplified approach requires only the falloff data itself


» Process:
– Plot abs(log-time derivative) versus t (log-log plot)
 Find -1 slope period
– Estimate pi and plot (pwf(t) – pi,est) versus t (log-log plot)
– Adjust initial pressure estimate until pressure drop and derivative
overlay on -1 slope
 This fixes the initial pressure
– Fit a straight line on a Cartesian plot of pressure drop versus 1/t
 Fit only the data during the -1 slope period on the log-log plot
 From the slope of this line calculate k.

After Jones
Rate Time Analysis - 83 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Simplified ACA: Example
Impulse Test Log-Log Diagnostic Plot
Sqrt(t) Fracture Growth, Length Resession, Wellbore Storage
10000

P-Pi

1000 Log-Derivative

Dp or dDp/dlog(Dt)
Unit Slope

100

10

Impulse Test Analysis Plot 1


2900 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02

Dt, hrs
2880 y = 3,915.60x + 2,800.51
R² = 1.00
2860
Pressure, psi

2840 Pressure

2820
Linear
(Pressure)
2800
k = 0.0101 md
2780

2760
0.0E+00 5.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.5E-02 2.0E-02 2.5E-02

1/Dt, hrs-1

Rate Time Analysis - 84 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
ACA For Gas DFIT Tests

 Water Injected Into Hydrocarbon Reservoir


» When HC = Oil, Basic Equation OK with mo
 If Gas, Basic Equation Becomes
• Inconvenient form since m(pi) hard to iterate on
• Can use approximation for ‘simplified’ ACA
17060QgI T 1
m( p)  m( pi )  *
kh t

17060QgI T ( mz ) i
p
pdp p
Dm( p)  2   2 i ( p  pi ) p  pi  *
1
mz ( mz )i
pi
2khpi t
After Jones
Rate Time Analysis - 85 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Finite Conductivity Fracture

We assume that finite resistance exists


inside the fracture
y

k
w/2 kf

xF
FcD = kfw/kxF

Rate Time Analysis - 86 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Effect of Conductivity
on effective wellbore radius

Rate Time Analysis - 87 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Bi-Linear Flow

Rate Time Analysis - 88 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Bi-Linear Flow

1/4
𝜋 𝑡𝐷
𝑝𝑤𝐷 =
2𝐶𝑓𝐷 0.906402
In Field Units
97.6𝑞𝐵𝜇
∆𝑝 = 1/4
𝑡 1/4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
ℎ 𝑘𝑓2 𝑤 2 𝑘∅𝑐𝑡 𝜇
983.3𝑞𝑇 1/4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
∆𝑚(𝑝 ) = 1/4
𝑡
ℎ 𝑘𝑓2 𝑤 2 𝑘∅𝑐𝑡 𝜇
A log-log plot of both Dp and Dp’ will exhibit a slope of ¼ for bi-
linear flow. A plot of either Dp or Dm(p) vs. t1/4 should provide a
straight line. From the line, we can calculate kf or fracture
permeability if k is known.

Rate Time Analysis - 89 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Field Example
Woodford Shale

Rate Time Analysis - 90 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Stimulated Rock Volume (SRV)
Microseismic events
recorded during hydraulic Fractured outcrop of
fracturing Marcellus Shale

Rate Time Analysis - 91 Evaluation of Shale Gas


SPE119890 Mayerhofer et al. 91
Reservoirs
92

Tri-Linear Flow model

Assumption of Identical Fractures


Interior Fracture
Fracture Spacing

Bounding Fracture Flow Boundary

After Ozkan, CSM


Rate Time Analysis - 92 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Tri-Linear Flow model

Representation of SRV as Dual-Porosity Medium

Lh: 4000 ft Hydraulic


Fracture
Horizontal
Well

200 ft 400 ft 200 ft

Fracture Stimulated Reservoir


Network Volume (SRV)

After Ozkan, CSM


Rate Time Analysis - 93 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
94

Tri-Linear Flow model

Pressure-transient responses of fractured vertical and


horizontal wells in shale are dominated by linear flow
regimes. y = d /2
LINE OF SYMMETRY
(NO-FLOW BOUNDARY)
e F

NO-FLOW
BOUNDARY

OUTER RESERVOIR
HYDRAULIC k O , f O , ctO
FRACTURE
k F , wF , f F , ctF

xe
INNER RESERVOIR
NATURALLY
xF FRACTURED
k f , f f , ctf
k m , f m , c tm

HORIZONTAL WELL

Rate Time Analysis - 94 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ozkan, CSMReservoirs
What flow regimes
we can observe?

Early Times
» Well bore dominated flow
» Bi-Linear Flow
Intermediate Times
» Linear Flow in Stimulated Region
» Boundary Dominated Flow in Stimulated
Region (fractures interfere with each other)
Late Times
» Linear Flow in Un-stimulated Region
Rate Time Analysis - 95 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
In Practice

Bi-Linear Flow is rare but can be


observed
Linear flow is commonly observed in
most wells
Boundary dominated flow is observed
for wells producing for many years
Linear flow in un-stimulated regions is
difficult to observe
Rate Time Analysis - 96 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Analysis

Linear Flow
» Analysis is already discussed, we can
obtain xF√k and xF if k is known
Boundary Dominated Flow
» A plot of pwD or p’wD vs. tD should provide a
straight line with a unit slope
» From the slope, we can obtain the volume
of stimulated region
Rate Time Analysis - 97 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Boundary Dominated Flow
(BDF)

Plot Dm(p) vs. t (in days) and calculate


the slope
 From the slope of the late-time
boundary dominated flow data, we can
estimate
56.6𝑞𝑇
𝐴ℎ ∅𝑐𝑡 𝑓 + ∅𝑐𝑡 𝑚 𝑖 =
𝑚𝜇𝑖


 Time Analysis - 98
Rate Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Field Example

SPE 125043 Brown et al., 2009


Rate Time Analysis - 99 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Field Example

TABLE 5 – INPUT DATA FOR EXAMPLE 2


Initial pressure, pi, psia 3109
Formation thickness, h, ft 300
Formation temperature, T, °F 106
Wellbore radius, rw, ft 0.23
Matrix porosity, fm, fraction 0.04
Specific gravity,  0.588
Horizontal-well length, L, ft 3250
Fracture half-length, xF, ft 275
Number of hydraulic fractures, nF 19
Gas saturation, Sg, fraction 0.9
Water saturation, Sw, fraction 0.1

SPE 125043 Brown et al., 2009


Rate Time Analysis - 100 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Flow Regimes

1.E+07

Pseudopressure Drop (Data)


Logarithmic Derivative (Data)
Pseudopressure Drop (Model)
Logarithmic Derivative (Model)
Dm(pwf)/qsc, psi2-d/cp-Mscf

1.E+06
d(Dm(pwf)/qsc)/dln tmb

1.E+05
Half-slope line

Unit-slope line
1.E+04

1.E+03
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04
SPE 125043 Brown et al., 2009
tmb, d
Rate Time Analysis - 101 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Linear Flow Analysis

9.E+05

8.E+05

7.E+05
Dm(pwf)/qsc, psi2-d/cp-Mscf

6.E+05

5.E+05

4.E+05

3.E+05

2.E+05 Slope = 7733 psi2-d1/2/cp-Mscf

1.E+05

0.E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
t1/2
mb , d1/2
SPE 125043 Brown et al., 2009
Rate Time Analysis - 102 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
BDF (or PSS) Analysis

9.E+05

8.E+05

7.E+05
Dm(pwf)/qsc, psi2-d/cp-Mscf

6.E+05

5.E+05 Slope = 210 psi2/cp-Mscf

4.E+05

3.E+05

2.E+05

1.E+05

0.E+00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
tmb, d SPE 125043 Brown et al., 2009
Rate Time Analysis - 103 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Unified Scaling Theory

All the production data from shale plays


can be captured using a combination of
linear flow and boundary dominated
flow
The analytical solution is possible if we
assume known initial pressure and
constant BHP
Patzek et al., www.pnas.org (2013)
Rate Time Analysis - 104 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Unified Scaling Theory

Patzek et al., www.pnas.org (2013)


Rate Time Analysis - 105 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Unified Scaling Theory

The characteristic time is defined as


𝑑2 𝑘
»𝜏= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼𝑖 =
𝛼𝑖 𝜙𝑆𝑔 𝜇𝑔𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑖
𝑡
The dimensionless time 𝑡 =
ҧ
𝜏
The dimensionless recovery factor can
𝐺𝑝
be defined as 𝑅𝐹 𝑡ҧ =
𝐸𝑈𝑅

Patzek et al., www.pnas.org (2013)


Rate Time Analysis - 106 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Unified Scaling Theory
Procedure

 Ensure that at least 18 months of production data are


available
 Exclude the initial data which indicates clean up
period/bi-linear flow
 Based on transition to boundary dominated flow,
determine t (interference period)
 Calculate the slope of cumulative production, Gp vs.
√t for linear flow – mL.
𝑚𝐿
 𝐸𝑈𝑅 = 𝜏
0.645
 The equation would only work if the well is in
boundary dominated region. Patzek et al., www.pnas.org (2013)
Rate Time Analysis - 107 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Example
(Marcellus Shale)
1.00E+07
Dm(p)/q

1.00E+06

t = 500 days
1.00E+05
1 10 100 1000
Time, Days

Rate Time Analysis - 108 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Example
(Marcellus Shale)
700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000
Gp, MSCF

300,000

200,000
slope = 35,185
100,000

0
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
t1/2, days 1/2

Rate Time Analysis - 109 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Example
(Marcellus Shale)

𝑚𝐿 35,185
𝐸𝑈𝑅 = 𝜏= 500 =
0.645 0.645
1,219,790 𝑀𝑆𝐶𝐹
The total recoverable gas is 1.2 BCF

Rate Time Analysis - 110 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Unified Scaling Theory

Patzek et al., www.pnas.org (2013)


Rate Time Analysis - 111 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Marcellus Wells – Unified Theory

Male et al., SPE 180234 (2016)


Rate Time Analysis - 112 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Marcellus Wells – Unified Theory

Male et al., SPE 180234 (2016)


Rate Time Analysis - 113 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Part II
Decline Curve Analysis

Rate Time Analysis - 114 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
What is a decline curve?

Production rate declining with time


Very rarely, pressure data are available
with the production data
Production data are available either on
monthly or daily basis
The resolution of data is significantly
less than the data typically used for well
test analysis
Rate Time Analysis - 115 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Production Decline

Transient state (no boundary effect is


seen)
» Reservoir properties, k, S, fracture length,
etc.
Pseudo-steady state (boundary
dominated flow)
» EUR, decline rate, future production rate

Rate Time Analysis - 116 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Major Assumptions

 Past producing trends are reflective of future


performance

 Produced at or near capacity

 Constant drainage area

 Constant bottomhole pressure (this may not be


true during early production data)
Rate Time Analysis - 117 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Important Complications
 Changing reservoir conditions
» Crossing the bubble point
» Crossing the dew point
» Stress sensitive permeability
» Water influx (gas reservoir)
» Interference from offset wells
 Changing well / surface conditions
» Flow restrictions
» Liquid loading
» Back pressure
 Curve fitting is not decline curve analysis
» Programs that regress for a best fit solution

Rate Time Analysis - 118 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Arps Method
(restricted to PSS)
 “Analysis of Decline
Curves” AIME 1945 b
» Production decline can be
explained by
– Exponential (b = 0)
– Hyperbolic (0 > b < 1)
– Harmonic (b = 1)

General Hyperbolic Decline Equation is:


qi • q is rate at time t in future
q 1
• qi initial rate
•Di initial nominal decline
1 bDi t ) b
• b Hyperbolic decline
constant
•t is time
Rate Time Analysis - 119 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
After M. J. Fetkovitch, 1973
10

Start of BDF

1
q Dd

0.1

0.01

0.001
1.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02 1.00E+03

tDd

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Rate Time Analysis - 120 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Establishing time to BDF
By using the following equation a
reasonable estimate can be made for a
single layer (in field units); t is in hours:

1000fmc r 2
t pss  t e
k

Rate Time Analysis - 121 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Time to Reach
Pseudo-Steady State

 Typical Gas Well


1,0000.15)0.018) 200  10 )1500)
6 2

t pss  1,215 hours  50 Days


1.0

 Tight Gas Well

t pss 
 )
1,0000.05)0.018) 200  10 6 1500)
2

 405,000 hours  46 Years


0.001

For tight gas wells, majority


of production is under transient conditions!

Rate Time Analysis - 122 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Exponential Decline

• q is rate at time t in future


 Equation
• qi initial rate
 Dt
q  qi e •D constant nominal
decline
• t time
Note: There are two common decline constants. Decline
curve equations use the nominal decline. However a
lose ratio or effective decline is commonly reported in the
industry. Care must be taken to ensure the proper decline
constant is used.
Rate Time Analysis - 123 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Exponential Decline
Additional Equations

qi  q
Cumulative production Np 
D
qi  qab
Ultimate Recovery Np 
D
Remaining Reserves qcurrent  qab
Np 
D
Check for consistent units: q and D

Rate Time Analysis - 124 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Harmonic Decline

Equation:
• q is rate at time t in future
qi
q • qi initial rate
1  Di t •Di initial nominal decline
• t time

Note: For this decline to be used the plot of 1/q vs. t must
be a straight line. The slope of the line is Di/qi.

Rate Time Analysis - 125 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Harmonic Decline
Additional Equations

qi qi
Cumulative production Np  ln
Di q
qi qi
Ultimate Recovery Np  ln
Di qab
𝐷𝑖
𝐷=
Decline Rate 1 + 𝐷𝑖 𝑡

Check for consistent units:


Rate Time Analysis - 126 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Hyperbolic Decline

• q is rate at time t in future


Equation:
• qi initial rate
qi
q 1
•Di initial nominal decline
1 bDi t ) b • b Hyperbolic decline
constant
• t time
Note: The hyperbolic decline is more complicated than the
exponential and harmonic declines, because two
constants must be determined. Di and b. These constants
must be found by trial and error.
Rate Time Analysis - 127 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Hyperbolic Decline
Additional Equations

qi  q 
1b 

Cumulative production Np  1   2  
Di 1  b )   q i 
 
 

qi  q 
1b 

Ultimate Recovery Np  1   ab  
Di 1  b )   q i 
 
 

𝐷𝑖
𝐷=
1 + 𝑏𝐷𝑖 𝑡
Decline Rate

Rate Time Analysis - 128 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Comments for
Hyperbolic Decline

 The b coefficient must be between 0 and 1 if the


coefficient is greater than 1 you are not doing decline
curve analysis but curve fitting and your conclusions
are suspect.
 The b coefficient is a reflection of the drive
mechanism for the reservoir.
 In boundary dominated flow the b value cannot
exceed 1.0
 For commingled gas production from non-
communicating layered reservoirs the value of b may
start close to 1 and reduce with time.
Rate Time Analysis - 129 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
What if?
Sluher 1 - 28

40000 3000

35000
FBHP 2500

Flowing Bottomhole Pressure, Psi


30000

2000
Rate (MSCF/day)

25000

20000 1500

15000
1000

10000

500
5000

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (Days)

Normalize the data by plotting q/Dp vs. time;


Works for smoothly varying pressures and rates
Rate Time Analysis - 130 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Shale Reservoirs

Wells produce under transient


conditions for a long time
Typical well life is assumed to exceed
more than 30 years (EUR’s are
calculated based on 60 years of life)
Linear flow trend is observed in many
wells but cannot be sustained for infinite
period
Rate Time Analysis - 131 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Proposed Models

Hyperbolic decline combined with


terminal decline
Stretched Exponential (Valko (2009))
Power-law Exponential (Ilk et al. (2009))
Duong Modified Linear Flow (Duong
(2011))
Logistic Growth model (Clark et al.
(2011)
Rate Time Analysis - 132 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Caveat

All the proposed models are empirical


and are based on observations rather
than fundamental theory
All models are mostly used based on
assumption of constant BHP
Some models are more conservative
than others; some are more robust, but
the applications can vary on case-by-
case basis
Rate Time Analysis - 133 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Hyperbolic with terminal decline

Fit the production data with a b value


exceeding 1 (indication of transient flow)
Calculate the decline rate as a function
of time till a terminal value of decline
rate is reached
Extrapolate using exponential decline
beyond that point till abandonment rate
is reached
Provides more realistic EUR values
Rate Time Analysis - 134 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Equations

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 1 + 𝑏𝐷𝑖 𝑡 −1/𝑏
1 𝑑𝑞 𝐷𝑖
𝐷 𝑡 =− =
𝑞 𝑑𝑡 (1 + 𝑏𝐷𝑖 𝑡)
Notice that for b =2, the equation for q
approximates linear flow and for b=4, the equation
approximates bi-linear flow
Once D reaches a terminal value, we use 𝑞 =
𝑞𝑖 𝑒 −𝐷𝑡 till we reach an abandonment rate

Rate Time Analysis - 135 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Subjectivity of the Analysis

Rate Time Analysis - 136 Evaluation of Shale Gas


After Ozkan Reservoirs
Stretched Exponent Method

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡/𝜏 𝑛
Three unknowns in this equation are qi, t and t. Need to
calculate through trial and error.
𝜏 1 1 𝑡 𝑛
𝐺𝑝 = 𝑞𝑖 Γ −Γ ,( )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝜏
𝜏 1
𝐸𝑈𝑅 = 𝑞𝑖 Γ
𝑛 𝑛
𝑞 𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡/𝜏 𝑛
=
𝐺𝑝 𝜏 1 1 𝑡 𝑛
Γ −Γ ,
𝑛 𝑛 𝜏

Where Γ 𝑛 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛 − 1)Γ(𝑛 − 1);

Γ 𝑛, 𝑧 = න 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑧 Valko, SPE 119369
Rate Time Analysis - 137 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Power Law Exponential Method

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝐷𝑖 𝑡 𝑛 − 𝐷∞ 𝑡
𝐷 = 𝐷∞ + 𝐷𝑖 𝑛𝑡 𝑛−1
No closed form solution for Gp is
available. There are 4 unknowns in
this equation: Di, n, D∞ and qi

Rate Time Analysis - 138 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Duong’s model

−𝑚
𝑎
𝑞 = 𝑞1 𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑡 1−𝑚 − 1
(1 − 𝑚)
𝑞1 𝑎
𝐺𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑡 1−𝑚 − 1
𝑎 1−𝑚
𝑞
= 𝑎𝑡 −𝑚
𝐺𝑝
𝑞
By plotting versus t on a log-log plot, one can
𝐺𝑝
calculate a and m. If m = 1.0, it becomes a linear flow
model.

Duong, SPERE 2011


Rate Time Analysis - 139 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Duong’s Model

Duong, SPERE 2011


Rate Time Analysis - 140 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Logistic Growth Model
𝐾𝑡 𝑛
𝐺𝑝 =
𝑎 + 𝑡𝑛
𝑑𝐺𝑝 𝐾𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑛−1
𝑞= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑎 + 𝑡𝑛 2
K is the ultimate recovery; can be determined from
volumetric analysis. The value of n most likely is
between 0 and 1. If K is known or assumed with some
certainty, then we can use the equation
𝐾 𝑎
−1 = 𝑛
𝐺𝑝 𝑡
Log-log plot of left hand side against t will provide the
values of both a and n.
Clark et al., SPE 144790
Rate Time Analysis - 141 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Logistic Growth Model
Bakken Shale Example

Rate Time Analysis - 142 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Clark et al., SPE 144790 Reservoirs
Logistic Growth Model
Impact of uncertainty in K
Barnett Shale example

Rate Time Analysis - 143 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Clark et al., SPE 144790 Reservoirs
Logistic Growth Model
Linear Fit with Assumed K

Rate Time Analysis - 144 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Clark et al., SPE 144790 Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots

Diagnostic plots can provide valuable


information in terms of what model may
be most appropriate
These plots require numerical
differentiation; hence may be influenced
by quality of the data

Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910


Rate Time Analysis - 145 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots

Following plots can be numerically


generated as a function of time
1 𝑑𝑞
»𝐷 𝑡 = −
𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 1
»𝑏 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐷 𝑡
1 𝑑𝑞
»𝛽 𝑡 = 𝑡 = −𝑡𝐷(𝑡)
𝑞 𝑑𝑡
» q/Gp
Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910
Rate Time Analysis - 146 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots

Constant D indicates exponential


decline
Linear change in D with time indicates
power law exponential model
Linear change in q/Gp indicates Duong
model
Constant b indicates hyperbolic model
Constant b indicates linear or bi-linear
models
Rate Time Analysis - 147
Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910
Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots
Raw Data – Rate vs Time

Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910


Rate Time Analysis - 148 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots
q/Gp vs time

Rate Time Analysis - 149 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910 Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots
D and b vs. time

Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910


Rate Time Analysis - 150 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots
beta vs Time

Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910


Rate Time Analysis - 151 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Diagnostic Plots
Raw Data – Rate vs Time

Okoyuma et al., SPE 162910


Rate Time Analysis - 152 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Analysis

Possible to fit the data with multiple


models with reasonable accuracy
Depending on the length of the time
over production data are available, the
EUR results can be significantly
different
Smaller the time interval, more is the
uncertainty in the results
Rate Time Analysis - 153 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Effect of Time
Pinedale Horizontal Wells

Rate Time Analysis - 154 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Meyet et al., SPE 166365 Reservoirs
Effect of Time
Bakken Shale

Rate Time Analysis - 155 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Meyet et al., SPE 166365 Reservoirs
Rate Time Analysis - 156 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Meyet et al., SPE 166365 Reservoirs
Type Curves

What does a typical well produce from a


given region? The region can be based
on
» Formation
» Geography (area owned by a company)
» Geology
» Type of fluid produced

Rate Time Analysis - 157 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Purpose

To predict the performance of existing


wells as a group
To assess the feasibility of a play or
region
To conduct economic analysis
To purchase or sell an asset

Rate Time Analysis - 158 Evaluation of Shale Gas


Reservoirs
Procedure

 Collect production data from existing wells


 Normalize the data so that all the wells start
producing from time, t =0
 Calculate the average rate for every period by
dividing total production at a given time by total
number of producing wells
 Fit the average data with an empirical equation;
in addition, to account for uncertainites, P10,
P50, P90 curves can also be predicted
 Use the “type curve” for other predictions
Rate Time Analysis - 159 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs
Example
Company:
On Stream: 09/01/1965
Field: RINGWOOD
Current Status: RINGW OOD
104
Legend
5 Op Gas Rate
P90
3 P50
2 P10

103

3
2

102

3
Op Gas Rate (Mscfd)

101

3
2

1.0

3
2

10-1

3
2

10-2
0 Rate Time Analysis - 160
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Normalized Time (month)
420 440 460 480 Evaluation of Shale Gas
500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740

Reservoirs
Drawbacks of the Approach

Bad wells are abandoned early thus


biasing the overall performance
The wells with most production may be
the best wells in the field
Surface constraints are rarely
considered in this analysis
The type curve may not represent the
area of interest
Rate Time Analysis - 161 Evaluation of Shale Gas
Reservoirs

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