CHAPTER 15

AZIMUTHS AND AMPLITUDES

INTRODUCTION

1500. Checking Compass Error checked occasionally by comparing the observed and
calculated azimuths and amplitudes of a celestial body. The
The navigator must constantly be concerned about the difference between the observed and calculated values is the
accuracy of the ship’s primary and backup compasses, and compass error. This chapter discusses these procedures.
should check them regularly. A regularly annotated compass Theoretically, these procedures work with any celestial
log book will allow the navigator to notice a developing error body. However, the Sun and Polaris are used most often
before it becomes a serious problem. when measuring azimuths, and the rising or setting Sun
As long as at least two different types of compass (e.g. when measuring amplitudes.
mechanical gyro and flux gate, or magnetic and ring laser
While errors can be computed to the nearest tenth of a
gyro) are consistent with each other, one can be reasonably
degree or so, it is seldom possible to steer a ship that
sure that there is no appreciable error in either system. Since
accurately, especially when a sea is running, and it is
different types of compasses depend on different scientific
principles and are not subject to the same error sources, their reasonable to round calculations to the nearest half or
agreement indicates almost certainly that no error is present. perhaps whole degree for most purposes.
A navigational compass can be checked against the Various hand-held calculators and computer programs
heading reference of an inertial navigation system if one is are available to relieve the tedium and errors of tabular and
installed. One can also refer to the ship’s indicated GPS track mathematical methods of calculating azimuths and ampli-
as long as current and leeway are not factors, so that the tudes. Naval and Coast Guard navigators will find the
ship’s COG and heading are in close agreement. STELLA program useful in this regard. This program is
The navigator’s only completely independent discussed in further in Chapter 19 - Sight Reductions.
directional reference (because it is extra-terrestrial and not STELLA stands for the System to Establish Latitude and
man-made) is the sky. The primary compass should be Longitude Astronomically.

AZIMUTHS

1501. Gyro Error by Azimuth of the Sun angle and the base azimuth angle and label it as the
azimuth angle difference (Z Diff.).
Mariners not having STELLA may use Pub 229, Sight
3. Reenter the tables with the base declination and
Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation to compute the
LHA arguments, but with the latitude argument 1°
Sun’s azimuth. They compare the computed azimuth to the
greater than the base latitude argument. Record the
azimuth measured with the compass to determine compass
Z Diff. for the increment of latitude.
error. In computing an azimuth, interpolate the tabular
azimuth angle for the difference between the table 4. Reenter the tables with the base declination and
arguments and the actual values of declination, latitude, and latitude arguments, but with the LHA argument 1°
local hour angle. Do this triple interpolation of the azimuth greater than the base LHA argument. Record the Z
angle as follows: Diff. for the increment of LHA.
1. Enter the Sight Reduction Tables with the integer 5. Determine the increment of each of the three
values of declination, latitude, and local hour angle. arguments, which is simply the actual minus the
For each of these arguments, extract a base azimuth base argument. Use this to compute a correction
angle. for each of the three arguments, using the formula
Correction = Z Diff. x (increment ÷ 60).
2. Reenter the tables with the same latitude and LHA
arguments but with the declination argument 1° 6. Sum the three corrections to obtain a total
greater than the base declination argument. Record correction. Apply this to the base azimuth angle to
the difference between the respondent azimuth obtain the true azimuth angle.

269
270 AZIMUTHS AND AMPLITUDES

The gyrocompass error is the difference between the best, error West; gyro least, error East.” (Be careful of this
true azimuth angle (Zn) and the measured azimuth angle mnemonic near the 360°/0° boundary, though, where a val-
per gyrocompass (Zn pgc). The gyro error is West if the ue slightly larger than 0° is actually treated as slightly larger
gyro reads a larger value than true; it is East if the gyro read- than 360°.)
ing is the smaller value. One way to remember this is “gyro

Base Base Tab* Correction

Actual Arguments Z Z Z Diff. Increments Z Diff x (Inc.÷ 60)
Dec. 8°47.4' S 8° 121.3° 122.3° +1.0° 47.4' +0.8°
DR Lat. 23°55.0' N 23°(Contrary) 1213° 122.0° +0.7° 55.0' +0.6°
LHA 317°37.4' 317° 1213° 122.1° + 0.8° 37.4' +0.5°
Base Z 121.3° Total Corr. +1.9°
Corr. (+) 1.9°
Z N 121.3°E *Respondent for the two base arguments and 1°
Zn 123.2° change from third base argument, in vertical
Zn pgc 124.0° order of Dec., DR Lat., and LHA.
Gyro Error 0.8° W

Figure 1501. Azimuth by Pub. No. 229.

Example: 317°. Record the tabulated azimuth for these arguments.

In DR latitude 23° 55.0'N, the azimuth of the Sun is As the third and final step in the triple interpolation
124.0° per gyrocompass (pgc). At the time of the process, increase the value of LHA to 318° because the
observation, the declination of the Sun is 8° 47.4'S; the actual LHA value was greater than the base LHA. Enter the
local hour angle of the Sun is 317° 37.4. Determine gyro Sight Reduction Tables with the following arguments: (1)
error. Declination = 8°; (2) DR Latitude = 23°; (3) LHA = 318°.
Solution: Record the tabulated azimuth for these arguments.
(See Figure 1501) Enter the actual value of declination, Calculate the Z Difference by subtracting the base
DR latitude, and LHA. Round each argument down to the azimuth from the tabulated azimuth. Be careful to carry the
nearest whole degree. Enter the Sight Reduction Tables with correct sign.
these whole degree arguments and extract the base azimuth
value for these rounded off arguments. Record the base Z Difference = Tab Z - Base Z
azimuth value in the table.
As the first step in the triple interpolation process, Next, determine the increment for each argument by
increase the value of the declination by 1° to 9° because the taking the difference between the actual values of each
actual declination was greater than the base declination. argument and the base argument. Calculate the correction
Enter the Sight Reduction Tables with the following for each of the three argument interpolations by dividing
arguments: (1) Declination = 9°; (2) DR Latitude = 23°; (3) the increment by 60, and multiplying the result by the Z
LHA = 317°. Record the tabulated azimuth for these difference.
arguments. The sign of each correction is the same as the sign of the
As the second step in the triple interpolation process, corresponding Z difference used to calculate it. In the above
increase the value of latitude by 1° to 24° because the example, the total correction sums to +1.9. Apply this value
actual DR latitude was greater than the base latitude. Enter to the base azimuth of 121.3° to obtain the true azimuth
the Sight Reduction Tables with the following arguments: 123.2°. Compare this to the gyrocompass reading of 124.0°
(1) Declination = 8°; (2) DR Latitude = 24°; (3) LHA = pgc. The compass error is 0.8°W.

AZIMUTH OF POLARIS

1502. Gyro Error by Azimuth of Polaris Example:

On February 23, 2016, at LAT 29°31.0' N and LON
The Polaris tables in the Nautical Almanac list the 074°30.0'W, at 04-21-15 GMT, Polaris bears 359.9° pgc.
azimuth of Polaris for latitudes between the equator and 65° Calculate the gyro error.
N. Figure 1912b in Chapter 19 shows this table. Compare a
compass bearing of Polaris to the tabular value of Polaris to Date 23 February 2016
determine compass error. The entering arguments for the Time (GMT) 04-21-15
table are LHA of Aries and observer latitude.
 AZIMUTHS AND AMPLITUDES 271

GHA Aries 217° 49.3' (from down and extract the value for the given latitude. Since the
almanac daily pages & increment between tabulated values is so small, visual
interpolation) interpolation is sufficient. In this case, the azimuth for
Longitude 074° 30.0'W Polaris for the given LHA of Aries and the given latitude
LHA Aries 143° 19.3' is 359.2°.

Solution:
Tabulated Azimuth 359.2°T
Enter the azimuth section of the Polaris table with the
calculated LHA of Aries. In this case, go to the column for Gyrocompass Bearing 359.9°T
LHA Aries between 140° and 149°. Follow that column Error 0.7°W

AMPLITUDES

1503. Amplitudes body and the East/West point of the horizon where the
observer’s prime vertical intersects the horizon (at 90°),
A celestial body’s amplitude angle is the complement which is also the point where the plane of the equator
of its azimuth angle. At the moment that a body rises or sets, intersects the horizon (at an angle numerically equal to the
the amplitude angle is the arc of the horizon between the observer’s co-latitude). See Figure 1503.

Figure 1503. The amplitude angle (A) subtends the arc of the horizon between the body and the point where the prime
vertical and the equator intersect the horizon. Note that it is the compliment of the azimuth angle (Z).

In practical navigation, a bearing (psc or pgc) of a body This formula gives the angle at the instant the body is
can be observed when it is on either the celestial or the on the celestial horizon. It does not contain an altitude term
visible horizon. To determine compass error, simply because the body’s computed altitude is zero at this instant.
convert the computed amplitude angle to true degrees and
The angle is prefixed E if the body is rising and W if it
compare it with the observed compass bearing.
is setting. This is the only angle in celestial navigation
The angle is computed by the formula:
referenced FROM East or West, i.e. from the prime
sin A = sin Dec / cos Lat. vertical. A body with northerly declination will rise and set
272 AZIMUTHS AND AMPLITUDES

North of the prime vertical. Likewise, a body with southerly follows:

declination will rise and set South of the prime vertical.
• Enter Bowditch Table 22 (Amplitudes) with the
Therefore, the angle is suffixed N or S to agree with the
nearest integral values of declination and latitude.
name of the body’s declination. A body whose declination
Extract a base amplitude angle.
is zero rises and sets exactly on the prime vertical.
• Reenter the table with the same declination
Due largely to refraction, dip, and its disk size, the Sun
argument but with the latitude to the next tabulated
is on the celestial horizon when its lower limb is approxi-
value (greater or less than the base latitude
mately two thirds of a diameter above the visible horizon.
argument, depending upon whether the actual
The Moon is on the celestial horizon when its upper limb is
latitude is greater or less than the base argument).
on the visible horizon. Stars and planets are on the celestial
Record the amplitude and the difference between it
horizon when they are approximately one Sun diameter
and the base amplitude angle and label it Diff.
above the visible horizon.
• Reenter the table with the base latitude argument but
When observing a body on the visible horizon, a
with the declination to the next tabulated value
correction from Table 23 - Correction of Amplitude as
(greater or less than the base declination argument,
Observed on the Visible Horizon must be applied. This
depending upon whether the actual declination is
correction accounts for the slight change in bearing as the
greater or less than the base argument). Record the
body moves between the visible and celestial horizons. It
amplitude and the difference between it and the base
reduces the bearing on the visible horizon to the celestial
amplitude angle and label it Diff.
horizon, from which the table is computed.
• Compute the corrections due to latitude and
For the Sun, stars, and planets, apply this correction to declination not being exactly at a tabular value.
the observed bearing in the direction away from the Apply these corrections to obtain a final amplitude.
elevated pole. For the moon, apply one half of the The final amplitude is then converted to a true
correction toward the elevated pole. Note that the algebraic bearing. The difference between the true bearing and
sign of the correction does not depend upon the body’s the gyro bearing gives the gyro error.
declination, but only on the observer’s latitude. Assuming
the body is the Sun the rule for applying the correction can Example:
be outlined as follows:
The DR latitude of a ship is 51° 24.6' N. The navigator
observes the setting Sun on the celestial horizon. Its decli-
Observer’s Lat. Rising/Setting How to Apply Correction nation is N 19° 40.4'. Its observed bearing is 303° pgc.
Add correction to observed Required:
North Rising
bearing Gyro error.
Subtract correction from
North Setting
observed bearing Solution:
Subtract correction from Interpolate in Table 22 for the Sun’s calculated
South Rising
observed bearing amplitude as follows. See Figure 1504. The actual values
Add correction to observed
for latitude and declination are L = 51.4° N and dec. = N
South Setting 19.67°. Find the tabulated values of latitude and
bearing
declination closest to these actual values. In this case, these
Table 1503. Amplitude correction for the Sun. tabulated values are L = 51° and dec. = 19.5°. Record the
amplitude corresponding to these base values, 32.0°, as the
The following two articles demonstrate the procedure base amplitude.
for obtaining the amplitude of the Sun on both the celestial Next, holding the base declination value constant at
and visible horizons. 19.5°, increase the value of latitude to the next tabulated
value: N 52°. Note that this value of latitude was increased
1504. Amplitude of the Sun on the Celestial Horizon because the actual latitude value was greater than the base
value of latitude. Record the tabulated amplitude for L =
Mariners may use Bowditch Table 22 (Amplitudes) to 52° and dec. = 19.5°: 32.8°. Then, holding the base latitude
determine the Sun's computed amplitude. The procedure is value constant at 51°, increase the declination value to the
similar to that done in Section 1501. Comparing the com- next tabulated value: 20°. Record the tabulated amplitude
puted amplitude to the amplitude measured with the for L = 51° and dec. = 20°: 32.9°.
gyrocompass determines the gyro error. In computing an The latitude’s actual value (51.4°) is 0.4 of the way be-
amplitude, interpolate the tabular amplitude angle for the tween the base value (51°) and the value used to determine
difference between the table arguments and the actual val- the tabulated amplitude (52°). The declination’s actual val-
ues of declination and latitude. ue (19.67°) is 0.3 of the way between the base value (19.5°)
Do this double interpolation of the amplitude angel as and the value used to determine the tabulated amplitude
 AZIMUTHS AND AMPLITUDES 273

(20.0°). To determine the total correction to base ampli- Because of its northerly declination (in this case), the
tude, multiply these increments (0.4 and 0.3) by the Sun was 32.6° north of west when it was on the celestial
respective difference between the base and tabulated values horizon. Therefore its true bearing was 302.6° (270° +
(+0.8 and +0.9, respectively) and sum the products. The to- 32.6°) at this moment. Comparing this with the gyro bear-
tal correction is +0.6°. Add the total correction (+0.6°) to ing of 303° gives an error of 0.4°W, which can be rounded
the base amplitude (32.0°) to determine the final amplitude to 1/2°W.
(32.6°) which will be converted to a true bearing.

Actual Base Base Amp. Tab. Amp. Diff. Inc. Correction

L=51.4°N 51° 32.0° 32.8° +0.8° 0.4 +0.3°
dec=19.67°N 19.5° 32.0° 32.9° +0.9° 0.3 +0.3°

Total +0.6°

Figure 1504. Interpolation in Table 22 for Amplitude.

1505. Amplitude of the Sun on the Visible Horizon resulting amplitude is positive, it is north of the prime
vertical; conversely, a negative amplitude is south of the
In higher latitudes, amplitude observations should be prime vertical.
made when the body is on the visible horizon because the
value of the correction is large enough to cause significant a) The general case, when a body is not on the celes-
error if the observer misjudges the exact position of the tial horizon, the formula is:
celestial horizon. The observation will yield precise results Amplitude = sin-1[(sin DEC- sin LAT sin Hc)/(cos
whenever the visible horizon is clearly defined. LAT cosHc)

Example: where DEC is the celestial body's declination, LAT is

Observer’s DR latitude is 59°47’N, Sun’s declination the observer's latitude, and Hc is the object's computed
is 5°11.3’S. At sunrise the Sun is observed on the visible altitude. For the Sun on the visible horizon, Hc = -0.7°.
horizon bearing 098.5° pgc.
b) When a body is on the celestial horizon (that is, its
altitude, Hc = 0), the formula becomes:
Required:
Gyrocompass error. Amplitude = sin-1 [sin DEC / cos LAT]

Solution: Example:
Given this particular latitude and declination, the Determine the gyrocompass error using the
amplitude angle is 10.3°S, so that the Sun’s true bearing is formulation instead of the tables, for the example in Section
100.3° at the moment it is on the celestial horizon, that is, 1505.
when its Hc is precisely 0°. Applying the Table 23
correction to the observed bearing of 098.5° pgc using the Required:
rules given in Section 1503, the Sun would have been Gyrocompass error.
bearing 099.7° pgc had the observation been made when
the Sun was on the celestial horizon. Therefore, the gyro Solution:
error is 0.6°E. The observed bearing of the Sun on the visible horizon
is 098.5° pgc. The computed amplitude of the Sun when it is
1506. Amplitude by Calculation on the visible horizon (that is, Hc = -0.7°) is found by:

As an alternative to using the amplitude tables, if a Amplitude = sin-1 [(sin -5.19° - sin 59.78° sin -0.7°) /
calculator is available then the amplitudes can be computed (cos 59.78° cos -0.7°)].
using a slightly modified version of the altitude-azimuth
formula. The modification is needed because azimuth (Z) Evaluating, we find the amplitude is 9.1°. This is 9.1°
and amplitude (A) angles are complimentary, and the co- degrees away from E, in the “negative” (or southerly) di-
functions of complimentary angles are equal; i.e., cosine Z rection, so the calculated azimuth is 90° + 9.1° = 99.1°.
= sine A. In the following formulas, northerly latitudes and The gyrocompass error is 99.1° - 98.5° = 0.6° E. This value
declinations are given positive values, and southerly matches the answer obtained in Section 1505 using the
latitudes and declinations are considered negative. If the tables.