Chapter 1

ANATOMY
AND

Types of Study
PHYSIOLOGY ◆Systemic Anatomy

◆Regional Anatomy

◆Surface Anatomy
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3
 ◆ Human Anatomy is the study of body structure. •Word is derived from the
Greek and means “to cut” or “cutting
backwards” (putting things together

from slices).
◆ Anatomy deals with the structure
(morphology) of the body and its parts;
in other words, what are things called?

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Physiology
◆Physiology studies the
functions of these parts
or asks the question,
“how do they work?”
Parts of physiology:
1) Organism involved
2) Organization level studied
3) Systemic function

4
Anatomy Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 1

Levels of
Levels of

Organization Organization
◆ In this course, we will ◆The chemical level of organization is discussed in Chapter 2: ▪

study Anatomy and

Physiology by starting with
Atoms
the most basic level of ▪ Inorganic Molecules (inorganic chemistry)
organization (atoms) and
“working our way up”.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. ▪ Organic Molecules (organic chemistry)
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5 7
 Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Levels of Organization
◆Organelle level

▪ Chemical structures organized to form organelles that

perform individual functions
▪ It is the functions of the organelles that allow the cell to
live
▪ Dozens of organelles have been identified, including the
following:
• Mitochondria
• Golgi apparatus
• Endoplasmic reticulum

6 Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

2
Levels of Organization
◆The Cell is next in complexity, in fact many billions of times
more complex than molecules.
▪ Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an
organism .

▪ Connective Tissue

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Levels of Organization
◆Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a

similar function.

◆While there are many different types of cells, they all work to
10
form 4 basic types of tissues:
▪ Muscle
▪ Epithelium ▪ Nerves

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 Levels of

Organization 12

◆Organs are structures composed of two or more different

Levels of
types of tissues (all but the simplest of organs have all 4

basic tissues represented.)

▪ Organs have specific functions

and recognizable shapes.

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11

Organization
◆An organ system consists of related organs with a common function. For
instance, the Digestive system handles all aspects of taking in and breaking
down food, absorbing nutrients, and
eliminating wastes.
▪ There are 11 organ systems in
▪ It includes all the organs of the mouth,
the body.
esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver,
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gallbladder, and pancreas.

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2. Support
and
Movement
a.The
skeletal
system is
made up
of bones
and
ligaments. It supports, protects, provides
frameworks, stores inorganic salts, and houses
blood-forming tissues.
b.The muscular system consists of the muscles that

provide body movement, posture, and body heat.

 Covering
a.The integumentary system, including skin, hair, nails, and various

glands, covers the body. It protects underlying tissues, helps regulate

body temperature, senses changes, and synthesizes certain
products.

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3.Integration and Coordination

a.The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
sense organs. It integrates incoming information from receptors and
sends impulses to muscles and glands.
b.The endocrine system, includes the hypothalamus, pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, and thymus glands, pancreas, ovaries,
and testes, along with
other organs that secrete hormones. It helps to integrate metabolic
functions.

16
▪ Body Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 4
4.
Transport
a.The

cardiovascular system, is made up of the heart and 18

blood vessels. It distributes oxygen, nutrients, and
hormones throughout the body while removing wastes
from the cells.

b.The lymphatic system, consists of lymphatic vessels,

6.
lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen. It drains excess

tissue fluid and includes cells of immunity.

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17

Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new
organisms.
1) The male reproductive system consists of
the testes, accessory organs, and vessels
that produce and conduct sperm to the
female reproductive tract.
2) The female reproductive system consists
of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
and external genitalia. It produces egg
cells and also houses the developing
offspring.

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20
5.
Absorption
and
Excretion
a.The
digestive
system is made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and of a collection of organ systems. ▪ Six important life processes:
accessory organs. It receives, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients. • Metabolism
b.The respiratory system exchanges O2 and CO2 between the blood and air
• Responsiveness
and is made up of the lungs and passageways.
• Movement
c. The urinary system, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• Growth
It removes wastes from the blood and helps to maintain water and
electrolyte balance. • Differentiation
• Reproduction
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◆In health, all parts of the body must be functioning together in a process
called homeostasis.
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Levels of
Organization
◆An organism consists

5
Essential occur in the body.

Life ◆Responsiveness is the body’s ability to detect and respond

Processes to changes which might represent an opportunity… or a

threat!
◆Metabolism is the
sum of all the ▪ Decrease in body temperature
catabolic (breaking ▪ Responding to sound
down) and anabolic ▪ Nerve (electrical signals) and muscle cells (contracting)
(building up)
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chemical processes
that 21
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Essential
Life
Processes
◆Differentiation is
the development of
a cell from an

unspecialized to
specialized state.
Cells have
specialized

structures and
functions that differ from precursor cells.

▪ Stem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation.

◆Reproduction is the formation of new cells (growth, repair,

or replacement) or the production of a new individual.

 Processes
◆Movement is any motion, including movement of tiny subcellular

structures, or movement inside cells or organs. ▪ Leg muscles move the body

from one place to another.

◆Growth involves an increase in body size due to an increase in existing

cells, number of cells, or both. ▪ In bone growth, materials between cells

increase.

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Homeostasis
◆A condition of equilibrium
(balance) in the body’s
internal environment. It is a
dynamic condition meant to
keep body functions in the
narrow range compatible with
maintaining life.

▪ Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg of glucose/dL of blood.

24
Essential
Life Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 6
Homeostasis
◆Body fluids are defined as
dilute, watery solutions

containing dissolved
chemicals inside or outside of
the cell.

Maintaining the volume and

composition of body fluids is

important.

▪ Intracellular Fluid (ICF) is

the fluid within cells

▪ Extracellular Fluid (ECF) is

the fluid outside cells 26
• Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues

Homeostasis
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◆Cellular function depends

25
on the regulation of the

composition of the
interstitial fluid.

▪ Composition of interstitial
fluid changes as substances

move between plasma and the

interstitial fluid.

▪ Movement back and forth

across capillary walls
provides
nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells and

removes waste (carbon dioxide).

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Homeostasis
◆Some important body
fluids: ◆Control of homeostasis is constantly being challenged by: ▪ Physical
▪ Blood Plasma is the ECF within blood vessels. ▪ Lymph is the ECF within insults such as intense heat or lack of oxygen ▪ Changes in the internal

lymphatic vessels. environment such as a drop in blood glucose due to lack of food
▪ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the ECF in the brain and spinal cord. ▪ Physiological stress such as demands of work or school ◆Disruptions are
▪ Synovial fluid is the ECF in joints. mild if balance is quickly restored. ◆Intense disruptions are often prolonged
▪ Aqueous humor is the ECF in eyes. and result in disease (poisoning or severe infections) or death.

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Homeostasis

7
Feedback ▪ Body is monitored and re-monitored.
System ▪ Each monitored variable is termed
a controlled condition.
◆Three basic components:
▪ Receptor
▪ Control center
▪ Effector

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◆Cycle of events:
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31
30

Feedback
System
 ◆Negative Feedback systems:

▪ Reverses a change in a controlled condition

• Regulation of blood pressure

◆Positive Feedback systems:

▪ Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body’s controlled

conditions

• Normal child birth

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Anatomical Terminology
◆Anatomists use a common
language referring to body
32
Feedback
structures and their functions.

System ▪ One key concept is the

definition of the standard
anatomical position. part to another.
▪ Other special vocabulary is Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

used in relating one body

8
Anatomical Terminology ◆Directional Terms

Terminology Anatomical Position ◆

Anatomical

▪ In the anatomical position, the subject stands 33 34

▪ Superior ▪ Inferior
erect facing the observer with the head
▪
level, the eyes facing forward, feet flat on

the floor directed forward, and the arms

at their sides, palms forward.

▪ All anatomical descriptions are in

reference to this position.

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Above, top, toward head
▪ Below,
bottom,
away from
head

Anatomical
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Terminology Directional Terms ◆

Anatomical
Terminology Directional Terms
◆

35

36

▪ Anterior (Ventral) Toward the

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front
▪ Medial
▪ Posterior (Dorsal) Toward the
▪ Lateral
back
▪ Intermediate

▪ Toward the midline

▪ Away from midline
▪ Between medial
and lateral

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9
Anatomical Anatomical
Terminology Directional Terms Terminology Directional Terms
▪ Proximal ▪ Distal Farther from

origination
▪ Ipsilateral ▪
Contralateral

This arm is

▪ Same side of the body ▪

▪ Nearest to the origination ▪ Opposite side of the body
 ◆Directional Terms

ipsilateral to this leg This leg is contralateral to

this arm

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Anatomical Terminology
37

◆Descriptive Terms

38

Anatomical Terminology
▪ Towards the surface organ ▪ Pertaining to
▪ Superficial ▪ Deep
▪ Towards the core of a covering against a
the body Superficial cavity wall
▪ Visceral ▪ Parietal
Parietal
▪ Pertaining to a
covering over an

39

Superficial

Deep Superficial
Superficial
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 Visceral Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Anatomical Anatomical
Terminology Regional Names
◆ Terminology Regional Names
◆

▪ Cranial ▪ Cervical ▪ ▪ Elbow ▪ Groin

Cubital ▪ Wrist
▪ Carpal ▪ Patellar ▪ Orbital ▪ Front of
▪ Thoracic ▪ Inguinal

▪ Metacarpal ▪ Plantar ▪ Digital

• Hand/palm •
▪ Buccal
Sole of foot •
▪ Axillary ▪ Femoral ▪
knee ▪ Cheek
▪ Skull Gluteal
Eye • Armpit
▪ Neck ▪ Tarsal
▪ Chest • Thigh
 • Buttock • Ankle • Toes
or Phalangeal 43
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42
or Fingers
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Body Planes
◆Body Planes are imaginary
flat surfaces that separate the

44
Body Planes

body or body part into portions.

There
are three major planes at right
angles to one another:
▪ Sagittal (midline)

▪ Transverse (horizontal)
▪ Frontal (coronal) ◆Sagittal planes divide the

body into right and left sides. ▪ There is only one midsagittal plane,

and it divides the body into two

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equal, mirror-image halves. midsagittal that divide the

▪ There are an infinite number body into unequal parts.

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of possible parasagittal planes

to the right and left of the

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Body Planes 45
◆Frontal or coronal planes
divide the body (or an organ)

into anterior (front) and

posterior
46
(back) portions.

◆Transverse planes (also called

cross-sectional or horizontal Body Planes
planes) divide the body into
A midsagittal section of
superior (upper) and inferior the human brain

(lower) portions.

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 A frontal (or coronal)
brain section

A transverse (or horizontal)

brain section

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48
Body Planes
◆In addition to the right angle ◆Embryologically, the human organs develop within two major body
cavities:
sagittal, coronal and transverse
▪ The brain and spinal cord
planes, the body can also be
develop in a dorsal cavity.
divided into an infinite number
▪ The remaining body organs
of oblique planes that pass
are found in the ventral
through the body or organ at
body cavity.
an angle.
◆Both dorsal and ventral cavities
◆Sections are cuts of the body
have subdivisions.
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Body Cavities

12
Body Cavities
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49

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50

Body Cavities
◆Thoracic cavity is formed
by the sternum, ribs, and the

thoracic portion of the bony

vertebral column.

▪ Also called chest cavity

▪ Stabilized by the internal

and external muscles of

the chest
 ◆Cranial cavity is formed by the cranial bones. ▪ Protects the brain

◆Vertebral canal is formed by bones of vertebral column. ▪ Contains the

spinal cord Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Body Cavities
◆Other cavities are contained
within the thoracic cavity: ▪
Mediastinal cavity

• Located in the central part

of the thoracic cavity ▪ Left
and Right Pleural cavities

• Two fluid-filled spaces that

surround each lung

52 Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Body Cavities
 13
Body Cavities
◆Pericardial cavity is itself
located within the middle
part of

the mediastinal cavity in the

thoracic cavity (like a set of

Russian nesting dolls of

decreasing size—one placed
inside

the other).

▪ Fluid-filled
space that

surrounds the
54
Body Cavities
heart

◆The pericardial cavity is

shown here nestled in the
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middle mediastinum:
53
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Body Cavities
◆Abdominopelvic Abdominopelvic Quadrants &
Cavity extends
from the diaphragm
to the groin and is
encircled by the
abdominal wall and
bones and muscles
of the pelvis.

▪ Divided into two portions:

• Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, spleen, liver,
Regions
gallbladder, small and large intestines.

• Pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, internal

organs of reproductive system, and portions of the large

intestine.
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55
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14
Body Cavities
◆Other body cavities
▪ Oral (mouth) cavity
contains the tongue and
teeth.
▪ Nasal cavity is part of the
upper airways
▪ Orbital cavities contain the
eyeballs and various nerves
and blood vessels.
▪ Middle ear cavities contain
the small bones of the middle
ear.
58
▪ Synovial cavities are found in freely moveable joints like
the large joints of the shoulder and hip.
Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Body Cavities
57 ◆Membranes of the body
cavities
▪ The right and left pleural membranes are the serous
membranes that covers the lungs (visceral pleura) and the
walls of the pleural cavity (parietal pleura).
▪ The pericardial membrane is the serous membrane that
covers the heart (visceral pericardium) and the pericardial
cavity walls (parietal pericardium).
▪ The peritoneal membrane is the serous membrane that
covers the abdominal organs (visceral peritoneum) and
the abdominal cavity walls (parietal peritoneum).
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60
Body Cavities
◆Membranes of the body
cavities
▪ The thoracic and abdominal body cavities are lined by thin, slippery,
double-layered membranes called serous membranes.
▪ These membranes adhere to the outer surface of the organs or “viscera”,
and then double-back on themselves to line the body cavity wall.

• Visceral layer covers the organs within the cavities • Parietal layer lines

the cavity walls

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Body Cavities
◆Membranes of the body
cavities

15
Organ consists of the skin and related
Systems
of the
structures (hair, nails, and glands).

Body ▪ Protects body, regulates

temperature, and eliminates

wastes through sweat and other

secretions

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61

◆ Integumentary System (Chapter 5)

 and maintain posture
▪ Generates the heat necessary
for warm-blooded organisms to
maintain a constant body temp.
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62

Organ
Systems
of the
Body
◆Muscular
System
(Chapters
10-11) consists
of the

named skeletal muscles, as well as

smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
▪ Participates with the skeletal
system to facilitate movement
 of the Body
◆ Skeletal System (Chapters 6-9) consists of the bones and joints.

▪ Provides protection and support

▪ Houses cells that will
become red blood cells,
white blood cells, and
platelets

▪ Stores minerals

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Organ
Systems
of the
Body

◆Nervous System (Chapters 12-17)

consists of the brain, spinal cord,

nerves, and sensory

64 organs).
Organ ▪ Senses and responds to body
Systems conditions through
nerve impulses

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16
Organ
Systems
of the
Body
◆Endocrine
System
(Chapter 18)
consists of
hormone

producing
cells and
glands

scattered
throughout 66
the

body.

▪ Regulates the body Organ

through chemical
Systems
of the
mechanisms (by releasing
Body
hormones into the blood)
◆Lymphatic
Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. System and
65 Immunity
(Chapter 22) consists of

the lymphatic fluid, lymph nodes, and lymphocytes – and the

other associated organs of

the immune system like the

tonsils, spleen and thymus gland.

▪ Filters blood and protects

against disease

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68
Organ Systems of the Body ◆Cardiovascular Organ Systems of the Body ◆Respiratory System

(Chapters 19-21) consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. (Chapter 23) consists of the upper airways, the trachea and major

▪ Carries blood and nutrients to bronchi, and the lungs.

specific locations ▪ Extracts O2 and

▪ Regulates body temperature, eliminates CO2
and water balance ▪ In conjunction with the

kidneys, regulates

acid/base balance
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17
Organ Body
Systems Digestive System (Chapter 24) consists of the esophagus,
◆
of the stomach and intestines, and
 (Chapter 28) consists of the
the accessory digestive
ovaries, uterus and vagina in the female, and the testes and
glands like the salivary penis in the male (along with associated organs and glands

glands, liver, and gallbladder. in both sexes).

▪ Reproduction of an individual or organism
▪ Accomplishes the physical

and chemical breakdown

of food and elimination of waste

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69

Organ Systems of the Body ◆Urinary System

(Chapter 26) consists of the kidneys, ureters , bladder, and urethra.

▪ Involved in the collection

and excretion of waste

70
products in urine, and the

regulation of fluid,

Organ electrolyte, & acid/base

Systems
of the
balance

Body
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◆Reproductive
System
 Major Body
Cavity Subdivisions Organ Associated structures

Cranial Cranium Brain Cranial nerves Vertebral canal Spinal

cord Spinal nerves Thyroid gland

Organs
Pleural Lungs
Thymus
Esophagus

Thoracic

Mediastinum Abdomen

Trachea
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Aorta
Pericardial Heart
Diaphragm
Stomach
Liver

Small intestine Greater omentum

Large intestine (most)
Retroperitoneal Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder
Abdominopelvic
Pelvic Ovaries (♀)
Uterine tubes (♀)
Uterus (♀)
Testes (♂)
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 Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Regions
Regions Identification of quadrants and regions in
◆
◆ Dividing the abdomen and pelvis into regions is done using a Tic
Tac-Toe grid. It is a little more complex than using quadrants, but
the
is also
abdominopelvic cavity helps clinicians describe the
more
location of the many abdominal and pelvic organs.

◆There are 4 abdominopelvic quadrants and 9 regions. ▪

The dividing lines between these are centered on the

umbilicus (“belly button”).

specific

▪ There are nine

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abdominopelvic
73
regions
 • left ovary ( )
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74

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75

Medical Imaging
◆Techniques and procedures used to create images of the

Abdominopelvic Quadrants & human body

Regions Vertical and horizontal lines pass through the

◆
▪ Allow visualization of structures inside the body ▪

Diagnosis of anatomical and physiological disorders ▪

umbilicus ▪ Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Conventional radiography (X-rays) have been in use
• liver
since the late 1940’s
▪ Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
• spleen and left kidney

▪ Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

• appendix Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

▪ Left lower quadrants (LLQ) 76

 19
Medical
Imaging
◆Radiography is done
using X-rays to produce an
image of
interior structures. They are
inexpensive and quick.
▪ Hollow structures appear
black or gray
▪ Do not pass easily through
dense structure (bone)

◆At low dose, useful for soft 78

tissue
• Mammography (breast)
• Bone densitometry (bone Medical
density) Imaging
◆Computed Tomography or
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CT-Scans are done using a
77
computer to organize x-rays
to form a 3D image. It is
used
to visualize soft tissue in
more detail than
conventional

radiography.
▪ Tissue intensities show
varying degrees of gray.
▪ Whole-body CT scans
expose the body to a high
dose of x-rays.
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79

80
Medical
Imaging
◆Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is done using an extremely powerful ◆Here are 3 cross sectional images of
a
magnetic field. It is a safe procedure but cannot be used on patients
head from the Visible Human Project.
containing metal.
From top to bottom:
▪ Protons in body fluid align with field h

▪ Photograph of frozen, sawed head

▪ Used for differentiating normal and abnormal tissues (tumors, brain t
p

:
/

abnormalities, blood flow) /

v

▪ 2D and 3D color images can be viewed on a video monitor. .

m

▪ CT scan of the same level/plane

e

.
u

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. m

i
c

▪ MRI scan of the same level/plane

.
e

u
/

Medical
Imaging
Objective 10
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20
Medical ▪ Because of its safety profile,
Imaging it is commonly used to
◆Ultrasound Scanning
monitor the progress of
(sonography) is done using
high fetal development during
frequency sound waves. It pregnancy.
is noninvasive and
painless.
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81 ▪ Used to study physiology of
body structures (metabolism)
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82

Medical
Imaging
◆Positron Emission
Tomography (PET scan)
is done by
injecting a substance
emitting positively
charged particles

into the body. The collision

between positrons and

negatively charged electron in

body tissues produce gamma rays
used to form a computer assisted
image.
 ◆Radionuclide Scanning is done by giving a radioactive substance
(radionuclide) intravenously.
▪ Gamma rays emitted by tissues that take up the radionuclide are detected
by a camera and displayed on a video monitor. The color intensity represents
the amount of uptake.

◆Single-photo-emission

computerized tomography
(SPECT) is a specialized
form of this technique.
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Medical
Imaging
◆Endoscopy is done using

a lighted instrument with a

lens projecting an image

onto a monitor.

▪ Colonoscopy is a study of
84
Medical the interior of the colon. ▪

Imaging Laparoscopy is a study of the organs

in the abdominopelvic cavity.

▪ Arthroscopy is a study of the

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interior of a joint (knee).

21

Clinical Connection

◆Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques are used to inspect

different aspects of the body:

▪ Is often done to access structure and function and to search

for the presence of disease.

• Palpation is gently touching body surfaces with hands.

• Auscultation is listening to body sounds (stethoscope).

• Percussion is tapping on the body surface with

fingertips and listening to echoes.

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22