NUMBER SYSTEM AND CODES

INTRODUCTION:-
 The term digital refers to a process that is achieved by using discrete unit.
 In number system there are different symbols and each symbol has an absolute value and also has
place value.

RADIX OR BASE:-
The radix or base of a number system is defined as the number of different digits which can occur in
each position in the number system.

RADIX POINT :-
The generalized form of a decimal point is known as radix point. In any positional number system the
radix point divides the integer and fractional part.

Nr = [ Integer part . Fractional part ]

↑
Radix point
NUMBER SYSTEM:-
In general a number in a system having base or radix ‘ r ’ can be written as

an an-1 an-2 …………… a0 . a -1 a -2 …………a - m

This will be interpreted as

Y = an x rn + an-1 x rn-1 + an-2 x rn-2 + ……… + a0 x r0 + a-1 x r -1 + a-2 x r -2 +………. +a -m x r –m

where Y = value of the entire number

an = the value of the nth digit

r = radix

TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM:-

There are four types of number systems. They are

1. Decimal number system

2. Binary number system
3. Octal number system
4. Hexadecimal number system

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM:-

 The decimal number system contain ten unique symbols 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9.
 In decimal system 10 symbols are involved, so the base or radix is 10.
 It is a positional weighted system.
 The value attached to the symbol depends on its location with respect to the decimal point.

In general,
 dn dn-1 dn-2 …………… d0 . d -1 d -2 …………d - m

is given by

(dn x 10n) + (dn-1 x 10n-1) + (dn-2 x 10n-2) + … + ( d0 x 100) + ( d-1 x 10 -1) + (d-2 x 10 -2) +…+(d -m x 10 –m)

For example:-

9256.26 = 9 x 1000 + 2 x 100 + 5 x 10 + 6 x 1 + 2 x (1/10) + 6 x ( 1/100)

= 9 x 103 + 2 x 102 + 5 x 101 + 6 x 100 + 2 x 10-1 + 6 x 10-2

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM:-

 The binary number system is a positional weighted system.
 The base or radix of this number system is 2.
 It has two independent symbols.
 The symbols used are 0 and 1.
 A binary digit is called a bit.
 The binary point separates the integer and fraction parts.

In general,

dn dn-1 dn-2 …………… d0 . d -1 d -2 …………d – k

is given by

(dn x 2n) + (dn-1 x 2n-1) + (dn-2 x 2n-2) + ….+ ( d0 x 20) + ( d-1 x 2 -1) + (d-2 x 2 -2) +….+(d -k x 2 –k)

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM:-

 It is also a positional weighted system.
 Its base or radix is 8.
 It has 8 independent symbols 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7.
 Its base 8 = 23 , every 3- bit group of binary can be represented by an octal digit.

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM:-

 The hexadecimal number system is a positional weighted system.
 The base or radix of this number system is 16.
 The symbols used are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F
 The base 16 = 24 , every 4 – bit group of binary can be represented by an hexadecimal digit.

CONVERSION FROM ONE NUMBER SYSTEM TO ANOTHER :-

1. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM:-
(a) Binary to decimal conversion:-
In this method, each binary digit of the number is multiplied by its positional weight and the product terms
are added to obtain decimal number.
 For example:

(i) Convert (10101)2 to decimal.

Solution :
(Positional weight) 24 23 22 21 20
Binary number 10101
= (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + ( 1x 22 ) + ( 0 x 21 ) + (1 x 20)
= 16 + 0+ 4+ 0+ 1
= (21)10

(ii) Convert (111.101)2 to decimal.

Solution:
(111.101)2 = (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + ( 1x 20 ) + ( 1 x 2 -1 ) + (0 x 2 -2) + (1 x 2 -3)
= 4+ 2+ 1 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= (7.625)10
(b) Binary to Octal conversion:-
For conversion binary to octal the binary numbers are divided into groups of 3 bits each, starting at the
binary point and proceeding towards left and right.

Octal Binary Octal Binary

0 000 4 100

1 001 5 101

2 010 6 110

3 011 7 111

For example:

(i) Convert (101111010110.110110011)2 into octal.

Solution :

Group of 3 bits are 101 111 010 110 . 110 110 011
Convert each group into octal = 5 7 2 6 . 6 6 3
The result is (5726.663)8
(ii) Convert (10101111001.0111)2 into octal.
Solution :
Binary number 10 101 111 001 . 011 1
Group of 3 bits are = 010 101 111 001 . 011 100
Convert each group into octal = 2 5 7 1 . 3 4
The result is (2571.34)8
(c) Binary to Hexadecimal conversion:-
For conversion binary to hexadecimal number the binary numbers starting from the binary point, groups are
made of 4 bits each, on either side of the binary point.
 Hexadecimal Binary Hexadecimal Binary

0 0000 8 1000

1 0001 9 1001

2 0010 A 1010

3 0011 B 1011

4 0100 C 1100

5 0101 D 1101

6 0110 E 1110

7 0111 F 1111

For example:
(i) Convert (1011011011)2 into hexadecimal.
Solution:
Given Binary number 10 1101 1011
Group of 4 bits are 0010 1101 1011
Convert each group into hex = 2 D B
The result is (2DB)16
(ii) Convert (01011111011.011111)2 into hexadecimal.
Solution:
Given Binary number 010 1111 1011 . 0111 11
Group of 3 bits are = 0010 1111 1011 . 0111 1100
Convert each group into octal = 2 F B . 7 C
The result is (2FB.7C)16
2. DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM:-

(a)Decimal to binary conversion:-

In the conversion the integer number are converted to the desired base using successive division by the
base or radix.
For example:
(i) Convert (52)10 into binary.
Solution:
Divide the given decimal number successively by 2 read the integer part remainder upwards to get
equivalent binary number. Multiply the fraction part by 2. Keep the integer in the product as it is and multiply
the new fraction in the product by 2. The process is continued and the integer are read in the products from
top to bottom.
2 I 52
2 l 26 ―0
2 l 13 ―0
2l6 ―1
2l3 ―0
2l1 ―1
0 ―1
Result of (52)10 is (110100)2
(ii) Convert (105.15)10 into binary.
Solution:
Integer part Fraction part
2 I 105 0.15 x 2 = 0.30
2l 52 ― 1 0.30 x 2 = 0.60
2l 26 ― 0 0.60 x 2 = 1.20
2l 13 ― 0 0.20 x 2 = 0.40
2l 6 ― 1 0.40 x 2 = 0.80
2l 3 ― 0 0.80 x 2 = 1.60
2l1 ― 1
0 ― 1
Result of (105.15)10 is (1101001.001001)2

(b)Decimal to octal conversion:-

To convert the given decimal integer number to octal, successively divide the given number by 8 till the
quotient is 0. To convert the given decimal fractions to octal successively multiply the decimal fraction and
the subsequent decimal fractions by 8 till the product is 0 or till the required accuracy is obtained.

For example:
(i) Convert (378.93)10 into octal.
Solution:
8 I 378 0.93 x 8 = 7.44
8 l 47 ― 2 0.44 x 8 = 3.52
8l 5 ― 7 0.52 x 8 = 4.16
0 ― 5 0.16 x 8 = 1.28

Result of (378.93)10 is (572.7341)8

(c)Decimal to hexadecimal conversion:-

The decimal to hexadecimal conversion is same as octal.

For example:
(i) Convert (2598.675)10 into hexadecimal.
Solution:
Remainder
Decimal Hex Hex
16 I 2598 0.675 x 16 = 10.8 A
16 l 162 ― 6 6 0.800 x 16 = 12.8 C
16 l 10 ― 2 2 0.800 x 16 = 12.8 C
0 ― 10 A 0.800 x 16 = 12.8 C

Result of (2598.675)10 is (A26.ACCC)16

3. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM:-

(a)Octal to binary conversion:-
To convert a given a octal number to binary, replace each octal digit by its 3- bit binary equivalent.
 For example:
Convert (367.52)8 into binary.
Solution:
Given Octal number is 3 6 7 . 5 2
Convert each group octal = 011 110 111 . 101 010
to binary

Result of (367.52)8 is (011110111.101010)2

(b)Octal to decimal conversion:-

For conversion octal to decimal number, multiply each digit in the octal number by the weight of its position
and add all the product terms

For example: -
Convert (4057.06) 8 to decimal
Solution:
(4057.06) 8 = 4 x 83 + 0 x 82 + 5 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 0 x 8 – 1 + 6 x 8- 2
= 2048 + 0 + 40 + 7 + 0 +0.0937
= (2095. 0937)10

Result is (2095.0937)10
(c) Octal to hexadecimal conversion:-
For conversion of octal to Hexadecimal, first convert the given octal number to binary and then binary
number to hexadecimal.

For example :-
Convert (756.603)8 to hexadecimal.
Solution :-
Given octal no. 7 5 6 . 6 0 3
Convert each octal digit to binary = 111 101 110 . 110 000 011
Group of 4bits are = 0001 1110 1110 . 1100 0001 1000
Convert 4 bits group to hex. = 1 E E . C 1 8

Result is (1EE.C18)16

(4) HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM :-

(a)Hexadecimal to binary conversion:-
For conversion of hexadecimal to binary, replace hexadecimal digit by its 4 bit binary group.

For example:
Convert (3A9E.B0D)16 into binary.
Solution:
Given Hexadecimal number is 3 A 9 E . B 0 D
Convert each hexadecimal = 0011 1010 1001 1110 . 1011 0000 1101
digit to 4 bit binary

Result of (3A9E.B0D)8 is (0011101010011110.101100001101)2

 (b)Hexadecimal to decimal conversion:-
For conversion of hexadecimal to decimal, multiply each digit in the hexadecimal number by its position
weight and add all those product terms.

For example: -
Convert (A0F9.0EB)16 to decimal

Solution:
(A0F9.0EB)16 = (10 x 163 )+(0 x 162 )+(15 x 161 ) +( 9 x 160 ) +(0 x 16 – 1) +(14 x 16- 2) +(11 x 16-3)
= 40960 + 0 + 240 + 9 + 0 +0.0546 + 0.0026
= (41209.0572)10

Result is (41209.0572)10
(c) Hexadecimal to Octal conversion:-
For conversion of hexadecimal to octal, first convert the given hexadecimal number to binary and then
binary number to octal.

For example :-
Convert (B9F.AE)16 to octal.

Solution :-
Given hexadecimal no.is B 9 F . A E
Convert each hex. digit to binary = 1011 1001 1111 . 1010 1110
Group of 3 bits are = 101 110 011 111 . 101 011 100
Convert 3 bits group to octal. = 5 6 3 7 . 5 3 4

Result is (5637.534)8

BINARY ARITHEMATIC OPERATION :-

1. BINARY ADDITION:-
The binary addition rules are as follows
0 + 0 = 0 ; 0 + 1 = 1 ; 1 + 0 = 1 ; 1 + 1 = 10 , i.e 0 with a carry of 1

For example :-

Add (100101)2 and (1101111)2.

Solution :-

100101
+ 1101111
10010100
Result is (10010100)2
2. BINARY SUBTRACTION:-
The binary subtraction rules are as follows
0 - 0 = 0 ; 1 - 1 = 0 ; 1 - 0 = 1 ; 0 - 1 = 1 , with a borrow of 1
For example :-
Substract (111.111)2 from (1010.01)2.
Solution :-

1010.010
- 111 .111
0 0 1 0 .0 1 1
Result is (0010.011)2
3. BINARY MULTIPLICATION:-
The binary multiplication rules are as follows
0x0=0;1x1=1;1x 0=0;0 x1=0
For example :-

Multiply (1101)2 by (110)2.

Solution :-

1101
x 1 1 0___
0000
1101
+ 1 1 0 1_____
1 0 0 1 1 1 0__
Result is (1001110)2
4. BINARY DIVISION:-
The binary division is very simple and similar to decimal number system. The division by ‘0’ is meaningless.
So we have only 2 rules
0÷1=0
1÷1=1
For example :-
Divide (10110)2 by (110)2.

Solution :-

110 ) 101101 ( 111.1

- 110___
1010
110__
1001
110__
110
110___
000___
Result is (111.1)2
1’s COMPLEMENT REPRESENTATION :-
The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by changing each 0 to 1 and each 1 to 0.

For example :-
Find (1100)2 1’s complement.
Solution :-
Given 1 1 0 0
1’s complement is 0 0 1 1

Result is (0011)2

2’s COMPLEMENT REPRESENTATION :-

The 2’s complement of a binary number is a binary number which is obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s
complement of a number i.e.
2’s complement = 1’s complement + 1
For example :-
Find (1010)2 2’s complement.
Solution :-
Given 1 0 1 0
1’s complement is 0 1 0 1
+ 1
2’s complement 0 1 1 0
Result is (0110)2
SIGNED NUMBER :-
In sign – magnitude form, additional bit called the sign bit is placed in front of the number. If the sign bit
is 0, the number is positive. If it is a 1, the number is negative.

For example:-
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 = +41
↑
Sign bit

1 1 0 1 0 0 1 = -41
↑
Sign bit

SUBSTRACTION USING COMPLEMENT METHOD :-

1’s COMPLEMENT:-
In 1’s complement subtraction, add the 1’s complement of subtrahend to the minuend. If there is a carry out,
then the carry is added to the LSB. This is called end around carry. If the MSB is 0, the result is positive. If the
MSB is 1, the result is negative and is in its 1‘s complement form. Then take its 1’s complement to get the
magnitude in binary.
For example:-
Subtract (10000)2 from (11010)2 using 1’s complement.
Solution:-
11010 11010 = 26
- 10000 => + 0 1 1 1 1 (1’s complement) = - 16
Carry → 1 01001 + 10
+ 1
01010 = +10

Result is +10
2’s COMPLEMENT:-
In 2’s complement subtraction, add the 2’s complement of subtrahend to the minuend. If there is a carry out,
ignore it. If the MSB is 0, the result is positive. If the MSB is 1, the result is negative and is in its 2‘s
complement form. Then take its 2’s complement to get the magnitude in binary.

For example:-
Subtract (1010100)2 from (1010100)2 using 2’s complement.
Solution:-
1010100 1010100 = 84
- 1010100 => + 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 (2’s complement) = - 84_
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ( Ignore the carry) 0
= 0 (result = 0)
Hence MSB is 0. The answer is positive. So it is +0000000 = 0
DIGITAL CODES:-
In practice the digital electronics requires to handle data which may be numeric, alphabets and special
characters. This requires the conversion of the incoming data into binary format before it can be processed.
There is various possible ways of doing this and this process is called encoding. To achieve the reverse of it,
we use decoders.

WEIGHTED AND NON-WEIGHTED CODES:-

There are two types of binary codes
1) Weighted binary codes
2) Non- weighted binary codes
In weighted codes, for each position ( or bit) ,there is specific weight attached.
For example, in binary number, each bit is assigned particular weight 2n where ‘n’ is the bit number for n =
0,1,2,3,4 the weights are 1,2,4,8,16 respectively.
Example :- BCD

Non-weighted codes are codes which are not assigned with any weight to each digit position, i.e., each digit
position within the number is not assigned fixed value.
Example:- Excess – 3 (XS -3) code and Gray codes

BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD):-

BCD is a weighted code. In weighted codes, each successive digit from right to left represents weights equal to
some specified value and to get the equivalent decimal number add the products of the weights by the
corresponding binary digit. 8421 is the most common because 8421 BCD is the most natural amongst the
other possible codes.
For example:-
(567)10 is encoded in various 4 bit codes.
Solution:-
Decimal → 5 6 7
8421 code → 0101 0110 0111
6311 code → 0111 1000 1001
5421 code → 1000 0100 1010

BCD ADDITION:-

Addition of BCD (8421) is performed by adding two digits of binary, starting from least significant digit. In case if
the result is an illegal code (greater than 9) or if there is a carry out of one then add 0110(6) and add the
resulting carry to the next most significant.
For example:-
Add 679.6 from 536.8 using BCD addition.
Solution:-
6 7 9.6 0110 0111 1001 . 0110 ( 679.6 in BCD)
+ 5 3 6.8 =>+ 0101 0011 0110 . 1000 (536.8 in BCD)
1 21 6.4 1011 1010 1111 . 1110 ( All are illegal codes)
+ 0110 +0110 +0110 .+0110 ( Add 0110 to each)
0001 0010 0001 0110 . 0100
1 2 1 6 . 4 ( corrected sum = 1216.4)
Result is 1216.4
BCD SUBTRACTION:-

The BCD subtraction is performed by subtracting the digits of each 4 – bit group of the subtrahend from
corresponding 4 – bit group of the minuend in the binary starting from the LSD. If there is no borrow from the
next higher group[ then no correction is required. If there is a borrow from the next group, then 610 (0110) is
subtracted from the difference term of this group.
For example:-
Subtract 147.8 from 206.7 using 8421 BCD code.

Solution:-
2 0 6.7 0010 0000 0110 . 0111 ( 206.7 in BCD)
- 1 4 7.8 =>- 0001 0100 0111 . 1000 (147.8 in BCD)
5 8.9 0000 1011 1110 . 1111 ( Borrows are present)
- 0110 -0110 .- 0110
0101 1000 . 1001
5 8 . 9 ( corrected difference = 58.9)
Result is (58.9)10
EXCESS THREE(XS-3) CODE:-
The Excess-3 code, also called XS-3, is a non- weighted BCD code. This derives it name from the fact that
each binary code word is the corresponding 8421 code word plus 0011(3). It is a sequential code. It is a self
complementing code.
XS-3 ADDITION:-

In XS-3 addition, add the XS-3 numbers by adding the 4 bit groups in each column starting from the LSD. If
there is no carry out from the addition of any of the 4 bit groups, subtract 0011 from the sum term of those
groups. If there is a carry out, add 0011 to the sum term of those groups

For example:-
Add 37 and 28 using XS-3 code.
Solution:-
3 7 0110 1010 ( 37 in XS-3)
+ 2 8 => + 0101 1011 ( 28 in XS-3)
6 5 1011 11010 ( Carry is generated)
+ 1_______ ( Propagate carry)
1100 0101 ( Add 0110 to correct 0101 and
- 0011 +0011 subtract 0011 to correct 1100)
1001 1000 ( Corrected sum in XS-3 = 6510)
XS-3 SUBTRACTION:-

To subtract in XS-3 number by subtracting each 4-bit group of the subtrahend from the corresponding 4-bit
group of the minuend starting from the LSD. If there is no borrow from the next 4-bit group. add 0011 to the
difference term of such groups. If there is a borrow, subtract 0011 from the difference term.

For example :-
. Subtract 175 from 267 using XS-3 code.
Solution :-`
267 0101 1010 1010 ( 267 in XS-3)
-175 => - 0100 1010 1000 ( 175 in XS-3)
092 0000 1111 0010 (Correct 0010 and 0000 by adding 0011 and
+0011 -0011 +0011 correct 1111 by subtracting 0011)
0011 1100 0101 (Corrected difference in XS-3 = 9210 )
ASCII CODE:-
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) pronounced as ‘ASKEE’ is widely used
alphanumeric code. This is basically a 7 bit code. The number of different bit patterns that can be created with
7 bits is 27 = 128 , the ASCII can be used to encode both the uppercase and lowercase characters of the
alphabet (52 symbols) and some special symbols in addition to the 10 decimal digits. It is used extensively
for printers and terminals that interface with small computer systems. The table shown below shows the ASCII
groups.

The ASCII code

LSBs MSBs

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NUL DEL Space 0 @ P P
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 “ 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
GRAY CODE:-
The gray code is a non-weighted code. It is not a BCD code. It is cyclic code because successive words in this
differ in one bit position only i.e it is a unit distance code.

Gray code is used in instrumentation and data acquisition systems where linear or angular
displacement is measured. They are also used in shaft encoders, I/O devices, A/D converters and other
peripheral equipment.

BINARY- TO – GRAY CONVERSION:-

If an n-bit binary number is represented by Bn Bn-1 - - - - - B1 and its gray code equivalent by Gn Gn-1 - - - - - G1,
where Bn and Gn are the MSBs , then gray code bits are obtained from the binary code as follows
Gn = Bn
Gn-1 = Bn Bn-1
.
.
.
.
G1 = B2 B1
Where the symbol stands for Exclusive OR (X-OR)

For example :-
Convert the binary 1001 to the Gray code.

Solution :-`

Binary → 1 0 0 1

Gray → 1 1 0 1

The gray code is 1101

GRAY- TO - BINARY CONVERSION:-

If an n-bit gray number is represented by Gn Gn-1 ------- G1 and its binary equivalent by Bn Bn-1 - - - - - B1,
then binary bits are obtained from Gray bits as follows :
Bn = Gn
Bn-1 = Bn Gn-1
.
.
.
.
B1 = B2 G1
For example :-
Convert the Gray code 1101 to the binary.

Solution :-
Gray → 1 1 0 1

Binary→ 1 0 0 1
The binary code is 1001
 LOGIC GATES
LOGIC GATES:-
 Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital systems.
 There are 3 basic types of gates AND, OR and NOT.
 Logic gates are electronic circuits because they are made up of a number of electronic devices and
components.
 Inputs and outputs of logic gates can occur only in 2 levels. These two levels are termed HIGH and
LOW, or TRUE and FALSE, or ON and OFF or simply si 1 and 0.
 The table which lists all the possible combinations of input variables and the corresponding outputs is
called a truth table.

LEVEL LOGIC:-

A logic in which the voltage levels represents logic 1 and logic 0. Level logic may be positive or neg
negative logic.
Positive Logic:-
A positive logic system is the one in which the higher of the two voltage levels represents the logic 1 and the
lower of the two voltages level represents the logic 0.
Negative Logic:-
A negative logic system is the one in which
which the lower of the two voltage levels represents the logic 1 and the
higher of the two voltages level represents the logic 0.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOGIC GATES:-
GATES
NOT GATE (INVERTER):-
 A NOT gate, also called and inverter, has only one input and one output.
 Itt is a device whose output is always the complement of its input.
 The output of a NOT gate is the logic 1 state when its input is in logic 0 state and the logic 0 state when
its inputs is in logic 1 state.

IC No. :- 7404

Logic Symbol Truth table

INPUT OUTPUT
A A
0 1
1 0
Timing Diagram
1 0 0 1

0 1 1 0
AND GATE:-
 An AND gate has two or more inputs but only one output.
 The output is logic 1 state only
nly when each one of its inputs is at logic 1 state.
 The output is logic 0 state even if one of its inputs is at logic 0 state.
IC No.:- 7408
Logic Symbol Truth Table

OUTPUT
A B Q=A . B

0 0 0
Timing Diagram
0 1 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0
A 1 1 1
0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1

OR GATE:-
 An OR gate may have two or more inputs but only one output.
 The output is logic 1 state, even if one
on of its input is in logic 1 state.
 The output is logic 0 state, only when each one of its inputs is in logic state.

IC No.:- 7432
Logic Symbol Truth Table
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q=A + B

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1

Timing Diagram 1 1 1

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

Q
NAND GATE:-
 NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate.
 The output is logic 0 when each of the input is logic 1 and for any other co
combination of inputs, the
output is logic 1.
IC No.:- 7400 two input NAND gate
7410 three input NAND gate
7420 four input NAND gate
7430 eight input NAND gate

Logic Symbol Truth Table

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q= A.B

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
Timing Diagram
1 1 0
0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

1 1 1 0

NOR GATE:-
 NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate.
 The output is logic 1, only when each one of its input is logic 0 and for any other combination of inp
inputs,
the output is a logic 0 level.

IC No.:- 7402 two input NOR gate

7427 three input NOR gate
7425 four input NOR gate

Logic Symbol Truth Table

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q= A + B

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Timing Diagram

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 0

EXCLUSIVE – OR (X-OR)
OR) GATE:-
GATE
 An X-OR
OR gate is a two input, one output logic circuit.
 The output is logic 1 when one and only one of its two inputs is logic 1. When both the inputs is logic 0
or when both the inputs is logic 1, the output is logic 0.

IC No.:- 7486

Logic Symbol Truth Table

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q=A B
0 0 0
INPUTS are A and B
0 1 1
OUTPUT is Q = A B 1 0 1
=AB+AB 1 1 0
Timing Diagram

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0

EXCLUSIVE – NOR (X-NOR)

NOR) GATE:-
GATE
 An X-NOR
NOR gate is the combination of an X-OR
X gate and a NOT gate.
 An X-NOR
NOR gate is a two input, one output logic circuit.
 The output is logic 1 only when both the inputs are logic 0 or when both the inputs is 1.
 The output is logic 0 when one of the inputs is logic 0 and other is 1.
IC No.:- 74266

Logic Symbol
INPUT OUTPUT
A B OUT =A XNOR B

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
OUT =A B + A B
1 1 1
= A XNOR B

Timing Diagram

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1

OUT

UNIVERSAL GATES:-
There are 3 basic gates AND, OR and NOT, there are two universal gates NAND and NOR, each of which can
realize logic circuits single handedly.
dly. The NAND and NOR gates are called universal building blocks. Both
NAND and NOR gates can perform all logic functions i.e. AND, OR, NOT, EXOR and EXNOR.
NAND GATE:-
a) Inverter from NAND gate

Input =A
Output Q = A

b) AND gate from NAND gate

Input s are A and B

Output Q = A.B

c) OR gate from NAND gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A+B
 d) NOR gate from NAND gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A+B

e) EX-OR gate from NAND gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A B + AB

f) EX-NOR gate From

rom NAND gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A B + A B

NOR GATE:-
a) Inverter from NOR gate
Input =A
Output Q = A

b) AND gate from NOR gate

Input s are A and B
Output Q = A.B
 c) OR gate from NOR gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A+B

d) NAND gate from NOR gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A.B

e) EX-OR gate from NOR gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A B + AB

f) EX-NOR gate From NOR gate

Inputs are A and B

Output Q = A B + A B

THRESHOLD LOGIC:-
INTRODUCTION:-
 The threshold element, nt, also called the threshold gate (T-gate)
(T gate) is a much more powerful device than any
of the conventional logic gates such as NAND, NOR and others.
 Complex, large Boolean functions can be realized using much fewer threshold gates.
 Frequently a single threshold ld gate can realize a very complex function which otherwise might require a
large number of conventional gates.
 T-gate
gate offers incomparably economical realization; it has not found extensive use with the digital system
designers mainly because of the following
follow limitations.
1. It is very sensitive to parameter variations.
2. It is difficult to fabricate it in IC form.
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
INTRODUCTION:-

 Switching circuits are also called logic circuits, gates circuits and digital circuits.
 Switching algebra is also called Boolean algebra.
 Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical logic. It is an algebraic system consisting of the set of
elements (0,1), two binary operators called OR and AND and unary operator called NOT.
 It is the basic mathematical tool in the analysis and synthesis of switching circuits.
 It is a way to express logic functions algebraically.
 Any complex logic can be expressed by a Boolean function.
 The Boolean algebra is governed by certain well developed rules and laws.

AXIOMS AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:-

Axioms or postulates of Boolean algebra are set of logical expressions that are accepted without proof and
upon which we can build a set of useful theorems. Actually, axioms are nothing more than the definitions of the
three basic logic operations AND, OR and INVERTER. Each axiom can be interpreted as the outcome of an
operation performed by a logic gate.

AND operation OR operation NOT operation

Axiom 1: 0 . 0 = 0 Axiom 5: 0 + 0 = 0 Axiom 9: 1 = 0
Axiom 2: 0 . 1 = 0 Axiom 6: 0 + 1 = 1 Axiom 10:0 = 1
Axiom 3: 1 . 0 = 0 Axiom 7: 1 + 0 = 1
Axiom 2: 1 . 1 = 1 Axiom 8: 1 + 1 = 1

1. Complementation Laws:-
The term complement simply means to invert, i.e. to changes 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s. The five laws of
complementation are as follows:
Law 1: 0 = 1
Law 2: 1 = 0
Law 3: if A = 0, then A = 1
Law 4: if A = 1,thenA = 0
Law 5: A = 0 (double complementation law)
2. OR Laws:-
The four OR laws are as follows
Law 1: A + 0 = 0(Null law)
Law 2: A + 1 = 1(Identity law)
Law 3: A + A = A
Law 4: A +A = 1
3. AND Laws:-
The four AND laws are as follows
Law 1: A . 0 = 0(Null law)
Law 2: A . 1 = 1(Identity law)
Law 3: A . A = A
Law 4: A .A = 0
4. Commutative Laws:-
Commutative laws allow change in position of AND or OR variables. There are two commutative laws.

Law 1: A + B = B + A
Proof
A B A+B B A B+ A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 = 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

Law 2: A . B = B . A

Proof
A B A.B B A B. A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 = 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

This law can be extended to any number of variables. For example

A.B. C = B. C. A = C. A. B = B. A. C

5. Associative Laws:-

The associative laws allow grouping of variables. There are 2 associative laws.
Law 1: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

Proof

A B C A+B (A+B)+C A B C B+C A+(B+C)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
=
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Law 2: (A .B) C = A (B .C)

Proof
A B C AB (AB)C A B C B.C A(B.C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
=
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

This law can be extended to any number of variables. For example

A(BCD) = (ABC)D = (AB) (CD)
6. Distributive Laws:-
The distributive laws allow factoring or multiplying out of expressions. There are two distributive laws.
Law 1: A (B + C) = AB + AC

Proof
A B C B+C A(B+C) A B C AB AC A+(B+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 = 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Law 2: A + BC = (A+B) (A+C)

Proof RHS = (A+B) (A+C)
= AA + AC + BA + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A (1+ C + B) + BC
= A. 1 + BC ( 1 +C + B = 1 + B = 1 )
= A + BC
= LHS
7. Redundant Literal Rule (RLR):-
Law 1: A + AB = A + B
Proof
A + AB = (A + A) (A + B)
= 1. (A + B)
= A +B

Law 2: A(A + B) = AB
Proof
A(A + B) = AA + AB
= 0 + AB
= AB

8. Idempotence Laws:-
Idempotence means same value.
Law 1: A. A = A
Proof
If A = 0, then A. A = 0. 0 =0 = A
If A = 1, then A. A = 1. 1 = 1 = A
This law states that AND of a variable with itself is equal to that variable only.

Law 2: A + A = A
Proof
If A = 0, then A + A = 0 + 0 = 0 = A
If A = 1, then A + A = 1 + 1 = 1 = A
This law states that OR of a variable with itself is equal to that variable only.

9. Absorption Laws:-
There are two laws:
Law 1: A + A ∙ B = A A B AB A+AB
Proof
A + A ∙ B = A (1 + B) = A ∙ 1 = A 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

Law 2: A ( A + B) = A
Proof
A ( A + B) = A ∙ A + A ∙ B = A + AB = A(1 + B) = A ∙ 1 = A

A B A+B A(A+B)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
10. Consensus Theorem (Included Factor Theorem):-
Theorem 1:
AB +AC + BC = AB +AC
Proof
LHS = AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + BC (A+A)
= AB + AC + BCA + BCA
= AB (1 + C) + AC (1+ B)
=AB (1) +AC (1)
= AB + AC
= RHS
Theorem 2:
(A + B)(A + C)(B + C) =(A +B)(A + C)
Proof
LHS = (A + B) (A + C) (B + C)
= (AA + AC + BA + BC) (B + C)
= (AC + BC +AB) (B + C)
= ABC + BC + AB + AC + BC+ABC
= AC + BC +AB
RHS= (A + B) (A+C)
= AA + AC + BC +AB
= AC + BC +AB
= LHS
11. Transposition Theorem:-
Theorem:
AB + AC = (A + C)(A + B)
Proof
RHS= (A + C) (A + B)
= AA + CA + AB + CB
= 0 +AC + AB + BC
= AC + AB + BC ( A+A)
= AB + ABC + AC +ABC
= AB + AC
= LHS

12. De Morgan’s Theorem:-

De Morgan’s theorem represents two laws in Boolean algebra.

Law 1: A + B =A∙ B

Proof
A B A B A B
A B A+B A+B
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 = 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
This law states that the complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of their individual
complements.
Law 2: A∙ B = A + B
Proof

A B A.B A.B A B A B A+B

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
= 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
This law states that the complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of their individual
complements.

DUALITY:-

The implication of the duality concept is that once a theorem or statement is proved, the dual also thus stand
proved. This is called the principle of duality.
[f (A, B, C,…..,0, 1, +, ∙)]d = f( A, B, C, …., 1, 0, ∙, +)
Relations between complement and dual
fc (A, B, C, …..) = f (A, B, C, …..) = fd (A, B, C,…)

fd (A, B, C, …..) = f (A, B, C,…) = fc ( A, B, C, …..)

The first relation states that the complement of a function f(A, B, C, …) can be obtained by complementing all
the variables in the dual function fd (A, B, C, …..).
The second relation states that the dual can be obtained by complementing all the literals in
f (A, B, C, ….).

DUALS:-
Given expression Dual

1. 0=1 1=0
2. 0 ∙1 = 0 1+0=1
3. 0 ∙0 = 0 1+1=1
4. 1 ∙1 = 1 0+0=0
5. A∙0=0 A+1=1
6. A∙1=A A+0=A
7. A∙A=A A+A=A
8. A∙A=0 A+A=1
9. A∙B=B∙A A + B = B+ A
10. A ∙ ( B ∙ C)=( A ∙ B) ∙ C A + ( B + C)=( A + B) + C
11. A ∙ (B + C) = AB + AC A + BC = ( A + B) (A + C)
12. A( A + B ) = A A + AB = A
13. A ∙ ( A ∙ B) = A ∙ B A+ A+B=A+B
14. AB = A + B A+B= AB
15. ( A + B) ( A+ C) (B + C) = ( A+ B )(A + C) AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
16. A + BC = ( A + B )(A + C) A( B+ C) = A B +A C
17. (A+C)(A+B) = AB+AC AC+AB=(A+B) (A+C)
18. (A+B)(C+D) = AC + AD + BC + BD (AB+CD) = (A+C)(A+D)(B+C)(B+D)
19. A + B = AB + AB + AB AB =(A+B) (A+B) (A+B)
20. AB + A + AB = 0 A + B ∙ A ∙ (A + B) = 1
SUM - OF - PRODUCTS FORM:-
 This is also called disjunctive Canonical Form (DCF) or Expanded Sum of Products Form or Canonical
Sum of Products Form.
 In this form, the function is the sum of a number of products terms where each product term contains all
variables of the function either in complemented or uncomplemented form.
 This can also be derived from the truth table by finding the sum of all the terms that corresponds to
those combinations for which ‘f ’ assumes the value 1.
For example
f( A, B, C) = AB + BC
= AB (C + C) + BC (A + A)
= A BC + ABC + ABC + ABC
 The product term which contains all the variables of the functions either in complemented or
uncomplemented form is called a minterm.
 The minterm is denoted as mo, m1, m2 … .
 An ‘n’ variable function can have 2n minterms.
 Another way of representing the function in canonical SOP form is the showing the sum of minterms for
which the function equals to 1.
For example
f ( A, B, C) = m1 + m2+ m3 + m5
or
f (A, B, C) =∑ m (1, 2, 3, 5)
where ∑m represents the sum of all the minterms whose decimal codes are given the parenthesis.

PRODUCT- OF - SUMS FORM:-

 This form is also called as Conjunctive Canonical Form ( CCF) or Expanded Product - of – Sums Form
or Canonical Product Of Sums Form.
 This is by considering the combinations for which f = 0
 Each term is a sum of all the variables.
 The function f (A, B, C) = ( A + B + C∙C) + ( A + B + C∙C)
= ( A + B + C) ( A + B + C) ( A + B + C) ( A + B + C)
 The sum term which contains each of the ‘n’ variables in either complemented or uncomplemented form
is called a maxterm.
 Maxterm is represented as M0, M1, M2, …….
Thus CCF of ‘f’ may be written as
f( A, B, C)= M0 ∙ M4 ∙ M6∙ M7
or
f(A, B, C) = ( 0, 4, 6, 7)
Where represented the product of all maxterms.
CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL FORM:-

The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms equals the sum of minterms missing from the
original function.
Example:-
f(A, B, C) = ∑m( 0,2,4,6,7)
This has a complement that can be expressed as

f (A, B, C) =∑ m(1, 3, 5) = m1 + m3 + m5
If we complement f by De- Morgan’s theorem we obtain ‘f’ in a form.
f =(m1+ m3 + m5) = m1. m3. m5
 = M1 M3 M5 =∏ M(1, 3 ,5)
Example:-
Expand A (A + B) (A + B + C) to maxterms and minterms.
Solution:-

In POS form
A( A + B) (A + B + C)
A = A + B B + CC
= (A + B) ( A +B) + C∙C
= (A + B + CC) (A + B + C C)
= (A + B + C) (A + B +C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
A + B = A + B + C∙C
= (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
Therefore
A( A + B)(A + B + C)
= (A + B + C) (A + B +C) (A + B + C) (A +B +C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
= (000) (001) (010) (011) (100) (101)
= M0 ∙ M1 ∙ M2 ∙ M3 ∙ M4 ∙ M5
=∏ M( 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5)
The maxterms M6 and M7 are missing in the POS form.
So, the SOP form will contain the minterms 6 and 7
KARNAUGH MAP OR K- MAP:-
 The K- map is a chart or a graph, composed of an arrangement of adjacent cells, each representing a
particular combination of variables in sum or product form.
 The K- map is systematic method of simplifying the Boolean expression.

TWO VARIABLE K- MAP:-

A two variable expression can have 22 = 4 possible combinations of the input variables A and B.

Mapping of SOP Expression:-

 The 2 variable K-map has 22 = 4 squares. These squares are called cells.
 A ‘1’ is placed in any square indicates that corresponding minterm is included in the output expression,
and a 0 or no entry in any square indicates that the corresponding minterm does not appear in the
expression for output.
B
0 1

0 A B AB
A
1 AB AB

Example:-
Map expression f= AB + AB
Solution:-
The expression minterms is
F = m1 + m2 = m( 1, 2)
B
0 1
0 1
0 0 1
A 2 3
1 1 0
Minimization of SOP Expression:-
To minimize a Boolean expression given in the SOP form by using K- K map, the adjacent squares having 1s,
that is minterms adjacent to each other are combined to form larger squares to eliminate some variables.
The possible minterm grouping in a two variable K-
K map are shown below

 Two minterms, which are adjacent to each other, can be combined to form a bigger square called 2 –
square or a pair. This eliminates one variable
variable that is not common to both the minterms.
 Two 2-squares
squares adjacent to each other can be combined to form a 4- 4 square. A 44- square eliminates 2
variables. A 4-square
square is called a quad.
 Consider only those variables which remain constant throughout the square,
square, and ignore the variables
which are varying. The non-complemented variable is the variable remaining constant as 1.The
complemented variable is the variable remaining constant as a 0 and the variables are written as a
product term.

Example:-
Reduce
ce the expression f= AB + A B + AB using mapping.

Solution:-
Expressed
xpressed in terms of minterms, the given expression is

f = m0 + m1 + m3 = ∑m ( 0, 1, 3)

F=A+B
Mapping of POS Expression:-

Each sum term in the standard POS expression is called

called a Maxterm. A function in two variables (A,B) has 4
possible maxterms, A + B, A + B, A + B and A + B . They are represented as M0, M1, M2 and M3 respectively.

The maxterm of a two variable K-map

map

Example:-
Plot the expression f= (A + B)(A + B)(A + B)
Solution:-
Expression interms of maxterms is f = πM (0, 2, 3)

Minimization of POS Expressions:-

In POS form the adjacent 0s are combined into large square as possible. If the squares having complemented
variable then the value remain constant as a 1 and the non-complemented
non complemented variable if its value remai
remains
constant as a 0 along the entire square and then their sum term is written.
The possible maxterms grouping in a two variable K-map
K are shown below
Example:-
Reduce the expression f = (A + B)(A + B)(A +B ) using mapping
Solution:-
The given expression
ssion in terms of maxterms is f = πM (0, 1, 3)

THREE VARIABLE K- MAP:--

A function in three variables (A, B, C) can be expressed in SOP and POS form having eight possible
combination. A three variable K- map have 8 squares or cells and each square on the map represents a
minterm or maxterm
rm is shown in the figure below.

Example:-
Map the expression f = ABC+ABC + ABC + ABC +ABC
Solution:-
So in the SOP form the expression is f = ∑ m (1, 5, 2, 6, 7)

Example:-
Map the expression f = (A + B + C) (A + B+C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
Solution:-
So in the POS form the expression is f = π M (0, 5, 7, 3, 6)
Minimization of SOP and POS Expressions:-
Expressions
For reducing the Boolean expressions in SOP (POS) form the following steps are given below
 Draw the K-map map and place 1s (0s)
(0s) corresponding to the minterms (maxterms) of the SOP (POS)
expression.
 In the map 1s (0s) which are not adjacent to any other 1(0) are the isolated minterms (maxterms). They
are to be read as they are because they cannot
can be combined even into a 2-square
square.
 For those 1s (0s) which are adjacent to only one other 1(0) make them pairs (2 squares).
 For quads (4- squares) and octet (8 squares) of adjacent 1s (0s) even if they contain some 1s (0s)
which have already been combined. They must geometrically form a square
square or a rectangle.
 For any 1s (0s) that have not been combined yet then combine them into bigger squares if possible.
 Form the minimal expression by summing (multiplying) the product (sum) terms of all the groups.

Some of the possible combinations of minterms

m in SOP form

These possible combinations are also for POS but 1s are replaced by 0s.

FOUR VARIABLE K-MAP

MAP:-
A four variable (A, B, C, D) expression can have 24 = 16 possible combinations of input variables. A four
variable K-map has 24 = 16 squares or cells and each square on the map represents either a minterm or a
maxterm as shown in the figure below. The binary number designations of the rows and columns are in the
gray code. The binary numbers along the top of the map indicate
indicate the conditions of C and D along any
column and binary numbers along left side indicate the conditions of A and B along any row. The numbers
in the top right corners of the squares indicate the minterm or maxterm desginations.
 SOP FORM

POS FORM

Minimization of SOP and POS Expressions:-

For reducing the Boolean expressions in SOP (POS) form the following steps are given below
 Draw the K-map and place 1s (0s) corresponding to the minterms (maxterms) of the SOP (POS)
expression.
 In the map 1s (0s) which are not adjacent to any other 1(0) are the isolated minterms (maxterms). They
are to be read as they are because they cannot be combined even into a 2-square.
 For those 1s (0s) which are adjacent to only one other 1(0) make them pairs (2 squares).
 For quads (4- squares) and octet (8 squares) of adjacent 1s (0s) even if they contain some 1s (0s)
which have already been combined. They must geometrically form a square or a rectangle.
 For any 1s (0s) that have not been combined yet then combine them into bigger squares if possible.
 Form the minimal expression by summing (multiplying) the product (sum) terms of all the groups.
Example:-
Reduce using mapping the expression f = ∑ m (0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13)
Solution:-
The given expression in POS form is f = π M (4, 6, 11, 14, 15) and in SOP form f = ∑ m ( 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9,
10, 12, 13)
The minimal SOP expression is fmin= BD + AC + AD

The minimal POS expression is fmin =( A +B + D ) (A + C + D) (A + B + C)

DON’T CARE COMBINATIONS:-

COMBINATIONS
The combinations for which the values of the expression are not specified are called don’t care combinations or
optional combinationss and such expression stand incompletely specified. The output is a don’t care for these
invalid combinations. The don’t care terms are denoted by d or X. During the process of designing using SOP
maps, each don’t care is treated as 1 to reduce the map otherwise
otherwise it is treated as 0 and left alone. During the
process of designing using POS maps, each don’t care is treated as 0 to reduce the map otherwise it is treated
as 1 and left alone.

A standard SOP expression with don’t cares can be converted into standard
standard POS form by keeping the
don’t cares as they are, and the missing minterms of the SOP form are written as the maxterms of the POS
form. Similarly, to convert a standard POS expression with don’t cares can be converted into standard SOP
form by keeping thehe don’t cares as they are, and the missing maxterms of the POS form are written as the
minterms of the SOP form.

Example:-
Reduce the expression f = ∑ m(1, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14) + d(2, 4) using K-K map.
Solution:-
The given expression in SOP form is f = ∑ m (1, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14) + d(2, 4)
The given expression in POS form is f = π M (0, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,15) + d(2, 4)

The minimal of SOP expression is fmin = BC + BD +ACD

The minimal of POS expression is fmin = (B + D)(A + B) (C + D)