POLITECHNIKA WARSZAWSKA

Wydział Mechaniczny Energetyki i Lotnictwa

Zakład Automatyki i Osprzętu Lotniczego

Attitude sensors
Accelerometers and gyroscopes

Janusz Narkiewicz

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN

Dead reckoning

Dead reckoning - determination of

translation vector between two positions
(past and now)

Dead reckoning = adding vectors of

succesive translations

Inertial navigation
➢ sensors of vehicle linear acceleration and rotation velocity (rate)

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 Inertial navigation

Acceleration =>Velocity=> Translation

Acceleration – measured in body

coordinate system
Position – calculated in navigation
coordinate system
Transformation = attitude

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Strap down inertial navigation system (INS)

➢ IMU – Inertial Measurement Unit

➢ INS – Inertial Navigation System
➢ IRS – Inertial Reference System
➢ IRU – Inertial Reference Unit

➢ IMU – sensors mounted to the vehicle

➢ INS - sensor signals processed (by navigation computer)

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Attitude parameters

three parameters
Euler angles

four parameters
quaternions

nine parameters
rotation matrix

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Quasivelocities
Kinematic equation (from flight mechanics)

 = p + q sin  tg + r cos  tg

 = q cos  − r sin 
 = q sin  / cos  + r cos  / cos 
  1 sin tg costg   p 
  
  = 0 cos − sin    q 
  0 sin  / cos cos / cos   r 

Φ = G( , ,  )p
Φ =    
T
1 sintg costgθ 
G = 0 cos − sin  
p =  p q r
T
0 sin  / cosθ cos / cosθ 
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 Quaternions

Four components
q = q0 + q1i + q2 j + q3k

Quaternions => rotation matrix, Euler angles q0 = cos( / 2),

q1 =  sin( / 2),
 q02 + q12 − q22 − q32 2 ( q1q2 − q0 q3 ) 2 ( q1q3 + q0 q2 )  q2 =  sin( / 2),
 
A BN =  2 ( q1q2 + q0 q3 ) q02 − q12 + q22 − q32 2 ( q3q2 − q0 q1 )  q3 =  sin( / 2)
 2 ( q1q3 − q0 q2 ) 2 ( q2 q3 + q0 q1 ) q02 − q12 − q22 + q32 


sin  = −2 ( q1q3 − q0 q2 )
Quaternion modulus
2 ( q0 q3 + q1q2 ) q = q * q = qq * = q 02 + q12 + q 22 + q32
tg = 2
q0 + q12 − q22 − q32
2 ( q0 q1 + q2 q3 ) q 02 + q12 + q 22 + q 32 = 1
tg = 2
q0 − q12 − q22 + q32 values in the range [-1, 1] easier computations.
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Quaternions
Kinematic equation in quaternions

q 0   0 − p − q − r  q 0  q 0   − q1 − q2 − q3 
q   q   p
q  p 0 − q   1 − q3 q2   

 1 = 1 r q  1   =  0
1
q
q 2  2  q3 − q1  
q 2  2  q − r 0 p  q 2  q0
          r 

 3
q  r q − p 0  q3 
q
 3 − q 2 q1 q0 

1
Λ = ΩΛ
2

Quaternions <=> Euler angles

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Integration of kinematic equation

Error sources
sequence of rotations
discretisation
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Rotation matrix

 a11 a12 a13 

A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
 
a31 a 32 a33 
3 3
1 dla j = k
a a =  a ji aki =  jk =
0 dla j  k
ij ik
i =1 i =1

Kinematic equation – rotation matrix

dA  0 −r q 
dt
= A  =  r 0 − p 
− q p 0 

Othrogonality loss due to computation errors

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 Discretisation with respect to time

Solving in time domain needs discrete equations with respect to time

dx
= Ax
dt
x n+1 = (I + At )x n

x n+1 = x n + Ax n t
Transition matrix of discrete system

At
Φk = e  I + AΔt

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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Accelerometers

− Fb
Fb = −m  a a=
m
Fb – inertial force, a –acceleration, m – mass

a = W − g
F = FR + mg + FD

g’ – gravity accelerations
FR- restoring force
FD- friction, hysteresis

Titterton, J.L. Weston J.L., “Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology”, Peter Peregrimus Ltd.,1997

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN

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http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl
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Accelerometer
− Fi
Fi = −m  a a=
m
Fi – inertia force, a – acceleration, m – mass

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Pendulous accelerometer

Lawrence A., “Modern Inertial Technology. Navigation, Guidance, and Control”,

Springer-Verlag, 1998

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 Accelerometers

MEMS
microelectromechanical sensors

Lawrence A., “Modern Inertial Technology. Navigation,

Guidance, and Control”, Springer-Verlag, 1998

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 Gyroscopes (in navigation)
Sensors of rotation (angle or rate)

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 Mechanical gyroscope

Euler angles
➢ precession 
➢ nutation 
➢ spin 
Angular velocity vector

Precession
Gyroscope equations

M x = − I ( sin  + 2 cos  ) + I( +  cos  )

M y = I ( −  2 sin  cos  ) + I sin  ( +  cos  )

d
Mz = I dt
( +  cos  )

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Dynamicaly tunned gyroscope

Lawrence A., “Modern Inertial Technology. Navigation, Guidance,

and Control”, Springer-Verlag, 1998

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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Gyroscopes using vibrating sensors

Lawrence A., “Modern Inertial Technology. Navigation, Guidance,

and Control”, Springer-Verlag, 1998

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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 Gyroscopes using vibrating sensors
Coriolis force

  xi    xi   − sin(t )   i j k  0 
  
a c (t ) = 2  yi   V (t ) = −2   yi    cos(t ) 
  ac (t ) = −2 d   xi  yi 0  = −2  d  0 
 0   0     − sin(t ) cos(t ) 0   xi cos(t ) +  yi sin(t ) 
0  

Lawrence A., “Modern Inertial Technology. Navigation, Guidance, and Control”,

Springer-Verlag, 1998

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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 Gyroscopes using vibrating sensors

Lawrence A., “Modern Inertial Technology. Navigation, Guidance, and Control”,

Springer-Verlag, 1998

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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 Mechanical gyroscopes errors sources

❑ Methodical Errors
❑ non-inertial system
❑ angular velocity of the Earth
❑ Earth revolution around the Sun

❑ Instrumental errors
❑ balance errors
❑ friction in the bearings
❑ mass of frames
❑ heat expansion

M x = − I (sin  + 2 cos  ) + I( +  cos  )

M y = I ( −  2 sin  cos  ) + I sin  ( +  cos  )

d
Mz = I dt
( +  cos  )
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Ring laser gyroscope (RLG)

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 Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG)

Scale factor
 = K 
nc nc − Lnc Lnc
 + − − = − = 2  −
2( L + L) 2( L − L) L − L2 2 L2 4A
K=
−
Lnc L
 + − − L2 L  + − − 4 A 4 A 4 A
= = =  k  =    =
 nc L  cL cL L
2L
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Ring laser gyroscope

Waves
Dead lock

Interference

Collinson R.P.G., “Introduction to Avionics”,

Chapman & Hall, London 1997

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Ring laser gyro
Laser – light source
➢ Monochromatic
➢ Coherent
➢ Strenght
➢ Direction

Explain
➢ Shape - triangle
➢ Cage material
➢ Mirror stabilisation
➢ One cathode / two anodes
➢ Dither mehanism
➢ Prism

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Laser gyros - examples

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Fiber optic gyroscope

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Accelerometers

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IMU

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 Back up slides

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Accelerometers

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Accelerometers

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Accelerometers

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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Accelerometers

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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Accelerometers

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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Accelerometers

Attitude and Navigation Systems © JN http://zaiol.meil.pw.edu.pl

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Accelerometers

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Accelerometers

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Mechanical gyroscope

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 Gyroscopes - development

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Accuracy

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