Avionics

Unit – 4

NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Basic Forms of Navigation:

 Pilotage, which essentially relies on recognizing landmarks to know where you are. It is older
than human kind.
 Dead reckoning, which relies on knowing where you started from plus some form of heading
information and some estimate of speed.
 Celestial navigation, using time and the angles between local vertical and known celestial
objects (e.g., sun, moon, or stars).
 Radio navigation, which relies on radio‐frequency sources with known locations (including GNSS
satellites, LORAN‐C, Omega, Tacan, US Army Position Location and Reporting System…)
 Inertial navigation, which relies on knowing your initial position, velocity, and attitude and
thereafter measuring your attitude rates and accelerations. The operation of inertial navigation
systems (INS) depends upon Newton’s laws of classical mechanics. It is the only form of
navigation that does not rely on external references.

Radio Navigation:

Radio navigation refers to the use of radio signals for determining the position, direction, or distance to
a specific point or object. There are several types of radio navigation systems, each utilizing different
techniques and frequencies:

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR): VOR is a short-range radio navigation system that uses ground-based
transmitters to provide aircraft with directional information. By comparing signals received from two
VOR stations, pilots can determine their radial (bearing) from each station and navigate along specific
airways.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME): DME is often paired with VOR to provide distance information. It
measures the slant range distance between the aircraft and a ground station by sending and receiving
paired radio signals.

Instrument Landing System (ILS): ILS is a precision approach and landing system used by aircraft to
approach and land on a runway under adverse weather conditions. It provides both horizontal and
vertical guidance to pilots using radio signals.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS): While not solely reliant on radio signals, GNSS systems like
GPS (Global Positioning System) and Galileo use a constellation of satellites to provide highly accurate
position information to users on Earth. GNSS has largely supplanted traditional ground-based radio
navigation systems for most applications due to its global coverage and accuracy.
Radio Direction Finding (RDF): RDF is a technique used for determining the direction to a radio source,
often used in marine and land-based navigation. It relies on the principles of triangulation, where the
direction to a signal is determined by comparing its strength or phase at different receiving locations.

Inertial Navigation:

Basic definitions,

Inertia is the property of bodies to maintain constant translational and rotational velocity, unless
disturbed by forces or torques, respectively (Newton’s first law of motion).

An inertial reference frame is a coordinate frame in which Newton’s laws of motion are valid. Inertial
reference frames are neither rotating nor accelerating.

Inertial sensors measure rotation rate and acceleration, both of which are vector‐ valued variables.

Gyroscopes are sensors for measuring rotation: rate gyroscopes measure rotation rate, and integrating
gyroscopes (also called whole‐angle gyroscopes) measure rotation angle.

Accelerometers are sensors for measuring acceleration. However, accelerometers cannot measure
gravitational acceleration. That is, an accelerometer in free fall (or in orbit) has no detectable input.

The input axis of an inertial sensor defines which vector component it measures. Multi‐axis sensors
measure more than one component.

An inertial measurement unit (IMU) or inertial reference unit (IRU) contains a cluster of sensors:
accelerometers (three or more, but usually three) and gyroscopes (three or more, but usually three).
These sensors are rigidly mounted to a common base to maintain the same relative orientation.

Principle of inertial navigation,

 Given the ability to measure the acceleration of vehicle it would be possible to calculate the change
in velocity and position by performing successive mathematical integrations of the acceleration with
respect to time.
 In order to navigate with respect to our inertial reference frame, it is necessary to keep track of the
direction in which the accelerometers are pointing.
 Rotational motion of the body with respect to inertial reference frame may be sensed using
gyroscopic sensors that are used to determine the orientation of the accelerometers at all times.
Given this information it is possible to resolve the accelerations into the reference frame before the
integration process takes place.

An inertial navigation uses gyroscopes and accelerometers to maintain an estimate of the position,
velocity, and attitude rates of the vehicle in or on which the INS is carried, which could be a land vehicle,
aircraft, spacecraft, missile, surface ship, or submarine.
An INS consists of the following:

– An IMU

– Instrument support electronics

– Navigation computers (one or more) calculate the gravitational acceleration (not measured by
accelerometers) and doubly integrate the net acceleration to maintain an estimate of the position of the
host vehicle.

Stabilized Platform and Strapdown Technologies,

There are many different designs of INS with different performance characteristics, but they fall
generally into two categories:

– Gimbaled or stabilized platform techniques, and

– Strapdown

The original applications of INS technology used stable platform techniques. In such systems, the inertial
sensors are mounted on a stable platform and mechanically isolated from the rotational motion of the
vehicle. Platform systems are still in use, particularly for those applications requiring very accurate
estimates of navigation data, such as ships and submarines.

Modern systems have removed most of the mechanical complexity of platform systems by having the
sensors attached rigidly, or “strapped down”, to the body of the host vehicle. The potential benefits of
this approach are lower cost, reduced size, and greater reliability compared with equivalent platform
systems. The major disadvantage is a substantial increase in computing complexity.

Gimbaled inertial platform,

A gimbal is a rigid with rotation bearings for isolating the inside of the frame from external rotations
about the bearing axes. At least three gimbals are required to isolate a subsystem from host vehicle
rotations about three axes, typically labeled roll, pitch, and yaw axes. The gimbals in an INS are mounted
inside one another. Gimbals and torque servos are used to null out the rotation of stable platform on
which the inertial sensors are mounted.

The gyros of a type known as “integrating gyros” give an output proportional to the angle through which
they have been rotated. Output of each gyro connected to a servo‐motor driving the appropriate
gimbal, thus keeping the gimbal in a constant orientation in inertial space. The gyros also contain
electrical torque generators which can be used to create a fictitious input rate to the gyros. The
applications of electrical input to the gyro torque generators cause the gimbal torque motors/servos to
null the difference between the true gyro input rate and the electrically applied bias rate. This forms a
convenient means of cancelling out any drift errors in the gyro.

Strapdown inertial navigation,

Accelerometers mounted directly to airframe (strapdown) and measure “body” acceleration.

Horizontal/vertical accelerations computed analytically using direction cosine matrix (DCM) relating
body coordinated and local level navigation coordinates. The DCM computed using strapdown body
mounted gyro outputs.

Advantages of inertial navigation systems (INS),

 It is autonomous and does not rely on any external aids or visibility conditions. It can operate in
tunnels or underwater as well as anywhere else.
 It is inherently well suited for integrated navigation, guidance, and control of the host vehicle.
Its IMU measures the derivatives of the variables to be controlled (e.g., position, velocity, and
attitude).
 It is immune to jamming and inherently stealthy. It neither receivers nor emits detectable
radiation and requires no external antenna that might be detectable by radar.

Disadvantages of inertial navigation systems (INS),

Mean‐squared navigation errors increase with time.

  Cost, including: Acquisition cost, which can be an order of magnitude (or more) higher than GPS
receivers.
 Operations cost, including the crew actions and time required for initializing position and
attitude. Time required for initializing INS attitude by gyrocompass alignment is measured in
minutes. TTFF for GPS receivers is measured in seconds.
 Maintenance cost. Electromechanical avionics systems (e.g., INS) tend to have higher failure
rates and repair cost than purely electronic avionics systems (e.g., GPS).
 Size and weight, which have been shrinking
 Power requirements, which have been shrinking along with size and weight but are still higher
than those for GPS receivers.
 Heat dissipation, which is proportional to and shrinking with power requirements.

Satellite Navigation,

Satellite navigation refers to the use of satellite-based systems to determine the position, velocity, and
time synchronization of an object on or near the Earth's surface.

GPS (Global Positioning System):

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system developed and maintained by
the United States Department of Defense. It provides location and time information in all weather
conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites.

Working of GPS system:

Satellite Constellation: GPS consists of a constellation of at least 24 satellites orbiting the Earth. These
satellites are arranged in six orbital planes, each inclined at approximately 55 degrees relative to the
equator. The satellites orbit at an altitude of approximately 20,000 kilometers (about 12,500 miles).

Satellite Signals: Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts signals that include its own precise time and
orbital information. These signals are transmitted on two carrier frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2
(1227.60 MHz). The L1 frequency is used for civilian purposes, while the L2 frequency is reserved for
military use.

GPS Receiver: A GPS receiver is a device that receives signals from multiple GPS satellites and uses the
information contained in those signals to calculate its own three-dimensional position (latitude,
longitude, and altitude), as well as the precise time. The receiver compares the time it takes for signals
from different satellites to reach it and uses trilateration to determine its position relative to the
satellites.

Triangulation: By measuring the distances to at least four GPS satellites, a GPS receiver can calculate its
own position using a process called triangulation. Trilateration is a specific form of triangulation that
uses distance measurements (rather than angles) to determine position.
Accuracy: The accuracy of GPS positioning depends on several factors, including the number of satellites
in view, the geometry of their positions relative to the receiver, and any sources of signal interference or
degradation. Generally, civilian GPS receivers can achieve horizontal accuracy within a few meters under
optimal conditions, while military-grade receivers can achieve even higher accuracy.

GPS is widely used in various applications, including:

 Personal navigation devices (e.g., smartphones, car navigation systems)

 Aviation, maritime, and land-based navigation
 Surveying and mapping
 Search and rescue operations
 Timing and synchronization for telecommunications and other critical infrastructure

Overall, GPS has become an essential tool for navigation, positioning, and timing worldwide, providing
accurate and reliable information for a wide range of users and applications.

Differential GPS (DGPS):

Differential GPS (DGPS) is a technique used to improve the accuracy of Global Positioning System (GPS)
positioning. It works by correcting GPS measurements for errors caused by various factors, such as
atmospheric interference, satellite clock errors, and geometric dilution of precision (GDOP). DGPS is
especially useful in applications that require high precision, such as maritime navigation, land surveying,
precision agriculture, and scientific research.

Working of DGPS,

Reference Stations: DGPS requires one or more stationary reference stations with known positions.
These reference stations receive signals from the same GPS satellites that GPS receivers use. However,
instead of calculating their own positions, reference stations precisely measure their own positions
using other surveying techniques, such as surveyed land markers or more accurate GNSS receivers.

Error Calculation: The reference stations compare the GPS measurements they receive with their known
positions to determine the errors in the GPS signals. These errors can include inaccuracies caused by
atmospheric effects, satellite clock errors, and other sources of signal degradation.

Correction Data: The reference stations calculate correction data based on the observed errors and
transmit this data to nearby GPS receivers. The correction data typically consists of corrections to the
GPS satellite positions and clock errors, as well as corrections for ionospheric and tropospheric delays.

GPS Receiver: A GPS receiver equipped with DGPS capability receives the correction data from nearby
reference stations. The receiver applies these corrections to its own GPS measurements to improve the
accuracy of its position calculations.

Improved Accuracy: By using DGPS, GPS receivers can significantly improve their position accuracy,
especially in areas where GPS signals may be degraded or obstructed. DGPS can reduce positioning
errors from several meters (typical for standalone GPS) to centimeters or even millimeters, depending
on the quality and availability of the correction data.

DGPS can be implemented using various communication methods to transmit correction data from
reference stations to GPS receivers, including terrestrial radio broadcasts, satellite broadcasts, cellular
networks, and the internet. DGPS is widely used in applications where high-precision positioning is
critical, such as marine navigation, precision agriculture, geodetic surveying, and autonomous vehicle
navigation.

Wide Area Augmentation Systems (WAAS):

Wide Area Augmentation Systems (WAAS) is a satellite-based augmentation system developed by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to improve the accuracy, integrity, and availability of Global
Positioning System (GPS) signals for aviation use within the United States and its territories. WAAS is
primarily designed to enhance the safety and efficiency of aircraft navigation during all phases of flight,
including en route, terminal, and approach procedures.

Working of WAAS,

Satellite Network: WAAS utilizes a network of ground reference stations located across the United
States and its territories. These reference stations continuously monitor signals from GPS satellites.

Master Station: The data collected by the ground reference stations is sent to a master station, which
processes the information and generates correction messages.

Geostationary Satellites: WAAS correction messages are transmitted to users via geostationary
satellites, which relay the signals back to Earth. The geostationary satellites used for WAAS are
positioned over the equator, providing coverage over a wide area.

GPS Receiver: Aircraft equipped with WAAS-capable GPS receivers receive the correction messages from
the geostationary satellites. The GPS receivers use these correction messages to improve the accuracy
and reliability of GPS positioning.

Correction Signals: WAAS correction signals include corrections for GPS satellite orbits, clock errors,
ionospheric delays, and other sources of GPS signal errors. These corrections are applied to the GPS
measurements to provide more accurate and precise position, velocity, and time information to the
aircraft.

WAAS provides several benefits for aviation, including:

Improved Accuracy: WAAS can improve the accuracy of GPS positioning from approximately 15 meters
(typical for standalone GPS) to within 1-2 meters horizontally and vertically.

Enhanced Integrity: WAAS monitors the GPS signals for errors and provides integrity information to
users, alerting them to any potential anomalies that could affect the accuracy of their position
calculations.
Increased Availability: WAAS provides coverage over a wide area, including remote and mountainous
regions where ground-based navigation aids may be limited or unavailable.

Support for Precision Approach Procedures: WAAS enables the implementation of precision approach
procedures, such as LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance) and LNAV/VNAV (Lateral
Navigation with Vertical Guidance), which allow aircraft to perform approaches with vertical guidance
similar to an Instrument Landing System (ILS) without requiring ground-based infrastructure.

Overall, WAAS plays a crucial role in enhancing the safety, efficiency, and reliability of GPS-based
navigation for aviation within the United States and its territories.

Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS):

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is a ground-based augmentation system designed to
enhance the accuracy, integrity, and availability of Global Positioning System (GPS) signals within a
limited geographical area, typically an airport or its immediate vicinity. LAAS is primarily used for
precision approach and landing procedures in aviation, providing highly accurate positioning information
to aircraft during the critical phases of flight.

Working of LAAS works,

Ground Stations: LAAS consists of a network of ground reference stations located in the vicinity of the
airport. These reference stations continuously monitor signals from GPS satellites and collect data on
the errors and anomalies present in the GPS signals.

Master Station: The data collected by the ground reference stations is sent to a central master station,
which processes the information and computes correction messages tailored to the specific needs of the
airport.

Local Differential Corrections: Unlike Wide Area Augmentation Systems (WAAS), which provide
corrections over a wide area, LAAS focuses on a specific local area, such as an airport. The correction
messages generated by the master station include corrections for GPS satellite orbits, clock errors,
ionospheric delays, and other sources of GPS signal errors specific to the airport's location.

Ground Transmitter: The correction messages are transmitted to aircraft via a ground-based transmitter
located at the airport. This transmitter broadcasts the correction signals to aircraft equipped with LAAS-
capable GPS receivers operating within the coverage area of the system.

Aircraft Receiver: Aircraft equipped with LAAS-capable GPS receivers receive the correction messages
from the ground transmitter and use this information to improve the accuracy and reliability of their
GPS-based position calculations.
LAAS provides several benefits for aviation, including:

Precision Approach and Landing: LAAS enables aircraft to perform precision approach procedures, such
as CAT I, CAT II, and CAT III approaches, with accuracy and reliability comparable to or better than
traditional Instrument Landing System (ILS) approaches.

Increased Safety and Efficiency: By providing highly accurate positioning information during approach
and landing, LAAS enhances the safety and efficiency of flight operations, especially in adverse weather
conditions or low-visibility situations.

Improved Access to Airports: LAAS can improve access to airports by enabling the implementation of
precision approach procedures at airports where traditional ILS installations may be impractical or cost-
prohibitive.

Overall, LAAS plays a crucial role in enhancing the safety, efficiency, and accessibility of aviation
operations by providing highly accurate and reliable GPS-based navigation capabilities for precision
approach and landing procedures at airports.

GPS Overlay Program:

The GPS Overlay Program is an initiative by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aimed at
improving the accuracy and integrity of GPS signals for aviation purposes. The program seeks to enhance
the reliability of GPS-based navigation systems used in aircraft by providing additional correction and
integrity monitoring services.

Purpose: The primary goal of the GPS Overlay Program is to augment the existing GPS signals with
additional correction data to improve the accuracy and integrity of GPS-based navigation for aviation. It
aims to enhance the safety, efficiency, and reliability of flight operations, especially during critical
phases such as approach and landing.

Implementation: The GPS Overlay Program involves the deployment of ground-based augmentation
systems (GBAS) at airports and other critical locations. These GBAS consist of ground reference stations,
a master station, and ground transmitters that broadcast correction messages to aircraft.

Correction Services: The correction messages provided by the GPS Overlay Program include corrections
for GPS satellite orbits, clock errors, ionospheric delays, and other sources of signal errors. These
corrections are tailored to specific geographical areas and flight procedures, such as approach and
landing at airports.

Integrity Monitoring: In addition to correction services, the GPS Overlay Program also provides integrity
monitoring capabilities to detect any anomalies or errors in the GPS signals. This ensures that pilots
receive timely alerts if the GPS signals become unreliable or compromised during flight.

Benefits: The GPS Overlay Program offers several benefits for aviation, including improved accuracy and
reliability of GPS-based navigation, enhanced safety during approach and landing procedures, and
increased efficiency of flight operations. It also enables the implementation of advanced navigation
procedures, such as Required Navigation Performance (RNP) and Performance-Based Navigation (PBN).

Overall, the GPS Overlay Program plays a crucial role in enhancing the capabilities of GPS-based
navigation systems for aviation purposes, ensuring the safety and efficiency of flight operations in all
weather conditions and environments.

Integrated navigation:

Integrated navigation refers to the combination of multiple navigation systems and sensors to provide a
comprehensive and robust solution for determining the position, velocity, and orientation of a moving
object, such as an aircraft, ship, vehicle, or spacecraft. By combining data from different sensors and
systems, integrated navigation aims to overcome the limitations and weaknesses of individual
navigation systems, thereby improving accuracy, reliability, and continuity of navigation information.

Key components and techniques commonly used in integrated navigation systems include:

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): Systems like GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou provide
accurate position and timing information using signals from satellites. Integrated navigation systems
often incorporate multiple GNSS receivers to improve accuracy and reliability, especially in challenging
environments where satellite signals may be obstructed or degraded.

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS): INS uses onboard sensors, such as accelerometers and gyroscopes, to
measure the object's acceleration and rotation rates. INS provides continuous position, velocity, and
attitude estimates based on integrating the sensor measurements over time. Integrated navigation
systems combine GNSS and INS to provide accurate position and orientation information, with INS
aiding GNSS during signal disruptions or outages.

Other Sensors: Integrated navigation systems may also incorporate other sensors to augment position
and navigation information, such as magnetometers (for heading estimation), barometers (for altitude
estimation), and Doppler velocity logs (for underwater navigation).

Kalman Filtering: Kalman filters are commonly used in integrated navigation systems to fuse data from
multiple sensors and systems while minimizing estimation errors. Kalman filters recursively estimate the
object's state (position, velocity, orientation) based on sensor measurements and system dynamics,
providing optimal estimates even in the presence of noise and uncertainties.

Data Fusion: Integrated navigation systems employ data fusion techniques to combine information from
multiple sensors and systems, taking into account the accuracy, reliability, and dynamics of each
information source. Data fusion algorithms integrate diverse sensor measurements to produce a
coherent and accurate navigation solution.

Integrated navigation systems find applications in various domains, including aviation, maritime
navigation, land-based navigation, autonomous vehicles, robotics, and space exploration. They offer
advantages such as continuous and reliable navigation information, improved accuracy and integrity,
redundancy and fault tolerance, and adaptability to diverse operating environments and conditions.
Overall, integrated navigation plays a critical role in ensuring the safety, efficiency, and reliability of
navigation systems across different domains and applications.

Flight Management System (FMS):

A Flight Management System (FMS) is an on-board multi-purpose navigation, performance, and aircraft
operations computer designed to provide virtual data and operational harmony between closed and
open elements associated with a flight from pre-engine start and take-off, to landing and engine shut-
down.

Most modern commercial and business aircraft are equipped with Electronic Flight Instrument System,
which replaces conventional systems and flight deck displays.

An FMS comprises four main components:

 The Flight Management Computer (FMC);

 The Automatic Flight Control or Automatic Flight Guidance System (AFCS or AFGS) ;
 The Aircraft Navigation System;
 An Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) or equivalent electromechanical instrumentation.

The FMC is a computer system that uses a large data base to allow routes to be pre-programmed and
fed into the system by means of a data loader. The system is constantly updated with aircraft position
by reference to available navigation aids. The most appropriate aids are automatically selected during
information update.

The AFCS or AFGS receives sensor information from other aircraft systems. Dependent upon whether
the aircraft is under Autopilot or manual control, AFCS mode selections made by the crew will either
automatically move and control the aircraft flight control surfaces or display Flight Director commands
for the pilot to follow to achieve the desired status.

The Navigation System is an integrated package which calculates continuously the aircraft position. It
may include Inertial Reference System (IRS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) (GPS) inputs in addition
to receivers for ground based aids. In the case of an EFIS, the display of these navigational inputs is
predicated on the Attitude and Heading Reference System(AHRS).

Display of aircraft status is provided on either EFIS or conventional instrumentation and is where the
effect of FMS aircraft control is principally visible.

Flight management system (FMS) control:

The Flight Management System (FMS) in an aircraft is typically controlled through a dedicated control
unit known as the Control Display Unit (CDU) or Multi-Function Control Display Unit (MCDU). The
CDU/MCDU is a keypad and screen interface located within the cockpit that allows pilots to interact with
and manage the FMS. The control of FMS using the CDU/MCDU:
Keypad Input: The CDU/MCDU features a keypad with alphanumeric keys, function keys, and navigation
keys. Pilots use the keypad to input commands, enter data, and navigate through the various menus and
pages of the FMS.

Screen Display: The CDU/MCDU has a screen that displays information, menus, flight plans, and system
status. Pilots interact with the FMS by selecting options, entering data, and reviewing information
displayed on the screen.

Menu Navigation: The FMS menu structure is organized hierarchically, with different pages and sub-
pages containing various functions and options. Pilots navigate through the menus using the keypad and
screen, selecting the desired options to perform tasks such as flight planning, route modification,
performance optimization, and system configuration.

Data Entry: Pilots input data into the FMS using the CDU/MCDU keypad. This includes entering flight
plan waypoints, selecting departure and arrival procedures, specifying cruising altitudes and speeds,
inputting fuel quantities, and configuring system settings.

Data Review: Pilots use the CDU/MCDU to review and verify the data entered into the FMS, including
flight plans, route segments, waypoints, fuel calculations, and system parameters. They can scroll
through pages and screens to check for accuracy and completeness.

System Control: The CDU/MCDU allows pilots to control various aspects of the FMS operation, such as
activating and deactivating flight plan segments, engaging and disengaging autopilot modes, adjusting
navigation settings, and acknowledging system alerts and messages.

Communication: In some aircraft, the CDU/MCDU may also serve as a communication interface for
sending and receiving messages, data link communications, and accessing external information sources
such as weather updates and air traffic control instructions.

Overall, the Control Display Unit/Multi-Function Control Display Unit is the primary interface for pilots to
interact with and control the Flight Management System in an aircraft. It provides a user-friendly
interface for entering data, managing flight plans, monitoring system status, and optimizing aircraft
performance throughout all phases of flight.