ODE: Assignment-7

Frobenius method and Bessel function

1. For each of the following, verify that the origin is a regular singular point and find two
linearly independent solutions:
(a) 9x2 y 00 + (9x2 + 2)y = 0 (b) x2 (x2 − 1)y 00 − x(1 + x2 )y 0 + (1 + x2 )y = 0
(T) (c) xy 00 + (1 − 2x)y 0 + (x − 1)y = 0 (d) x(x − 1)y 00 + 2(2x − 1)y 0 + 2y = 0
Solution:
(a)
The given ODE can be written as
9x2 + 2
y 00 +
y=0
9x2
Hence x = 0 is a regular singular point. Let y = n=0 an xn+r , a0 6= 0. This gives
P

X X X
9(n + r)(n + r − 1)an xn+r + 9an xn+r+2 + 2an xn+r = 0
n=0 n=0 n=0

which can be written as

X X X
9(n + r)(n + r − 1)an xn+r + 9an−2 xn+r + 2an xn+r = 0
n=0 n=2 n=0

This can be rearranged as (after canceling xr )

    X 
9r(r − 1) + 2 a0 + 9r(r + 1) + 2 a1 x + 9(n + r)(n + r − 1)an + 9an−2 + 2an xn = 0
n=2

This implies
    9an−2
9r(r−1)+2 a0 = 0, 9r(r+1)+2 a1 = 0 and an = − , n ≥ 2.
9(n + r)(n + r − 1) + 2
Since a0 6= 0, we have 9r(r − 1) + 2 = 0 =⇒ r = 2/3 = r1 , r = 1/3 = r2 . Here
r1 − r2 = 1/3 is not an integer and we have two independent Frobenius series solutions.
With r = r1 or r = r2 , 9r(r + 1) + 2 6= 0 =⇒ a1 = 0. This leads to a2n+1 = 0, n ≥ 0.
Also,
9an−2
an = − , n ≥ 2.
(3n + 3r − 2)(3n + 3r − 1)
With r = r1 = 2/3 we find
X 3a2n−2
y1 (x) = x2/3 a2n x2n , a0 = 1, a2n = − , n ≥ 1.
n=0
2n(6n + 1)

With r = r1 = 1/3 we find

X 3a2n−2
y2 (x) = x1/3 a2n x2n , a0 = 1, a2n = − , n ≥ 1.
n=0
2n(6n − 1)
(b)
The given ODE can be written as

1 + x2 0 1 + x2
y 00 − y + =0
x(x2 − 1) x2 (x2 − 1)

Hence x = 0 is a regular singular point. Let y = n=0 an xn+r , a0 6= 0. This gives

P

X 
(n+r)(n+r−1)an (xn+r+2 −xn+r )−(n+r)an (xn+r +xn+r+2 )+an (xn+r +xn+r+2 ) = 0
n=0

which can be written as

X  X 
(n+r−2)(n+r−3)−(n+r−2)+1 an−2 xn+r − (n+r)(n+r−1)+(n+r)−1 an xn+r = 0
n=2 n=0

This can be rearranged as (after canceling xr )

    X

− r2 − 1 a0 − (r + 1)2 − 1 a1 x + (n + r − 3)2 an−2 − (n + r)2 − 1 an xn = 0
n=2

This implies
    (n + r − 3)2
r2 − 1 a0 = 0, (r + 1)2 − 1 a1 = 0, and an = an−2 , n ≥ 2.
(n + r)2 − 1

Since a0 6= 0, we have r2 − 1 = 0 =⇒ r = 1 = r1 , r = −1 = r2 . Here r1 − r2 = 2 is an

integer and we may or may not have two independent Frobenius series solutions.
With r = r1 , (r + 1)2 − 1 6= 0 =⇒ a1 = 0. Also,

(n − 2)2
an = an−2 , n ≥ 2 =⇒ an = 0, n ≥ 1.
n(n + 2)

Hence
y1 (x) = x, a0 = 1.
For the other solution, let y2 = y1 u(x) = xu (reduction of order technique)

00 u000 1 1 3
2 2
x(x − 1)u + (x − 3)u = 0 =⇒ 0 = − − =⇒ u0 = 1/x3 − 1/x
u 1+x 1−x x
which integrating again gives
1
u = − log x −
2x2
Hence y2 = x ln x + 1/(2x) (ignoring the negative sign)
(c)
The given ODE can be written as
1 − 2x 0 x − 1
y 00 + y + =0
x x
Hence x = 0 is a regular singular point. Let y = n=0 an xn+r , a0 6= 0. This gives
P

X 
n+r−1 n+r−1 n+r n+r+1 n+r
(n + r)(n + r − 1)an x + (n + r)an (x − 2x ) + an (x −x ) =0
n=0

which can be written as

X X  X 
n+r−1 n+r−1
an−2 x − 2(n+r−1)+1 an−1 x + (n+r)(n+r−1)+(n+r) an xn+r−1 = 0
n=2 n=1 n=0

This can be rearranged as (after canceling xr−1 )

  X 
r2 a0 + (r + 1)2 a1 − (2r + 1)a0 x + (n + r)2 an − 2(n + r − 1) + 1 an−1 + an−2 xn = 0


n=2

This implies

r2 a0 = 0, (r + 1)2 a1 = (2r + 1)a0 , (n + r)2 an = 2(n + r) − 1 an−1 − an−2 , n ≥ 2

Now a0 6= 0 =⇒ r = r1 = 0, r = r2 = 0. Since the indicial equation has double roots,

the given equation has only one independent Frobenius series solution. We take r = 0
and this gives a1 = a0 . We also have
2n − 1 1
an = a n−1 − an−2 , n ≥ 2.
n2 n2
With a0 = 1 we get a1 = 1. This leads to a2 = 1/2!, a3 = 1/3!. We prove an = 1/n!
by induction. Clearly the induction hypothesis is true for n = 1, 2, 3. Let it be true for
n = k. For n = k + 1, we have
 
2k + 1 1 1 2k + 1 1
ak+1 = 2
ak − 2
ak−1 = 2
−1 =
(k + 1) (k + 1) (k + 1) (k − 1)! k (k + 1)!
Hence X xn
y1 (x) = = ex
n=0
n!
x
For other solution let y2 = y1 u(x) = e u. This gives

xu00 + u0 = 0 =⇒ u0 = 1/x =⇒ u = ln x

Hence y2 (x) = ex ln x
(d)
The given ODE can be written as
2(2x − 1) 0 2
y 00 + y + y=0
x(x − 1) x(x − 1)

Hence x = 0 is a regular singular point. Let y = n=0 an xn+r , a0 6= 0. This gives

P

X 
n+r n+r−1 n+r n+r−1 n+r
(n + r)(n + r − 1)an (x −x ) + (n + r)an (4x − 2x ) + 2an x =0
n=0
 which can be written as
X  X 
(n+r−1)(n+r−2)+4(n+r−1)+2 an−1 xn+r−1 − (n+r)(n+r−1)+2(n+r) an xn+r−1 = 0
n=1 n=0

This can be rearranged as (after canceling xr−1 )

X 
2
(n + r)(n + r + 1)an − (n + r − 1)(n + r + 2) + 2 an−1 xn = 0


(r + r)a0 −
n=1

This implies

(r2 + r)a0 = 0, (n + r)(n + r + 1)an − (n + r − 1)(n + r + 2) + 2 an−1 = 0, n ≥ 1

Now a0 6= 0 =⇒ r = r1 = 0, r = r2 = −1. Hence r1 − r2 = 1 is an integer and hence

the ODE may or may not have two independent Frobenius series solution.
With r = r1 = 0,


n(n + 1)an = (n − 1)(n + 2) + 2 an−1 =⇒ an = an−1 =⇒ an = a0 , n ≥ 1.

Hence (with a0 = 1)
X 1
y1 (x) = xn =
n=0
1−x
For the other solution, let y2 = y1 u(x). This gives
1
xu00 + 2u0 = 0 =⇒ u0 = =⇒ u = −1/x
x2
Hence (neglecting the negative sign)
1
y2 (x) =
x(1 − x)

We can write
1 1
y2 (x) = +
x 1−x
Since the last term is y1 (x), we can take y2 (x) = 1/x
Note: If we continue the Frobenius series method with r = r2 = −1, then from the
recurrence relation
n(n − 1)an = n(n − 1)an−1 , n ≥ 1.
For n = 1, the relation is automatically satisfied for any value of a1 . We may take
a1 = 0. This leads to an = 0 for n ≥ 1. Then we again get (taking a0 = 1)
1
y2 (x) =
x

2. Show that 2x3 y 00 + (cos 2x − 1)y 0 + 2xy = 0 has only one Frobenius series solution.
Solution:
 We can write the ODE as
cos 2x − 1 0
2x2 y 00 + xy + 2y = 0
x2
Since
cos 2x − 1
lim = −2,
x→0 x2
the indicial equation is

2r(r − 1) − 2r + 2 =⇒ r2 − 2r + 1 =⇒ r = 1, 1.

Since the indicial equation has double roots, it has only one Frobenius series solution.

3. (T) Reduce x2 y 00 + xy 0 + (x2 − 1/4)y = 0 to normal form and hence find its general
solution.
Solution:
Suppose y(x) = u(x)v(x). Hence
 
2 00 0 0 00
2 1 0 0
x (u v + 2u v + uv ) + x(u v + uv ) + x − uv = 0
4
or    
2 00 2 0 2 1 0 2 00 0
x vu + (2x v + xv)u + (x v + xv + x − v u = 0.
4
To make the 2nd term vanish, we set
1
2x2 v 0 + xv = 0 =⇒ 2xv 0 + v = 0 =⇒ v = √
x

Using this transformation the given ODE reduces to

u00 + u = 0.

Thus general solution of the reduced equation is u = A sin x + B cos x. For the original
equation, the general solution is
sin x cos x
y =A √ +B √ .
x x

4. Using recurrence relations, show the following for Bessel function Jn :

(i)(T) J000 (x) = −J0 (x) + J1 (x)/x 0
(ii) xJn+1 (x) + (n + 1)Jn+1 (x) = xJn (x)
Solution:
Useful identities for problems with Bessel’s functions:

 0  0
xν Jν = xν Jν−1 , x−ν Jν = −x−ν Jν+1 ,
Jν−1 + Jν+1 = 2νJν /x, Jν−1 − Jν+1 = 2Jν0 .
 (i)
2J00 (x) = J−1 (x) − J1 (x) = −2J1 (x)
=⇒ 2J000 (x) = −2J10 (x) = J2 (x) − J0 (x) = 2J1 (x)/x − 2J0 (x)
=⇒ J000 (x) = J1 (x)/x − J0 (x)
(ii)  0
0
n+1
x Jn+1 (x) = xn+1 Jn (x) =⇒ xJn+1 (x) + (n + 1)Jn+1 (x) = xJn (x)

5. Express
(i)(T) J3 (x) in terms of J1 (x) and J0 (x) (ii) J20 (x) in terms of J1 (x) and J0 (x)
(iii) J4 (ax) in terms of J1 (ax) and J0 (ax)
Solution:
(i) Using the identity Jν+1 = 2νJν /x − Jν−1 we have
 
4 4 2
J3 (x) = J2 (x) − J1 (x) = J1 (x) − J0 (x) − J1 (x)
x x x
 
8 4
= 2
− 1 J1 (x) − J0 (x)
x x

(ii) Using identities involving Bessel’s function, we get

   
0 4 4 2
2J2 (x) = J1 (x) − J3 (x) = J1 (x) − J2 (x) − J1 (x) = 2J1 (x) − J1 (x) − J0 (x)
x x x
 
0 2 4
Hence J2 (x) = J0 (x) + 1 − 2 J1 (x)
x x

(iii) Using the identity Jν+1 = 2νJν /x − Jν−1 , we get

 
6 6 4
J4 (ax) = J3 (ax) − J2 (ax) = J2 (ax) − J1 (ax) − J2 (ax)
ax ax ax
 
24 6
= 2 2
− 1 J2 (ax) − J1 (ax)
ax ax
  
24 2 6
= 2 2
−1 J1 (ax) − J0 (ax) − J1 (ax)
ax ax ax
   
1 48 24
= − 8 J1 (ax) − − 1 J0 (ax)
ax a2 x2 a2 x 2

6. Prove that between each pair of consecutive positive zeros of Bessel function Jν (x), there
is exactly one zero of Jν+1 (x) and vice versa.
Solution:
Let α and β be two consecutive positive zeros of Jν+1 . Let f (x) = xν+1 Jν+1 . Then
f (α) = f (β) = 0. Thus there exists c ∈ (α, β) such that f 0 (c) = 0. Taking γ = ν + 1
in [xγ Jγ ]0 = xγ Jγ−1 , we see that Jν (c) = 0. Thus there exists a zero of Jν between
 consecutive zeros of Jν+1 . Similarly taking γ = ν in [x−γ Jγ ]0 = −x−γ Jγ+1 , we conclude
that there exists a zero of Jν+1 between consecutive positive zeros of Jν . To prove
uniqueness, let there exist two zero of Jν between consecutive zeros α and β of Jν+1 .
This implies that there exist a zero of Jν+1 between α and β, which contradicts the fact
that α and β are consecutive zeroes.

7. Show that the Bessel functions Jν (ν ≥ 0) satisfy

Z 1
1 2
xJν (λm x)Jν (λn x) dx = Jν+1 (λn )δmn ,
0 2
where λi are the positive zeros of Jν .
Solution:
We know that y(t) = Jν (t) satisfies
ν2
 
1 d
ÿ + ẏ + 1 − 2 y = 0, ·≡
t t dt
Let t = λx =⇒ y(t) = y(λx) = u(x). Then u0 (x) = λẏ and u00 (x) = λ2 ÿ. Hence
u(x) = Jν (λx) satisfies
ν2
 
00 1 0 2
u + u + λ − 2 u = 0, (1)
x x
Similarly, v(x) = Jν (µx) satisfies
ν2
 
001 0 2
v + v + µ − 2 v = 0. (2)
x x
Multiplying (1) by v and (2) by u and subtracting, we find
dh 0 0
i
x(u v − uv ) = µ2 − λ2 xuv.


dx
Integrating from x = 0 to x = 1, we find

1
Z
2
µ −λ 2
xuv dx = u0 (1)v(1) − u(1)v 0 (1). (3)
0

Now u(1) = Jν (λ) and v(1) = Jν (µ). Let us choose λ = λm and µ = λn , where λm and
λn are positive zeros of Jν . Then u(1) = v(1) = 0 and thus find
Z 1
2 2
(λn − λm ) xJν (λm x)Jν (λn x) dx = 0.
0

If n 6= m, then Z 1
xJν (λm x)Jν (λn x) dx = 0.
0
Now from (3), we find [since u (x) = λJν0 (λx) etc]
0

Z 1
λJ 0 (λ)Jν (µ) − µJν (λ)Jν0 (µ)
xJν2 (λx) dx = lim ν
0 µ→λ µ2 − λ2
2
λ Jν0 (λ) − Jν (λ)Jν0 (λ) − λJν (λ)Jν00 (λ)


=
2λ
 Now if we take λ = λn , where λn is a positive zero of Jν , then we find
Z 1
1 0 2
xJν2 (λn x) dx = Jν (λn ) .
0 2
Now from
 0 ν
x−ν Jν (x) = −x−ν Jν+1 (x) =⇒ Jν0 (x) − Jν (x) = −Jν+1 (x),
x
we find by substituting x = λn

Jν0 (λn ) = −Jν+1 (λn ).

Thus, finally we get Z 1

1 2
xJν2 (λn x) dx = Jν+1 (λn ).
0 2

Laplace Transform
1. Let F (s) be the Laplace transform of f (t). Find the Laplace transform of f (at) (a > 0).
Solution:
Z ∞ Z ∞
−st 1 1
e−(s/a)τ f (τ ) dτ = F (s/a)


L f (at) = e f (at) dt =
0 a 0 a
2. Find the Laplace transforms:
(a) [t] (greatest integer function), (b) tm cosh bt (m ∈ non-negative integers),
(
t
e sin at sin t cosh t sin 3t, 0 < t < π,
(T)(c) et sin at, (d) , (e) , (f) f (t) =
t t 0, t > π,
Solution:
(a)
Z 2 Z 3 Z 4
−st −st
e−st dt + · · ·


L [t] = e dt + 2 e dt + 3
1 2 3
−s
e e−s
= (1 + e−s + e−2s + e−3s + · · · ) = (s > 0 =⇒ 0 < e−s < 1)
s s(1 − e−s )

(b)

m! 1
L(tm ) = m+1
=⇒ L(tm cosh bt) = L(ebt tm + e−bt tm )
s  2 
m! 1 1
= +
2 (s − b)m+1 (s + b)m+1

(c)
a a
L(sin at) = =⇒ L(et sin at) =
s2 +a 2 (s − 1)2 + a2

R∞
(d) Use L f (t)/t = s F (s) ds. Now
a
L(sin at) = 2
s Z+ a2
  ∞
sin at ds π
=⇒ L = a 2 2
= − tan−1 (s/a)
t s s +a 2
 t   
e sin at π −1 s−1
=⇒ L = − tan
t 2 a

(e) Using result of the previous question

1 et sin t e−t sin t

     
sin t π −1 cosh t sin t
L = − tan (s) =⇒ L = +
t 2 t 2 t t
1
π − tan−1 (s − 1) − tan−1 (s + 1)


=
2
(f)
∞ π
3(1 + e−πs )
Z Z
−st
e−st sin 3t dt =


L f (t) = e f (t) dt =
0 0 s2 + 9

1. Find the Laplace transforms (Hint: use second shifting theorem):


 1,
 0 < t < π,
(a) f (t) = 0, π < t < 2π,

cos t, t > 2π,


 0,
 0 < t < 1,
(b) f (t) = cos(πt), 1 < t < 2,

0, t>2


Solution:
(a) Consider g(t) = u(t)−u(t−π)+u(t−2π) cos t = u(t)−u(t−π)+u(t−2π) cos(t−2π)

1 1 s
L f (t) = L g(t) = − e−πs + e−2πs 2


s s s +1


(b) Consider g(t) = u(t−1)−u(t−2) cos(πt) = −u(t−1) cos π(t−1)−u(t−2) cos π(t−2)
 
s s
L f (t) = L g(t) = − e−s + e−2s 2



2
s +π 2 s + π2

2. Find the inverse Laplace transforms of

s2 + 1 s+2 se−πs (1 − e−2s )(1 − 3e−2s )
(a) tan−1 (a/s), (b)ln , (T)(c) , (d) , (e) .
(s + 1)2 (s2 + 4s − 5)2 s2 + 4 s2
Solution:
(a) Use L − tf (t) = F 0 (s). Thus,

a sin at
F 0 (s) = − −1 0


2 2
=⇒ L F (s) = − sin at =⇒ f (t) =
s +a t
 (b)

0 2s 2 −1 0

−t 2(e−t − cos t)
F (s) = 2 − =⇒ L F (s) = 2(cos t − e ) =⇒ f (t) =
s +1 s+1 t
(c)  
s+2 1 1 1
F (s) = 2 = −
(s + 4s − 5)2 12 (s − 1)2 (s + 5)2

t2 e−5t − t2 et
 
0 1 2 2 −1 0
F (s) = − =⇒ L F (s) =
12 (s + 5)3 (s − 1)3 12
Thus,
et − e−5t
f (t) = t
12
(d)
se−πs
= e−πs L(cos 2t) = L u(t − π) cos 2(t − π)


2
s +4
Thus,
se−πs
 
−1
L = u(t − π) cos 2t
s2 + 4
(e)
(1 − e−2s )(1 − 3e−2s ) 1 4e−2s 3e−4s
= − + 2
s2 s2 s2 s
Thus,
f (t) = t − 4u(t − 2)(t − 2) + 3(t − 4)u(t − 4)

3. Using convolution, find the inverse Laplace transforms:

1 2 1 1
(T)(a) 2 , (b) 2 , (c) 2 2 , (d) .
s − 5s + 6 s −1 s (s + 4) (s − 1)2
Solution:
(a)
1 1
F (s) = =
s2 − 5s + 6 (s − 3)(s − 2)
Now
1 1
L(e3t ) = , L(e2t ) = .
s−3 s−2
Hence, Z t Z t
3τ 2(t−τ ) 2t
f (t) = e e dτ = e eτ dτ = e3t − e2t
0 0

(b)
2 2
F (s) = =
s2 − 1 (s + 1)(s − 1)
Now
1 1
L(et ) = , L(e−t ) = .
s−1 s+1
Hence, Z t Z t
τ −(t−τ ) −t
f (t) = 2 e e dτ = 2e e2τ dτ = et − e−t = 2 sinh t
0 0
 (c)
1 11 2
F (s) = =
s2 (s2 + 4) 2 s2 s2 + 4
Now
1 2
L(t) = , L (sin 2t) = .
s2 s2 +4
Hence,
t
2t − sin 2t
Z
1
f (t) = (t − τ ) sin(2τ )dτ =
2 0 8

(d)
1 1 1
F (s) = 2
=
(s − 1) s−1s−1
Now
1
L(et ) = .
s−1
Hence, Z t Z t
τ t−τ t
f (t) = e e dτ = e dτ = tet
0 0

6. Use Laplace transform to solve the initial value problems:

(a) y 00 + 4y = cos 2t, y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = 1.
(
4t if 0 < t < 1
(T)(b) y 00 + 3y 0 + 2y = y(0) = y 0 (0) = 0
8 if t > 1
(
8 sin t if 0 < t < π
(c) y 00 + 9y = y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = 4
0 if t > π
Z t
0
(d) y1 + 2y1 + 6 y2 (τ ) dτ = 2u(t), y10 + y20 = −y2 , y1 (0) = −5, y2 (0) = 6
0
Solution:
(a) Taking Laplace Transform on both sides and simplifying (Y(s)=L[y(t)])

Y (s) = s/(s2 + 4)2 + 1/(s2 + 4)

Using convolution [or any other technique]

1 t
Z
sin 2t
y(t) = sin(2τ ) cos(2(t − τ ))dτ +
2 0 2
t sin 2t sin 2t
= +
4 2


(b) Let r(t) = 4 u(t) − u(t − 1) t + 8u(t − 1) = 4u(t − 0)t + 4u(t − 1)(1 − (t − 1)). Taking
Laplace Transform on both sides of the ODE, we get

4 −s 4(s − 1)
(s2 + 3s + 2)Y (s) = R(s) =⇒ Y (s) = + e
s2 (s + 1)(s + 2) s2 (s + 1)(s + 2)
Using partial fraction and shifting theorem we get
   
3 2 4 1 −s 5 2 8 3
Y (s) = − + 2 + − +e − − +
s s s+1 s+2 s s2 s + 1 s + 2
 
=⇒ y(t) = −3 + 2t + 4e−t − e−2t + u(t − 1) 5 − 2(t − 1) − 8e−(t−1) + 3e−2(t−1)

(c) Let r(t) = 8(u(t) − u(t − π)) sin t = 8u(t) sin t + u(t − π) sin(t − π). Taking Laplace
Transform on both sides of the ODE, we get
4 R(s)
(s2 + 9)Y (s) = R(s) + 4 =⇒ Y (s) = + 2
s2 +9 s +9
We can explicitly write R(s) and then use partial fraction technique.
 
4 −πs 8 4 −πs 1 1
Y (s) = 2 + (1 + e ) 2 = 2 + (1 + e ) 2 −
s +9 (s + 1)(s2 + 9) s +9 s + 1 s2 + 9
This gives
   
4 1 1
y(t) = sin 3t + sin t − sin 3t + u(t − π) sin(t − π) − sin 3(t − π)
3 3 3
 
1
= sin t + sin 3t + u(t − π) sin 3t − sin t
3

Otherwise, use convolution as follows
Z t
4 1
y(t) = sin 3t + r(τ ) sin 3(t − τ ) dτ
3 3 0

Thus for 0 < t < π, we get

8 t
Z
4 4 1
y(t) = sin 3t + sin τ sin 3(t − τ ) dτ = sin 3t + sin t − sin 3t = sin 3t + sin t
3 3 0 3 3
and for t > π, we get [since r(t) = 0]

8 π 1 t
Z Z
4 4
y(t) = sin 3t + sin τ sin 3(t − τ ) dτ + 0 sin 3(t − τ ) dτ = sin 3t
3 3 0 3 π 3

This solution matches with that obtained earlier.
(d) Taking Laplace transform, we get
6Y2 2
(s + 2)Y1 + = −5
s s
sY1 + (s + 1)Y2 = 1

Solving
1 12 1 18 1
Y1 (s) = − −
s 5 s−1 5 s+4
6 1 24 1
Y2 (s) = +
5s−1 5 s+4
 Thus,
12 t 18 −4t
y1 (t) = 1 − e − e
5 5
6 t 24 −4t
y2 (t) = e + e
5 5

7. Solve the integral equations:

Z t
(a) y(t) + y(τ ) dτ = u(t − a) + u(t − b)
0
Z t
−t
(b) e = y(t) + 2 cos(t − τ )y(τ ) dτ
0
Z t
(c) 3 sin 2t = y(t) + (t − τ )y(τ ) dτ
0
Solution:
(a) Taking Laplace Transform, we get

e−as e−bs
Y (s) = + =⇒ y(t) = u(t − a)e−(t−a) + u(t − b)e−(t−b)
s+1 s+1

(b) Taking Laplace Transform, we get

s2 + 1 1 2 2
Y (s) = 3
= − 2
+
(s + 1) 1 + s (s + 1) (s + 1)3

Thus,
y(t) = e−t (t − 1)2

(c) Taking Laplace Transform, we get

2 8
Y (s) = − + =⇒ y(t) = −2 sin t + 4 sin 2t
s2 + 1 (s2 + 4)