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Pure Math - Logic & Sets

Mathematical Logic
Propositions
SIMPLE PROPOSITION : Simple statement that has a definite meaning and either be true or false
COMPOSITE PROPOSITION: A proposition formed by connecting several simple propositions
(components) with connectives

Statement calculus
NEGATION:  ~P (not P)
 Truth-value is opposite to that of P

CONJUNCTION:  P  Q (P and Q)
 True only if P and Q are both true

DISJUNCTION:  P  Q (P or Q)
 False only if P and Q are both false

CONDITIONAL:  P  Q (if P then Q)

 False only if P is true whereas Q is false
 P is called the antecedent (hypothesis) or sufficient condition
 Q is called the consequence or necessary condition
 Derivatives of P  Q :
1. Converse: Q  P
2. Inverse: ~ P  ~ Q
3. Contrapositivity: ~ Q  ~ P
 If P  Q is always true, then P  Q (P implies Q)

BICONDITIONAL:  (P if and only if Q)

 True only if P and Q have thee same truth-value
 If is always true, then (P equivalent to Q)

EQUIVALENCE:  The proposition has the same truth-value for any truth-values of their components
 e.g. P  Q  ~ P  Q 
 TAUTOLOGY1: The proposition, which is always true
 CONTRADICTION2: The proposition, which is always false

UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER:  (for all, for each)

EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER:  (there exists, for some)

Theorems on logical operations:

Idempotent Law: P P P P P P
Associative Law: ( P  Q ) R  P  ( Q  R ) ( P  Q ) R  P  ( Q  R )
Commutative Law: P  Q  Q  P P Q  Q  P
Identity Law:
Complement Law:
De Morgan’s Law:
P  Q  ~ P Q P  Q  ~Q  ~ P

1
Tautology = Valid Formula
2
Contradiction = Falsity
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Set Theory
SET:  A collection of definite, distinguishable objects known as elements
 Tabular form: Defining a set by listing all its elements. e.g. {1,3,5,7,9}
 Set-builder form: Defining a set by denoting the common property of its elements. e.g. {n:
0<n<10}

SETS OF NUMBER SYSTEM:

 ℕ = Set of natural numbers
 ℤ = Set of integers
 ℚ= Set of rational numbers
 ℝ = Set of real numbers
 ℂ = Set of complex numbers

FINITE SET: A set containing finite number of elements

INFINITE SET: A set containing infinite number of elements
EMPTY SET: A set containing no any elements ()
SINGLETON: A set containing exactly one element
UNIVERSAL SET: The largest set under consideration (U)

SUBSET:  A  B iff (x) (xA  xB)

 A  B iff (x) (xB  xA)
  is a subset of all sets
 POWER SET: The collection of subsets of a particular set, {X: X  B}
 Every power set must contain an element: 

 For a set with n elements, the number of elements in its power set =

 INTERVALS:  Open interval: (a, b) = {x: xR  }

 Closed interval: [a, b] = {x: xR  }
 Half open-half closed interval: (a, b] = {x: xR  }
 Half closed-half open interval: [a, b) = {x: xR  }
 Closed ray: [a, ) = {x: xR  } (–, a] = {x: xR  }
 Open ray: (a, ) = {x: xR  } (–, a) = {x: xR  }

AXIOM OF EXTENSION: A = B iff (x) (xA  xB)

INTERSECTION of A and B is the set A  B = {x: xA and xB}

UNION of A and B is the set A  B = {x: xA or xB}
ABSOLUTE COMPLEMENT of the set A is the set A’ ={x: xU and xA}
RELATIVE COMPLEMENT of the set A in the set B is the set B\A ={x: xB and xA}
SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE of A and B is the set A  B = (A \ B)  (B \ A)

FAMILY OF SETS:  A set whose elements are sets

 For a family of sets F = {A1, A2, A3, ..., An}
 Union: = A1  A2  ...  An

 Intersection: = A1  A2  ...  An

Theorems on set operations:

Idempotent law:
Commutative law: A B=B A
Distributive law:
Associative law:
Identity law: AU=U AU=A
Complement law: (A’)’ = A A  A’ = U A  A’ =  U’ =  ’ = U
De Morgan’s law: (A  B)’ = A’  B’ (A  B)’ = A’  B’
Absorbent law: if A  B, then AB = B if A  B, then AB = A
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if A  C and B  D, then (AB)  (CD) and (AB)  (CD)

A\A= A\=A \A= A\BA

(A \ B)  (B \ A) =  A  (B \ A) =  A\B=AB A  B  B’  A’
A \ B = A  B’

Relations & Functions

UNORDERED PAIR : A set whose elements are in no order, i.e. {x, y}={y, x}
ORDERED PAIR: A set (coordinate) whose elements are in order, i.e. (x1, y1)=(x2, y2) iff x1=x2 and y1=y2

CARTESIAN PRODUCT: Given two sets Aℝ, Bℝ, AB={(a, b): aA and bB}
CARTESIAN PLANE: The cartesian product ℝℝ or written as ℝ2

RELATION: A subset of a cartesian product, i.e. the relation RAB

 First projection: Pr1R={a: aA and (a, b)R bB}
 Second projection: Pr2R={b: bB and (a, b)R aA}

FUNCTION (mapping) f : XY is a relation from X into Y such that it satisfies the condition:
xX, !yY, s.t. (x, y)f
 The function f maps x into y
 y is called the value (image) of f at x
 The variable x is called the pre-image of y under f
 Domain: The first projection of function, i.e. Dom(f) = Pr1f = A
 Image: The second projection of function, i.e. Im(f) = Pr2f
 Range: The set that the image will fall on, i.e. Rang(f) = B
 Given a subset AX, BY,
 Direct image: f [A]={f (a) : aA}  Y
 Inverse image: f –1[B]={x : xX and f (x)B}
 xf –1[B]  f (x)B

INJECTIVE FUNCTION3 is a function f : XY that f (x1)=f (x2)  x1=x2 x1,x2X

SURJECTIVE FUNCTION4 is a function f : XY that yY xX s.t. y=f (x)
BIJECTIVE FUNCTION5 is a function that is both injective and surjective
 Given a bijective function f : XY, the inverse function of f is the relation f –1={(y, x) : (x, y)f }
 if f is not bijective, then f –1 is called an inverse relation of f

Special functions:
CONSTANT FUNCTION: f (x)=n xℝ
STEP FUNCTION: f (x)=[x]=n where nℤ rℝ x=n+r, n  x, 0  r1
IDENTITY FUNCTION: f (x)=x xℝ

SIGN FUNCTION: f (x)=

3
Injective function = Injection = One-to-one function
4
Surjective function = Surjection = Onto function
5
Bijective function = Bijection = One-one onto function
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EVEN FUNCTION: A function f : XY that xX  –xX and f (x) = f (–x)
 The graph of an even function is geometrically symmetric w.r.t. the y-axis
ODD FUNCTION: A function f : XY that xX  –xX and f (–x) = –f (x)
 The graph of an odd function is geometrically symmetric w.r.t. the origin
ZERO FUNCTION: f (x)=0 xℝ
 The only function which behaves both even function and odd function properties
PERIODIC FUNCTION : The function f : XY is a periodic function iff pX, xX  x+pX, f (x+p)=f
(x)
 Generally, f (x+np)=f (x) nℕ

INCREASING FUNCTION: A function f : ℝℝ that x y  f (x)  f (y) x, yℝ
 x y  f (x) f (y) x, yℝ is called a strictly increasing function
DECREASING FUNCTION: A function f : ℝℝ that x y  f (x)  f (y) x, yℝ
 x y  f (x) f (y) x, yℝ is called a strictly increasing function
MONOTONE FUNCTION: A function that is either increasing or decreasing
BOUNDED FUNCTION: A function f : XY is bdd if MX s.t. | f (x) |  M xX
 A function f : XY is bdd above if UX s.t. f (x)  U xX
 A function f : XY is bdd below if LX s.t. f (x)  L xX
 g.l.b. = Greatest Lower Bound l.u.b. = Least Upper Bound

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION: A function f : ℝℝ is defined by f (x) =

RATIONAL FUNCTION: A function defined by f (x) = where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION: A function f is an algebraic function if y=f (x) and x and y satisfy an algebraic

equation: where Pk(x) are polynomials in x

 A function of x that is a root of y in a polynomial equation of x and y

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTION: Non-algebraic, includes trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, etc.

Functional operations:
Given two functions f : AX, g: BY and a constant k
xAB
xAB
xA
xAB
xAB, g(x)0
xAB